Precipitation - Knowledge

1715: mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. These gauges are used in the winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge. Once the snowfall/ice is finished accumulating, or as 30 cm (12 in) is approached, one can either bring it inside to melt, or use lukewarm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall total once all the ice/snow is melted. 2384: 2396:

drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation, more evaporation, or both). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1% per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6% per century) and the South (11.1%). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (−9.25%).

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amount of surface gauge data is very useful for controlling the biases that are endemic to satellite estimates. The difficulties in using gauge data are that 1) their availability is limited, as noted above, and 2) the best analyses of gauge data take two months or more after the observation time to undergo the necessary transmission, assembly, processing and quality control. Thus, precipitation estimates that include gauge data tend to be produced further after the observation time than the no-gauge estimates. As a result, while estimates that include gauge data may provide a more accurate depiction of the "true" precipitation, they are generally not suited for real- or near-real-time applications.

1730:. The wedge and tipping bucket gauges have problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above freezing. Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough 29: 1282: 1842:

channels gives the microwave estimates greater skill on short time and space scales than is true for IR. However, microwave sensors fly only on low Earth orbit satellites, and there are few enough of them that the average time between observations exceeds three hours. This several-hour interval is insufficient to adequately document precipitation because of the transient nature of most precipitation systems as well as the inability of a single satellite to appropriately capture the typical daily cycle of precipitation at a given location.

1910: 1805:(IR) sensors record a channel around 11 micron wavelength and primarily give information about cloud tops. Due to the typical structure of the atmosphere, cloud-top temperatures are approximately inversely related to cloud-top heights, meaning colder clouds almost always occur at higher altitudes. Further, cloud tops with a lot of small-scale variation are likely to be more vigorous than smooth-topped clouds. Various mathematical schemes, or algorithms, use these and other properties to estimate precipitation from the IR data. 850: 1055: 1302:. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground. Guinness World Records list the world's largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at 2349: 1177:, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration. Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops. The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA. 1169:. The fall rate of very small droplets is negligible, hence clouds do not fall out of the sky; precipitation will only occur when these coalesce into larger drops. droplets with different size will have different terminal velocity that cause droplets collision and producing larger droplets, Turbulence will enhance the collision process. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. 1155: 1519: 1192: 1687: 1586: 1393: 1314:

common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two snowflakes are alike, as they grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere through which they fall on their way to the ground. The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers are coded SHSN.

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temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.

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grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.

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precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. In 2018, a study assessing changes in precipitation across spatial scales using a high-resolution global precipitation dataset of over 33+ years, concluded that "While there are regional trends, there is no evidence of increase in precipitation at the global scale in response to the observed global warming."

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millimetres (0.25 in). GR is derived from the French word grêle. Smaller-sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grésil. Stones just larger than golf ball-sized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes. Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 500 grams (1 lb). In large hailstones,

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subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones. Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees from the equator.

914:, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). 926:

three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle that freezes on contact within a subfreezing

1477:, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second-highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 millimetres (460 in). Storm systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward ( 2301: 96:.) Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated with water vapor: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called 2288:

of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of western and southern Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. A steppe is a dry grassland. Subarctic climates are cold with continuous

1380:. A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low-pressure areas. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies other than Earth. When it gets cold, 1857:

The work described has resulted in a variety of datasets possessing different formats, time/space grids, periods of record and regions of coverage, input datasets, and analysis procedures, as well as many different forms of dataset version designators. In many cases, one of the modern multi-satellite

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measurement in millimeters like for liquid precipitation. The relationship between snow height and water equivalent depends on the water content of the snow; the water equivalent can thus only provide a rough estimate of snow depth. Other forms of solid precipitation, such as snow pellets and hail or

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An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round. The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate

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In other cases, the goal is producing the best instantaneous satellite estimate, which is the High Resolution Precipitation Product approach. In either case, of course, the less-emphasized goal is also considered desirable. One key result of the multi-satellite studies is that including even a small

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Earth orbit. IR works best in cases of deep, vigorous convection—such as the tropics—and becomes progressively less useful in areas where stratiform (layered) precipitation dominates, especially in mid- and high-latitude regions. The more-direct physical connection between hydrometeors and microwave

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Additional sensor channels and products have been demonstrated to provide additional useful information including visible channels, additional IR channels, water vapor channels and atmospheric sounding retrievals. However, most precipitation data sets in current use do not employ these data sources.

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Although surface precipitation gauges are considered the standard for measuring precipitation, there are many areas in which their use is not feasible. This includes the vast expanses of ocean and remote land areas. In other cases, social, technical or administrative issues prevent the dissemination

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released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to

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The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion, precipitation or virga falling from above, daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land, transpiration from plants, cool or dry air moving over warmer water, and

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In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries

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The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and

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Diamond dust, also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching −40 °C (−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air. They are made of simple ice crystals, hexagonal in shape. The METAR identifier for diamond

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rainfall. Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation. Precipitation can be divided into

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activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 32 and 64 kilometres (20 and 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind. Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of

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describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible

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Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air exists with sub-freezing air both above and below. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets.

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The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area. A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF

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part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequencies in use range from about 10 gigahertz to a few hundred GHz. Channels up to about 37 GHz primarily provide information on the liquid hydrometeors (rain and drizzle) in the lower parts of clouds, with larger amounts of liquid emitting higher

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move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season. When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves, and vegetation

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of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles. The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry—triangular snowflakes. The most

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blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more. Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4

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Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere). Although

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on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year: 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) over oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the

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Each region of the world is going to have changes in precipitation due to their unique conditions. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become

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if significant precipitation is involved. Eventually, the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects. Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for example due to water evaporation from lakes,

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Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little

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located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia. The humid

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The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 10 cm (3.9 in) plastic and 20 cm (7.9 in) metal varieties. The inner cylinder is filled by 2.5 cm (0.98 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder.

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In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a

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bands. Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 °C or 23 °F) between the water surface and the air above. Because of this

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Since the late 1990s, several algorithms have been developed to combine precipitation data from multiple satellites' sensors, seeking to emphasize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of the individual input data sets. The goal is to provide "best" estimates of precipitation on a uniform

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can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone

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Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. Precipitation has generally increased over land north of 30°N from 1900 to 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in

2465:. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail. Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States. 1219:

However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a

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describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The term

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into the Rocky Mountains lead to the wettest, and at elevation snowiest, locations within North America. In Asia during the wet season, the flow of moist air into the Himalayas leads to some of the greatest rainfall amounts measured on Earth in northeast India.

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regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the

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or sleet are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. Ice pellets are usually (but not always) smaller than hailstones. They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with

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Raindrops have sizes ranging from 5.1 to 20 millimetres (0.20 to 0.79 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more

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appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs. Graupel and hail indicate convection. In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as

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is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the focus for forcing moist air to rise. Provided there is necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely

1106:). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of 1070:

such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. The cloud condensation nuclei concentration will determine the cloud microphysics. An elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form cloud decks such as

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A significant portion of the annual precipitation in any particular place (no weather station in Africa or South America were considered) falls on only a few days, typically about 50% during the 12 days with the most precipitation.

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rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth. Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain

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Benmoshe, N.; Pinsky, M.; Pokrovsky, A.; Khain, A. (2012-03-27). "Turbulent effects on the microphysics and initiation of warm rain in deep convective clouds: 2-D simulations by a spectral mixed-phase microphysics cloud model".

