319:
water to be formed. While this would create a slowdown referenced above, it may also create additional warming. Increased stratification coming from the fresher and warmer waters will reduce bottom and deep-water circulation and increase warm water flows around
Antarctica. The sustained warmer surface waters would only increase the level of ice melt, stratification, and the slowdown of the AABW circulation and formation. Additionally, without the presence of those colder waters producing brine rejection which deposits to the AABW, there may eventually be no formation of bottom water around Antarctica anymore. This would impact more than Antarctica, as AABW plays a major role in bottom water formation and deep-sea circulation, which deposits oxygen to the deep sea and is a major
127:(CDW; salinity > 35 g/kg and potential temperature > 0C). These warm watermasses are cooled by coastal polynyas to form the denser AABW. Coastal polynyas that form AABW help prevent the intruding warm CDW water masses from gaining access to the base of ice shelves, hence acting to protect ice shelves from enhanced basal melting due to oceanic warming. In areas like the Amundsen Sea, where coastal polynya activity has diminished to the point where dense water formation is hindered, the neighboring ice shelves have started to retreat and may be on the brink of collapse.
20:
159:
242:
71:. Since the water mass forms near the surface, it is responsible for the exchange of large quantities of heat and gases with the atmosphere. AABW has a high oxygen content relative to the rest of the oceans' deep waters, but this depletes over time. This water sinks at four distinct regions around the margins of the continent and forms the AABW; this process leads to ventilation of the deep ocean, or
111:
sea ice away from the coast, creating polynyas which opens up the water surface to a cold atmosphere during winter, which further helps form more sea ice. Antarctic coastal polynyas form as much as 10% of the overall
Southern Ocean sea ice during a single season, amounting to about 2,000 km of
318:
While the freshening of the AABW has corrected itself over the past few years with a decrease in ice melt, the potential for more ice melt in the future still poses a threat. With the potential increase in ice melt at extreme-enough levels, it can have a serious impact on the ability for deep sea
306:
coupled with enhanced ice shelf basal melting can impact the formation of dense shelf waters. For surface water to become deep water, it must be very cold and saline. Much of the deep-water formation comes from brine rejection, where the water deposited is extremely saline and cold, making it
55:
from 34.6 to 35.0 g/kg. As the densest water mass of the oceans, AABW is found to occupy the depth range below 4000 m of all ocean basins that have a connection to the
Southern Ocean at that level. AABW forms the lower branch of the large-scale movement in the world's oceans through
130:
Evidence indicates that
Antarctic bottom water production through the Holocene (last 10,000 years) is not in a steady-state condition; that is, bottom water production sites shift along the Antarctic margin over decade-to-century timescales as conditions for the existence of
326:
Some studies indicate that WSBW formation in the
Weddell Sea is dominantly driven by wind-driven sea ice changes, however, and that increased sea ice formation overcompensates for the melting of ice sheets, rendering the effects of melting Antarctic glaciers on WSBW minimal.
1458:
Silvano, A., Rintoul, S. R., Peña-Molino, B., Hobbs, W. R., van Wijk, E., Aoki, S., ... & Williams, G. D. (2018). Freshening by glacial meltwater enhances the melting of ice shelves and reduces the formation of
Antarctic Bottom Water. Science advances, 4(4),
112:
sea ice. Surface water is enriched in salt from sea ice formation and cooled due to being exposed to a cold atmosphere during winter, which increases the density of this water mass. Due to its increased density, it forms overflows down the
Antarctic
462:
Ohshima, Kay I.; Fukamachi, Yasushi; Williams, Guy D.; Nihashi, Sohey; Roquet, Fabien; Kitade, Yujiro; Tamura, Takeshi; Hirano, Daisuke; Herraiz-Borreguero, Laura; Field, Iain; Hindell, Mark; Aoki, Shigeru; Wakatsuchi, Masaaki (March 2013).
1473:
Aoki, S., Yamazaki, K., Hirano, D., Katsumata, K., Shimada, K., Kitade, Y., ... & Murase, H. (2020). Reversal of freshening trend of
Antarctic Bottom Water in the Australian-Antarctic Basin during 2010s. Scientific reports, 10(1),
293:
have slowed the formation of AABW, and this slowdown is likely to continue. A complete shutdown of AABW formation is possible as soon as 2050. This shutdown would have dramatic effects on ocean circulation and global weather patterns.
