221:
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524:
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22:
474:. Its speeds are very slow even compared to the movement of the bottom water masses. It is therefore difficult to measure where upwelling occurs using current speeds, given all the other wind-driven processes going on in the surface ocean. Deep waters have their own chemical signature, formed from the breakdown of particulate matter falling into them over the course of their long journey at depth. A number of scientists have tried to use these tracers to infer where the upwelling occurs.
30:
5348:
290:
5369:
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685:
425:
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timeframe over which such collapse may occur, and the regional impacts it would cause, much less equivalent research exists for the
Southern Ocean overturning circulation as of the early 2020s. There has been a suggestion that its collapse may occur between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F), but this estimate is much less certain than for many other tipping points.
565:
triggered, the collapse of the gyre would occur between 5 and 50 years, and most likely at 10 years. The loss of this convection is estimated to lower the global temperature by 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) while the average temperature in Europe would decrease by around 3 °C (5.4 °F). There would also be substantial effects on regional precipitation levels.
597:; at least one such event has been connected to a temporary slowing of the AMOC. This effect would be caused by increased warming and thermal expansion of coastal waters, which would transfer less of their heat toward Europe; it is one of the reasons sea level rise along the U.S. East Coast is estimated to be three-to-four times higher than the global average.
35:
31:
32:
559:
identified 16 plausible climate tipping points, including a collapse of the AMOC. It said a collapse would most likely be triggered by 4 °C (7.2 °F) of global warming but that there is enough uncertainty to suggest it could be triggered at warming levels of between 1.4 °C (2.5 °F)
481:
Computer models of ocean circulation increasingly place most of the deep upwelling in the
Southern Ocean, associated with the strong winds in the open latitudes between South America and Antarctica. Direct estimates of the strength of the thermohaline circulation have also been madeat 26.5°N in the
444:
The out-flowing undersea of cold and salty water makes the sea level of the
Atlantic slightly lower than the Pacific and salinity or halinity of water at the Atlantic higher than the Pacific. This generates a large but slow flow of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific to the
403:
is left behind as the sea ice forms around it (pure water preferentially being frozen). Increasing salinity lowers the freezing point of seawater, so cold liquid brine is formed in inclusions within a honeycomb of ice. The brine progressively melts the ice just beneath it, eventually dripping out of
635:
currently disagree on whether the
Southern Ocean circulation would continue to respond to changes in SAM the way it does now, or if it will eventually adjust to them. As of early 2020s, their best, limited-confidence estimate is that the lower cell would continue to weaken, while the upper cell may
427:
671:
is only inhabited by 10% of the world's population, and the
Southern Ocean overturning circulation has historically received much less attention than the AMOC. Consequently, while multiple studies have set out to estimate the exact level of global warming which could result in AMOC collapsing, the
578:
As of 2024, there is no consensus on whether a consistent slowing of the AMOC circulation has occurred but there is little doubt it will occur in the event of continued climate change. According to the IPCC, the most-likely effects of future AMOC decline are reduced precipitation in mid-latitudes,
431:
430:
426:
2272:
Douville, H.; Raghavan, K.; Renwick, J.; Allan, R. P.; Arias, P. A.; Barlow, M.; Cerezo-Mota, R.; Cherchi, A.; Gan, T.Y.; Gergis, J.; Jiang, D.; Khan, A.; Pokam Mba, W.; Rosenfeld, D.; Tierney, J.; Zolina, O. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.;
548:
again said the AMOC is "very likely" to decline within the 21st century and that there was a "high confidence" changes to it would be reversible within centuries if warming was reversed. Unlike the Fifth
Assessment Report, it had only "medium confidence" rather than "high confidence" in the AMOC
495:
The thermohaline circulation plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in regulating the amount of sea ice in these regions, although poleward heat transport outside the tropics is considerably larger in the atmosphere than in the ocean. Changes in the thermohaline
2678:
Bakker, P; Schmittner, A; Lenaerts, JT; Abe-Ouchi, A; Bi, D; van den Broeke, MR; Chan, WL; Hu, A; Beadling, RL; Marsland, SJ; Mernild, SH; Saenko, OA; Swingedouw, D; Sullivan, A; Yin, J (11 November 2016). "Fate of the
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Strong decline under continued
564:
as a separate tipping point that could tip at between 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) degrees and 3.8 °C (6.8 °F), although this is only simulated by a fraction of climate models. The most likely tipping point for the collapse of
Northern Subpolar Gyre is 1.8 °C (3.2 °F) and once
432:
34:
248:
transfer exist, but require that "heating occurs at a greater depth than cooling". Normally, the opposite occurs, because ocean water is heated from above by the Sun and becomes less dense, so the surface layer floats on the surface above the cooler, denser layers, resulting in
486:
from temperature and salinity measurements to provide continuous, full-depth, basin-wide estimates of the meridional overturning circulation. However, it has only been operating since 2004, which is too short when the timescale of the circulation is measured in centuries.
429:
659:. It is possible that both circulations may not simply continue to weaken in response to increased warming and freshening, but eventually collapse to a much weaker state outright, in a way which would be difficult to reverse and constitute an example of
137:. This name is used because not every circulation pattern caused by temperature and salinity gradients is necessarily part of a single global circulation. Further, it is difficult to separate the parts of the circulation driven by temperature and
416:
will flow towards the
Pacific Ocean. At the Indian Ocean, a vertical exchange of a lower layer of cold and salty water from the Atlantic and the warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific occurs, in what is known as
2186:
Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G. Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021:
644:
models - the most advanced generation available as of early 2020s. Further, the largest long-term role in the state of the circulation is played by
Antarctic meltwater, and Antarctic ice loss had been the least-certain aspect of future
2735:
Lenton, T. M.; Armstrong McKay, D.I.; Loriani, S.; Abrams, J.F.; Lade, S.J.; Donges, J.F.; Milkoreit, M.; Powell, T.; Smith, S.R.; Zimm, C.; Buxton, J.E.; Daube, Bruce C.; Krummel, Paul B.; Loh, Zoë; Luijkx, Ingrid T. (2023).
1087:
Lenton, T. M.; Armstrong McKay, D.I.; Loriani, S.; Abrams, J.F.; Lade, S.J.; Donges, J.F.; Milkoreit, M.; Powell, T.; Smith, S.R.; Zimm, C.; Buxton, J.E.; Daube, Bruce C.; Krummel, Paul B.; Loh, Zoë; Luijkx, Ingrid T. (2023).
478:, using box models, has asserted that the bulk of deep upwelling occurs in the North Pacific, using as evidence the high values of silicon found in these waters. Other investigators have not found such clear evidence.
560:
and 8 °C (14 °F). The assessment estimates once AMOC collapse is triggered, it would occur between 15 and 300 years, and most likely at around 50 years. The assessment also treated the collapse of the
280:
only gets denser as it cools, up until it reaches the freezing point. That freezing point is also lower than for fresh water due to salinity, and can be below −2 °C, depending on salinity and pressure.