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is usually used to measure the amount of solid precipitation. Snowfall is usually measured in centimeters by letting snow fall into a container and then measure the height. The snow can then optionally be melted to obtain a

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that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed by the low temperature into clouds and rain. This process is typically active when freezing rain occurs. A

1411:. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the 1789:

that theory and practice show are related to the occurrence and intensity of precipitation. The sensors are almost exclusively passive, recording what they see, similar to a camera, in contrast to active sensors

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where precipitation is low; the land surface underneath these ridges is usually arid, and these regions make up most of the Earth's deserts. An exception to this rule is in Hawaii, where upslope flow due to the

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sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. Most precipitation occurs within the tropics and is caused by

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environment. Because water droplets are more numerous than the ice crystals the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the

1424:, and warm fronts. Convective precipitation mostly consist of mesoscale convective systems and they produce torrential rainfalls with thunderstorms, wind damages, and other forms of severe weather events. 5455: 1753:

A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor. Any particulates of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors. Formations due to condensation, such as clouds,

1504:. Similarly, in Asia, the Himalaya mountains create an obstacle to monsoons which leads to extremely high precipitation on the southern side and lower precipitation levels on the northern side. 2279:

Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in). A tropical savanna is a grassland

1817:. Channels above 37 GHz display emission signals, but are dominated by the action of solid hydrometeors (snow, graupel, etc.) to scatter microwave radiant energy. Satellites such as the 1537:

is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and produces precipitation within an elongated band, which is wide and

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is the temperature to which a parcel of air must be cooled in order to become saturated, and (unless super-saturation occurs) condenses to water. Water vapor normally begins to condense on

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A.J. Dore; M. Mousavi-Baygi; R.I. Smith; J. Hall; D. Fowler; T.W. Choularton (June 2006). "A model of annual orographic precipitation and acid deposition and its application to Snowdonia".

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Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward (upwind) side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in

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warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 °C (1.1 to 10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and

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When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as

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In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina. The

1458:), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see 32:

Countries by average annual precipitation. Some parts of a country can be much wetter than others, so it is not an accurate depiction of the wettest and driest places on earth.

5515: 1761:, which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles blown from the Earth's surface by wind, such as blowing snow and blowing sea spray, are also 5754: 4068: 178:

globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in), but over land it is only 715 millimetres (28.1 in). Climate classification systems such as the

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even sleet (rain and snow mixed), can also be melted and measured as their respective water equivalents, usually expressed in millimeters as for liquid precipitation.

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or frequency. The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historical data for the location. The term

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are not precipitation; their water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate, so fog and mist do not fall. (Such a non-precipitating combination is a

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Adler, Robert F.; et al. (December 2003). "The Version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) Monthly Precipitation Analysis (1979–Present)".

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have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.

2986: 1650:. Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth. North and south of this are regions of descending air that form 6360:"Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (QPF) from Weather Prediction Models and Radar Nowcasts, and Atmospheric Hydrological Modelling for Flood Simulation" 5697: 1549:. In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north. Within the Southern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the South Pole, or south. 1738: 1309:

Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to

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The IR estimates have rather low skill at short time and space scales, but are available very frequently (15 minutes or more often) from satellites in

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is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of

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is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.

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Nguyen, Phu; Thorstensen, Andrea; Sorooshian, Soroosh; Hsu, Kuolin; Aghakouchak, Amir; Ashouri, Hamed; Tran, Hoang; Braithwaite, Dan (2018-04-01).

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time/space grid, usually for as much of the globe as possible. In some cases the long-term homogeneity of the dataset is emphasized, which is the

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The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. The term

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Occult deposition occurs when mist or air that is highly saturated with water vapour interacts with the leaves of trees or shrubs it passes over.

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can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph), (sometimes referred to as

3548: 3388: 3252: 2334: 4329: 3326: 1306:, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 in) wide. The exact details of the sticking mechanism remain a subject of research. 1165:

occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the

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and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within

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is already causing changes to weather, increasing precipitation in some geographies, and reducing it in others, resulting in additional

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Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow

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clouds. When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated

5523: 5153: 2932: 5762: 4076: 1014:. In Australia before metrication, rainfall was also measured in "points", each of which was defined as one-hundredth of an inch. 4896:"The significance of socio-economic characteristics for adult seasonal body-weight fluctuations: a study in north-western Benin" 2383: 1538: 6875: 6417: 5278: 5022: 3149: 2777: 5459: 5235: 4859: 6566: 5995: 5823: 5798: 4869: 4547: 4432: 4395: 4306: 4215: 3954: 3630: 3511: 3368: 2969: 2942: 2713: 2454: 4274: 2481:

than model forecasts within six to seven hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of

1757:, fog, and mist, are composed of hydrometeors. All precipitation types are made up of hydrometeors by definition, including 4940:"Subject: D3 - Why do tropical cyclones' winds rotate counter-clockwise (clockwise) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere?" 4820:"Seasonal Variations of Physico-chemical Characteristics in Water Resources Quality in Western Niger Delta Region, Nigeria" 4359: 3037: 2489:

estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.

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of gauge observations. As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.

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cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the

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Half of annual precipitation falls in the wettest 12 days each year in the median across observing stations worldwide.

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require small amounts of water, while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.

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On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics, closely tied to the

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Van Liere, Marti J.; Ategbo, Eric-Alain D.; Hoorweg, Jan; Den Hartog, Adel P.; Hautvast, Joseph G. A. J. (1994).

4675: 4270: 4072: 3743: 3664: 3507: 3226: 3175: 3066: 2566: 3843: 3818: 3610: 3583: 2648: 2592: 6781: 5705: 3093:"Factors Determining the Impact of Aerosols on Surface Precipitation from Clouds: An Attempt at Classification" 2852:"A convective/stratiform precipitation classification algorithm for volume scanning weather radar observations" 1643: 1611: 155: 20: 1705: mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 6613: 6581: 6528: 6176:"Quantitative Precipitation Forecast: Its Generation and Verification at the Southeast River Forecast Center" 5018: 664: 3770:"P9.5 Evaluation of an Alberta Hail Growth Model Using Severe Hail Proximity Soundings in the United States" 3626: 1090:

There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling,

4424: 2474: 2466: 2461:

valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800

2440: 2361: 5652: 5424:

F.J. Tapiador; et al. (2012). "Global Precipitation Measurement Methods, Datasets and Applications".

3179: 1489:

and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.

1485:) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast 80:. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor (reaching 100% 6842: 6186: 6141: 5387: 4570: 4240: 4134: 4006: 2856: 2228:

E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as

5360: 4010: 6776: 6533: 4819: 4777: 4773:

The sources and characteristics of atmospheric particulates during the wet and dry seasons in Hong Kong

2801: 2498: 1637: 1357: 826: 5731: 5493: 4967: 2570: 6756: 6690: 6518: 4963: 4943: 4679: 2731: 2639: 2330: 2176: 2167: 2136: 2127: 2096: 2087: 2056: 2025: 1723: 1162: 1067: 831: 6366: 5938: 4623:"Atmospheric Circulation Patterns Associated With Heavy Snowfall Events, Bridger Bowl, Montana, USA" 6623: 6475: 6218: 6114: 5303: 5206: 5178: 5128: 4514: 4244: 3697: 3384: 3287: 2990: 2470: 1941: 1932: 1786: 1010:), which is acceptable for most practical purposes. The corresponding English unit used is usually 6255: 4653: 3977: 6824: 6746: 5934: 3392: 3070: 821: 5987: 4183: 3555: 3263: 1872:

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the

6865: 6678: 6638: 6591: 6576: 6558: 5790: 5784: 3333: 2634: 1474: 690: 97: 4537: 3718: 2959: 2541:, an informal meteorological term for various mixtures of rain, freezing rain, sleet and snow. 6725: 6618: 6608: 6571: 6182: 5900: 5186: 4789: 4187: 3944: 3747: 3358: 2678: 2253: 2012: 2003: 1994: 1526: 1028: 930:

is called "freezing rain" or "freezing drizzle". Frozen forms of precipitation include snow,

871: 685: 443: 367: 130: 6278:"Sensitivity of quantitative precipitation forecast to height dependent changes in humidity" 4600: 4109: 3668: 2747: 1384:

has precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.

1293:

cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the

182:

system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.

28: 6804: 6771: 6673: 6668: 6633: 6330: 6289: 6275: 6248:"Optimization of quantitative precipitation forecast time horizons used in river forecasts" 6153: 6044: 5983: 5623: 5579: 5429: 5396: 5182: 5132: 5071: 4781: 4518: 4208: 4146: 3830: 3769: 3597: 3448: 3104: 2902: 2865: 2743: 2626: 1801:

Satellite sensors now in practical use for precipitation fall into two categories. Thermal

1493: 1451: 1377: 1111: 803: 401: 52:

that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. The main forms of precipitation include

6089: 5908: 5849: 5115: 5051: 5030: 4797: 3867: 2730:

Graves, S. D. B.; McKay, C. P.; Griffith, C. A.; Ferri, F.; Fulchignoni, M. (2008-03-01).

