305:
659:
the south of the Tutsi-Hima in
Tanzania, all of which shared the Tutsi-Hima's chieftaincy pattern. Since the Cushitic Sidama kingdoms interacted with Nilotic groups, Fage thus proposes that the Tutsi may have descended from one such migrating Nilotic population. The Tutsis' Nilotic ancestors would thereby in earlier times have served as cultural intermediaries, adopting some monarchical traditions from adjacent Cushitic kingdoms and subsequently taking those borrowed customs south with them when they first settled amongst Bantu autochthones in the Great Lakes area. However, little difference can be ascertained between the cultures today of the Tutsi and Hutu; both groups speak the same
421:
593:
635:
540:
387:
economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and a shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi.
410:
52:
72:
316:
1562:
718:. The Democratic republic of Congo was a country of refuge for hutu and tsutsi group that fled genocide on foot. Tutsi also fled Rwanda (when the monarchy was overthrown) into the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. In Burundi during the genocide of the hutus many hutus fled into the DRC as well these also form part of the bayarwanda community.
290:, and have lived in the areas where they presently inhabit for at least 400 years, leading to considerable intermarriage with the Hutu in the area. Due to the history of intermingling and intermarrying of Hutus and Tutsis, some ethnographers and historians are of the view that Hutu and Tutsis cannot be called distinct ethnic groups.
1496:
2016), which led
President Kagame to suggest that all Hutu bear responsibility and should apologise (Benda 2017, 13). Thus the new Rwanda is built not only on the death of 'more than a million" Tutsi but also on the collective guilt of Hutu. This state of affairs is in no one's interests except the regime's.
658:
of
Ethiopia. By contrast, Bantu populations to the north of the Tutsi-Hima in the mount Kenya area such as the Agikuyu were until modern times essentially without a king (instead having a stateless age set system which they adopted from Cushitic peoples) while there were a number of Bantu kingdoms to
663:. The rate of intermarriage between the two groups was traditionally very high, and relations were amicable until the 20th century. Many scholars have concluded that the determination of Tutsi was and is mainly an expression of class or caste, rather than ethnicity. Rwandans have their own language,
377:
In general, the Tutsi appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Hutus. However, it is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from
1495:
The death of 'more than a million' Tutsi became the foundation of the new Rwanda, where former exiles hold a monopoly on power. It also created the socio-political environment for the mass criminalisation of Hutu. Gacaca courts eventually tried more than a million (Nyseth Brehm, Uggen, and
Gasanabo
1445:
Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of
444:
Prior to the arrival of colonists, Rwanda had been ruled by a Tutsi-dominated monarchy since the 15th century. In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era. Later, Belgium took control in 1916 during World War I. Both
497:
and was able to take power. Tutsis fled and created exile communities outside Rwanda in Uganda and
Tanzania. Their actions led to the deaths of up to 200,000 Hutus. Overt discrimination from the colonial period was continued by different Rwandan and Burundian governments, including identity cards
386:
obliterated whatever clear-cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples – renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With a spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on
476:
In 1959, Belgium reversed its stance and allowed the majority Hutu to assume control of the government through universal elections after independence. This partly reflected internal
Belgian domestic politics, in which the discrimination against the Hutu majority came to be regarded as similar to
263:
When the
Belgian colonists conducted censuses, they wanted to identify the people throughout Rwanda-Burundi according to a simple classification scheme. They defined "Tutsi" as anyone owning more than ten cows (a sign of wealth) or with the physical features of a longer thin nose,
477:
oppression within
Belgium stemming from the Flemish-Walloon conflict, and the democratization and empowerment of the Hutu was seen as a just response to the Tutsi domination. Belgian policies wavered and flip-flopped considerably during this period leading up to
472:
When the
Belgians took over, they believed it could be better governed if they continued to identify the different populations. In the 1920s, they required people to identify with a particular ethnic group and classified them accordingly in censuses.
469:(from 1922 to 1961). Both the Tutsi and Hutu had been the traditional governing elite, but both colonial powers allowed only the Tutsi to be educated and to participate in the colonial government. Such discriminatory policies engendered resentment.
