150:
163:
314:
705:
322:
788:
772:, stopping any tin mining activity in Tuscany and increasing Roman dependence on tin from Brittany, Iberia, and Cornwall. After the Roman conquest of Gaul, Brittany's tin deposits saw intensified exploitation after the first century BC. With the exhaustion of the Iberian tin mines, Cornwall became a major supplier of tin for the Romans after the 3rd century AD.
803:, and with it came the knowledge and technology for tin prospection and extraction. By 2000 to 1500 BC Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan appear to have exploited their sources of tin, carrying the resources east and west along the Silk Road crossing Central Asia. This trade link likely followed an existing trade route of
380:, and its tin (and gold, though not its copper), is shown by tin isotopes to have come from Cornwall. In addition, a rare find of a pure tin ingot in Scandinavia was provenanced to Cornwall. Available evidence, though very limited, thus points to Cornwall as the sole early source of tin in Central and Northern Europe.
642:
Due to the scattered nature of tin deposits around the world and its essential nature for the creation of tin bronze, tin trade played an important role in the development of cultures throughout ancient times. Archaeologists have reconstructed parts of the extensive trade networks of ancient cultures
375:
It has been claimed that tin was first mined in Europe around 2500 BC in the
Erzgebirge, and knowledge of tin bronze and tin extraction techniques spread from there to Brittany and Cornwall around 2000 BC and from northwestern Europe to northwestern Spain and Portugal around the same time. However,
752:
along the extreme borders of the world, suggesting very long-distance trade, likely from
Britain, northwestern Iberia, or Brittany, supplying tin to Greece and other Mediterranean cultures. The idea that the Phoenicians went to Cornwall for its tin and supplied it to the whole of the Mediterranean
413:
A group of 52 bronze artifacts from the late Bronze Age
Balkans has been shown to have tin of multiple origins, based on the correlation of tin isotope differences with the different find locations of the artifacts. While the locations of these separate tin sources are uncertain, the larger Serbian
386:
for Europe and the
Mediterranean throughout ancient times and may have been the earliest sources of tin in Western Europe, with evidence for trade to the Eastern Mediterranean by the Late Bronze Age. Within recorded history, Cornwall and Devon only dominated the European market for tin from late
692:
dated 1300 BC which carried over 300 copper bars weighing 10 tons, and approximately 40 tin bars weighing 1 ton. Evidence of direct tin trade between Europe and the
Eastern Mediterranean has been demonstrated through the analysis of tin ingots dated to the 13th-12th centuries BC from sites in
530:
dynasties. Other cultures of
Southeast Asia exploited the abundant cassiterite resources sometime between the third and second millennia BC, but due to the lack of archaeological work in the region little else is known about tin exploitation during ancient times in that part of the world.
436:
has very little tin ore; the few sources that have recently been found are too insignificant to have played a major role during most of ancient history. However, it is possible that they were exploited at the start of the Bronze Age and are responsible for the development of early bronze
700:
does not appear to have much in terms of significant sources of tin, it does have rich copper and other mineral wealth and served as a centre for metals trade during the Bronze Age and likely actively imported tin from the
Iberian Peninsula for export to the rest of the Mediterranean.
679:
as well as the
Mediterranean with tin. By 2000 BC, the extraction of tin in Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal had begun and tin was traded to the Mediterranean sporadically from all these sources. Evidence of tin trade in the Mediterranean can be seen in a number of Bronze Age
818:
In China, early tin was extracted along the Yellow River in
Erlitou and Shang times between 2500 and 1800 BC. By Han and later times, China imported its tin from what is today Yunnan province. This has remained China's main source of tin throughout history and into modern times.
1565:
Benvenuti, M.; Chiarantini, L.; Norfini, A.; Casini, A.; Guideri, S.; Tanelli, G. (2003), "The "Etruscan tin": a preliminary contribution from researches at Monte
Valerio and Baratti-Populonia (Southern Tuscany, Italy)", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
449:
mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC. It contains miles of tunnels, some only large enough for a child. A grave with children who were probably workers has been found. It was abandoned, with crucibles and other tools left at the site.
659:
The earliest sources of tin in the Early Bronze Age in the Near East are still unknown and the subject of much debate in archaeology. Possibilities include minor now-depleted sources in the Near East, trade from Central Asia,
1752:
Kalyanaraman, S. (2010), "The Bronze Age Writing System of Sarasvati Hieroglyphics as Evidenced by Two "Rosetta Stones" - Decoding Indus script as repertoire of the mints/smithy/mine-workers of Meluhha",
469:, that show signs of having been exploited starting around 2000 BC, archaeologists disagree about whether they were significant sources of tin for the earliest Bronze Age cultures of the Middle East.