8: 6766: 6751: 5964: 4455: 3919: 2503: 1847: 1437: 1281: 1254: 983: 963: 897: 798: 695: 634: 460: 61: 6334: 6319:"Probabilistic Quantitative Precipitation Forecast for Flood Prediction: An Application" 6293: 6048: 5627: 5583: 5433: 5400: 4785: 4727: 4522: 4150: 3834: 3601: 3452: 3417: 3108: 2906: 2869: 2630: 2366:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

1785:

Satellite sensors work by remotely sensing precipitation—recording various parts of the

6538: 5701: 5671: 5157: 4645: 4459: 3689: 3291: 3130: 2652: 1923: 1727: 1530: 1310: 975: 470: 448: 355: 316: 113: 5545: 5210: 4480: 4337: 3627:"An ingredients based methodology for forecasting precipitation associated with MCS's" 6819: 6715: 6603: 6445: 6276:

Christian Keil; Andreas Röpnack; George C. Craig & Ulrich Schumann (2008-12-31).

6070: 6062: 5991: 5960: 5794: 5726: 5641: 5282: 4917: 4865: 4834: 4543: 4481:"Hurricane Force Extratropical Cyclones Observed Using QuikSCAT Near Real Time Winds" 4428: 4391: 4302: 4158: 3950: 3900: 3487: 3464: 3364: 3305: 3122: 2965: 2938: 2759: 2423: 2405: 2387:

Extreme precipitation events have become more common in the U.S. over recent decades.

2261: 2245: 2241: 2194: 2185: 2154: 2145: 2114: 2105: 1981: 1972: 1651: 1408: 1356:

Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in

1107: 1091: 979: 700: 81: 6402: 5177: 3816: 3286: 3134: 2656: 2535:, an unusual meteorological phenomenon in which rain falls while the sun is shining. 1174: 1054: 6338: 6297: 6052: 5631: 5587: 5441: 5437: 5404: 4907: 4637: 4154: 3946:

Hands-on Science: Light, Physical Science (matter) - Chapter 5: The Colors of Light

3838: 3605: 3519: 3456: 3112: 3016: 2914: 2910: 2873: 2751: 2644: 2508: 2415: 2237: 1762: 1580: 1553: 1369: 1166: 864: 578: 465: 377: 220: 122: 108: 5463: 4817: 3793: 1909: 995: 849: 6470: 6365:. Achieving Technological Innovation in Flood Forecasting Project. Archived from 5127: 5078: 5058: 2338: 2249: 2216: 2074: 2065: 2043: 2034: 1433: 1400: 1294: 1103: 922: 771: 546: 249: 194: 187: 6033:"Global Precipitation Trends across Spatial Scales Using Satellite Observations" 4992: 4793: 4363: 3483: 3201: 2300: 6761: 5543: 2699:

Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Zhang, Xuebin; Adnan, M.; Badi, W.; et al. (2021).

2538: 2478: 2207: 1963: 1954: 1867: 1838: 1814: 1615: 1459: 1351: 854: 761: 595: 183: 151: 16:

Product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity

5636: 5611: 4749: 3817:

Julian C. Brimelow; Gerhard W. Reuter & Eugene R. Poolman (October 2002).

3584:"Stratiform Precipitation in Regions of Convection: A Meteorological Paradox?" 2878: 2851: 2755: 6859: 6222: 6066: 6057: 6032: 5645: 5351: 4939: 4935: 4838: 3904: 3468: 3126: 2763: 2514: 2486: 2269: 1873: 1501: 1373: 1204: 1102:, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain ( 1080: 1007: 918: 717: 671: 617: 453: 6146:"NASA Satellite Confirms Urban Heat Islands Increase Rainfall Around Cities" 4478: 6720: 6695: 6628: 6505: 6119: 3418:"CHAPTER 8: Introduction to the Hydrosphere (e). Cloud Formation Processes" 2427: 1798:) that send out a signal and detect its impact on the area being observed. 1659:

lead to one of the wettest locations on Earth. Otherwise, the flow of the

1542: 1404: 1323: 1076: 999: 991: 931: 607: 531: 362: 198: 117: 45: 5328: 4921: 4857: 3117: 3092: 2892: 1886:

though unlikely to have two "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.

1002:

expressed in kg/m, if assuming that 1 liter of water has a mass of 1

6809: 6648: 6548: 6343: 6318: 6302: 6277: 5592: 5567: 5092:"USGS 220427159300201 1047.0 Mt. Waialeale Rain Gage nr Lihue, Kauai, HI" 3460: 2229: 1677: 1647: 1497: 1486: 1463: 1421: 1263: 1250: 1199: 1186: 1142: 1132: 1072: 911: 756: 644: 639: 602: 551: 482: 428: 384: 372: 321: 174: 170: 134: 69: 49: 37: 4912: 4895: 3549:"Rainstorm characteristics affecting water availability for agriculture" 1825:(GPM) mission employ microwave sensors to form precipitation estimates. 1154: 6814: 6786: 6700: 6495: 6480: 6460: 4705: 4649: 2482: 2289: 1681: 1673: 1660: 1656: 1570: 1534: 1522:

Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula in early December 2008

1518: 1455: 1417: 1365: 1361: 1303: 1224: 1223:

during the cold season, but can occasionally be found behind a passing

1220: 1099: 1023: 967: 959: 935: 751: 734: 676: 624: 487: 423: 418: 411: 338: 333: 291: 279: 159: 147: 6393:

Current global map of predicted precipitation for the next three hours

6074: 2701:"Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate" 2304:

Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from

1191: 6656: 6485: 6465: 6450: 5454: 5279:"Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment Program" 5111: 4997: 2672: 2532: 2522: 1809: 1290: 1276: 1063: 746: 741: 536: 526: 438: 406: 389: 350: 328: 284: 5409: 5382: 4641: 1533:

in Europe). The band of precipitation that is associated with their

193:

Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies. Saturn's largest

6834: 6796: 6710: 6455: 1802: 1686: 1546: 1392: 1003: 927: 541: 163: 142: 103: 5565: 3383: 2418:, showing temperature distribution, with hot areas appearing white 2410: 958:

Rainfall (including drizzle and rain) is usually measured using a

84:), so that the water condenses and "precipitates" or falls. Thus, 6705: 5257:"Community Collaborative Rain, Hail & Snow Network Main Page" 4818:

S. I. Efe; F. E. Ogban; M. J. Horsfall; E. E. Akporhonor (2005).

4511:

Three-Dimensional Kinematics of Rainbands in Midlatitude Cyclones

3791: 3658: 2596: 2518: 2233: 1624: 1606: 1602: 1585: 1576: 1442: 1412: 1258: 943: 707: 585: 573: 521: 504: 475: 433: 396: 343: 272: 228: 206: 202: 126: 93: 73: 53: 5081:

Oracle ThinkQuest Education Foundation. Retrieved on 2009-02-16.

4893: 1462:) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a 1403:, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g. 1245:

A large hailstone, about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) in diameter

5843: 5612:"Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification" 4479:

Joan Von Ahn; Joe Sienkiewicz; Greggory McFadden (April 2005).

4357: 3506: 3356: 2526: 2314: 2273: 2265: 2257: 1590: 1470: 1084: 971: 509: 497: 492: 259: 254: 244: 237: 210: 6030: 3324: 2449: 1267:

be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.

1137: 6513: 5017: 4620: 2280: 1795: 1791: 1758: 1742: 1208: 987: 902: 712: 649: 311: 304: 125:

becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold

5357:"NASA and JAXA's GPM Mission Takes Rain Measurements Global" 4003:""No Two Snowflakes the Same" Likely True, Research Reveals" 3484:"Cloud Physics: Collision/Coalescence; The Bergeron Process" 3437: 6490: 6140: 5023:"Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation" 4108:(1). California Institute of Technology: 12. Archived from 3844:

10.1175/1520-0434(2002)017<1048:MMHSIA>2.0.CO;2

3611:

10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<2179:SPIROC>2.0.CO;2

3259: 2649:

10.1175/1525-7541(2003)004<1147:TVGPCP>2.0.CO;2

2477:, basis. Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher 2469:

show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the

1770: 1766: 1754: 1695:

Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to

1513: 1496:

range creates the same effect in North America forming the

1381: 1236: 1098:

occurs when air rises and expands. The air can rise due to

1046: 1011: 939: 729: 629: 612: 590: 516: 89: 77: 65: 57: 5307: 3767: 1731: 1249:

Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when

1241: 917:

Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective,

6523: 5568:"The Uneven Nature of Daily Precipitation and Its Change" 5566:

Angeline G. Pendergrass; Reto Knutti (October 19, 2018).

