294:
648:
the south of the Tutsi-Hima in
Tanzania, all of which shared the Tutsi-Hima's chieftaincy pattern. Since the Cushitic Sidama kingdoms interacted with Nilotic groups, Fage thus proposes that the Tutsi may have descended from one such migrating Nilotic population. The Tutsis' Nilotic ancestors would thereby in earlier times have served as cultural intermediaries, adopting some monarchical traditions from adjacent Cushitic kingdoms and subsequently taking those borrowed customs south with them when they first settled amongst Bantu autochthones in the Great Lakes area. However, little difference can be ascertained between the cultures today of the Tutsi and Hutu; both groups speak the same
410:
582:
624:
529:
376:
economic criteria. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions. To some extent, the permeability of these categories in the intervening decades helped to reify the biological distinctions, generating a taller elite and a shorter underclass, but with little relation to the gene pools that had existed a few centuries ago. The social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi.
399:
41:
61:
305:
1551:
707:. The Democratic republic of Congo was a country of refuge for hutu and tsutsi group that fled genocide on foot. Tutsi also fled Rwanda (when the monarchy was overthrown) into the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. In Burundi during the genocide of the hutus many hutus fled into the DRC as well these also form part of the bayarwanda community.
279:, and have lived in the areas where they presently inhabit for at least 400 years, leading to considerable intermarriage with the Hutu in the area. Due to the history of intermingling and intermarrying of Hutus and Tutsis, some ethnographers and historians are of the view that Hutu and Tutsis cannot be called distinct ethnic groups.
1485:
2016), which led
President Kagame to suggest that all Hutu bear responsibility and should apologise (Benda 2017, 13). Thus the new Rwanda is built not only on the death of 'more than a million" Tutsi but also on the collective guilt of Hutu. This state of affairs is in no one's interests except the regime's.
647:
of
Ethiopia. By contrast, Bantu populations to the north of the Tutsi-Hima in the mount Kenya area such as the Agikuyu were until modern times essentially without a king (instead having a stateless age set system which they adopted from Cushitic peoples) while there were a number of Bantu kingdoms to
652:. The rate of intermarriage between the two groups was traditionally very high, and relations were amicable until the 20th century. Many scholars have concluded that the determination of Tutsi was and is mainly an expression of class or caste, rather than ethnicity. Rwandans have their own language,
366:
In general, the Tutsi appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Hutus. However, it is unclear whether this similarity is primarily due to extensive genetic exchanges between these communities through intermarriage or whether it ultimately stems from
1484:
The death of 'more than a million' Tutsi became the foundation of the new Rwanda, where former exiles hold a monopoly on power. It also created the socio-political environment for the mass criminalisation of Hutu. Gacaca courts eventually tried more than a million (Nyseth Brehm, Uggen, and
Gasanabo
1434:
Despite the various methodological disagreements among them, none of the scholars who participated in this forum gives credence to the official figure of 1,074,107 victims... Given the rigour of the various quantitative methodologies involved, this forum's overarching finding that the death toll of
433:
Prior to the arrival of colonists, Rwanda had been ruled by a Tutsi-dominated monarchy since the 15th century. In 1897, Germany established a presence in Rwanda with the formation of an alliance with the king, beginning the colonial era. Later, Belgium took control in 1916 during World War I. Both
486:
and was able to take power. Tutsis fled and created exile communities outside Rwanda in Uganda and
Tanzania. Their actions led to the deaths of up to 200,000 Hutus. Overt discrimination from the colonial period was continued by different Rwandan and Burundian governments, including identity cards
375:
obliterated whatever clear-cut physical distinctions may have once existed between these two Bantu peoples – renowned to be height, body build, and facial features. With a spectrum of physical variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s, based on
465:
In 1959, Belgium reversed its stance and allowed the majority Hutu to assume control of the government through universal elections after independence. This partly reflected internal
Belgian domestic politics, in which the discrimination against the Hutu majority came to be regarded as similar to
252:
When the
Belgian colonists conducted censuses, they wanted to identify the people throughout Rwanda-Burundi according to a simple classification scheme. They defined "Tutsi" as anyone owning more than ten cows (a sign of wealth) or with the physical features of a longer thin nose,
466:
oppression within
Belgium stemming from the Flemish-Walloon conflict, and the democratization and empowerment of the Hutu was seen as a just response to the Tutsi domination. Belgian policies wavered and flip-flopped considerably during this period leading up to
461:
When the
Belgians took over, they believed it could be better governed if they continued to identify the different populations. In the 1920s, they required people to identify with a particular ethnic group and classified them accordingly in censuses.