391:, starting around the 3rd century AD, as many Spanish tin mines were exhausted. Cornwall maintained its importance as a source of tin throughout medieval times and into the modern period.
425:. But Iberian tin deposits were largely forgotten throughout the medieval period, were not rediscovered until the 18th century, and only re-gained importance during the mid-19th century.
1614:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 25–32
2096:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 14–15
1875:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 43–48
1747:, Washington, D.C.: A seminar organized by Theodore A. Wertime and held at the Smithsonian Institution and the National Bureau of Standards, Washington D.C. March 14–15, 1977, pp. 14–15
1918:"Isotope systematics and chemical composition of tin ingots from Mochlos (Crete) and other Late Bronze Age sites in the eastern Mediterranean Sea: An ultimate key to tin provenance?"
290:. These problems are compounded by the difficulty in provenancing tin objects and ores to their geological deposits using isotopic or trace element analyses. Current archaeological
190:
process by producing a more fluid melt that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the much more complex shapes cast in closed
75:
with 0.005 ppm. Ancient sources of tin were therefore rare, and the metal usually had to be traded over very long distances to meet demand in areas which lacked tin deposits.
1825:
Mason, A.H; Powell, W.G.; Bankoff, H.A.; Mathur, R; Bulatović, A.; Filipović, V.; Ruiz, J. (2016), "Tin isotope characterization of bronze artifacts of the central Balkans",
732:
who traded extensively there, from the Erzgebirge by way of the Baltic Amber Road overland route, or from Brittany and Cornwall through overland routes from their colony at
693:
Israel, Turkey and modern-day Greece; tin ingots from Israel, for example, have been found to share chemical composition with tin from Cornwall and Devon (Great Britain).
202:
were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tin ores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed a
149:
178:
had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had tin or arsenic content of less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional
720:
and the Western Mediterranean appear to have traded their tin from European sources, while the Middle East acquired their tin from Central Asian sources through the
1778:
Ling, Johan; Stos-Gale, Zofia; Grandin, Lena; Hjärthner-Holdar, Eva; Persson, Per-Olof (2014), "Moving metals II provenancing Scandinavian Bronze Age artefacts",
2026:
Rovia, S.; Montero, I. (2003), "Natural tin-bronze alloy in Iberian Peninsula metallurgy: potentiality and reality", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
542:
does have some small scattered deposits of tin, they were not a major source of tin for Indian Bronze Age cultures as shown by their dependence on imported tin.
332:
has very few sources of tin. Therefore, throughout ancient times it was imported long distances from the known tin mining districts of antiquity. These were the
1707:
Hauptmann, A.; Maddin, R.; Prange, M. (2002), "On the structure and composition of copper and tin ingots excavated from the shipwreck of Uluburun",
1916:
Pernicka, Ernst; Lockhoff, Nicole; Galili, Ehud; BrĂĽgmann, Gerhard; Giumlia-Mair, Alessandra R.; Soles, Jeffrey S.; Berger, Daniel (26 June 2019).
779:
gained popularity. Brittany and Cornwall remained the major producers and exporters of tin throughout the Mediterranean through to modern times.
372:. Even at that time, the Etruscans themselves had to import additional tin from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and later from Cornwall.
357:
1995:
Pulak, C. (2001), "The cargo of the Uluburun ship and evidence for trade with the Aegean and beyond", in Bonfante, L.; Karageogrhis, V. (eds.),
550:
While rich veins of tin are known to exist in Central and South Africa, whether these were exploited during ancient times is still debated (
186:, which contains arsenic. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness, lowers the melting temperature, and improves the
1798:
Lo Schiavo, F. (2003), "The problem of early tin from the point of view of Nuragic Sardinia", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
2053:
Valera, R.G.; Valera, P.G. (2003), "Tin in the Mediterranean area: history and geology", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
2013:
Roden, Christoph (1985). "Die montanarchäologischen Quellen des ur- und frühgeschichtlichen Zinnbergbaus in Europa - Ein Überblick".