4962: 4747: 4135:"Wet, occult and dry deposition of pollutants on forests" 2462: 724: 85: 5544:

Boulder Area Sustainability Information Network (2005).

5302: 5205: 3091:

Khain, A. P.; BenMoshe, N.; Pokrovsky, A. (2008-06-01).

2729: 1898: 1631: 1329:

dust within international hourly weather reports is IC.

1141:

Condensation and coalescence are important parts of the

998:, resulting in simply "mm". This also corresponds to an 6316: 6087: 5513: 5483: 5326: 5094:. USGS Real-time rainfall data at Waiʻaleʻale Raingauge 4968:"2005 Tropical Eastern North Pacific Hurricane Outlook" 4858:

C. D. Haynes; M. G. Ridpath; M. A. J. Williams (1991).

4669: 4264: 4066: 3737: 3220: 3169: 3060: 2849: 2778:"Cassini Sees Seasonal Rains Transform Titan's Surface" 5610:

Peel, M. C.; Finlayson, B. L.; McMahon, T. A. (2007).

5256: 4827:

Journal of Applied Scientific Environmental Management

4030: 3150:"Fog And Stratus - Meteorological Physical Background" 3090: 1058:

Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming

6432: 6397: 5899: 5844:

Brynn Schaffner & Kenneth Robinson (2003-06-06).

5782: 5668:"Tropical Broadleaf Evergreen Forest: The Rainforest" 3819:"Modeling Maximum Hail Size in Alberta Thunderstorms" 2930: 2593:"What's the difference between 'rain' and 'showers'?" 1593:

showing the extent of the wet season at that location

6016:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. April 2021. 6001: 5609: 4099:"Morphogenesis on Ice: The Physics of Snow Crystals" 4096: 3975: 986:

of volume of water per collection area, in units of

5380: 5061:

Channel Video Productions. Retrieved on 2007-02-11.