114:, the oldest waters (with a transit time of about 1000 years) upwell in the North Pacific. Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins, reducing differences between them and making the
33:
469:
As the deep waters sink into the ocean basins, they displace the older deep-water masses, which gradually become less dense due to continued ocean mixing. Thus, some water is rising, in what is known as
328:, in part due to high windiness. When water evaporates, it leaves salt behind, and so the surface waters of the North Atlantic are particularly salty. North Atlantic is also an already cool region, and
399:). Meanwhile, sea ice starts reforming, so the surface waters also get saltier, hence very dense. In fact, the formation of sea ice contributes to an increase in surface seawater salinity; saltier
549:
avoiding a collapse before the end of the 21st century. This reduction in confidence was likely influenced by several review studies that draw attention to the circulation stability bias within
118:. The water in these circuits transport both energy (in the form of heat) and mass (dissolved solids and gases) around the globe. As such, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the
3401:
2925:
2088:
Armstrong McKay, David; Abrams, Jesse; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah; Rockström, Johan; Staal, Arie; Lenton, Timothy (9 September 2022).
428:
1490:
Williams, G. D.; Herraiz-Borreguero, L.; Roquet, F.; Tamura, T.; Ohshima, K. I.; Fukamachi, Y.; Fraser, A. D.; Gao, L.; Chen, H.; McMahon, C. R.; Harcourt, R.; Hindell, M. (23 August 2016).
453:. This is also known as 'haline forcing' (net high latitude freshwater gain and low latitude evaporation). This warmer, fresher water from the Pacific flows up through the South Atlantic to
208:. In the Northern Hemisphere, AMOC's collapse would also substantially lower the temperatures in many European countries, while the east coast of North America would experience accelerated
212:. The collapse of either circulation is generally believed to be more than a century away and may only occur under high warming, but there is a lot of uncertainty about these projections.
2568:
Li, Qian; England, Matthew H.; Hogg, Andrew McC.; Rintoul, Stephen R.; Morrison, Adele K. (29 March 2023). "Abyssal ocean overturning slowdown and warming driven by Antarctic meltwater".
2900:
investigates on the topic "Thermohaline overturning- at risk?" and the predictability of changes of the THC. THOR is financed by the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission.
579:
changing patterns of strong precipitation in the tropics and Europe, and strengthening storms that follow the North Atlantic track. In 2020, research found a weakened AMOC would slow
2412:
Stewart, K. D.; Hogg, A. McC.; England, M. H.; Waugh, D. W. (2 November 2020). "Response of the Southern Ocean Overturning Circulation to Extreme Southern Annular Mode Conditions".
276:
expands, but more dense as the salinity increases, since there is a larger mass of salts dissolved within that water. Further, while fresh water is at its most dense at 4 °C,
1270:
Stommel, H., & Arons, A. B. (1960). On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean. – I. Stationary planetary flow patterns on a sphere. Deep Sea Research (1953), 6, 140–154.
511:
in North America are thought to have led to a shifting of deep water formation and subsidence in the extreme North Atlantic and caused the climate period in Europe known as the
2323:
2304:
2918:
482:
North Atlantic, by the UK-US RAPID programme. It combines direct estimates of ocean transport using current meters and subsea cable measurements with estimates of the
571:
2282:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2193:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2911:
1048:
436:
Surface water flows north and sinks in the dense ocean near Iceland and Greenland. It joins the global thermohaline circulation into the Indian Ocean, and the
537:
3449:
125:
The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt, coined by climate scientist
320:
ratios) which can be traced, their flow rate calculated, and their age determined. NADW is formed because North Atlantic is a rare place in the ocean where
1066:
421:. In the Pacific Ocean, the rest of the cold and salty water from the Atlantic undergoes haline forcing, and becomes warmer and fresher more quickly.
608:
5088:
667:
evidence for the overturning circulation being substantially weaker than now during past periods that were both warmer and colder than now. However,
1732:
5078:
4137:
3110:
2387:
408:. The resulting Antarctic bottom water sinks and flows north and east. It is denser than the NADW, and so flows beneath it. AABW formed in the
1246:
176:, the AMOC has been far better studied, but both are very important for the global climate. Both of them also appear to be slowing down due to
1961:
Weijer, W.; Cheng, W.; Drijfhout, S. S.; Fedorov, A. V.; Hu, A.; Jackson, L. C.; Liu, W.; McDonagh, E. L.; Mecking, J. V.; Zhang, J. (2019).
261:
caused by tidal currents being one example. This mixing is what enables the convection between ocean layers, and thus, deep water currents.
2482:. Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Vol. 2021. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1239–1241.
25:
A summary of the path of the thermohaline circulation. Blue paths represent deep-water currents, while red paths represent surface currents.
2341:
Karmalkar, Ambarish V.; Horton, Radley M. (23 September 2021). "Drivers of exceptional coastal warming in the northeastern United States".
3370:
873:"Characterizing transport between the surface mixed layer and the ocean interior with a forward and adjoint global ocean transport model"
652:
149:
553:, and simplified ocean-modelling studies suggesting the AMOC may be more vulnerable to abrupt change than larger-scale models suggest.
3375:
2472:; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Edwards, T.L.; Golledge, N.R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R.E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021).
1604:
1104:
4994:
3130:
2308:
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strengthen by around 20% over the 21st century. A key reason for the uncertainty is the poor and inconsistent representation of
5361:
4409:
4177:
3182:
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3014:
849:
157:
2476:. In Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S.L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.).
2157:
3206:
3115:
1708:
1656:
Talley, Lynne (1999). "Some aspects of ocean heat transport by the shallow, intermediate and deep overturning circulations".
1194:
641:
619:(SAM), which has been spending more and more years in its positive phase due to climate change (as well as the aftermath of
4641:
3177:
660:
556:
189:
831:
Lappo, SS (1984). "On reason of the northward heat advection across the Equator in the South Pacific and Atlantic ocean".
4130:
3243:
1557:"Zonal Distribution of Circumpolar Deep Water Transformation Rates and Its Relation to Heat Content on Antarctic Shelves"
4531:
1555:
Narayanan, Aditya; Gille, Sarah T.; Mazloff, Matthew R.; du Plessis, Marcel D.; Murali, K.; Roquet, Fabien (June 2023).
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392:
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83:
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228:
It has long been known that wind can drive ocean currents, but only at the surface. In the 19th century, some
3923:
3248:
3148:
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in this scenario (middle). The collapse of the entire Atlantic Meriditional Overturning Circulation (bottom).
437:
336:, fills the Arctic Ocean Basin and spills southwards through the Greenland-Scotland-Ridge – crevasses in the
4399:
4063:
3396:
3079:
2974:
922:
740:
545:
300:
These density differences caused by temperature and salinity ultimately separate ocean water into distinct
4068:
4053:
2753:"No detectable Weddell Sea Antarctic Bottom Water export during the Last and Penultimate Glacial Maximum"
4459:
4596:
4058:
3852:
3756:
3105:
1427:"Warm Circumpolar Deep Water transport toward Antarctica driven by local dense water export in canyons"
1210:
Wyrtki, K (1961). "The thermohaline circulation in relation to the general circulation in the oceans".