458:(from 1922 to 1961). Both the Tutsi and Hutu had been the traditional governing elite, but both colonial powers allowed only the Tutsi to be educated and to participate in the colonial government. Such discriminatory policies engendered resentment.
509:
between Hutu political structures and the Tutsi, in which "possibly as many as 25,000 Tutsi" – including military, civil servants and civilians – were murdered by the former and "at least as many" Hutu were killed by the latter. Since the 2000
642:
origin for the founding Tutsi-Hima ruling class in the lacustrine kingdoms. However, the royal burial customs of the latter kingdoms are quite similar to those practiced by the former
Cushitic Sidama states in the southern
616:, and sustained themselves on their own products. Additionally, their lifestyle afforded them a lot of leisure time, which they spent cultivating the high arts of poetry, weaving and music. Due to the Tutsi's status as a
1669:
999:
550:, mostly made up of exiled Tutsi living primarily in Uganda, attacked Rwanda in 1990 with the intention of taking back the power. The RPF had experience in organized irregular warfare from the
514:, today in Burundi the Tutsi minority shares power in a more or less equitable manner with the Hutu majority. Traditionally, the Tutsi had held more economic power and controlled the military.
718:. He is in charge of cobalt mines in the kivu area which he guards with Rwandan army who use child soldiers and children to mine the cobalt. These are the sources of conflicts between the
358:), and are ascribed to much earlier inhabitants who were assimilated. However, the Tutsi have considerably more haplogroup B Y-DNA paternal lineages (14.9% B) than do the Hutu (4.3% B).
1662:
554:, and got much support from the government of Uganda. The initial RPF advance was halted by the lift of French arms to the Rwandan government. Attempts at peace culminated in the
1655:
562:
447:
who relied on support from both Hutu and Tutsi populations to rule, were sometimes perceived within Burundi as neither Hutu nor Tutsi but were predominantly of Tutsi origin.
569:
of 1994, in which the Hutu then in power killed an estimated 500,000–600,000 people, largely of Tutsi origin. Victorious in the aftermath of the genocide, the Tutsi-ruled
2129:
539:
A similar pattern of events took place in Rwanda, but there the Hutu came to power in 1962. They in turn often oppressed the Tutsi, who fled the country. After the
1289:
2112:
723:
1678:
672:. They are descendants of Rwandan and Burundian tsutsis who were taken to the DRC by the Belgium King to perform administrative functions in his colony. The
656:. English, French and Swahili serve as additional official languages for different historic reasons, and are widely spoken by Rwandans as a second language.
2117:
710:
Many of the child soldiers who grew up became part of M23 a rebel group responsible for the genocide of congolese people in the kivu area. Their leader is
601:
that led to independence. By contrast, in the northwestern part of the country (predominantly Hutu), large regional landholders shared power, similar to
1606:
2162:
711:
970:
385:
Their average height is 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm), although individuals have been recorded as being taller than 7 feet (210 cm).
1535:
The Benefits of the English Language for Individuals and Societies: Quantitative Indicators from Cameroon, Nigeria, Rwanda, Bangladesh and Pakistan
719:
715:
695:(Hutu and Tutsi) community. These are not Banyamulenge. Most of the Banyarwandans came when they fled the genocide in Rwanda. Some also came with
620:
vis-a-vis the Hutu farmers and the other local inhabitants, this relationship has been likened to that between lords and serfs in feudal Europe.