225:
In the Guiana Basin, west of 40°W, the sloping topography and the strong, eastward flowing deep western boundary current might prevent the
Antarctic bottom water from flowing west: thus it has to turn north at the eastern slope of the
1174:
Harris, P.T.; Brancolini, G.; Armand, L.; Busetti, M.; Beaman, R.J.; Giorgetti, G.; Prestie, M.; Trincardi, F. (2001). "Continental shelf drift deposit indicates non-steady state
Antarctic bottom water production in the Holocene".
307:
extremely dense. The increased ice melt that occurred starting in the early 2000s has created a period of fresher water between 2011-2015 within the bottom water. This has been distinctly prevalent in Antarctic bottom waters near
414:
Portela, Esther; Rintoul, Stephen R.; Herraiz-Borreguero, Laura; Roquet, Fabien; Bestley, Sophie; van Wijk, Esmee; Tamura, Takeshi; McMahon, Clive R.; Guinet, Christophe; Harcourt, Robert; Hindell, Mark A. (December 2022).
839:
Williams, G. D.; Herraiz-Borreguero, L.; Roquet, F.; Tamura, T.; Ohshima, K. I.; Fukamachi, Y.; Fraser, A. D.; Gao, L.; Chen, H.; McMahon, C. R.; Harcourt, R.; Hindell, M. (2016-08-23).
116:
and continues north along the bottom. It is the densest water in the open ocean, and underlies other bottom and intermediate waters throughout most of the southern hemisphere. The
1484:
Zhou, Shenjie; Meijers, Andrew J. S.; Meredith, Michael P.; Abrahamsen, E. Povl; Holland, Paul R.; Silvano, Alessandro; Sallée, Jean-Baptiste; Østerhus, Svein (12 June 2023).
1591:
Fahrbach, E.; Rohardt, G.; Scheele, N.; Schroder, M.; Strass, V.; Wisotzki, A. (1995). "Formation and discharge of deep and bottom water in the northwestern Weddell Sea".
230:. At 44°W, north of the Ceará Rise, Antarctic bottom water flows west in the interior of the basin. A large fraction of the Antarctic bottom water enters the eastern
1387:"Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2 °C global warming could be dangerous"
1385:
Hansen, James; Sato, Makiko; Hearty, Paul; Ruedy, Reto; Kelley, Maxwell; Masson-Delmotte, Valerie; Russell, Gary; Tselioudis, George; Cao, Junji (2016-03-22).
1049:
Broecker, W. S.; Peacock, S. L.; Walker, S.; Weiss, R.; Fahrbach, E.; Schroeder, M.; Mikolajewicz, U.; Heinze, C.; Key, R.; Peng, T.-H.; Rubin, S. (1998).
1139:
Harris, P.T. (2000). "Ripple cross-laminated sediments on the East Antarctic shelf: evidence for episodic bottom water production during the Holocene?".
262:. It takes the Antarctic Bottom Water 23 years to reach the Crozet-Kerguelen Gap. South of Africa, Antarctic bottom water flows northwards through the
139:, which occurred on 12–13 February 2010, dramatically changed the environment for producing bottom water, reducing export by up to 23% in the region of
1542:
275:
107:. An important factor enabling the formation of Antarctic bottom water is the cold surface wind blowing off the Antarctic continent. The surface winds
227:
67:
along the coastline of Antarctica, where high rates of sea ice formation during winter leads to the densification of the surface waters through
215:
323:. Without these connections, the deep sea will become drastically changed with the potential for collapse in entire deep-sea communities.
1338:"Sedimentary deposits on the southern South African continental margin: Slumping versus non-deposition or erosion by oceanic currents?"
155:
suggests that they have switched "on" and "off" again as important bottom water production sites over the last several thousand years.
218:, mainly through the southern half of the Equatorial Channel at 35°W. The other part recirculates and some of it flows through the
1210:
258:, the Crozet–Kerguelen Gap allows Antarctic bottom water to move toward the equator. This northward movement amounts to 2.5
1556:
598:
Talley, Lynne (1999). "Some aspects of ocean heat transport by the shallow, intermediate and deep overturning circulations".
1562:
Seabrooke, James M.; Hufford, Gary L.; Elder, Robert B. (1971). "Formation of Antarctic Bottom Water in the Weddell Sea".