520:
between Hutu political structures and the Tutsi, in which "possibly as many as 25,000 Tutsi" – including military, civil servants and civilians – were murdered by the former and "at least as many" Hutu were killed by the latter. Since the 2000
653:
origin for the founding Tutsi-Hima ruling class in the lacustrine kingdoms. However, the royal burial customs of the latter kingdoms are quite similar to those practiced by the former
Cushitic Sidama states in the southern
627:, and sustained themselves on their own products. Additionally, their lifestyle afforded them a lot of leisure time, which they spent cultivating the high arts of poetry, weaving and music. Due to the Tutsi's status as a
1680:
1010:
561:, mostly made up of exiled Tutsi living primarily in Uganda, attacked Rwanda in 1990 with the intention of taking back the power. The RPF had experience in organized irregular warfare from the
525:, today in Burundi the Tutsi minority shares power in a more or less equitable manner with the Hutu majority. Traditionally, the Tutsi had held more economic power and controlled the military.
729:. He is in charge of cobalt mines in the kivu area which he guards with Rwandan army who use child soldiers and children to mine the cobalt. These are the sources of conflicts between the
369:), and are ascribed to much earlier inhabitants who were assimilated. However, the Tutsi have considerably more haplogroup B Y-DNA paternal lineages (14.9% B) than do the Hutu (4.3% B).
1673:
565:, and got much support from the government of Uganda. The initial RPF advance was halted by the lift of French arms to the Rwandan government. Attempts at peace culminated in the
1666:
573:
458:
who relied on support from both Hutu and Tutsi populations to rule, were sometimes perceived within Burundi as neither Hutu nor Tutsi but were predominantly of Tutsi origin.
580:
of 1994, in which the Hutu then in power killed an estimated 500,000–600,000 people, largely of Tutsi origin. Victorious in the aftermath of the genocide, the Tutsi-ruled
2140:
550:
A similar pattern of events took place in Rwanda, but there the Hutu came to power in 1962. They in turn often oppressed the Tutsi, who fled the country. After the
1300:
2123:
734:
1689:
683:. They are descendants of Rwandan and Burundian tsutsis who were taken to the DRC by the Belgium King to perform administrative functions in his colony. The
667:. English, French and Swahili serve as additional official languages for different historic reasons, and are widely spoken by Rwandans as a second language.
2128:
721:
Many of the child soldiers who grew up became part of M23 a rebel group responsible for the genocide of congolese people in the kivu area. Their leader is
612:
that led to independence. By contrast, in the northwestern part of the country (predominantly Hutu), large regional landholders shared power, similar to
1617:
2173:
722:
981:
396:
Their average height is 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm), although individuals have been recorded as being taller than 7 feet (210 cm).
1546:
The Benefits of the English Language for Individuals and Societies: Quantitative Indicators from Cameroon, Nigeria, Rwanda, Bangladesh and Pakistan
730:
726:
706:(Hutu and Tutsi) community. These are not Banyamulenge. Most of the Banyarwandans came when they fled the genocide in Rwanda. Some also came with
631:
vis-a-vis the Hutu farmers and the other local inhabitants, this relationship has been likened to that between lords and serfs in feudal Europe.
2133:
623:
Under their holy king, Tutsi culture traditionally revolved around administering justice and government. They were the only proprietors of
240:. Before 1962, they regulated and controlled Rwandan society, which was composed of Tutsi aristocracy and Hutu commoners, utilizing a
252:
The definition of "Tutsi" has changed through time and location. Social structures were not stable throughout Rwanda, even during
1610:
687:
boasts of 450 tribes (some of which have been exterminated today by rebel groups such as M23 and L'AFC). Tsutsi are native to
2166:
1355:
1253:
1165:
516:, a Hutu, was assassinated by Tutsi officers, as was the person entitled to succeed him under the constitution. This sparked
1725:
1589:
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (the status and judgments of all cases before the ICTR are available here)
1237:
1545:
482:
1523:
970:
International Institute of African Languages and Cultures, Africa, Volume 76, (Oxford University Press., 2006), pg 135.
939:
1603:
1297:
1138:
304:
244:
structure. They occupied the dominant positions in the sharply stratified society and constituted the ruling class.
2159:
1261:
839:
After the Rwandan genocide there was no more ethnic census; an estimated 9 to 15 percent of the population is Tutsi
1493:
The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.
1155:
517:
507:
299:
1026:
684:
1577:
1109:
1658:
1211:
711:
1380:
Guichaoua, André (2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections".
856:
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of the Rwandan and Burundian Presidents, triggering a resumption of hostilities and the start of the
283:
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522:
366:
343:
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861:
581:
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558:
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351:
1046:"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"
1027:"'Indangamuntu 1994: Ten years ago in Rwanda this ID Card cost a woman her life' by Jim Fussell"
268:, and being over six feet tall, all of which are common descriptions associated with the Tutsi.
604:
In the Rwanda territory, from the 15th century until 1961, the Tutsi were ruled by a king (the
592:
17:
1343:
869:
420:
1130:
Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era
771:
347:
183:
1446:
1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible.