233:
2897:
2621:"Marine ice sheet instability amplifies and skews uncertainty in projections of future sea-level rise"
2151:
2149:
872:
5131:
4536:
4496:
3009:
2513:"Stratification constrains future heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean between 30°S and 55°S"
722: – Process of accumulation and sinking of higher density material beneath lower density material
615:
Additionally, the main controlling pattern of the extratropical Southern Hemisphere's climate is the
550:
305:
224:
Effect of temperature and salinity upon sea water density maximum and sea water freezing temperature.
220:
99:
1067:"NOAA Scientists Detect a Reshaping of the Meridional Overturning Circulation in the Southern Ocean"
527:
Modelled 21st century warming under the "intermediate" global warming scenario (top). The potential
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2994:
2989:
2146:
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312:(AABW). These two waters are the main drivers of the circulation, which was established in 1960 by
1914:"The effect of model bias on Atlantic freshwater transport and implications for AMOC bi-stability"
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5118:
4611:
4476:
4414:
4404:
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4023:
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3801:
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3319:
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2891:
2391:
2083:
2081:
725:
2217:"Climate impacts of a weakened Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation in a warming climate"
2182:
2180:
2178:
2158:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points – paper explainer"
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2195:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362,
2078:
1880:
1049:"El Niño may be drying out the southern hemisphere – here's how that affects the whole planet"
655:(AMOC), which is also affected by the ocean warming and by meltwater flows from the declining
348:
and Great Britain. It cannot flow towards the Pacific Ocean due to the narrow shallows of the
289:
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4511:
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and Arnold B. Arons. They have chemical, temperature and isotopic ratio signatures (such as
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2524:
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Bourgeois, Timothée; Goris, Nadine; Schwinger, Jörg; Tjiputra, Jerry F. (17 January 2022).
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in ocean layer formation. Salinity is important because like temperature, it affects water
250:
130:
593:
A decline in the AMOC would be accompanied by an acceleration of sea level rise along the
188:. Either one could outright collapse to a much weaker state, which would be an example of
8:
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4914:
4586:
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3967:
3962:
3564:
3516:
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1601:
1492:"The suppression of Antarctic bottom water formation by melting ice shelves in Prydz Bay"
668:
656:
483:
475:
458:
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205:
192:. The hemisphere which experiences the collapse of its circulation would experience less
173:
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2019:
2011:
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1786:"RAPID: monitoring the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation at 26.5N since 2004"
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1963:"Stability of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: A Review and Synthesis"
1282:"Water Vapor Transfer and Near-Surface Salinity Contrasts in the North Atlantic Ocean"
395:. The ocean, no longer protected by sea ice, suffers a brutal and strong cooling (see
237:
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2004:
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1407:
1339:"The distribution and formative processes of latent heat polynyas in East Antarctica"
1319:
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1021:
990:
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907:
805:
272:. Water becomes less dense as its temperature increases and the distance between its
94:
from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high
2830:
2504:
1873:
1748:"Closure of the meridional overturning circulation through Southern Ocean upwelling"
857:
583:. and result in atmospheric trends similar to those that likely occurred during the
324:, which adds fresh water to the ocean and so reduces its salinity, is outweighed by
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Huang, Huang; Gutjahr, Marcus; Eisenhauer, Anton; Kuhn, Gerhard (22 January 2020).
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2020:"Risk of tipping the overturning circulation due to increasing rates of ice melt"
1700:
The great ocean conveyor : discovering the trigger for abrupt climate change
1640:
1608:
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620:
594:
405:
2744:
2479:
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I
1363:
1338:
701: – Climate cycle that affects the surface temperature of the North Atlantic
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will mainly fill the Atlantic and Indian Basins, whereas the AABW formed in the
388:
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Mecking, J.V.; Drijfhout, S.S.; Jackson, L.C.; Andrews, M.B. (1 January 2017).
1785:
1305:
981:
956:
646:
591:. Changes in precipitation under high-emissions scenarios would be far larger.
523:
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and sinks to the ocean floor, providing a continuous thermohaline circulation.
364:
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reduces water temperature even further. Thus, this water sinks downward in the
264:
In the 1920s, Sandström's framework was expanded by accounting for the role of
245:
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111:
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2289:
2200:
2090:"Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points"
1899:
1131:
5388:
5373:
5221:
5141:
5030:
4949:
4924:
4859:
4789:
4696:
4591:
4468:
4389:
4349:
4322:
4232:
4182:
4105:
4089:
4048:
4043:
3993:
3544:
3532:
3172:
3140:
2969:
2561:
2469:
2284:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US: 1055–1210.
2123:
2053:
1996:
1718:
1621:
1588:
1523:
1458:
1411:
934:
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51:
21:
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2105:
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1017:
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5045:
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5015:
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4003:
3907:
3680:
3501:
3299:
2794:
2664:
2597:
2554:
2258:
2240:
2215:
Liu, Wei; Fedorov, Alexey V.; Xie, Shang-Ping; Hu, Shineng (26 June 2020).
2131:
2071:
1865:
1634:
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664:
508:
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4364:
4337:
4317:
4277:
4242:
3660:
2700:
2433:
1987:
1962:
1580:
1403:
1247:"Key Physical Variables in the Ocean: Temperature, Salinity, and Density"
1127:
719:
409:
380:
368:
325:
142:
115:
103:
87:
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2709:
2114:
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2442:
1673:
1425:
Morrison, A. K.; Hogg, A. McC.; England, M. H.; Spence, P. (May 2020).
713:
628:
301:
169:
5368:
4100:
2619:
Robel, Alexander A.; Seroussi, Hélène; Roe, Gerard H. (23 July 2019).
2477:
2192:
1489:
1105:"Landmark study projects 'dramatic' changes to Southern Ocean by 2050"
899:
684:
572:
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation § Effects of AMOC slowdown
5208:
5070:
5055:
4969:
4814:
4653:
4648:
4431:
4359:
4287:
4207:
4197:
4154:
3998:
1892:
IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate
1771:
1698:
923:"Wallace Broecker, 87, Dies; Sounded Early Warning on Climate Change"
471:
454:
341:
181:
107:
2324:"Why the U.S. East Coast could be a major 'hotspot' for rising seas"
1844:
Broecker, WS (2006). "Was the Younger Dryas Triggered by a Flood?".
1804:
800:
5303:
5025:
4884:
4776:
4766:
4711:
4187:
3339:
2898:
http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20141126093524/http%3A//www.eu%2Dthor.eu/
2831:
Gnanadesikan, A.; R. D. Slater; P. S. Swathi; G. K. Vallis (2005).
2467:
1894:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA.
1747:
496:
circulation are thought to have significant impacts on the Earth's
413:
384:
376:
277:
273:
265:
201:
138:
95:
79:
2734:
1086:
538:
Atlantic meridional overturning circulation § Major review studies
196:
and become drier, while the other hemisphere would become wetter.