1871:
Muhly, J.D. (1979), "The evidence for sources of and trade in Bronze Age tin", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.; Wertime, T.A. (eds.),
2130:
2092:(1979), "The search for ancient tin: the geographic and historic boundaries", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.; Wertime, T.A. (eds.),
308:
514:, stretching from Yunnan in China to the Malay Peninsula. The deposits in Yunnan were not mined until around 700 BC, but by the
1619:
Cierny, J.; Weisgerber, G. (2003), "The "Bronze Age tin mines in Central Asia", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
272:
studies. However, a number of problems have plagued the study of ancient tin such as the limited archaeological remains of
1606:
Charles, J.A. (1979), "The development of the usage of tin and tin-bronze: some problems", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.;
220:), oxidized tin, most likely was the original source of tin in ancient times. Other forms of tin ores are less abundant
268:
offers a glimpse into that time period's trade and cultural interactions, and has therefore been the focus of intense
2080:
2062:
2035:
2004:
1986:
1907:
1862:
1807:
1698:
1680:
1662:
1653:
Dayton, J.E. (2003), "The problem of tin in the ancient world (part 2)", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
1628:
1597:
1579:
1977:
Primas, M. (2003), "The use of tin and lead in Bronze Age metallurgy", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
252:. It is likely that the earliest deposits were alluvial and perhaps exploited by the same methods used for panning
198:
objects appear first in the Middle East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but the
2115:
833:
421:
Iberian tin was widely traded across the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age, and extensively exploited during
162:
1743:
Hedge, K.T.M. (1979), "Sources of ancient tin in India", in Franklin, A.D.; Olin, J.S.; Wertime, T.A. (eds.),
248:, because cassiterite is usually black or purple or otherwise dark, a feature exploited by early Bronze Age
153:
Map of bronze-age tin finds: major and minor tin deposits from Europe to Central Asia, and selected objects.
880:
438:
383:
1855:
Copper and Tin: the Distribution of Mineral Resources and the Nature of the Metals Trade in the Bronze Age
1689:
Giumlia-Mair, A. (2003), "Iron Age tin in the Oriental Alps", in Giumlia-Mair, A.; Lo Schiavo, F. (eds.),
1900:
Tin in Antiquity: its Mining and Trade Throughout the Ancient World with Particular Reference to Cornwall
708:
Map of Europe based on Strabo's geography, showing the Cassiterides just off the northwest tip of Iberia
418:), while the smaller group, largely from western Romania, is inferred to have western Romanian origins.
2110:
1723:
Haustein, M.; Gillis, C.; Pernicka, E. (2010), "Tin isotopy: a new method for solving old questions",
519:
376:
the only Bronze Age object from Central Europe whose tin has been scientifically provenanced is the
170:
Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginning of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, during which
485:
476:
the only tin deposits considered exploitable by ancient peoples occur in the far eastern region of
837:
562:
are known to have actively mined, smelted and traded tin between the 11th and 15th centuries AD.
317:
Giant, ceremonial dirk of the Plougrescant-Ommerschans type, Plougrescant, France, 1500–1300 BC.
1762:
Lechtman, H. (1996), "Arsenic bronze: dirty copper or chosen alloy? A view from the Americas",
826:
was widely traded around the world in ancient times as the area was only opened up to Indian,
815:
from Central Asia that have been found as far west as Egypt and that date to the same period.
510:(2500 to 1800 BC). However, the richest deposits for the region, and indeed the world, lie in
398:– has significant sources of tin which show evidence of being extensively exploited after the
146:
have been suggested as minor sources of tin, but the archaeological evidence is inconclusive.
2044:
Stech, T.; Pigott, V.C. (1986), "Metals trade in Southwest Asia in the third millennium BC",
875:
365:
643:
from the Bronze Age to modern times using historical texts, archaeological excavations, and
406:
during the 50s BC and onwards. Brittany remained a significant source of tin throughout the
1929:
1834:
294:
is concerned with the origins of tin in the earliest Bronze Age cultures of the Near East.
191:
8:
2125:
2120:
885:
535:
369:
1933:
1838:
843:(book VI, 26), and tin is mentioned as one of the resources being exported from Rome to
594:. These deposits were exploited as early as 1000 AD in the manufacture of tin bronze by
1960:
1917:
1712:
799:
Near Eastern development of bronze technology spread across Central Asia by way of the
661:
78:
Known sources of tin in ancient times include the southeastern tin belt that runs from
48:
1891:
The Ancient Bronze Metallurgy of Yunnan and its Environs: Development and Implications
414:
group of artifacts is inferred to be derived from tin sources in western Serbia (e.g.