4184:"Convective and stratiform rainfall in the tropics" 3546: 2957: 2399: 4472: 3942: 3581: 3199: 2712:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR6_WG12021 ( 1889: 1376:, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around 6245: 5816:"Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical Climate" 5276: 4956: 2698: 2453:Example of a five-day rainfall forecast from the 1808:The second category of sensor channels is in the 6857: 6010:"Climate Change Indicators: Heavy Precipitation" 5958: 5848:. West Tisbury Elementary School. Archived from 5229: 4725: 4699: 4416: 3917: 3891:M. Klesius (2007). "The Mystery of Snowflakes". 3792:National Severe Storms Laboratory (2007-04-23). 3768:Ryan Jewell & Julian Brimelow (2004-08-17). 3716: 3667:via the Internet Wayback Machine. Archived from 3659:Alaska Air Flight Service Station (2007-04-10). 3624: 3415: 3152:. Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik 2826:"Cassini Saw Rain Falling at Titan's North Pole" 2324: 1722:(the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the 6173: 6037:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 5156:. Central Analytical Laboratory. Archived from 5027:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4972:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 4597:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research 4383: 4294: 4237:"Ask an Astrophysicist - Precipitation on Mars" 4132: 3920:"Giant Snowflakes as Big as Frisbees? Could Be" 3864:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research 3857: 3798:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 3694:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 3589:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 3327:"Global maps of Local Land-Atmosphere coupling" 1041: 6209: 5869: 5813: 5752: 5695: 5665: 4133:Unsworth, M H; Wilshaw, J C (September 1989). 3886: 3884: 3325:Bart van den Hurk & Eleanor Blyth (2008). 2732:"Rain and hail can reach the surface of Titan" 1858:data sets is the best choice for general use. 994:(L/m); as 1L=1dm=1mm·m, the units of area (m) 133:. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy. 6418: 6150:National Aeronautics and Space Administration 6094:United States Environmental Protection Agency 5423: 5353:National Aeronautics and Space Administration 5151: 4990: 4934: 4621:Karl W. Birkeland & Cary J. Mock (1996). 4508: 3554:. IAHS Publication Number 140. Archived from 3481: 3250: 2926: 2924: 1360:(on the order of cm/s), such as over surface 1117: 872: 6567:Convective available potential energy (CAPE) 6398:Global Precipitation Climatology Centre GPCC 5928: 4535: 3547:Oguntoyinbo, J. S.; Akintola, F. O. (1983). 3441:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 3310:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2708: 2590: 2335:Effects of climate change on the water cycle 6357: 5907:. Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from 5308:"NOAA's National Weather Service Main Page" 4542:. Cambridge University Press. p. 405. 4453: 4327: 4234: 3881: 3014: 2984: 6425: 6411: 6167: 6112: 5863: 5559: 5133:"8 Inch Non-Recording Standard Rain Gauge" 4993:"Background: California's tropical storms" 4728:"CHAPTER 9: Introduction to the Biosphere" 4206: 4000: 3890: 3357:H. Edward Reiley; Carroll L. Shry (2002). 2921: 2673:Chowdhury's Guide to Planet Earth (2005). 1718:Other types of gauges include the popular 910:Precipitation is a major component of the 879: 865: 169:Precipitation is a major component of the 6342: 6301: 6056: 5635: 5591: 5456:International Precipitation Working Group 5408: 5011: 4911: 4769: 4590: 4568: 4390:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 333. 4181: 4177: 4175: 3842: 3609: 3116: 2877: 2638: 1748: 1285:Snowflake viewed in an optical microscope 1126: 978:. Equivalently, it can be expressed as a 5689: 4358:Western Regional Climate Center (2002). 4060: 3949:. Portage & Main Press. p. 39. 3654: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3577: 3575: 3516:United States Department of the Interior 2448: 2409: 2382: 2299: 2295: 1908: 1685: 1584: 1517: 1441: 1391: 1280: 1240: 1190: 1153: 1136: 1053: 1045: 1036: 901: 27: 6351: 6317:P. Reggiani & A. H. Weerts (2007). 5990:University of Michigan Press, pp. 388. 3260:University of California in Los Angeles 906:A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation 6858: 6088:Climate Change Division (2008-12-17). 5735:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008 4172: 4031:Kenneth Libbrecht (Winter 2004–2005). 2987:"All About Mixed Winter Precipitation" 2668: 2666: 2511:, the concept of rain-making bacteria. 1832: 1776: 1253:water droplets freeze on contact with 6406: 6020:from the original on 5 February 2022. 5876:University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point 5820:University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point 5759:University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point 5514:Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). 5484:Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). 5234:. Discovery Education. Archived from 4491:(1). Voluntary Observing Ship Program 4216:Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 4067:Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). 3731: 3643: 3631:Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 3572: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3411: 3409: 3061:Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). 2616: 2529:that help in the ripening of mangoes. 2455:Hydrometeorological Prediction Center 1899:Role in Köppen climate classification 1646:, itself the ascending branch of the 1632:Large-scale geographical distribution 1564: 1427: 6115:"Spain goes hi-tech to beat drought" 4864:. Taylor & Francis. p. 90. 4741: 4228: 3290:Office, Spokane, Washington (2009). 2342: 1332: 1257:, such as dust or dirt. The storm's 173:, and is responsible for depositing 6529:Convective condensation level (CCL) 6212:"Optimizing Output From QPF Helper" 5988:Human Adaptation and Accommodation. 4139:Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 3976:Kenneth G. Libbrecht (2006-09-11). 3147: 3097:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2663: 2445:Quantitative precipitation forecast 1819:Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 1345: 13: 6735:Equivalent potential temperature ( 5516:"Rainfall intensity return period" 5383:"Global Precipitation Measurement" 4748:Elisabeth M. Benders-Hyde (2003). 4200: 3982:California Institute of Technology 3719:"What causes ice pellets (sleet)?" 3533: 3406: 2591:Scott Sistek (December 26, 2015). 1913:Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map 1589:Rainfall distribution by month in 1300:Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process 1114:, or until it reaches saturation. 213:at its equator and polar regions. 14: 6887: 6587:Conditional symmetric instability 6433:Meteorological data and variables 6386: 6090:"Precipitation and Storm Changes" 5131:Office, Northern Indiana (2009). 5116:Mt. Baker snowfall record sticks. 4630:Mountain Research and Development 4209:"Unified Surface Analysis Manual" 6534:Lifting condensation level (LCL) 6310: 6269: 6239: 6203: 6134: 6106: 6081: 6024: 5977: 5952: 5922: 5893: 5837: 5807: 5776: 5746: 5719: 5659: 5603: 5327:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 5232:"Build Your Own Weather Station" 4670:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 4265:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 3738:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 3363:. Cengage Learning. p. 40. 3221:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 3170:Glossary of Meteorology (2009). 2850:Emmanouil N. Anagnostou (2004). 2521:showers in the Indian states of 2475:probability of a specific amount 2400:Changes due to urban heat island 2347: 1861: 1823:Global Precipitation Measurement 1667: 1368:. Similar ascent is seen around 1050:Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark 848: 205:precipitation as a slow-falling 6519:Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) 6252:American Meteorological Society 5959:James D. Mauseth (2006-07-07). 5537: 5520:American Meteorological Society 5507: 5490:American Meteorological Society 5477: 5460:"Global Precipitation Datasets" 5448: 5417: 5374: 5345: 5333:American Meteorological Society 5320: 5296: 5270: 5259:. Colorado Climate Center. 2009 5249: 5223: 5199: 5171: 5145: 5121: 5105: 5084: 5064: 5044: 4984: 4928: 4851: 4811: 4763: 4719: 4693: 4676:American Meteorological Society 4663: 4614: 4584: 4562: 4529: 4502: 4447: 4410: 4377: 4351: 4321: 4288: 4271:American Meteorological Society 4258: 4126: 4090: 4073:American Meteorological Society 4024: 3994: 3969: 3936: 3918:William J. Broad (2007-03-20). 3911: 3851: 3810: 3785: 3761: 3744:American Meteorological Society 3710: 3682: 3665:Federal Aviation Administration 3618: 3508:United States Geological Survey 3500: 3475: 3431: 3377: 3350: 3318: 3280: 3244: 3227:American Meteorological Society 3214: 3193: 3176:American Meteorological Society 3163: 3141: 3084: 3067:American Meteorological Society 3054: 3030: 3008: 2978: 2964:. Academic Press. p. 348. 