2122:
612:
Under their holy king, Tutsi culture traditionally revolved around administering justice and government. They were the only proprietors of
229:. Before 1962, they regulated and controlled Rwandan society, which was composed of Tutsi aristocracy and Hutu commoners, utilizing a
241:
The definition of "Tutsi" has changed through time and location. Social structures were not stable throughout Rwanda, even during
1599:
676:
boasts of 450 tribes (some of which have been exterminated today by rebel groups such as M23 and L'AFC). Tsutsi are native to
2155:
1344:
1242:
1154:
505:, a Hutu, was assassinated by Tutsi officers, as was the person entitled to succeed him under the constitution. This sparked
1714:
1578:
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (the status and judgments of all cases before the ICTR are available here)
1226:
1534:
471:
1512:
959:
International Institute of African Languages and Cultures, Africa, Volume 76, (Oxford University Press., 2006), pg 135.
928:
1592:
1286:
1127:
293:
233:
structure. They occupied the dominant positions in the sharply stratified society and constituted the ruling class.
2148:
1250:
828:
After the Rwandan genocide there was no more ethnic census; an estimated 9 to 15 percent of the population is Tutsi
1482:
The government eventually settled on 'more than a million', a claim which few outside Rwanda have taken seriously.
1144:
506:
496:
288:
1015:
673:
1566:
1098:
1647:
1200:
700:
1369:
Guichaoua, André (2020). "Counting the Rwandan Victims of War and Genocide: Concluding Reflections".
845:
565:
of the Rwandan and Burundian Presidents, triggering a resumption of hostilities and the start of the
272:
1615:
511:
355:
332:
2171:
850:
570:
555:
547:
533:
340:
1035:"The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations"
1016:"'Indangamuntu 1994: Ten years ago in Rwanda this ID Card cost a woman her life' by Jim Fussell"
257:, and being over six feet tall, all of which are common descriptions associated with the Tutsi.
593:
In the Rwanda territory, from the 15th century until 1961, the Tutsi were ruled by a king (the
581:
1332:
858:
409:
1119:
Rwanda Before the Genocide: Catholic Politics and Ethnic Discourse in the Late Colonial Era
760:
336:
172:
1435:
1994 is nowhere near the one-million-mark is – scientifically speaking – incontrovertible.
1395:
500,000–800,000 is the range of scholarly estimates listed on the third page of the paper.
1262:
8:
1956:
1834:
623:
261:
187:
1556:
1452:"'More than a million': the politics of accounting for the dead of the Rwandan genocide"
800:
1926:
1686:
1473:
1425:
1386:
1059:
1034:
775:
639:
540:
276:
1223:
Genocide and crisis in Central Africa: conflict roots, mass violence, and regional war
795:
1789:
1719:
1508:
1477:
1429:
1408:(2020). "How Many Victims Were There in the Rwandan Genocide? A Statistical Debate".
1405:
1390:
1340:
1150:
1123:
1064:
994:
942:
934:
617:
483:
434:
European nations ruled through the Rwandan king and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy.
1463:
1417:
1378:
1081:
1054:
1046:
898:
780:
755:
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551:
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emerged and quickly assumed effective control of the country's administration. The
132:
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1451:
1421:
1382:
1239:
2182:
1921:
1819:
1809:
1799:
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1502:
1293:
1246:
1117:
839:
785:
649:
635:
254:
211:
191:
1306:
2223:
2046:
1986:
1891:
1864:
1784:
1774:
1734:
1709:
790:
770:
739:
704:
528:
416:
347:
265:
467:
194:-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in
2217:
2076:
2061:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2011:
1991:
1976:
1936:
1911:
1906:
1839:
1769:
1699:
765:
328:
246:
203:
1779:
946:
699:
a predominantly tsusti army of child soldiers led by congolese rebel leader
398:
2096:
2091:
2081:
2071:
2021:
2001:
1996:
1981:
1971:
1966:
1946:
1941:
1931:
1916:
1901:
1896:
1884:
1879:
1849:
1844:
1829:
1824:
1794:
1764:
1759:
1744:
1739:
1729:
1724:
1584:
1068:
665:
664:
There are essentially two groups of Tutsi in the Congo (DRC). There is the
634:
According to Fage (2013), the Tutsi are serologically related to Bantu and
351:
324:
183:
116:
98:
2140:
810:
2192:
2086:
2066:
2056:
2026:
2016:
1961:
1874:
1869:
1859:
1854:
1804:
1754:
1704:
1694:
1677:
1447:
873:
805:
745:
692:
653:
644:
312:
308:
297:
249:. The Tutsi aristocracy or elite was distinguished from Tutsi commoners.