2076:
2058:
2031:
2000:
1982:
1965:
1947:
1903:
1858:
1803:
1736:
1694:
1676:
1658:
1624:
1593:
1575:
769:
745:
518:
had become the main source of tin in China according to historical texts of the Han,
511:
368:
miners around 800 BC, but it was not a significant source of tin for the rest of the
337:
199:
704:
264:
The importance of tin to the success of Bronze Age cultures and the scarcity of the
2089:
1955:
1937:
1842:
1787:
1767:
1732:
1642:
1607:
648:
489:
240:
due to the fact that it is harder, heavier, and more chemically resistant than the
195:
1646:
606:, the only known exploitable source of tin during ancient times is located in the
2073:
Early Metallurgy of the Persian Gulf: Technology, Trade, and the Bronze Age World
1942:
800:
765:
756:
The early Roman world was mainly supplied with tin from its Iberian provinces of
481:
407:
336:(Erzgebirge) along the modern border between Germany and the Czech Republic, the
313:
237:
135:
87:
44:
28:
1711:, vol. 328, no. 328, American Schools of Oriental Research, pp. 1-30,
1148:
2135:
1771:
1061:
713:
415:
377:
269:
131:
115:
1880:
Muhly, J.D. (1985), "Sources of tin and the beginnings of bronze metallurgy",
1846:
1791:
2104:
1951:
1165:
1163:
1100:
668:
644:
603:
571:
555:
507:
473:
388:
333:
273:
99:
614:
which supplied west Mexican cultures with enough tin for bronze production.
206:
network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age
1969:
1571:
860:
844:
804:
749:
527:
523:
499:
495:
454:
433:
399:
1160:
729:
676:
599:
515:
466:
446:
352:
in southwestern Britain. There are several smaller sources of tin in the
249:
245:
213:
36:
1716:
1219:
1088:
848:
737:
681:
672:
462:
458:
395:
321:
183:
32:
823:
812:
768:
mentions that in 80 BC, a senatorial decree halted all mining on the
761:
757:
741:
733:
721:
627:
607:
587:
1777:
1154:
870:
865:
808:
725:
697:
685:
623:
579:
559:
502:
which were exploited by the earliest Chinese Bronze Age culture of
422:
345:
341:
286:
265:
233:
229:
225:
221:
207:
179:
123:
103:
91:
1136:
244:
in which it typically forms. These deposits can be easily seen in
1564:
1265:
1263:
1106:
1067:
591:
503:
477:
361:
353:
280:
operations, and the poor preservation of pure tin objects due to
241:
187:
111:
64:
40:
1999:, Nicosia: The Costakis and Leto Severis Foundation, pp. 12–61,
1637:
Dayton, J.E. (1971), "The problem of tin in the ancient world",
1209:
1207:
945:
943:
1231:
827:
787:
776:
717:
689:
631:
611:
583:
442:
329:
291:
277:
171:
107:
79:
68:
56:
24:
1915:
1260:
1169:
753:
has no archaeological basis and is largely considered a myth.
1447:
1375:
1204:
1078:
1076:
940:
595:
539:
349:
203:
143:
139:
127:
119:
95:
83:
20:
775:
Throughout the medieval period, demand for tin increased as
590:, and major deposits of exploitable cassiterite in northern
1495:
1351:
1010:
622:
The tin belt of Southeast Asia extends all the way down to
575:
480:. This source of tin appears to have been exploited by the
403:
325:
Wheelpit at a medieval tin mine in Dartmoor, United Kingdom
253:
72:
60:
52:
1543:
1531:
1507:
1387:
1339:
1314:
1312:
1124:
1112:
1073:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
967:
651:
to determine the origins of tin objects around the world.
897:
175:
16:
1824:
1435:
1423:
1411:
1329:
1327:
1225:
1094:
1037:
955:
43:
around 3000 BC. Tin is a relatively rare element in the
1399:
1309:
991:
602:, which considered tin bronze the "imperial alloy". In
1722:
1519:
1471:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1142:
1706:
1324:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1175:
1027:
1025:
498:
has a number of small cassiterite deposits along the
356:
and another minor source of tin is known to exist at
1709:
Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research
1250:
1248:
1246:
979:
671:
had begun exporting tin, using the well established
1483:
1363:
1187:
930:
928:
926:
924:
909:
728:Greece had access to tin from Iberia by way of the
1292:
1275:
1022:
182:due to trace metal content in copper ores such as
1587:
1459:
1381:
1243:
1049:
2102:
1618:
1269:
1016:
949:
921:
740:) established in the 6th century BC. In 450 BC,
453:While there are a few sources of cassiterite in
384:Cornwall and Devon were important sources of tin
27:, and its acquisition was an important part of
1766:, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 477–514,
716:times, the tin sources were well established.