1406:
500,000–800,000 is the range of scholarly estimates listed on the third page of the paper.
1273:
8:
1967:
1845:
634:
272:
198:
1567:
1463:"'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide"
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1937:
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1484:
1436:
1397:
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650:
551:
287:
1234:
Genocide and crisis in Central Africa: conflict roots, mass violence, and regional war
806:
1800:
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1519:
1488:
1440:
1419:(2020). "How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate".
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European nations ruled through the Rwandan king and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy.
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emerged and quickly assumed effective control of the country's administration. The
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1932:
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1720:
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205:-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in
2228:
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2072:
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2042:
2022:
2002:
1987:
1947:
1922:
1917:
1850:
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1710:
776:
339:
257:
214:
1790:
957:
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a predominantly tsusti army of child soldiers led by congolese rebel leader
409:
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2032:
2012:
2007:
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There are essentially two groups of Tutsi in the Congo (DRC). There is the
645:
According to Fage (2013), the Tutsi are serologically related to Bantu and
362:
335:
194:
127:
109:
2151:
821:
2203:
2097:
2077:
2067:
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1972:
1885:
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1815:
1765:
1715:
1705:
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884:
816:
756:
703:
664:
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323:
319:
308:
260:. The Tutsi aristocracy or elite was distinguished from Tutsi commoners.
233:
93:
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In the colonial era, the Tutsi were hypothesized to have arrived in the
1760:
1012:
We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families
699:
680:
609:
241:
557:
These exile Tutsi communities gave rise to Tutsi rebel movements. The
1962:
383:
1346:. In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charny, Israel W. (eds.).
1251:
Preventing Genocide in Burundi Lessons from International Diplomacy
1061:
315:
189:
949:
2213:
2017:
1184:, 1972, (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1973), p. 49
1099:, Volume 2, Dakar-Hydrology, Charles Scribner's Sons (publisher).
761:
688:
613:
466:
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generally indicate that the Tutsi, like the Hutu, are largely of
210:
97:
57:
1296:, Part III: Investigation of the Assassination. Conclusions at
738:
692:
639:
624:
617:
253:
206:
77:
1294:
International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final Report
450:
237:
113:
1348:
Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts
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all of whom operate illegally on a sovereign soil because of
488:
2198:
1825:
1637:
1318:"Refworld | Human Rights Watch World Report 1995 – Burundi"
1157:
Civil Wars of the World: Major Conflicts Since World War II
707:
512:
In 1993, Burundi's first democratically elected president,
218:
161:
1266:
608:). Belgium abolished the monarchy, following the national
152:
226:
679:, a very tiny minority who live in the southern tip of
1588:
1370:
International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (2002)
1182:
Passing by;: The United States and genocide in Burundi
27:
Ethnic group inhabiting the African Great Lakes region
1690:
Ethnic groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
448:
In Burundi, meanwhile, a ruling faction known as the
158:
155:
149:
372:
146:
883:Pauls, Elizabeth Prine; et al., eds. (2007).
849:
528:
2226:
1316:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for.
731:Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo
727:Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo
554:around 1959–1961, Tutsis fled in large numbers.
357:Paternal genetic influences associated with the
1341:
848:
649:populations. This in turn rules out a possible
1197:(Report – Minority Rights Group; no. 20, 1974)
725:a tsutsi who was also a former General in the
2167:
1674:
1611:
702:and Kalehe in South Kivu – being part of the
247:
1625:
1415:
1409:
944:. United States: US Government. p. 46.
501:
329:
83:1–2 million (9%–15% of the total population)
2181:
1350:(Second ed.). Routledge. p. 331.
933:
931:
2174:
2160:
1681:
1667:
1618:
1604:
1507:
1505:
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1153:
1478:
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489:Independence of Rwanda and Burundi (1962)
63:1.7 million (14% of the total population)
48:
928:
633:
591:
538:
437:, Tutsi Chief Kaware travelling (bottom)
314:
303:
282:Tutsis were considered by some to be of
68:
1502:
1457:
1451:
1335:
1133:. Oxford University Press. p. 24.
426:The traditional Tutsi king's palace in
14:
2227:
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236:and filled the ranks of the warriors'
2155:
1662:
1599:
1210:(New York: Woodrow Wilson Center and
1208:Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide
882:
698:secondly there are minority Tutsi in
670:
286:origin, although they do not speak a
188:
1511:
1315:
1043:
870:participating institution membership
43:Regions with significant populations
1467:Review of African Political Economy
572:The agreement broke down after the
498:that distinguished Tutsi and Hutu.