222:
82:
260:
In the colonial era, the Tutsi were hypothesized to have arrived in the
1749:
1001:
We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families
688:
669:
598:
230:
546:
These exile Tutsi communities gave rise to Tutsi rebel movements. The
1951:
372:
1335:. In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charny, Israel W. (eds.).
1240:
Preventing Genocide in Burundi Lessons from International Diplomacy
1050:
304:
178:
938:
2202:
2006:
1173:, 1972, (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1973), p. 49
1088:, Volume 2, Dakar-Hydrology, Charles Scribner's Sons (publisher).
750:
677:
602:
455:
451:
327:
generally indicate that the Tutsi, like the Hutu, are largely of
199:
86:
46:
1285:, Part III: Investigation of the Assassination. Conclusions at
727:
681:
628:
613:
606:
242:
195:
66:
1283:
International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final Report
439:
226:
102:
1337:
Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts
726:
all of whom operate illegally on a sovereign soil because of
477:
2187:
1814:
1626:
1307:"Refworld | Human Rights Watch World Report 1995 – Burundi"
1146:
Civil Wars of the World: Major Conflicts Since World War II
696:
501:
In 1993, Burundi's first democratically elected president,
207:
150:
1255:
597:). Belgium abolished the monarchy, following the national
141:
215:
668:, a very tiny minority who live in the southern tip of
1577:
1359:
International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (2002)
1171:
Passing by;: The United States and genocide in Burundi
16:
Ethnic group inhabiting the African Great Lakes region
1679:
Ethnic groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
437:
In Burundi, meanwhile, a ruling faction known as the
147:
144:
138:
361:
135:
872:Pauls, Elizabeth Prine; et al., eds. (2007).
838:
517:
2215:
1305:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for.
720:Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo
716:Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo
543:around 1959–1961, Tutsis fled in large numbers.
346:Paternal genetic influences associated with the
1330:
837:
638:populations. This in turn rules out a possible
1186:(Report – Minority Rights Group; no. 20, 1974)
714:a tsutsi who was also a former General in the
2156:
1663:
1600:
691:and Kalehe in South Kivu – being part of the
236:
1614:
1404:
1398:
933:. United States: US Government. p. 46.
490:
318:
72:1–2 million (9%–15% of the total population)
2170:
1339:(Second ed.). Routledge. p. 331.
922:
920:
2163:
2149:
1670:
1656:
1607:
1593:
1496:
1494:
1353:
1142:
1467:
1368:
1058:
968:
926:
478:Independence of Rwanda and Burundi (1962)
52:1.7 million (14% of the total population)
37:
917:
622:
580:
527:
426:, Tutsi Chief Kaware travelling (bottom)
303:
292:
271:Tutsis were considered by some to be of
57:
1491:
1446:
1440:
1324:
1122:. Oxford University Press. p. 24.
415:The traditional Tutsi king's palace in
2216:
1115:
225:and filled the ranks of the warriors'
2144:
1651:
1588:
1199:(New York: Woodrow Wilson Center and
1197:Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide
871:
687:secondly there are minority Tutsi in
659:
275:origin, although they do not speak a
177:
1500:
1304:
1032:
859:participating institution membership
32:Regions with significant populations
1456:Review of African Political Economy
561:The agreement broke down after the
487:that distinguished Tutsi and Hutu.
13:
1528:
1143:DeRouen, Karl R.; Heo, Uk (2007).
1039:American Journal of Human Genetics
323:Modern-day genetic studies of the
14:
2235:
1542:
1099:"The Rise and Fall Of the Watusi"
1033:Luis, J. R.; et al. (2004).