488:culture around 2000 BC as well as by northern
836:are well known from historical texts such as
822:It is unlikely that Southeast Asian tin from
667:It is possible that as early as 2500 BC, the
276:, the destruction of ancient mines by modern
2052:
2025:
1897:
1751:
1688:
1549:
1537:
1513:
1501:
1453:
1441:
1429:
1417:
1393:
1345:
1237:
1213:
1130:
1118:
1082:
1043:
1004:
973:
961:
903:
364:, Italy. The Tuscan source was exploited by
259:
2043:
1318:
1997:Italy and Cyprus in Antiquity: 1500–450 BC
1888:
1797:
1525:
1477:
1357:
232:process. Cassiterite often accumulates in
1959:
1941:
1820:, Matsue: Proceedings of BUMA IV, pp. 1–4
538:starting between 1500 and 1000 BC. While
1761:
1405:
786:
703:
320:
312:
161:
148:
2088:
1884:, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 275–291
1670:
1605:
1198:
1181:
985:
915:
309:Mining archaeology in the British Isles
2103:
1976:
1815:
1652:
1641:, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 49–70,
1636:
1590:Copper and its alloys in ancient India
1588:Chakrabarti, D.K.; Lahiri, N. (1996),
1333:
1303:
1286:
1031:
830:, and European traders around 800 AD.
811:, and chlorite vessels decorated with
551:
2075:, Boston: Brill Academic Publishers,
2070:
2012:
1994:
1879:
1870:
1852:
1802:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 121–132,
1742:
1657:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 165–170,
1489:
1465:
1369:
1254:
1055:
934:
807:, a highly prized semi-precious blue
1693:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 93–108,
1143:Haustein, Gillis & Pernicka 2010
570:Tin deposits exist in many parts of
394:Brittany – opposite Cornwall on the
2030:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 15–22,
1981:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 87–92,
1902:, London: The Institute of Metals,
1623:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 23–31,
1592:, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal,
626:, but metals were not exploited in
13:
2057:, Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 3–14,
684:containing tin ingots such as the
574:, with minor deposits in southern
297:
14:
2147:
1827:Journal of Archaeological Science
1818:Early Metallurgy: The Tin Mystery
1780:Journal of Archaeological Science
174:objects formed from polymetallic
1737:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2010.00515.x
764:and to a lesser extent Tuscany.
654:
2131:Ancient international relations
1882:American Journal of Archaeology
492:cultures around the same time.
166:Cassiterite and quartz crystals
1755:Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies
1673:The Early British Tin Industry
1558:
610:tin province of north central
598:cultures, including the later
1:
1675:, Stroud: Tempus Publishing,
1647:10.1080/00438243.1971.9979491
1382:Chakrabarti & Lahiri 1996
891:
744:described tin as coming from
554:, p. 165). However, the
228:that require a more involved
35:onward. Its use began in the
1943:10.1371/journal.pone.0218326
1764:Journal of Field Archaeology
1270:Cierny & Weisgerber 2003
1017:Cierny & Weisgerber 2003
950:Cierny & Weisgerber 2003
881:Mining in Cornwall and Devon
617:
445:, is the site of an ancient
157:
7:
1898:Penhallurick, R.D. (1986),
854:
565:
10:
2152:
2094:The Search for Ancient Tin
1873:The Search for Ancient Tin
1772:10.1179/009346996791973774
1745:The Search for Ancient Tin
1612:The Search for Ancient Tin
834:Indo–Roman trade relations
437:manufacturing technology.
306:
2048:, vol. 48, pp. 39–64
1889:Murowchick, R.E. (1991),
1847:10.1016/j.jas.2016.04.012
1792:10.1016/j.jas.2013.07.018
1757:, vol. 11, pp. 47–74
782:
545:
302:
260:Archaeological importance
2055:The Problem of Early Tin
2028:The Problem of Early Tin
1979:The Problem of Early Tin
1857:, Hamden: Archon Books,
1800:The Problem of Early Tin
1691:The Problem of Early Tin
1655:The Problem of Early Tin
1621:The Problem of Early Tin
1568:The Problem of Early Tin
1430:Rovia & Montero 2003
1418:Valera & Valera 2003
1083:Valera & Valera 2003
904:Valera & Valera 2003
673:Baltic amber trade route
664:, Europe, or elsewhere.
637:
1319:Stech & Pigott 1986
791:A Shang dynasty bronze
428:
23:in the creation of tin-
1893:, Michigan: Ann Arbour
796:
709:
344:in modern France, and
326:
318:
167:
154:
2116:History of metallurgy
1107:Benvenuti et al. 2003
1068:Benvenuti et al. 2003
876:Tin mining in Britain
790:
707:
649:lead isotope analysis
630:until the arrival of
324:
316:
165:
152:
110:; the border between
2071:Weeks, L.R. (2004),
1853:Muhly, J.D. (1973),
1671:Gerrard, S. (2000),
1170:Pernicka et al. 2019
534:Tin was used in the
484:people known as the
256:in placer deposits.
1934:2019PLoSO..1418326B
1839:2016JArSc..69..110M
1816:Maddin, R. (1998),
1240:, pp. 100–101.