5172:
5162:
4332:
4302:
3334:
3314:
3294:
3059:
2677:
1620:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
396:
372:
345:
269:
119:
707: – Measure of fluid stability against vertical displacement
4879:
4292:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3258:
3190:
3054:
2510:
1554:
1378:
Tamura, Takeshi; Ohshima, Kay I.; Nihashi, Sohey (April 2008).
609:
Southern Ocean overturning circulation § Climate change impacts
141:
alone from those driven by other factors, such as the wind and
1911:
1805:"Estimates of Meridional Atmosphere and Ocean Heat Transports"
1660:. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 112. pp. 1–22.
1380:"Mapping of sea ice production for Antarctic coastal polynyas"
5241:
5060:
4839:
4794:
3391:
3360:
3344:
3253:
3089:
1891:
1658:
Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales
400:
2271:
1602:
The Thermohaline Circulation – The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt
1337:
Massom, R.; Michael, K.; Harris, P.T.; Potter, M.J. (1998).
835:. Moscow Department of Gidrometeoizdat (in Mandarin): 125–9.
4673:
3304:
3201:
3069:
2934:
Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models
2388:"Why the U.S. Northeast Coast Is a Global Warming Hot Spot"
1960:
1830:
10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<3433:EOMAAO>2.0.CO;2
1633:
United Nations Environment Programme / GRID-Arendal, 2006,
1070:
1004:
Wunsch, C (2002). "What is the thermohaline circulation?".
853:
254:
59:
2750:
1424:
1336:
2411:
2018:
Lohmann, Johannes; Ditlevsen, Peter D. (2 March 2021).
1280:
Reagan, James; Seidov, Dan; Boyer, Tim (11 June 2018).
745:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
730:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
709:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2305:"Extreme sea level rise event linked to AMOC downturn"
2303:
Yin, Jianjun & Griffies, Stephen (25 March 2015).
404:
the ice matrix and sinking. This process is known as
2567:
1745:
1377:
737: – Circulation of water driven by heat exchange
680:
833:
Study of Ocean and Atmosphere Interaction Processes
293:The global conveyor belt on a continuous-ocean map
172:. Because 90% of the human population lives in the
555:In 2022, an extensive assessment of all potential
5089:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
2189:Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change
1746:Marshall, John; Speer, Kevin (26 February 2012).
1614:, visualizations by Greg Shirah, 8 October 2009.
1279:
5386:
2618:
2017:
5079:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
2625:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2340:
2214:
2155:
2024:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
766:
764:
762:
760:
601:
518:
1918:Tellus A: Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography
1802:
1040:
743: – Diagrams used to identify water masses
367:blowing from the Antarctic continent onto the
257:cause mixing between these water layers, with
148:This global circulation has two major limbs -
4131:
3517:
2919:
773:"The concept of the thermohaline circulation"
728: – Part of large-scale ocean circulation
503:Large influxes of low-density meltwater from
156:), centered in the north Atlantic Ocean, and
3531:
1731:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
757:
490:
86:. Wind-driven surface currents (such as the
2302:
2156:Armstrong McKay, David (9 September 2022).
1115:
1082:
1080:
653:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
150:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
4138:
4124:
3524:
3510:
2926:
2912:
954:
844:
842:
4145:
2856:
2784:
2708:
2654:
2644:
2544:
2441:
2273:Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.).
2248:
2113:
2061:
2043:
1986:
1937:
1828:
1531:
1466:
1362:
1313:
1244:
1144:
1096:
980:
850:"What is the global ocean conveyor belt?"
799:
770:
631:, freshening the Southern Ocean further.
244:which proved that the currents driven by
2833:"The energetics of ocean heat transport"
2474:"Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change"
1843:
1837:
1077:
920:
651:Similar processes are taking place with
522:
423:
352:, but it does slowly flow into the deep
288:
219:
102:). This dense water then flows into the
28:
20:
2385:
1967:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1561:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
1121:
1059:
1046:
870:
839:
240:performed a series of experiments at a
82:, factors which together determine the
58:created by surface heat and freshwater
5387:
4410:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
2865:
2321:
1655:
1209:
1003:
587:, such as a southward displacement of
236:could drive deeper currents. In 1908,
215:
158:Southern Ocean overturning circulation
4119:
3505:
3031:
2943:
2907:
2868:Introduction to Physical Oceanography
2738:The Global Tipping Points Report 2023
1102:
1090:The Global Tipping Points Report 2023
830:
623:), which means more warming and more
162:Southern Ocean meridional circulation
16:Part of large-scale ocean circulation
5357:
3219:Regional and mesoscale oceanographic
2811:
2386:Krajick, Kevin (23 September 2021).
1612:NASA Scientific Visualization Studio
1176:
957:"Wallace Smith Broecker (1931–2019)"
661:tipping points in the climate system
190:tipping points in the climate system
3032:
1154:Encyclopedia of Quaternary Sciences
955:de Menocal, Peter (26 March 2019).
921:Schwartz, John (20 February 2019).
716: – Type of sedimentary deposit
457:, where it cools off and undergoes
13:
5237:National Oceanographic Data Center
4664:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
4552:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
3161:Regional and mesoscale atmospheric
1696:
1645:Potential Impact of Climate Change
1047:Collins, Kevin (3 November 2023).
14:
5411:
5084:Global Sea Level Observing System
2885:
2322:Mooney, Chris (1 February 2016).
699:Atlantic multidecadal oscillation
200:are also likely to receive fewer
5367:
5356:
5347:
5346:
4542:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
4458:
4447:
4099:
4088:
2805:
2679:warming and Greenland melting".
2275:"Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes"
1615:
1147:"Thermohaline Ocean Circulation"
880:Journal of Physical Oceanography
683:
607:This section is an excerpt from
570:This section is an excerpt from
536:This section is an excerpt from
184:dilutes salty flows such as the
129:. It is also referred to as the
5272:Ocean thermal energy conversion
4995:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
2985:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
2980:Tropical cyclone forecast model
2944:
2740:(Report). University of Exeter.
2671:
2612:
2379:
2334:
2315:
2296:
1954:
1905:
1803:Trenberth, K; Caron, J (2001).
1796:
1778:
1739:
1690:
1649:
1627:
1595:
1548:
1483:
1418:
1371:
1330:
1273:
1264:
1238:
1203:
1170:
1138:
1092:(Report). University of Exeter.
627:over the ocean due to stronger
50:) is a part of the large-scale
1703:. Princeton University Press.
1697:S., Broecker, Wallace (2010).
1122:Schmidt, Gavin (26 May 2005).
997:
948:
914:
864:
824:
649:projections for a long time.
589:Intertropical Convergence Zone
449:to replace the cold and salty
116:Earth's oceans a global system
1:
1939:10.1080/16000870.2017.1299910
1103:Logan, Tyne (29 March 2023).