733:
585:A traditional Tutsi wrist guard (
202:(the other two being the largest
1549:
1251:United States Institute of Peace
1229:. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002
971:"Shooting Star of the Continent"
482:The Hutu majority in Rwanda had
450:Rwanda was ruled as a colony by
408:
397:
362:Autosomal DNA (overall ancestry)
131:
59:
39:
1362:
1298:
1276:
1232:
1215:
1189:
1176:
1163:
1136:
1109:
1091:
1075:
1026:
899:"Rwanda | Language & Facts"
518:1994 genocide against the Tutsi
497:1993 ethnic violence in Burundi
1501:Fage, John (23 October 2013).
1008:
988:
962:
953:
891:
865:
831:
822:
684:along with the hutu and twa.
289:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
1:
1469:10.1080/03056244.2020.1796320
1422:10.1080/14623528.2019.1709611
1383:10.1080/14623528.2019.1703329
1184:Selective genocide in Burundi
816:
420:
221:Historically, the Tutsi were
1410:Journal of Genocide Research
1371:Journal of Genocide Research
1208:Genocide: Rwanda and Burundi
674:Democratic republic of congo
573:came to power in July 1994.
7:
927:Brenneman, Richard (1969).
454:(from 1897 to 1916) and by
282:
10:
2240:
1507:. Routledge. p. 120.
1270:allan.stam.googlepages.com
1201:Cambridge University Press
1086:New Encyclopedia of Africa
969:Josh Kron (10 June 2010).
737:
576:
521:
494:
484:revolted against the Tutsi
388:
286:
237:Origins and classification
2178:
2105:
1685:
1622:
846:Oxford English Dictionary
491:Burundian genocide (1993)
380:
319:Y-DNA (paternal lineages)
300:, the President of Rwanda
114:
109:
97:
92:
81:
76:
56:
36:
31:
1616:Ethnic groups in Burundi
1333:"The Burundian Genocide"
1331:René Lemarchand (2004).
605:society (in what is now
2172:Ethnic groups in Rwanda
1292:1 December 2008 at the
1221:Christian P. Scherrer,
1210:(Schenkman Books, 1998)
1020:www.preventgenocide.org
930:Rwanda, a Country Study
851:Oxford University Press
548:Rwandan Patriotic Front
534:Rwandan Patriotic Front
468:independence of Burundi
179:[ɑ.βɑ.tuː.t͡si]
949:. 9910001051459703686.
701:Laurent-Désiré Kabila
631:
590:
536:
532:Flag of the Tutsi-led
378:
315:
301:
1245:11 March 2009 at the
1238:Weissman, Stephen R."
1206:Edward L. Nyankanzi,
1116:Carney, J.J. (2013).
722:and M23 supported by
626:
584:
531:
507:a genocide in Burundi
369:
307:
296:
110:Related ethnic groups
761:Jean Baptiste Bagaza
724:Rwandan armed forces
627:A traditional Tutsi
512:Arusha Peace Process
1504:A History of Africa
1105:. 23 February 1964.
849:(Online ed.).
541:anti-Tutsi violence
190:region. They are a
188:African Great Lakes
28:
1406:Meierhenrich, Jens
1103:The New York Times
776:Louise Mushikiwabo
660:Tutsi in the Congo
632:
591:
537:
354:are few (under 3%
316:
302:
22:
2211:
2210:
2138:
2137:
1645:
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1346:978-0-415-94430-4
1195:Rene Lemarchand,
1182:René Lemarchand,
1156:978-1-85109-919-1
995:Philip Gourevitch
857:(Subscription or
618:dominant minority
419:(top) and Rwanda
277:Cushitic language
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1462:(168): 235–256.