24:
1539:
1154:DeRouen, Karl R.; Heo, Uk (2007).
1050:American Journal of Human Genetics
334:Modern-day genetic studies of the
25:
2246:
1553:
1110:"The Rise and Fall Of the Watusi"
1044:Luis, J. R.; et al. (2004).
744:
596:A traditional Tutsi wrist guard (
213:(the other two being the largest
1560:
1262:United States Institute of Peace
1240:. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002
982:"Shooting Star of the Continent"
493:The Hutu majority in Rwanda had
461:Rwanda was ruled as a colony by
419:
408:
373:Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry)
142:
70:
50:
1373:
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1287:
1243:
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1200:
1187:
1174:
1147:
1120:
1102:
1086:
1037:
910:"Rwanda | Language & Facts"
529:1994 genocide against the Tutsi
508:1993 ethnic violence in Burundi
1512:Fage, John (23 October 2013).
1019:
999:
973:
964:
902:
876:
842:
833:
695:along with the hutu and twa.
300:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
13:
1:
1480:10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320
1433:10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611
1394:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329
1195:Selective genocide in Burundi
827:
431:
232:Historically, the Tutsi were
1421:Journal of Genocide Research
1382:Journal of Genocide Research
1219:Genocide: Rwanda and Burundi
685:Democratic republic of congo
584:came to power in July 1994.
7:
938:Brenneman, Richard (1969).
465:(from 1897 to 1916) and by
293:
10:
2251:
1518:. Routledge. p. 120.
1281:allan.stam.googlepages.com
1212:Cambridge University Press
1097:New Encyclopedia of Africa
980:Josh Kron (10 June 2010).
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495:revolted against the Tutsi
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248:Origins and classification
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857:Oxford English Dictionary
502:Burundian genocide (1993)
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330:Y-DNA (paternal lineages)
311:, the President of Rwanda
125:
120:
108:
103:
92:
87:
67:
47:
42:
1627:Ethnic groups in Burundi
1344:"The Burundian Genocide"
1342:René Lemarchand (2004).
616:society (in what is now
2183:Ethnic groups in Rwanda
1303:1 December 2008 at the
1232:Christian P. Scherrer,
1221:(Schenkman Books, 1998)
1031:www.preventgenocide.org
941:Rwanda, a Country Study
862:Oxford University Press
559:Rwandan Patriotic Front
545:Rwandan Patriotic Front
479:independence of Burundi
190:[ɑ.βɑ.tuː.t͡si]
960:. 9910001051459703686.
712:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
642:
601:
547:
543:Flag of the Tutsi-led
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326:
312:
1256:11 March 2009 at the
1249:Weissman, Stephen R."
1217:Edward L. Nyankanzi,
1127:Carney, J.J. (2013).
733:and M23 supported by
637:
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518:a genocide in Burundi
380:
318:
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121:Related ethnic groups
772:Jean Baptiste Bagaza
735:Rwandan armed forces
638:A traditional Tutsi
523:Arusha Peace Process
1515:A History of Africa
1116:. 23 February 1964.
860:(Online ed.).
552:anti-Tutsi violence
201:region. They are a
199:African Great Lakes
39:
1417:Meierhenrich, Jens
1114:The New York Times
787:Louise Mushikiwabo
671:Tutsi in the Congo
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365:are few (under 3%
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33:
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1357:978-0-415-94430-4
1206:Rene Lemarchand,
1193:René Lemarchand,
1167:978-1-85109-919-1
1006:Philip Gourevitch
868:(Subscription or
629:dominant minority
430:(top) and Rwanda
288:Cushitic language
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16:(Redirected from
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767:Michel Micombero
714:and RPF soldier
578:Rwandan Genocide
563:Ugandan Bush War
535:Rwandan genocide
514:Melchior Ndadaye
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342:extraction (60%
275:region from the
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1388:(1): 125–141.
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751:List of Tutsis
749:Main article:
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745:Notable people
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661:Bantu language
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567:Arusha Accords
533:Main article:
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1571:
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1459:Reydams, Luc
1453:
1444:
1427:(1): 72–82.
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1325:. Retrieved
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1160:. ABC-CLIO.
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1129:
1122:
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1021:
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985:
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913:
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888:
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855:
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677:Banyamulenge
674:
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511:
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395:
381:
376:
363:North Africa
356:
336:Y-chromosome
333:
281:
270:
262:
258:Belgian rule
251:
234:pastoralists
231:
195:ethnic group
178:
174:
170:
137:
135:
128:Rwanda-Rundi
110:Christianity
30:Ethnic group
1731:Bakwa Dishi
817:Ncuti Gatwa
757:Paul Kagame
704:Banyarwanda
665:Kinyarwanda
656:Gibe region
435: 1900
354:(xE1b1a)).