906:"Zonal Distribution of Circumpolar Deep Water Transformation Rates and Its Relation to Heat Content on Antarctic Shelves"
904:
Narayanan, Aditya; Gille, Sarah T.; Mazloff, Matthew R.; du Plessis, Marcel D.; Murali, K.; Roquet, Fabien (June 2023).
1621:
178:
96:
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776:"Warm Circumpolar Deep Water transport toward Antarctica driven by local dense water export in canyons"
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511:
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207:
117:
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1002:"Unavoidable future increase in West Antarctic ice-shelf melting over the twenty-first century"
303:
219:
124:
953:"Coastal Polynyas Enable Transitions Between High and Low West Antarctic Ice Shelf Melt Rates"
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1490:
465:"Antarctic Bottom Water production by intense sea-ice formation in the Cape Darnley polynya"
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Gunn, Kathryn L.; Rintoul, Stephen R.; England, Matthew H.; Bowen, Melissa M. (June 2023).
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476:
428:
356:
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A major source water for the formation of AABW is the warm offshore watermass known as the
8:
841:"The suppression of Antarctic bottom water formation by melting ice shelves in Prydz Bay"
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512:"Coastal polynyas in the southern Weddell Sea: Variability of the surface energy budget"
480:
432:
360:
1486:"Slowdown of Antarctic Bottom Water export driven by climatic wind and sea-ice changes"
1434:
1398:
1297:"The flow of Antarctic bottom water to the southwest Indian Ocean estimated using CFCs"
881:
840:
816:
775:
374:
235:
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559:"Recent reduced abyssal overturning and ventilation in the Australian Antarctic Basin"
392:
345:"Wind– and Sea-Ice–Driven Interannual Variability of Antarctic Bottom Water Formation"
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Tamura, Takeshi; Ohshima, Kay I.; Fraser, Alexander D.; Williams, Guy D. (May 2016).
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641:"The distribution and formative processes of latent heat polynyas in East Antarctica"
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1092:"Impact of the Mertz Glacier Tongue calving on dense water formation and export"
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Cold, dense, water mass originating in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica
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214:, about one-third of the northward flowing Antarctic bottom water enters the
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Schmidt, Christina; Morrison, Adele K.; England, Matthew H. (17 June 2023).
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with temperatures ranging from −0.8 to 2 °C (35 °F) and absolute
1337:
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sediments indicating phases of stronger bottom currents, collected on the
1522:
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Haine, T. W. N.; Watson, A. J.; Liddicoat, M. I.; Dickson, R. R. (1998).
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417:"Controls on Dense Shelf Water Formation in Four East Antarctic Polynyas"
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Morrison, A. K.; Hogg, A. McC.; England, M. H.; Spence, P. (May 2020).
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Naughten, Kaitlin A.; Holland, Paul R.; De Rydt, Jan (November 2023).
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Ocean Currents: A derivative of the Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences,
1403:
951:
Moorman, Ruth; Thompson, Andrew F.; Wilson, Earle A. (2023-08-28).
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88:
23:
AABW is formed in the Southern Ocean from surface water cooling in
1239:"The spreading of Antarctic bottom water in the tropical Atlantic"
211:
132:
100:
64:
24:
1547:
Steele, John H., Steve A. Thorpe and Karl K. Turekian, editors,
903:
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Tamura, Takeshi; Ohshima, Kay I.; Nihashi, Sohey (April 2008).
461:
241:
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729:"Sea ice production variability in Antarctic coastal polynyas"
682:"Mapping of sea ice production for Antarctic coastal polynyas"
602:. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 112. pp. 1–22.
510:
Renfrew, Ian A.; King, John C.; Markus, Thorsten (June 2002).
1483:
1173:
1090:
Kusahara, Kazuya; Hasumi, Hiroyasu; Williams, Guy D. (2011).
600:
Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales
639:
Massom, R.; Michael, K.; Harris, P.T.; Potter, M.J. (1998).
1294:
726:
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773:
638:
206:, is an important conduit for Antarctic Bottom Water and
120:
is the densest component of the Antarctic bottom water.
556:
1089:
1051:"How much deep water is formed in the Southern Ocean?"