2951: 2886: 2843: 2567:American Meteorological Society 1890:Uneven pattern of precipitation 1317: 137:is possible within a cyclone's 6782:Wet-bulb potential temperature 6624:Level of free convection (LFC) 6221:Western Region. Archived from 5783:Lauren Springer Ogden (2008). 5442:10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.10.012 5381:C. Kidd; G.J. Huffman (2011). 5070:ThinkQuest team 26634 (1999). 4704:. ToucanGuides. Archived from 4702:"When to Travel to Costa Rica" 3858:Jacque Marshall (2000-04-10). 2937:. Academic Press. p. 66. 2931:Robert Penrose Pearce (2002). 2915:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.01.043 2818: 2794: 2770: 2723: 2692: 2610: 2584: 2551: 2434: 1644:Intertropical Convergence Zone 1612:Intertropical Convergence Zone 1195:An accumulation of ice pellets 1180: 949: 156:Intertropical Convergence Zone 21:Precipitation (disambiguation) 1: 6876:Clouds, fog and precipitation 6825:Pressure-gradient force (PGF) 6747:Sea surface temperature (SST) 6582:Convective momentum transport 5870:Michael Ritter (2008-12-24). 5814:Michael Ritter (2008-12-24). 5753:Michael Ritter (2008-12-24). 5696:Susan Woodward (2005-02-02). 5666:Susan Woodward (1997-10-29). 5019:National Climatic Data Center 4235:Jim Lochner (April 3, 1998). 4097:Kenneth G. Libbrecht (2001). 3292:"Virga and Dry Thunderstorms" 2934:Meteorology at the Millennium 2806:NASA Solar System Exploration 2782:NASA Solar System Exploration 2545: 2325:Changes due to global warming 1905:Köppen climate classification 1387: 1289:Snow crystals form when tiny 1270: 209:, which has been observed as 180:Köppen climate classification 6639:Bulk Richardson number (BRN) 6282:Geophysical Research Letters 5572:Geophysical Research Letters 4991:Jack Williams (2005-05-17). 4900:British Journal of Nutrition 4425:University of Oklahoma Press 4298:Mid-latitude Weather Systems 4159:10.1016/0168-1923(89)90097-X 3512:"Are raindrops tear shaped?" 2958:Robert A. Houze Jr. (1994). 2441:Probability of precipitation 2362:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 1149: 1123:lifting air over mountains. 1042:Cooling air to its dew point 129:flow around the backside of 7: 6843:Maximum potential intensity 6609:Free convective layer (FCL) 6572:Convective inhibition (CIN) 6323:Journal of Hydrometeorology 6142:Goddard Space Flight Center 5929:Robert Burns (2007-06-06). 5755:"Humid Subtropical Climate" 5727:"Humid subtropical climate" 5548:. Boulder Community Network 5546:"What is a 100 year flood?" 5388:Meteorological Applications 4241:Goddard Space Flight Center 3943:Jennifer E. Lawson (2001). 3582:Robert A. Houze Jr (1997). 3200:TE Technology, Inc (2009). 3017:"A Page For Our Young Folk" 2857:Meteorological Applications 2736:Planetary and Space Science 2619:Journal of Hydrometeorology 2492: 1094:, and evaporative cooling. 776:Severe weather terminology 238:Temperate and polar seasons 10: 6892: 6777:Wet-bulb globe temperature 6634:Maximum parcel level (MPL) 6246:Noreen O. Schwein (2009). 5998:. Retrieved on 2008-12-27. 5277:The Globe Program (2009). 4778:University of Rhode Island 4301:. Routledge. p. 216. 3253:"Approaches to saturation" 2802:"Changes in Titan's Lakes" 2499:List of meteorology topics 2438: 2403: 2328: 2292:and little precipitation. 1916: 1902: 1865: 1671: 1638:Earth rainfall climatology 1635: 1574: 1568: 1511: 1431: 1349: 1321: 1274: 1234: 1184: 1130: 1118:Adding moisture to the air 1087:during breezy conditions. 895: 18: 6833: 6795: 6757:Thermodynamic temperature 6691:Forest fire weather index 6647: 6557: 6504: 6438: 6113:Dale Fuchs (2005-06-28). 5961:"Mauseth Research: Cacti" 5637:10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 5230:Discovery School (2009). 5072:The Formation of Deserts. 5050:Owen E. Thompson (1996). 4964:Climate Prediction Center 4944:National Hurricane Center 4726:Michael Pidwirny (2008). 4700:Costa Rica Guide (2005). 4456:"Geology of Death Valley" 4417:Michael A. Mares (1999). 4106:Engineering & Science 4001:John Roach (2007-02-13). 3625:Norman W. Junker (2008). 3416:Michael Pidwirny (2008). 3360:Introductory horticulture 3019:. Weekly Times, Melbourne 2879:10.1017/S1350482704001409 2756:10.1016/j.pss.2007.11.001 2356:This section needs to be 2331:Effects of climate change 1724:tipping bucket rain gauge 1541:, meaning falling out of 1340: 6871:Meteorological phenomena 6679:Equivalent temperature ( 6592:Convective temperature ( 6476:Surface weather analysis 6219:National Weather Service 6174:Jack S. Bushong (1999). 6058:10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0065.1 5935:Texas A&M University 5931:"Texas Crop and Weather" 5789:. Timber Press. p. 5304:National Weather Service 5207:National Weather Service 5179:National Weather Service 5129:National Weather Service 5118:Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 5052:Hadley Circulation Cell. 4591:Greg Byrd (1998-06-03). 4515:University of Washington 4387:The Climate of the Earth 4384:Paul E. Lydolph (1985). 4295:Toby N. Carlson (1991). 3698:National Weather Service 3385:National Weather Service 3288:National Weather Service 3042:National Weather Service 2991:National Weather Service 2677:. WestEd. Archived from 2471:planetary boundary layer 1883:1 in 100 year storm 1787:electromagnetic spectrum 1605:climates and areas with 1446:Orographic precipitation 1396:Convective precipitation 1364:, and over and ahead of 1211:code for ice pellets is 891: 6726:Potential temperature ( 6471:Surface solar radiation 6210:Daniel Weygand (2008). 5732:Encyclopædia Britannica 5616:Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci 5578:(21): 11, 980–11, 988. 5187:"Rainguage Information" 4730:. PhysicalGeography.net 4573:. University of Wyoming 4420:Encyclopedia of Deserts 3823:Weather and Forecasting 3690:"Hail (glossary entry)" 2895:Atmospheric Environment 2748:2008P&SS...56..346G 2563:Glossary of Meteorology 2360:. The reason given is: 2199: 2159: 2119: 2079: 2048: 2017: 1986: 1946: 1878:1 in 10 year storm 1561:significant challenge. 1507: 1230: 6716:Relative humidity (RH) 6604:Equilibrium level (EL) 6577:Convective instability 5152:Chris Lehmann (2009). 4509:Owen Hertzman (1988). 4334:Honolulu Star-Bulletin 3717:Weatherquestions.com. 3482:Paul Sirvatka (2003). 3332:. KNMI. Archived from 3251:Robert Fovell (2004). 2569:. 2009. Archived from 2457: 2419: 2388: 2309: 2224: 1749:Hydrometeor definition 1691: 1594: 1527:Extratropical cyclones 1523: 1447: 1397: 1286: 1246: 1196: 1159: 1146: 1127:Forms of precipitation 1059: 1051: 907: 837:Tropical cyclone terms 150:. The movement of the 131:extratropical cyclones 44:is any product of the 33: 6183:University of Georgia 5905:"Living With Drought" 5901:Bureau of Meteorology 4536:Yuh-Lang Lin (2007). 4188:University of Wyoming 3978:"Guide to Snowflakes" 3794:"Aggregate hailstone" 3223:"Radiational cooling" 3118:10.1175/2007jas2515.1 2452: 2413: 2386: 2303: 2296:Effect on agriculture 2254:Mediterranean climate 1912: 1813:amounts of microwave 1689: 1588: 1521: 1445: 1395: 1378:mid-latitude cyclones 1284: 1244: 1194: 1157: 1140: 1057: 1049: 1037:Air becomes saturated 905: 444:Extratropical cyclone 368:Air-mass thunderstorm 31: 6805:Atmospheric pressure 6772:Wet-bulb temperature 6674:Dry-bulb temperature 6669:Dew point depression 6358:Charles Lin (2005). 6344:10.1175/2007JHM858.1 6303:10.1029/2008GL033657 5984:A. Roberto Frisancho 5593:10.1029/2018GL080298 5426:Atmospheric Research 5183:Binghamton, New York 4776:(PhD dissertation). 4752:. Blue Planet Biomes 4485:Mariners Weather Log 4454:Adam Ganson (2003). 4328:Diana Leone (2002). 4013:on February 15, 2007 3461:10.1029/2011jd016603 3420:. Physical Geography 3202:"Peltier Cold Plate" 3015:Margery Daw (1933). 2985:Jan Jackson (2008). 1112:wet-bulb temperature 955:Liquid precipitation 804:Weather modification 402:Anticyclonic tornado 123:lake-effect snowfall 19:For other uses, see 6767:Virtual temperature 6752:Temperature anomaly 6446:Adiabatic processes 6335:2008JHyMe...9...76R 6294:2008GeoRL..35.9812K 6049:2018BAMS...99..689N 5965:University of Texas 5872:"Subarctic Climate" 5786:Plant-Driven Design 5698:"Tropical Savannas" 5653:Final Revised Paper 5628:2007HESS...11.1633P 5584:2018GeoRL..4511980P 5434:2013AtmRe.119..131W 5401:2011MeApp..18..334K 4913:10.1079/BJN19940049 4861:Monsoonal Australia 4786:2000PhDT........13Z 4523:1988PhDT.......110H 4360:"Climate of Hawaii" 4207:David Roth (2006). 4151:1989AgFM...47..221U 4033:"Snowflake Science" 4007:National Geographic 3893:National Geographic 3835:2002WtFor..17.1048B 3602:1997BAMS...78.2179H 3453:2012JGRD..117.6220B 3172:"Adiabatic Process" 3109:2008JAtS...65.1721K 3038:"Cloud development" 2997:on October 25, 2015 2907:2006AtmEn..40.3316D 2870:2004MeApp..11..291A 2631:2003JHyMe...4.1147A 2504:Basic precipitation 1848:Climate Data Record 1833:Satellite data sets 1777:Satellite estimates 1728:weighing rain gauge 1690:Standard rain gauge 1438:Precipitation types 1255:condensation nuclei 1092:radiational cooling 1068:condensation nuclei 1019:Solid precipitation 898:Precipitation types 799:Weather forecasting 635:Rain and snow mixed 461:Subtropical cyclone 6539:Precipitable water 5702:Radford University 5672:Radford University 5428:. 104–105: 70–97. 5077:2012-10-17 at the 5057:2009-03-05 at the 4780:. pp. 1–378. 