886:Dartmoor tin mining
586:, and northwestern
536:Indian subcontinent
194:of the Bronze Age.
51:(ppm), compared to
1731:(5), pp. 816-832,
797:
748:islands named the
710:
662:Sub-Saharan Africa
327:
319:
168:
155:
71:with 0.1 ppm, and
2111:History of mining
1639:World Archaeology
1550:Penhallurick 1986
1538:Penhallurick 1986
1514:Giumlia-Mair 2003
1502:Penhallurick 1986
1456:, pp. 75–77.
1454:Penhallurick 1986
1442:Kalyanaraman 2010
1394:Penhallurick 1986
1360:, pp. 76–77.
1346:Penhallurick 1986
1238:Penhallurick 1986
1226:Mason et al. 2016
1216:, pp. 86–91.
1214:Penhallurick 1986
1131:Penhallurick 1986
1119:Penhallurick 1986
1095:Mason et al. 2016
1044:Giumlia-Mair 2003
1005:Penhallurick 1986
974:Penhallurick 1986
962:Penhallurick 1986
770:Italian Peninsula
746:Northern European
688:off the coast of
512:Southeastern Asia
338:Iberian Peninsula
55:with 50,000 ppm,
49:parts per million
47:, with about two
2143:
2097:
2085:
2067:
2049:
2040:
2022:
2009:
1991:
1973:
1963:
1945:
1912:
1894:
1885:
1876:
1867:
1849:
1821:
1812:
1794:
1774:
1758:
1748:
1739:
1719:
1703:
1685:
1667:
1649:
1633:
1615:
1602:
1584:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1421:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1322:
1316:
1307:
1301:
1290:
1284:
1273:
1267:
1258:
1252:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1202:
1196:
1185:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1158:
1155:Ling et al. 2014
1152:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1122:
1116:
1110:
1104:
1098:
1092:
1086:
1080:
1071:
1065:
1059:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1020:
1014:
1008:
1002:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
938:
932:
919:
913:
907:
901:
801:Eurasian Steppes
724:. For example,
196:Arsenical bronze
29:ancient cultures
19:is an essential
2151:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2101:
2100:
2083:
2065:
2038:
2007:
1989:
1928:(6): e0218326.
1910:
1865:
1833:, pp. 110-117,
1810:
1701:
1683:
1665:
1631:
1600:
1582:
1561:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1526:Murowchick 1991
1524:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1478:Lo Schiavo 2003
1476:
1472:
1464:
1460:
1452:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1428:
1424:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1368:
1364:
1358:Murowchick 1991
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1325:
1317:
1310:
1302:
1293:
1285:
1276:
1268:
1261:
1253:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1205:
1197:
1188:
1180:
1176:
1168:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1125:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1081:
1074:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1003:
992:
984:
980:
976:, pp. 4–5.
972:
968:
960:
956:
948:
941:
933:
922:
914:
910:
902:
898:
894:
857:
840:Natural History
785:
714:classical Greek
657:
640:
620:
568:
548:
482:Eurasian Steppe
431:
408:medieval period
311:
305:
300:
298:Ancient sources
262:
238:placer deposits
219:
160:
88:Malay Peninsula
12:
11:
5:
2149:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2099:
2098:
2086:
2081:
2068:
2063:
2050:
2041:
2036:
2023:
2010:
2005:
1992:
1987:
1974:
1913:
1908:
1895:
1886:
1877:
1868:
1863:
1850:
1822:
1813:
1808:
1795:
1775:
1759:
1749:
1740:
1720:
1704:
1699:
1686:
1681:
1668:
1663:
1650:
1634:
1629:
1616:
1603:
1598:
1585:
1580:
1560:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1542:
1530:
1518:
1506:
1504:, p. 123.
1494:
1482:
1470:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1408:, p. 478.
1398:
1386:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1336:, p. 165.
1323:
1308:
1291:
1274:
1259:
1242:
1230:
1228:, p. 116.
1218:
1203:
1186:
1174:
1159:
1147:
1135:
1123:
1111:
1099:
1097:, p. 110.
1087:
1072:
1060:
1048:
1036:
1021:
1009:
990:
978:
966:
954:
939:
920:
908:
895:
893:
890:
889:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
856:
853:
784:
781:
656:
653:
639:
636:
634:in the 1780s.
619:
616:
567:
564:
547:
544:
441:, in Southern
430:
427:
378:Nebra sky disk
304:
301:
299:
296:
270:archaeological
261:
258:
217:
159:
156:
116:Czech Republic
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2148:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2106:
2095:
2091:
2090:Wertime, T.A.
2087:
2084:
2082:0-391-04213-0
2078:
2074:
2069:
2066:
2064:1-84171-564-6
2060:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2037:1-84171-564-6
2033:
2029:
2024:
2021:(2/3): 50–80.