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781:Arielle Kayabaga
756:Michel Micombero
703:and RPF soldier
567:Rwandan Genocide
552:Ugandan Bush War
524:Rwandan genocide
503:Melchior Ndadaye
425:
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367:common origins:
331:extraction (60%
264:region from the
245:times under the
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740:List of Tutsis
738:Main article:
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345:
325:Y-chromosome
322:
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251:
247:Belgian rule
240:
223:pastoralists
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184:ethnic group
167:
163:
159:
126:
124:
117:Rwanda-Rundi
99:Christianity
19:Ethnic group
1720:Bakwa Dishi
806:Ncuti Gatwa
746:Paul Kagame
693:Banyarwanda
654:Kinyarwanda
645:Gibe region
424: 1900
343:(xE1b1a)).
313:Paul Kagame
309:Ange Kagame
298:Paul Kagame
262:Great Lakes
173:Kinyarwanda
83:Kinyarwanda
1790:Garanganze
1687:Indigenous
980:7 February
939:2007492448
909:15 January
903:Britannica
883:7 February
878:Britannica
861:required.)
817:References
689:North Kivu
670:South Kivu
599:referendum
287:See also:
231:clientship
182:), are an
2118:Europeans
1952:Mongo Twa
1520:8 January
1478:225356374
1430:213046710
1391:213471539
811:Gaël Faye
373:gene flow
356:E1b1b-M35
77:Languages
2218:Category
1922:Mangbetu
1820:Iyaelima
1810:Holoholo
1450:(2020).
1316:20 April
1311:Refworld
1290:Archived
1287:USIP.org
1243:Archived
1203:, 1996)
1069:14973781
947:22675245
640:Cushitic
587:igitembe
283:Genetics
273:Cushitic
243:colonial
210:and the
168:Abatutsi
119:peoples
93:Religion
26:Abatutsi
2203:Wahinda
2113:Chinese
2047:Turumbu
2007:Songora
1987:Ngbandi
1892:Lugbara
1785:Furiiru
1775:Dengese
1735:Barambu
1710:Avukaya
1557:Scholia
1084:(ed.),
1060:1182266
1004:. 1998.
975:Haaretz
874:"Tutsi"
840:"Tutsi"
751:Stromae
678:Burundi
636:Nilotic
603:Buganda
577:Culture
456:Belgium
452:Germany
389:History
200:Burundi
186:of the
164:Watutsi
101:(80%),
87:Kirundi
47:Burundi
2130:Jewish
2077:Yakoma
2062:Wochua
2042:Tumbwe
2037:Topoke
2032:Tetela
2012:Songye
1992:Nyanga
1977:Ngando
1937:Mbunda
1912:Mayogo
1907:Makere
1840:Keliko
1770:Chokwe
1700:Nyindu
1559:has a
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1126:
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682:Rwanda
629:basket
614:cattle
607:Uganda
472:Rwanda
417:Nyanza
381:Height
335:, 20%
196:Rwanda
160:Watusi
115:Other
67:Rwanda
64:
44:
23:Tutsi
2224:Tutsi
2198:Tutsi
2123:Greek
2097:Zyoba
2092:Zande
2082:Yombe
2072:Yanzi
2052:Tutsi
2022:Tagbu
2002:Sanga
1997:Pende
1982:Ngata
1972:Ndaka
1967:Mpama
1947:Mongo
1942:Mbuti
1932:Mbole
1917:Mbaka
1902:Lungu
1897:Lunda
1885:Lulua
1880:Hemba
1865:Lendu
1850:Konjo
1845:Kongo
1830:Kango
1825:Kakwa
1795:Gbaya
1765:Bwile
1760:Bunda
1745:Bembe
1740:Bemba
1725:Banda
1632:Tutsi
1567:Tutsi
1561:topic
1474:S2CID
1426:S2CID
1387:S2CID
1266:(PDF)
855:
595:mwami
445:ganwa
440:ganwa
339:, 4%
333:E1b1a
329:Bantu
227:caste
212:Pygmy
204:Bantu
192:Bantu
127:Tutsi
103:Islam
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2188:Hutu
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2067:Yaka
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1835:Kele
1815:Hutu
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1627:Hutu
1522:2015
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1318:2023
1151:ISBN
1124:ISBN
1065:PMID
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885:2023
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350:and
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