750:
581:the decline in Arctic sea ice
529:collapse of the subpolar gyre
438:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
242:Bornö Marine Research Station
72:referring to temperature and
4532:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
4502:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
4258:Luke's variational principle
3385:Land surface parametrization
2975:Numerical weather prediction
2681:Geophysical Research Letters
2414:Geophysical Research Letters
1384:Geophysical Research Letters
1232:10.1016/0146-6313(61)90014-4
741:Temperature-salinity diagram
602:Slowdown or collapse of SMOC
546:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
519:Slowdown or collapse of AMOC
464:
284:
133:overturning circulation, or
7:
2814:Principles of Ocean Physics
1364:10.3189/1998aog27-1-420-426
676:
371:will blow the newly formed
10:
5416:
4597:Ocean dynamical thermostat
4445:
2777:10.1038/s41467-020-14302-3
2590:10.1038/s41586-023-05762-w
2537:10.1038/s41467-022-27979-5
2365:10.1038/s41558-021-01159-7
1306:10.1038/s41598-018-27052-6
982:10.1038/d41586-019-00993-2
606:
569:
551:general circulation models
535:
5342:
5181:
5155:
5132:Ocean acoustic tomography
5117:
5069:
5008:
4945:Mohorovičić discontinuity
4903:
4775:
4672:
4537:General circulation model
4467:
4173:Benjamin–Feir instability
4153:
4084:
4016:
3986:
3950:
3941:
3916:
3810:
3734:
3583:
3552:
3543:
3471:
3426:
3410:
3384:
3353:
3267:
3218:
3160:
3098:
3042:
3038:
3027:
3010:Meteorological reanalysis
2950:
2939:
2488:10.1017/9781009157896.011
2290:10.1017/9781009157896.010
2201:10.1017/9781009157896.011
2162:climatetippingpoints.info
1900:10.1017/9781009157964.001
1152:. In Elias, S. A. (ed.).
491:Effects on global climate
445:Indian Ocean through the
306:North Atlantic Deep Water
100:North Atlantic Deep Water
54:that is driven by global
5262:Ocean surface topography
4637:Thermohaline circulation
4627:Subsurface ocean current
4567:Hydrothermal circulation
4400:Wave–current interaction
4178:Boussinesq approximation
4076:Thermohaline circulation
2995:Upper-atmospheric models
2990:Chemical transport model
2307:. CLIVAR. Archived from
1888:Summary for Policymakers
1607:19 December 2022 at the
1245:Pawlowicz, Rich (2013).
735:Hydrothermal circulation
180:, as the melting of the
44:Thermohaline circulation
39:Thermohaline circulation
5299:Sea surface temperature
5282:Outline of oceanography
4477:Atmospheric circulation
4415:shallow water equations
4405:Waves and shallow water
4298:Significant wave height
4024:Atmospheric circulation
3575:Transpolar Drift Stream
3005:Model output statistics
2687:(23): 12, 252–12, 260.
2646:10.1073/pnas.1904822116
2392:Columbia Climate School
2106:10.1126/science.abn7950
2045:10.1073/pnas.2017989118
1858:10.1126/science.1123253
1639:28 January 2017 at the
1124:"Gulf Stream slowdown?"
1018:10.1126/science.1079329
726:Halothermal circulation
705:Brunt-Väisälä frequency
356:of the south Atlantic.
204:and experience greater
106:. While the bulk of it
5294:Sea surface microlayer
4659:Wind generated current
4095:Environment portal
4049:Marine garbage patches
3863:Indonesian Throughflow
3767:Indonesian Throughflow
3268:Atmospheric dispersion
2241:10.1126/sciadv.aaz4876
1451:10.1126/sciadv.aav2516
1177:Eden, Carsten (2012).
562:Northern Subpolar Gyre
557:climate tipping points
532:
451:Antarctic Bottom Water
447:Indonesian Archipelago
441:
310:Antarctic Bottom Water
297:
225:
186:Antarctic bottom water
127:Wallace Smith Broecker
40:
26:
5400:Chemical oceanography
5395:Physical oceanography
5127:Deep scattering layer
5109:World Geodetic System
4617:Princeton Ocean Model
4497:Coriolis–Stokes force
4147:Physical oceanography
3924:Antarctic Circumpolar
2757:Nature Communications
2517:Nature Communications
2420:(22): e2020GL091103.
2344:Nature Climate Change
1496:Nature Communications
1185:. Springer. pp.
1145:Rahmstorf, S (2006).
771:Rahmstorf, S (2003).
617:Southern Annular Mode
526:
435:
379:in locations such as
292:
223:
38:
24:
5147:Underwater acoustics
4707:Perigean spring tide
4572:Langmuir circulation
4283:Rossby-gravity waves
3486:Scientific modelling
3000:Ensemble forecasting
2701:10.1002/2016GL070457
2434:10.1029/2020GL091103
1988:10.1029/2019JC015083
1581:10.1029/2022JC019310
1404:10.1029/2007GL032903
1343:Annals of Glaciology
1156:. Elsevier Science.
1134:on 20 February 2006.
860:on 31 December 2017.
638:ocean stratification
253:. However, wind and
251:ocean stratification
84:density of sea water
5309:Science On a Sphere
4915:Convergent boundary
4587:Modular Ocean Model
4547:Geostrophic current
4263:Mild-slope equation
3968:South Atlantic Gyre
3963:North Atlantic Gyre
3491:Computer simulation
2960:Oceanographic model
2892:Ocean Conveyor Belt
2866:Knauss, JA (1996).
2849:2005JCli...18.2604G
2769:2020NatCo..11..424H
2693:2016GeoRL..4312252B
2637:2019PNAS..11614887R
2631:(30): 14887–14892.
2582:2023Natur.615..841L
2529:2022NatCo..13..340B
2426:2020GeoRL..4791103S
2357:2021NatCC..11..854K
2328:The Washington Post
2233:2020SciA....6.4876L
2036:2021PNAS..11817989L
1979:2019JGRC..124.5336W
1930:2017TellA..6999910M
1821:2001JCli...14.3433T
1764:2012NatGe...5..171M
1666:1999GMS...112....1T
1573:2023JGRC..12819310N
1516:10.1038/ncomms12577
1508:2016NatCo...712577W
1443:2020SciA....6.2516M
1396:2008GeoRL..35.7606T
1355:1998AnGla..27..420M
1298:2018NatSR...8.8830R
1224:1961DSR.....8...39W
973:2019Natur.568...34D
892:2005JPO....35..545P
871:Primeau, F (2005).
792:2003Natur.421..699R
669:Southern Hemisphere
657:Greenland ice sheet
484:geostrophic current
459:evaporative cooling
330:evaporative cooling
232:suggested that the
216:History of research
206:ocean deoxygenation
174:Northern Hemisphere
4965:Seafloor spreading
4955:Outer trench swell
4920:Divergent boundary
4820:Continental margin
4805:Carbonate platform
4702:Lunitidal interval
3978:South Pacific Gyre
3973:North Pacific Gyre
3853:Equatorial Counter
3757:Equatorial Counter
3476:Mathematical model
3411:Cryospheric models
3354:Chemical transport
2896:THOR FP7 projects
2858:10.1175/JCLI3436.1
2837:Journal of Climate
2816:. Academic Press.