2020:
2016:
2015:Der Anschnitt
2011:
2008:
2006:9963-8102-3-3
2002:
1998:
1993:
1990:
1988:1-84171-564-6
1984:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1909:0-904357-81-3
1905:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1866:
1864:0-208-01217-6
1860:
1856:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1811:
1809:1-84171-564-6
1805:
1801:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1702:
1700:1-84171-564-6
1696:
1692:
1687:
1684:
1682:0-7524-1452-6
1678:
1674:
1669:
1666:
1664:1-84171-564-6
1660:
1656:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1632:
1630:1-84171-564-6
1626:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:Wertime, T.A.
1604:
1601:
1599:81-215-0707-3
1595:
1591:
1586:
1583:
1581:1-84171-564-6
1577:
1574:, pp. 55–66,
1573:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1552:, p. 53.
1551:
1546:
1540:, p. 51.
1539:
1534:
1527:
1522:
1516:, p. 93.
1515:
1510:
1503:
1498:
1492:, p. 45.
1491:
1486:
1479:
1474:
1467:
1462:
1455:
1450:
1443:
1438:
1431:
1426:
1419:
1414:
1407:
1406:Lechtman 1996
1402:
1396:, p. 11.
1395:
1390:
1383:
1378:
1372:, p. 39.
1371:
1366:
1359:
1354:
1348:, p. 35.
1347:
1342:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1272:, p. 28.
1271:
1266:
1264:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1239:
1234:
1227:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1200:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1184:, p. 21.
1183:
1178:
1171:
1166:
1164:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1139:
1133:, p. 93.
1132:
1127:
1121:, p. 80.
1120:
1115:
1108:
1103:
1096:
1091:
1085:, p. 11.
1084:
1079:
1077:
1070:, p. 56.
1069:
1064:
1057:
1052:
1045:
1040:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1018:
1013:
1006:
1001:
999:
997:
995:
988:, p. 30.
987:
982:
975:
970:
963:
958:
952:, p. 23.
951:
946:
944:
936:
931:
929:
927:
925:
917:
912:
906:, p. 10.
905:
900:
896:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
858:
852:
851:, and India.
850:
846:
842:
841:
835:
831:
829:
825:
820:
816:
814:
810:
806:
802:
794:
789:
780:
778:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
754:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
706:
702:
699:
694:
691:
687:
683:
678:
674:
670:
669:Ore Mountains
665:
663:
655:Mediterranean
652:
650:
646:
645:trace element
635:
633:
629:
625:
615:
613:
609:
605:
604:North America
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
572:South America
563:
561:
557:
553:
543:
541:
537:
532:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
508:Shang dynasty
505:
501:
497:
493:
491:
487:
486:Seima-Turbino
483:
479:
475:
474:Northern Asia
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
451:
448:
444:
440:
435:
426:
424:
419:
417:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
385:
381:
379:
373:
371:
370:Mediterranean
367:
363:
359:
358:Monte Valerio
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
334:Ore Mountains
331:
323:
315:
310:
295:
293:
289:
288:
283:
279:
275:
274:placer mining
271:
267:
257:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
215:
211:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
164:
151:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
76:
74:
70:
66:
63:with 16 ppm,
62:
59:with 70 ppm,
58:
54:
50:
46:
45:Earth's crust
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
2093:
2072:
2054:
2045:
2027:
2018:
2014:
1996:
1978:
1925:
1921:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1872:
1854:
1830:
1826:
1817:
1799:
1783:
1779:
1763:
1754:
1744:
1728:
1725:Archaeometry
1724:
1708:
1690:
1672:
1654:
1638:
1620:
1611:
1589:
1572:Archaeopress
1567:
1545:
1533:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1485:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1437:
1425:
1413:
1401:
1389:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1233:
1221:
1199:Gerrard 2000
1182:Gerrard 2000
1177:
1150:
1138:
1126:
1114:
1102:
1090:
1063:
1051:
1039:
1012:
986:Charles 1979
981:
969:
964:, p. 4.
957:
918:, p. 1.