999:
342:
162:
Antarctic bottom water flow in the Equatorial Atlantic
143:. Evidence from sediment cores, containing layers of
1561:
1384:
950:
393:"AMS Glossary of Meteorology, Antarctic Bottom Water"
1335:
1233:
679:
83:Antarctic bottom water is created is formed in the
509:
1613:
297:
78:
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1452:
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1237:; Stramma, Lothar; Krahmann, Gerd (1998).
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135:change. For example, the calving of the
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1336:Uenzelmann-Neben, G.; Huhn, K. (2009).
1055:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
910:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
733:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
516:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
421:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
349:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
171:The Vema Channel, a deep trough in the
63:AABW forms near the surface in coastal
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1138:
597:
336:
270:and over the southern margins of the
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210:migrating north. Upon reaching the
13:
289:and the subsequent melting of the
245:Pathways of Antarctic bottom water
14:
1643:
1543:Glossary of Physical Oceanography
1391:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
1213:. American Meteorological Society
395:. American Meteorological Society
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1564:Journal of Geophysical Research
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1301:Journal of Geophysical Research
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1551:Academic Press, 1st ed., 2010
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99:from surface water cooling in
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1276:10.1016/S0967-0637(97)00030-7
1197:10.1016/s0025-3227(01)00183-9
1161:10.1016/s0025-3227(00)00096-7
330:
298:Potential for AABW Disruption
1365:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.07.011
1211:"AMS Glossary, Vema Channel"
957:Geophysical Research Letters
686:Geophysical Research Letters
302:Increased intrusion of warm
7:
666:10.3189/1998aog27-1-420-426
222:into the eastern Atlantic.
10:
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1593:Journal of Marine Research
1513:10.1038/s41558-023-01695-4
1027:10.1038/s41558-023-01818-x
584:10.1038/s41558-023-01667-8
266:and then east through the
1622:Environment of Antarctica
175:of the South Atlantic at
79:Formation and circulation
1605:10.1357/0022240953213089
1422:10.5194/acp-16-3761-2016
1246:Deep-Sea Research Part I
208:Weddell Sea Bottom Water
118:Weddell Sea Bottom Water
58:thermohaline circulation
1584:10.1029/jc076i009p02164
800:10.1126/sciadv.aav2516
304:Circumpolar Deep Water
246:
220:Romanche Fracture Zone
163:
125:circumpolar deep water
33:Antarctic bottom water
28:
1632:Physical oceanography
1491:Nature Climate Change
1096:Nature Communications
1006:Nature Climate Change
845:Nature Communications
563:Nature Climate Change
244:
161:
22:
1307:(C12): 27637–27653.
978:10.1029/2023GL104724
930:10.1029/2022JC019310
753:10.1002/2015JC011537
706:10.1029/2007GL032903
645:Annals of Glaciology
536:10.1029/2000JC000720
441:10.1029/2022JC018804
370:10.1029/2023JC019774
149:Mac. Robertson shelf
1576:1971JGR....76.2164S
1504:2023NatCC..13..701Z
1413:2016ACP....16.3761H
1357:2009MGeol.266...65U
1313:1998JGR...10327637H
1258:1998DSRI...45..507R
1189:2001MGeol.179....1H
1153:2000MGeol.170..317H
1108:2011NatCo...2..159K
1067:1998JGR...10315833B
1061:(C8): 15833–15843.
1018:2023NatCC..13.1222N
969:2023GeoRL..5004724M
922:2023JGRC..12819310N
865:10.1038/ncomms12577
857:2016NatCo...712577W
792:2020SciA....6.2516M
745:2016JGRC..121.2967T
698:2008GeoRL..35.7606T
657:1998AnGla..27..420M
608:1999GMS...112....1T
575:2023NatCC..13..537G
528:2002JGRC..107.3063R
481:2013NatGe...6..235O
433:2022JGRC..12718804P
361:2023JGRC..12819774S
311:, primarily in the
190: /
73:abyssal ventilation
1117:10.1038/ncomms1156
616:10.1029/GM112p0001
291:Southern ice sheet
274:and then into the
247:
236:Vema Fracture Zone
164:
29:
1557:978-0-08-096486-7
1322:10.1029/98JC02476
1076:10.1029/98JC00248
1012:(11): 1222–1228.
469:Nature Geoscience
114:continental slope
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287:Climate change
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282:Climate change
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