2100:(6611): eabn7950.
2030:(9): e2017989118.
1809:Journal of Climate
1674:10.1029/GM112p0001
1286:Scientific Reports
927:The New York Times
533:
442:
298:
234:convection of heat
226:
41:
27:
5382:
5381:
5374:Oceans portal
5334:World Ocean Atlas
5324:Underwater glider
5267:Ocean temperature
4930:Hydrothermal vent
4895:Submarine volcano
4830:Continental shelf
4810:Coastal geography
4800:Bathymetric chart
4682:Amphidromic point
4370:Wave nonlinearity
4228:Infragravity wave
4113:
4112:
4106:Oceans portal
4012:
4011:
3958:Indian Ocean Gyre
3937:
3936:
3499:
3498:
3481:Statistical model
3467:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3023:
3022:
2965:Cryospheric model
2955:Atmospheric model
2870:. Prentice Hall.
2812:Apel, JR (1987).
2576:(7954): 841–847.
1752:Nature Geoscience
1710:978-0-691-14354-5
1212:Deep-Sea Research
1196:978-3-642-23449-1
1012:(5596): 1179–81.
900:10.1175/JPO2699.1
433:
198:Marine ecosystems
56:density gradients
52:ocean circulation
36:
5407:
5372:
5371:
5360:
5359:
5350:
5349:
5289:Pelagic sediment
5227:Marine pollution
5021:Deep ocean water
4890:Submarine canyon
4825:Continental rise
4717:Rule of twelfths
4632:Sverdrup balance
4562:Humboldt Current
4487:Boundary current
4462:
4451:
4268:Radiation stress
4238:Iribarren number
4213:Equatorial waves
4168:Ballantine scale
4163:Airy wave theory
4140:
4133:
4126:
4117:
4116:
4104:
4103:
4093:
4092:
4029:Boundary current
3948:
3947:
3903:South Equatorial
3888:North Korea Cold
3883:North Equatorial
3797:South Equatorial
3787:North Madagascar
3726:West Spitsbergen
3716:South Equatorial
3696:North Equatorial
3550:
3549:
3526:
3519:
3512:
3503:
3502:
3040:
3039:
3029:
3028:
2941:
2940:
2928:
2921:
2914:
2905:
2904:
2881:
2862:
2860:
2827:
2799:
2798:
2788:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2732:
2723:
2722:
2712:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2658:
2648:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2548:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2468:Fox-Kemper, B.;
2465:
2456:
2455:
2445:
2409:
2403:
2402:
2400:
2398:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2279:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2252:
2227:(26): eaaz4876.
2221:Science Advances
2212:
2203:
2184:
2173:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2153:
2144:
2143:
2117:
2085:
2076:
2075:
2065:
2047:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1990:
1973:(8): 5336–5375.
1958:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1909:
1903:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1852:(5777): 1146–8.
1841:
1835:
1834:
1832:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1772:10.1038/ngeo1391
1743:
1737:
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1730:
1722:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1653:
1647:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1552:
1546:
1545:
1535:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1470:
1437:(18): eaav2516.
1431:Science Advances
1422:
1416:
1415:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1317:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1184:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1151:
1142:
1136:
1135:
1130:. Archived from
1119:
1113:
1112:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1084:
1075:
1074:
1073:. 29 March 2023.
1063:
1057:
1056:
1053:The Conversation
1044:
1038:
1037:
1001:
995:
994:
984:
952:
946:
945:
943:
941:
918:
912:
911:
877:
868:
862:
861:
856:. Archived from
846:
837:
836:
828:
822:
821:
803:
777:
768:
746:
731:
710:
693:
688:
687:
498:radiation budget
476:Wallace Broecker
434:
259:diapycnal mixing
76:
62:. The adjective
37:
5415:
5414:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5406:
5405:
5404:
5385:
5384:
5383:
5378:
5366:
5338:
5177:
5151:
5113:
5094:Sea-level curve
5065:
5004:
4990:Transform fault
4940:Mid-ocean ridge
4906:
4899:
4865:Oceanic plateau
4771:
4757:Tidal resonance
4727:Theory of tides
4668:
4577:Longshore drift
4527:Ekman transport
4463:
4457:
4456:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4443:
4395:Wave turbulence
4328:Trochoidal wave
4253:Longshore drift
4149:
4144:
4114:
4109:
4098:
4087:
4080:
4039:Ekman transport
4008:
3982:
3933:
3912:
3848:East Korea Warm
3843:East Australian
3806:
3802:West Australian
3752:East Madagascar
3730:
3579:
3565:North Icelandic
3539:
3530:
3500:
3495:
3459:
3422:
3406:
3380:
3349:
3263:
3214:
3156:
3094:
3034:
3033:Specific models
3019:
3015:Parametrization
2946:
2935:
2932:
2888:
2878:
2843:(14): 2604–16.
2824:
2808:
2803:
2802:
2749:
2745:
2733:
2726:
2676:
2672:
2617:
2613:
2566:
2562:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2466:
2459:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2394:
2384:
2380:
2351:(10): 854–860.
2339:
2335:
2320:
2316:
2311:on 18 May 2015.
2301:
2297:
2277:
2270:
2266:
2213:
2206:
2185:
2176:
2166:
2164:
2154:
2147:
2086:
2079:
2016:
2012:
1959:
1955:
1910:
1906:
1885:
1881:
1842:
1838:
1815:(16): 3433–43.