4770:Mei Zheng (2000). 4593:"Lake Effect Snow" 4571:"Lake Effect Snow" 4569:B. Geerts (1998). 4539:Mesoscale Dynamics 4460:Indiana University 4182:B. Geerts (2002). 3387:JetStream (2008). 2458: 2420: 2389: 2310: 2225: 1692: 1652:subtropical ridges 1595: 1565:Within the tropics 1547:precipitation band 1524: 1448: 1428:Orographic effects 1398: 1311:diffuse reflection 1287: 1247: 1197: 1160: 1158:Puddle in the rain 1147: 1108:infrared radiation 1060: 1052: 908: 855:Weather portal 471:Atlantic hurricane 449:European windstorm 356:Volcanic lightning 317:Cumulonimbus cloud 34: 6851: 6850: 6820:Pressure gradient 6629:Lifted index (LI) 6156:on March 16, 2010 5996:978-0-472-09511-7 5800:978-0-88192-877-8 4871:978-90-6191-638-3 4549:978-0-521-80875-0 4434:978-0-8061-3146-7 4397:978-0-86598-119-5 4308:978-0-04-551115-0 4040:American Educator 3956:978-1-894110-63-1 3860:"Hail Fact Sheet" 3596:(10): 2179–2196. 3488:College of DuPage 3370:978-0-7668-1567-4 2971:978-0-08-050210-6 2944:978-0-12-548035-2 2901:(18): 3316–3326. 2709:IPCC AR6 WG1 2021 2675:"The Water Cycle" 2424:urban heat island 2406:Urban heat island 2381: 2380: 2262:subarctic climate 2246:humid continental 2242:humid subtropical 2223: 2222: 1475:Mount Waiʻaleʻale 1409:cumulus congestus 1370:tropical cyclones 1333:Occult deposition 1096:Adiabatic cooling 980:physical quantity 962:and expressed in 889: 888: 82:relative humidity 6883: 6427: 6420: 6413: 6404: 6403: 6381: 6380: 6378: 6377: 6371: 6364: 6355: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6305: 6273: 6267: 6266: 6264: 6263: 6254:. Archived from 6243: 6237: 6236: 6234: 6233: 6227: 6216: 6207: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6197: 6191: 6185:. Archived from 6180: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6152:. Archived from 6138: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6128: 6110: 6104: 6103: 6101: 6100: 6085: 6079: 6078: 6060: 6028: 6022: 6021: 6005: 5999: 5981: 5975: 5974: 5972: 5971: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5947: 5946: 5937:. Archived from 5926: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5897: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5887: 5878:. Archived from 5867: 5861: 5860: 5858: 5857: 5846:"Steppe Climate" 5841: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5831: 5822:. Archived from 5811: 5805: 5804: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5770: 5761:. Archived from 5750: 5744: 5743: 5741: 5740: 5723: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5713: 5704:. Archived from 5693: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5683: 5674:. Archived from 5663: 5657: 5649: 5639: 5622:(5): 1633–1644. 5607: 5601: 5600: 5595: 5563: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5553: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5522:. Archived from 5511: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5501: 5492:. Archived from 5481: 5475: 5474: 5472: 5471: 5462:. Archived from 5452: 5446: 5445: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5368: 5359:. Archived from 5349: 5343: 5342: 5340: 5339: 5324: 5318: 5317: 5315: 5314: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5290: 5281:. Archived from 5274: 5268: 5267: 5265: 5264: 5253: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5243: 5227: 5221: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5193: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5149: 5143: 5142: 5140: 5139: 5125: 5119: 5109: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5099: 5088: 5082: 5068: 5062: 5048: 5042: 5041: 5039: 5038: 5029:. Archived from 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5005: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4978: 4960: 4954: 4953: 4951: 4950: 4932: 4926: 4925: 4915: 4891: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4878: 4855: 4849: 4848: 4846: 4845: 4824: 4815: 4809: 4808: 4806: 4805: 4796:. Archived from 4767: 4761: 4760: 4758: 4757: 4750:"World Climates" 4745: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4735: 4723: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4713: 4697: 4691: 4690: 4688: 4687: 4678:. Archived from 4667: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4652:. Archived from 4627: 4618: 4612: 4611: 4609: 4608: 4599:. Archived from 4588: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4578: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4557: 4556: 4533: 4527: 4526: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4496: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4404: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4372: 4371: 4362:. Archived from 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4336:. Archived from 4325: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4283: 4282: 4273:. Archived from 4262: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4252: 4243:. Archived from 4232: 4226: 4225: 4223: 4222: 4213: 4204: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4194: 4179: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4145:(2–4): 221–238. 4130: 4124: 4123: 4121: 4120: 4114: 4103: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4075:. Archived from 4064: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4048: 4042:. Archived from 4037: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4018: 4009:. Archived from 3998: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3973: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3963: 3940: 3934: 3933: 3931: 3930: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3888: 3879: 3878: 3876: 3875: 3866:. Archived from 3855: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3829:(5): 1048–1062. 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3804: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3779: 3774: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3755: 3746:. Archived from 3735: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3725: 3714: 3708: 3707: 3705: 3704: 3686: 3680: 3679: 3677: 3676: 3656: 3641: 3640: 3638: 3637: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3613: 3579: 3570: 3569: 3567: 3566: 3560: 3553: 3544: 3531: 3530: 3528: 3527: 3518:. Archived from 3504: 3498: 3497: 3495: 3494: 3479: 3473: 3472: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3426: 3425: 3413: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3391:. Archived from 3381: 3375: 3374: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3345: 3344: 3338: 3331: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3309: 3301: 3299: 3298: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3275: 3274: 3268: 3262:. Archived from 3257: 3248: 3242: 3241: 3239: 3238: 3229:. Archived from 3218: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3208: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3188: 3187: 3178:. Archived from 3167: 3161: 3160: 3158: 3157: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3120: 3103:(6): 1721–1748. 3088: 3082: 3081: 3079: 3078: 3069:. Archived from 3058: 3052: 3051: 3049: 3048: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3025: 3024: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3003: 3002: 2993:. Archived from 2982: 2976: 2975: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2928: 2919: 2918: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2881: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2838: 2837: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2813: 2812: 2798: 2792: 2791: 2789: 2788: 2774: 2768: 2767: 2727: 2721: 2720: 2717: 2705: 2696: 2690: 2689: 2687: 2686: 2670: 2661: 2660: 2642: 2640:10.1.1.1018.6263 2625:(6): 1147–1167. 2614: 2608: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2579: 2578: 2555: 2509:Bioprecipitation 2416:Atlanta, Georgia 2376: 2373: 2367: 2351: 2350: 2343: 2307: 2238:tropical savanna 2214: 2205: 2192: 2183: 2174: 2165: 2152: 2143: 2134: 2125: 2112: 2103: 2094: 2085: 2072: 2063: 2054: 2041: 2032: 2023: 2010: 2001: 1992: 1979: 1970: 1961: 1952: 1939: 1930: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1714: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1581:Tropical cyclone 1554:lake-effect snow 1358:synoptic systems 1346:Frontal activity 1167:Bergeron process 1029:water equivalent 881: 874: 867: 853: 852: 466:Tropical cyclone 378:Dry thunderstorm 273:Tropical seasons 216: 215: 109:stationary front 6891: 6890: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6881: 6880: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6847: 6829: 6791: 6741: 6685: 6663: 6643: 6598: 6553: 6500: 6434: 6431: 6389: 6384: 6375: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6356: 6352: 6315: 6311: 6274: 6270: 6261: 6259: 6244: 6240: 6231: 6229: 6225: 6214: 6208: 6204: 6195: 6193: 6189: 6178: 6172: 6168: 6159: 6157: 6139: 6135: 6126: 6124: 6111: 6107: 6098: 6096: 6086: 6082: 6029: 6025: 6008: 6006: 6002: 5982: 5978: 5969: 5967: 5957: 5953: 5944: 5942: 5927: 5923: 5914: 5912: 5898: 5894: 5885: 5883: 5868: 5864: 5855: 5853: 5842: 5838: 5829: 5827: 5812: 5808: 5801: 5781: 5777: 5768: 5766: 5751: 5747: 5738: 5736: 5725: 5724: 5720: 5711: 5709: 5694: 5690: 5681: 5679: 5664: 5660: 5608: 5604: 5564: 5560: 5551: 5549: 5542: 5538: 5529: 5527: 5512: 5508: 5499: 5497: 5486:"Return period" 5482: 5478: 5469: 5467: 5453: 5449: 5422: 5418: 5410:10.1002/met.284 5379: 5375: 5366: 5364: 5350: 5346: 5337: 5335: 5325: 5321: 5312: 5310: 5301: 5297: 5288: 5286: 5275: 5271: 5262: 5260: 5255: 5254: 5250: 5241: 5239: 5228: 5224: 5215: 5213: 5204: 5200: 5191: 5189: 5176: 5172: 5163: 5161: 5150: 5146: 5137: 5135: 5126: 5122: 5110: 5106: 5097: 5095: 5090: 5089: 5085: 5079:Wayback Machine 5069: 5065: 5059:Wayback Machine 5049: 5045: 5036: 5034: 5016: 5012: 5003: 5001: 4989: 4985: 4976: 4974: 4961: 4957: 4948: 4946: 4933: 4929: 4892: 4885: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4856: 4852: 4843: 4841: 4822: 4816: 4812: 4803: 4801: 4768: 4764: 4755: 4753: 4746: 4742: 4733: 4731: 4724: 4720: 4711: 4709: 4698: 4694: 4685: 4683: 4668: 4664: 4656: 4642:10.2307/3673951 4625: 4619: 4615: 4606: 4604: 4589: 4585: 4576: 4574: 4567: 4563: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4534: 4530: 4507: 4503: 4494: 4492: 4477: 4473: 4464: 4462: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4437: 4435: 4427:. p. 252. 