916:Wertime 1979
911:
899:
861:Cassiterides
845:South Arabia
839:
832:
821:
817:
805:lapis lazuli
798:
793:gefuding gui
792:
774:
755:
750:Cassiterides
736:(modern day
711:
695:
666:
658:
641:
621:
569:
549:
533:
500:Yellow River
496:Eastern Asia
494:
471:
457:, namely in
455:Central Asia
452:
434:Western Asia
432:
420:
412:
402:conquest of
393:
382:
374:
328:
285:
281:
263:
236:channels as
212:
200:health risks
169:
136:South Africa
77:
67:with 5 ppm,
15:
1786:: 106–132,
1559:Cited works
1334:Dayton 2003
1304:Maddin 1998
1287:Dayton 2003
1032:Dayton 1971
730:Phoenicians
677:Scandinavia
600:Inca Empire
558:culture of
552:Dayton 2003
516:Han dynasty
467:Afghanistan
447:cassiterite
423:Roman times
389:Roman times
282:tin disease
250:prospectors
246:river banks
214:Cassiterite
37:Middle East
2126:Bronze Age
2121:Tin mining
2105:Categories
1570:, Oxford:
1490:Muhly 1979
1466:Pulak 2001
1370:Hedge 1979
1255:Muhly 1973
1056:Muhly 1985
935:Muhly 1979
892:References
849:Somaliland
738:Marseilles
682:shipwrecks
675:to supply
463:Tajikistan
459:Uzbekistan
396:Celtic Sea
307:See also:
184:tennantite
33:Bronze Age
1952:1932-6203
824:Indochina
813:turquoise
762:Lusitania
758:Gallaecia
742:Herodotus
722:Silk Road
632:Europeans
628:Australia
618:Australia
608:Zacatecas
588:Argentina
416:Mount Cer
158:Early use
31:from the
1970:31242218
1922:PLOS ONE
1610:(eds.),
871:Tin pest
866:Stannary
855:See also
838:Pliny's
809:gemstone
734:Massalia
726:Iron Age
698:Sardinia
686:Uluburun
624:Tasmania
580:Colombia
566:Americas
560:Zimbabwe
506:and the
366:Etruscan
346:Cornwall
342:Brittany
287:tin pest
266:resource
234:alluvial
230:smelting
226:stannite
224:such as
222:sulfides
208:cultures
180:alloying
124:Portugal
114:and the
104:Brittany
92:Cornwall
39:and the
1961:6594607
1930:Bibcode
1835:Bibcode
1717:1357777
592:Bolivia
504:Erlitou
490:Chinese
478:Siberia
362:Tuscany
354:Balkans
242:granite
188:casting
132:central
112:Germany
100:Britain
86:to the
65:arsenic
41:Balkans
25:bronzes
2079:
2061:
2034:
2003:
1985:
1968:
1958:
1950:
1906:
1861:
1806:
1715:
1697:
1679:
1661:
1627:
1596:
1578:
828:Muslim
795:vessel
777:pewter
718:Greece
696:While
690:Turkey
612:Mexico
596:Andean
584:Brazil
546:Africa
526:, and
465:, and
443:Turkey
439:Kestel
330:Europe
303:Europe
292:debate
278:mining
172:copper
130:; and
108:France
80:Yunnan
69:silver
57:copper
2136:Trade
1713:JSTOR
766:Pliny
638:Trade
556:Bantu
540:India
400:Roman
350:Devon
204:trade
192:molds
144:Egypt
140:Syria
128:Italy
120:Spain
96:Devon
84:China
21:metal
2077:ISBN
2059:ISBN
2046:Iraq
2032:ISBN
2001:ISBN
1983:ISBN
1966:PMID
1948:ISSN
1904:ISBN
1859:ISBN
1804:ISBN
1695:ISBN
1677:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1625:ISBN
1594:ISBN
1576:ISBN
783:Asia
760:and
647:and
576:Peru
528:Song
524:Tang
429:Asia
404:Gaul
348:and
254:gold
216:(SnO
176:ores
142:and
134:and
94:and
73:gold
61:lead
53:iron
1956:PMC
1938:doi
1843:doi
1788:doi
1768:doi
1733:doi
1643:doi
712:By
520:Jin
472:In
360:in
284:or
138:.
106:in
98:in
82:in
17:Tin
2107::
2019:37
2017:.
1964:.
1954:.
1946:.
1936:.
1926:14
1924:.
1920:.
1841:,
1831:69
1829:,
1784:41
1782:,
1729:52
1727:,
1326:^
1311:^
1294:^
1277:^
1262:^
1245:^
1206:^
1189:^
1162:^
1075:^
1024:^
993:^
942:^
923:^
847:,
582:,
578:,
522:,
461:,
410:.
340:,
210:.
126:;
122:;
118:;
102:;
90:;
1972:.
1940::
1932::
1845::
1837::
1790::
1770::
1735::
1645::
1528:.
1480:.
1468:.
1444:.
1432:.
1420:.
1384:.
1321:.
1306:.
1289:.
1257:.
1201:.
1172:.
1157:.
1145:.
1109:.
1058:.
1046:.
1034:.
1019:.
1007:.
937:.
218:2
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