1801:
1797:
1790:www.rapid.ac.uk
1784:
1783:
1779:
1744:
1740:
1724:
1723:
1711:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1654:
1650:
1641:Wayback Machine
1632:
1628:
1616:
1609:Wayback Machine
1600:
1596:
1553:
1549:
1488:
1484:
1423:
1419:
1376:
1372:
1335:
1331:
1278:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1253:
1251:Nature Magazine
1243:
1239:
1208:
1204:
1197:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1120:
1116:
1101:
1097:
1085:
1078:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1045:
1041:
1002:
998:
953:
949:
939:
937:
919:
915:
875:
869:
865:
848:
847:
840:
829:
825:
801:10.1038/421699a
775:
769:
758:
753:
744:
729:
708:
689:
682:
679:
674:
673:
621:ozone depletion
612:
604:
599:
598:
595:U.S. East Coast
575:
567:
566:
541:
521:
493:
467:
424:
406:brine rejection
365:katabatic winds
338:submarine sills
287:
238:Johan Sandström
218:
74:
29:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5413:
5403:
5402:
5397:
5380:
5379:
5377:
5376:
5364:
5354:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5314:Stratification
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5285:
5284:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5206:
5204:Color of water
5201:
5199:Benthic lander
5196:
5191:
5185:
5183:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5159:
5157:
5153:
5152:
5150:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5123:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5112:
5111:
5106:
5104:Sea level rise
5101:
5099:Sea level drop
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5075:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4935:Marine geology
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4911:
4909:
4901:
4900:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4875:Passive margin
4872:
4870:Oceanic trench
4867:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4781:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4678:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4634:
4629:
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4602:Ocean dynamics
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4492:Coriolis force
4489:
4484:
4479:
4473:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4446:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4412:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4341:
4340:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4313:Stokes problem
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4248:Kinematic wave
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4159:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4143:
4142:
4135:
4128:
4120:
4111:
4110:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4078:
4073:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4064:North Atlantic
4061:
4056:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4034:Coriolis force
4031:
4026:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3954:
3952:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3932:
3931:
3929:Tasman Outflow
3926:
3920:
3918:
3917:Southern Ocean
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3762:Indian Monsoon
3759:
3754:
3749:
3747:Agulhas Return
3744:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3723:
3721:West Greenland
3718:
3713:
3711:South Atlantic
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3686:North Atlantic
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3636:East Greenland
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3587:
3585:
3584:Atlantic Ocean
3581:
3580:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3560:East Greenland
3556:
3554:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3533:Ocean currents
3529:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3506:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3388:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3188:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3151:
3146:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3102:
3100:
3099:Global weather
3096:
3095:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3046:
3044:
3036:
3035:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2937:
2936:
2931:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2894:
2887:
2886:External links
2884:
2883:
2882:
2876:
2863:
2828:
2822:
2807:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2743:
2724:
2670:
2611:
2560:
2503:
2496:
2457:
2404:
2378:
2333:
2314:
2295:
2264:
2204:
2174:
2145:
2077:
2010:
1953:
1924:(1): 1299910.
1904:
1879:
1836:
1795:
1777:
1738:
1709:
1689:
1682:
1648:
1626:
1594:
1547:
1482:
1417:
1370:
1329:
1272:
1263:
1237:
1202:
1195:
1181:Ocean Dynamics
1169:
1162:
1137:
1114:
1095:
1076:
1058:
1039:
996:
947:
913:
863:
838:
823:
755:
754:
752:
749:
748:
747:
738:
732:
723:
717:
711:
702:
695:
694:
678:
675:
647:sea level rise
633:Climate models
613:
605:
603:
600:
576:
568:
542:
534:
520:
517:
492:
489:
466:
463:
375:away, opening
361:Southern Ocean
354:abyssal plains
304:, such as the
286:
283:
246:thermal energy
230:oceanographers
217:
214:
210:sea level rise
178:climate change
122:of the Earth.
112:Southern Ocean
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5412:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5392:
5390:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5363:
5355:
5353:
5345:
5344:
5341:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5283:
5280:
5279:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5222:Marine energy
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5189:Acidification
5187:
5186:
5184:
5180:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5154:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5142:SOFAR channel
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5116:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5068:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5007:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4950:Oceanic crust
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4925:Fracture zone
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4902:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4860:Oceanic basin
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4790:Abyssal plain
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4774:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4697:Internal tide
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4675:
4671:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4592:Ocean current
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4461:
4450:
4438:
4435:
4434:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4390:Wave shoaling
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4350:Ursell number
4348:
4346:
4343:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4233:Internal wave
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4183:Breaking wave
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4136:
4134:
4129:
4127:
4122:
4121:
4118:
4108:
4107:
4102:
4096:
4091:
4083:
4077:
4074:
4070:
4069:South Pacific
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4054:Great Pacific
4052:
4051:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4044:Marine debris
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3994:Beaufort Gyre
3992:
3991:
3989:
3985:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3940:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3893:North Pacific
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3811:Pacific Ocean
3809:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
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3750:
3748:
3745:
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3740:
3739:
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3733:
3727:
3724:
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3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
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3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
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3659:
3657:
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3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3606:Baffin Island
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3573:
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3508:
3507:
3504:
3492:
3489:
3487:
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3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3470:
3456:
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3441:
3438:
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3432:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3419:
3416:
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3413:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3387:
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3377:
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3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3217:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3159:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
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3112:
3109:
3107:
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3066:
3063:
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3058:
3056:
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3047:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3030:
3026:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2970:Climate model
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2942:
2938:
2929:
2924:
2922:
2917:
2915:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2899:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2879:
2877:0-13-238155-9
2873:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2823:0-12-058866-8
2819:
2815:
2810:
2809:
2806:Other sources
2796:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2747:
2739:
2731:
2729:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2615:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
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2587:
2583:
2579:
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2522:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2499:
2497:9781009157896
2493:
2489:
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2480:
2475:
2471:
2464:
2462:
2453:
2449:
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2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2393:
2389:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2276:
2268:
2260:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2209:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2150:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2082:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:(3): 171–80.
1757:
1753:
1749:
1742:
1734:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1693:
1685:
1683:0-87590-095-X
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1635:
1630:
1623:
1622:public domain
1613:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1276:
1267:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1198:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1182:
1173:
1165:
1163:0-444-52747-8
1159:
1155:
1148:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1091:
1083:
1081:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1000:
992:
988:
983:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
951:
936:
932:
928:
924:
917:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
886:(4): 545–64.
885:
881:
874:
867:
859:
855:
851:
845:
843:
834:
827:
819:
815:
811:
807:
802:
797:
793:
789:
786:(6924): 699.
785:
781:
774:
767:
765:
763:
761:
756:
742:
739:
736:
733:
727:
724:
721:
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715:
712:
706:
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700:
697:
696:
692:
691:Oceans portal
686:
681:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
648:
643:
639:
634:
630:
626:
625:precipitation
622:
618:
610:
596:
592:
590:
586:
585:Younger Dryas
582:
573:
563:
558:
554:
552:
547:
544:In 2021, the
539:
530:
525:
516:
514:
513:Younger Dryas
510:
506:
501:
499:
488:
485:
479:
477:
473:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
439:
422:
420:
415:
411:
407:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
357:
355:
351:
350:Bering Strait
347:
343:
340:that connect
339:
335:
334:Norwegian Sea
331:
327:
323:
322:precipitation
319:
315:
314:Henry Stommel
311:
307:
303:
296:
291:
282:
279:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
222:
213:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
194:precipitation
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
78:referring to
77:
71:
70:
66:derives from
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
23:
19:
5329:Water column
5277:Oceanography
5252:Observations
5247:Explorations
5217:Marginal sea
5210:
5168:OSTM/Jason-2
5000:Volcanic arc
4975:Slab suction
4692:Head of tide
4636:
4582:Loop Current
4522:Ekman spiral
4308:Stokes drift
4218:Gravity wave
4193:Cnoidal wave
4097:
4086:
4075:
4059:Indian Ocean
4004:Weddell Gyre
3908:Tasman Front
3735:Indian Ocean
3691:North Brazil
3641:East Iceland
3553:Arctic Ocean
3427:Discontinued
3300:DISPERSION21
2867:
2840:
2836:
2813:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2710:10150/622754
2684:
2680:
2673:
2628:
2624:
2614:
2573:
2569:
2563:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2478:
2470:Hewitt, H.T.