324:Paul Kagame
320:Ange Kagame
309:Paul Kagame
273:Great Lakes
184:Kinyarwanda
94:Kinyarwanda
1801:Garanganze
1698:Indigenous
991:7 February
950:2007492448
920:15 January
914:Britannica
894:7 February
889:Britannica
872:required.)
828:References
700:North Kivu
681:South Kivu
610:referendum
298:See also:
242:clientship
193:), are an
2129:Europeans
1963:Mongo Twa
1531:8 January
1489:225356374
1441:213046710
1402:213471539
822:Gaël Faye
384:gene flow
367:E1b1b-M35
88:Languages
2229:Category
1933:Mangbetu
1831:Iyaelima
1821:Holoholo
1461:(2020).
1327:20 April
1322:Refworld
1301:Archived
1298:USIP.org
1254:Archived
1214:, 1996)
1080:14973781
958:22675245
651:Cushitic
598:igitembe
294:Genetics
284:Cushitic
254:colonial
221:and the
179:Abatutsi
130:peoples
104:Religion
37:Abatutsi
2214:Wahinda
2124:Chinese
2058:Turumbu
2018:Songora
1998:Ngbandi
1903:Lugbara
1796:Furiiru
1786:Dengese
1746:Barambu
1721:Avukaya
1568:Scholia
1095:(ed.),
1071:1182266
1015:. 1998.
986:Haaretz
885:"Tutsi"
851:"Tutsi"
762:Stromae
689:Burundi
647:Nilotic
614:Buganda
588:Culture
467:Belgium
463:Germany
400:History
211:Burundi
197:of the
175:Watutsi
112:(80%),
98:Kirundi
58:Burundi
2141:Jewish
2088:Yakoma
2073:Wochua
2053:Tumbwe
2048:Topoke
2043:Tetela
2023:Songye
2003:Nyanga
1988:Ngando
1948:Mbunda
1923:Mayogo
1918:Makere
1851:Keliko
1781:Chokwe
1711:Nyindu
1570:has a
1522:
1487:
1439:
1400:
1354:
1164:
1137:
1078:
1068:
956:
948:
916:. 2019
739:cobalt
693:Rwanda
640:basket
625:cattle
618:Uganda
483:Rwanda
428:Nyanza
392:Height
346:, 20%
207:Rwanda
171:Watusi
126:Other
78:Rwanda
75:
55:
34:Tutsi
18:Tutsis
2235:Tutsi
2209:Tutsi
2134:Greek
2108:Zyoba
2103:Zande
2093:Yombe
2083:Yanzi
2063:Tutsi
2033:Tagbu
2013:Sanga
2008:Pende
1993:Ngata
1983:Ndaka
1978:Mpama
1958:Mongo
1953:Mbuti
1943:Mbole
1928:Mbaka
1913:Lungu
1908:Lunda
1896:Lulua
1891:Hemba
1876:Lendu
1861:Konjo
1856:Kongo
1841:Kango
1836:Kakwa
1806:Gbaya
1776:Bwile
1771:Bunda
1756:Bembe
1751:Bemba
1736:Banda
1643:Tutsi
1578:Tutsi
1572:topic
1485:S2CID
1437:S2CID
1398:S2CID
1277:(PDF)
866:
606:mwami
456:ganwa
451:ganwa
350:, 4%
344:E1b1a
340:Bantu
238:caste
223:Pygmy
215:Bantu
203:Bantu
138:Tutsi
114:Islam
2204:Kiga
2199:Hutu
2098:Yulu
2078:Yaka
2068:Vira
2038:Teke
2028:Suku
1973:Moru
1968:Mono
1886:Luba
1881:Logo
1871:Lele
1866:Lega
1846:Kele
1826:Hutu
1816:Hema
1766:Budu
1726:Baka
1716:Amba
1706:Alur
1638:Hutu
1533:2015
1520:ISBN
1352:ISBN
1329:2023
1162:ISBN
1135:ISBN
1076:PMID
993:2023
954:OCLC
946:LCCN
922:2021
896:2023
708:AFDL
691:and
481:and
361:and
352:E-P2
219:Hutu
209:and
136:The
116:(5%)
1938:Mbo
1791:Efé
1761:Boa
1475:doi
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1390:doi
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177:or
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.