2417:
2413:
2407:
2395:. Retrieved
2381:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2327:
2317:
2309:the original
2298:
2281:
2267:
2224:
2220:
2165:. Retrieved
2161:
2115:10871/131584
2097:
2093:
2027:
2023:
2013:
1970:
1966:
1956:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1886:IPCC, 2019:
1882:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1812:
1808:
1798:
1789:
1780:
1755:
1751:
1741:
1699:
1692:
1657:
1651:
1644:
1629:
1611:
1597:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1502:(1): 12577.
1499:
1495:
1485:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1387:
1383:
1373:
1346:
1342:
1332:
1289:
1285:
1275:
1266:
1254:. Retrieved
1240:
1218:(1): 39–64.
1215:
1211:
1205:
1180:
1172:
1153:
1140:
1132:the original
1117:
1098:
1061:
1042:
1009:
1005:
999:
967:(7750): 34.
964:
960:
950:
938:. Retrieved
926:
916:
883:
879:
866:
858:the original
832:
826:
783:
779:
665:paleoclimate
640:in even the
614:
577:
543:
509:deglaciation
505:Lake Agassiz
502:
494:
480:
468:
443:
418:
393:Cape Darnley
389:Adélie Coast
358:
302:water masses
299:
263:
227:
165:
161:
153:
147:
143:tidal forces
134:
124:
104:ocean basins
80:salt content
73:
67:
64:thermohaline
63:
47:
43:
42:
18:
5319:Thermocline
5036:Mesopelagic
5009:Ocean zones
4980:Slab window
4845:Hydrography
4785:Abyssal fan
4752:Tidal range
4742:Tidal power
4737:Tidal force
4622:Rip current
4557:Gulf Stream
4517:Ekman layer
4507:Downwelling
4482:Baroclinity
4469:Circulation
4365:Wave height
4355:Wave action
4338:megatsunami
4318:Stokes wave
4278:Rossby wave
4243:Kelvin wave
4223:Green's law
3987:Other gyres
3951:Major gyres
3661:Gulf Stream
3106:IFS (ECMWF)
2945:Model types
2443:1885/274441
1349:: 420–426.
1128:RealClimate
720:Downwelling
663:. There is
419:overturning
410:Weddell Sea
369:ice shelves
326:evaporation
308:(NADW) and
295:(animation)
88:Gulf Stream
5389:Categories
5257:Reanalysis
5156:Satellites
5137:Sofar bomb
4985:Subduction
4960:Ridge push
4855:Ocean bank
4835:Contourite
4762:Tide gauge
4747:Tidal race
4732:Tidal bore
4722:Slack tide
4687:Earth tide
4607:Ocean gyre
4427:Wind setup
4422:Wind fetch
4385:Wave setup
4380:Wave radar
4375:Wave power
4273:Rogue wave
4203:Dispersion
3828:California
3782:Mozambique
3777:Madagascar
3330:PUFF-PLUME
3290:AUSTAL2000
3149:GME / ICON
3116:GEM / GDPS
3065:GFDL CM2.X
2763:(1): 424.
2523:(1): 340.
751:References
714:Contourite
629:westerlies
387:, off the
182:ice sheets
170:Antarctica
168:), around
131:meridional
5119:Acoustics
5071:Sea level
4970:Slab pull
4907:tectonics
4815:Cold seep
4777:Landforms
4654:Whirlpool
4649:Upwelling
4432:Wind wave
4360:Wave base
4288:Sea state
4208:Edge wave
4198:Cross sea
3999:Ross Gyre
3868:Kamchatka
3701:Norwegian
3676:Lomonosov
3631:Caribbean
3626:Cape Horn
3570:Norwegian
3371:GEOS-Chem
2719:133069692
2606:257807573
2452:229063736
2373:237611075
2167:2 October
2140:252161375
2124:0036-8075
2054:0027-8424
2005:199807871
1997:2169-9275
1948:133294706
1727:cite book
1719:695704119
1589:2169-9275
1524:2041-1723
1459:2375-2548
1412:0094-8276
1034:129518576
991:186242350
935:0362-4331
908:130736022
472:upwelling
465:Upwelling
455:Greenland
385:Ross Seas
363:, strong
342:Greenland
285:Structure
274:molecules
202:nutrients
98:(forming
96:latitudes
92:polewards
90:) travel
5352:Category
5304:Seawater
5031:Littoral
5026:Deep sea
4885:Seamount
4767:Tideline
4712:Rip tide
4642:shutdown
4612:Overflow
4345:Undertow
4188:Clapotis
3878:Mindanao
3873:Kuroshio
3858:Humboldt
3838:Davidson
3833:Cromwell
3823:Aleutian
3706:Portugal
3671:Labrador
3666:Irminger
3646:Falkland
3611:Benguela
3596:Antilles
3545:Currents
3340:SAFE AIR
3173:RR / RAP
2795:31969564
2665:31285345
2598:36991191
2555:35039511
2397:23 March
2259:32637596
2132:36074831
2072:33619095
1874:39544213
1866:16728622
1637:Archived
1605:Archived
1542:27552365
1477:32494658
1324:29891855
1292:: 8830.
1256:11 March
1109:ABC News
1026:12424356
810:12610602
677:See also
414:Ross Sea
377:polynyas
278:seawater
266:salinity
139:salinity
5362:Commons
5232:Mooring
5182:Related
5173:Jason-3
5163:Jason-1
5046:Pelagic
5041:Oceanic
5016:Benthic
4333:Tsunami
4303:Soliton
4017:Related
3898:Oyashio
3772:Leeuwin
3742:Agulhas
3651:Florida
3376:CHIMERE
3335:RIMPUFF
3315:MERCURE
3295:CALPUFF
3145:JMA-GSM
3060:HadGEM1
3043:Climate
2845:Bibcode
2786:6976697
2765:Bibcode
2689:Bibcode
2656:6660720
2633:Bibcode
2578:Bibcode
2546:8764023
2525:Bibcode
2422:Bibcode
2353:Bibcode
2250:7319730
2229:Bibcode
2094:Science
2063:7936283
2032:Bibcode
1975:Bibcode
1926:Bibcode
1846:Science
1817:Bibcode
1760:Bibcode
1662:Bibcode
1569:Bibcode
1533:4996980
1504:Bibcode
1468:7195130
1439:Bibcode
1392:Bibcode
1351:Bibcode
1315:5995860
1294:Bibcode
1220:Bibcode
1006:Science
969:Bibcode
888:Bibcode
818:4414604
788:Bibcode
397:polynya
391:and by
381:Weddell
373:sea ice
359:In the
346:Iceland
318:Pa / Th
270:density
120:climate
110:in the
108:upwells
75:-haline
69:thermo-
5051:Photic
4880:Seabed
4293:Seiche
3818:Alaska
3792:Somali
3656:Guinea
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