4415: 4411: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4382: 4378: 4369: 4367: 4356: 4352: 4343: 4341: 4326: 4322: 4313: 4311: 4309: 4293: 4289: 4280: 4278: 4263: 4259: 4250: 4248: 4233: 4229: 4220: 4218: 4211: 4205: 4201: 4192: 4190: 4180: 4173: 4163: 4161: 4131: 4127: 4118: 4116: 4112: 4101: 4095: 4091: 4082: 4080: 4065: 4061: 4052: 4050: 4046: 4035: 4029: 4025: 4016: 4014: 3999: 3995: 3986: 3984: 3974: 3970: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3941: 3937: 3928: 3926: 3916: 3912: 3889: 3882: 3873: 3871: 3856: 3852: 3815: 3811: 3802: 3800: 3790: 3786: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3766: 3762: 3753: 3751: 3736: 3732: 3723: 3721: 3715: 3711: 3702: 3700: 3688: 3687: 3683: 3674: 3672: 3657: 3644: 3635: 3633: 3623: 3619: 3580: 3573: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3551: 3545: 3534: 3525: 3523: 3510:(Mar 9, 2012). 3505: 3501: 3492: 3490: 3480: 3476: 3436: 3432: 3423: 3421: 3414: 3407: 3398: 3396: 3382: 3378: 3371: 3355: 3351: 3342: 3340: 3336: 3329: 3323: 3319: 3303: 3302: 3296: 3294: 3285: 3281: 3272: 3270: 3266: 3255: 3249: 3245: 3236: 3234: 3219: 3215: 3206: 3204: 3198: 3194: 3185: 3183: 3168: 3164: 3155: 3153: 3146: 3142: 3089: 3085: 3076: 3074: 3059: 3055: 3046: 3044: 3036: 3035: 3031: 3022: 3020: 3013: 3009: 3000: 2998: 2983: 2979: 2972: 2956: 2952: 2945: 2929: 2922: 2891: 2887: 2848: 2844: 2835: 2833: 2824: 2823: 2819: 2810: 2808: 2800: 2799: 2795: 2786: 2784: 2776: 2775: 2771: 2728: 2724: 2711: 2703: 2697: 2693: 2684: 2682: 2671: 2664: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2599: 2589: 2585: 2576: 2574: 2559:"Precipitation" 2557: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2495: 2467:Forecast models 2447: 2439:Main articles: 2437: 2408: 2402: 2377: 2371: 2368: 2365: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2339:Extreme weather 2327: 2305: 2298: 2250:oceanic climate 2219: 2212: 2210: 2203: 2197: 2190: 2188: 2181: 2179: 2172: 2170: 2163: 2157: 2150: 2148: 2141: 2139: 2132: 2130: 2123: 2117: 2110: 2108: 2101: 2099: 2092: 2090: 2083: 2077: 2070: 2068: 2061: 2059: 2052: 2046: 2039: 2037: 2030: 2028: 2021: 2015: 2008: 2006: 1999: 1997: 1990: 1984: 1977: 1975: 1968: 1966: 1959: 1957: 1950: 1944: 1937: 1935: 1928: 1926: 1919: 1907: 1901: 1892: 1870: 1864: 1835: 1821:(TRMM) and the 1779: 1751: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1701: 1697: 1696: 1684: 1670: 1640: 1634: 1583: 1573: 1567: 1516: 1510: 1481:) and leeward ( 1440: 1434:Orographic lift 1430: 1401:Convective rain 1390: 1372:outside of the 1354: 1348: 1343: 1335: 1326: 1320: 1279: 1273: 1239: 1233: 1189: 1183: 1152: 1135: 1129: 1120: 1104:orographic lift 1044: 1039: 952: 900: 894: 885: 847: 842: 841: 817: 809: 808: 667: 657: 656: 569: 559: 558: 547:Ground blizzard 307: 297: 296: 275: 265: 264: 240: 188:extreme weather 48:of atmospheric 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6889: 6879: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6845: 6839: 6837: 6831: 6830: 6828: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6807: 6801: 6799: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6762:Vapor pressure 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6732: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6653: 6651: 6645: 6644: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6563: 6561: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6510: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6499: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6442: 6440: 6436: 6435: 6430: 6429: 6422: 6415: 6407: 6401: 6400: 6395: 6388: 6387:External links 6385: 6383: 6382: 6350: 6309: 6268: 6238: 6202: 6166: 6144:(2002-06-18). 6133: 6105: 6080: 6043:(4): 689–697. 6023: 6000: 5976: 5951: 5921: 5892: 5862: 5836: 5806: 5799: 5775: 5745: 5718: 5688: 5658: 5602: 5558: 5536: 5506: 5476: 5447: 5416: 5395:(3): 334–353. 5373: 5344: 5319: 5295: 5269: 5248: 5222: 5198: 5170: 5144: 5120: 5104: 5083: 5063: 5043: 5021:(2005-08-09). 5010: 4983: 4955: 4927: 4906:(3): 479–488. 4883: 4870: 4850: 4833:(1): 191–195. 4810: 4762: 4740: 4718: 4692: 4672:"Rainy season" 4662: 4659:on 2009-01-15. 4636:(3): 281–286. 4613: 4583: 4561: 4548: 4528: 4513:(PhD thesis). 4501: 4471: 4446: 4433: 4409: 4396: 4376: 4350: 4330:"Rain supreme" 4320: 4307: 4287: 4257: 4227: 4199: 4171: 4125: 4089: 4069:"Diamond Dust" 4059: 4023: 3993: 3968: 3955: 3935: 3924:New York Times 3910: 3880: 3850: 3809: 3784: 3760: 3730: 3709: 3681: 3642: 3617: 3571: 3532: 3499: 3474: 3430: 3405: 3376: 3369: 3349: 3317: 3279: 3243: 3213: 3192: 3162: 3140: 3083: 3053: 3029: 3007: 2977: 2970: 2961:Cloud Dynamics 2950: 2943: 2920: 2885: 2864:(4): 291–300. 2842: 2830:Universe Today 2817: 2793: 2769: 2742:(3): 346–357. 2722: 2691: 2662: 2609: 2583: 2549: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2539:Wintry showers 2536: 2530: 2512: 2506: 2501: 2494: 2491: 2485:measurements, 2436: 2433: 2401: 2398: 2379: 2378: 2355: 2353: 2346: 2326: 2323: 2297: 2294: 2221: 2220: 2211: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2189: 2180: 2171: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2149: 2140: 2131: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2109: 2100: 2091: 2082: 2080: 2078: 2069: 2060: 2051: 2049: 2047: 2038: 2029: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2007: 1998: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1976: 1967: 1958: 1949: 1947: 1945: 1936: 1927: 1918: 1903:Main article: 1900: 1897: 1891: 1888: 1868:100-year flood 1863: 1860: 1839:geosynchronous 1834: 1831: 1815:radiant energy 1778: 1775: 1750: 1747: 1669: 1666: 1633: 1630: 1616:monsoon trough 1569:Main article: 1566: 1563: 1512:Main article: 1509: 1506: 1502:Mojave Deserts 1460:katabatic wind 1429: 1426: 1389: 1386: 1352:Weather fronts 1350:Main article: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1322:Main article: 1319: 1316: 1295:supersaturated 1275:Main article: 1272: 1269: 1235:Main article: 1232: 1229: 1185:Main article: 1182: 1179: 1151: 1148: 1131:Main article: 1128: 1125: 1119: 1116: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1033: 1020: 1016: 1015: 956: 951: 948: 896:Main article: 893: 890: 887: 886: 884: 883: 876: 869: 861: 858: 857: 844: 843: 840: 839: 834: 829: 827:Climate change 824: 818: 815: 814: 811: 810: 807: 806: 801: 796: 795: 794: 793: 792: 787: 782: 774: 769: 762:Severe weather 759: 754: 749: 744: 739: 738: 737: 732: 722: 721: 720: 710: 705: 704: 703: 698: 693: 688: 680: 679: 674: 668: 663: 662: 659: 658: 655: 654: 653: 652: 647: 642: 637: 627: 622: 621: 620: 610: 605: 600: 599: 598: 596:Megacryometeor 588: 583: 582: 581: 570: 565: 564: 561: 560: 557: 556: 555: 554: 549: 544: 539: 529: 524: 519: 514: 513: 512: 502: 501: 500: 495: 485: 480: 479: 478: 473: 463: 458: 457: 456: 451: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 415: 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6568: 6565: 6564: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6544:Precipitation 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6507: 6503: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6428: 6423: 6421: 6416: 6414: 6409: 6408: 6405: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6372:on 2009-02-05 6368: 6361: 6354: 6345: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6313: 6304: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6288:(9): L09812. 6287: 6283: 6279: 6272: 6258:on 2011-06-09 6257: 6253: 6249: 6242: 6228:on 2009-02-05 6224: 6220: 6213: 6206: 6192:on 2009-02-05 6188: 6184: 6177: 6170: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6137: 6122: 6121: 6116: 6109: 6095: 6091: 6084: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6027: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6004: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5980: 5966: 5962: 5955: 5941:on 2010-06-20 5940: 5936: 5932: 5925: 5911:on 2007-02-18 5910: 5906: 5902: 5896: 5882:on 2008-05-25 5881: 5877: 5873: 5866: 5852:on 2008-04-22 5851: 5847: 5840: 5826:on 2009-08-05 5825: 5821: 5817: 5810: 5802: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5787: 5779: 5765:on 2008-10-14 5764: 5760: 5756: 5749: 5734: 5733: 5728: 5722: 5708:on 2008-02-25 5707: 5703: 5699: 5692: 5678:on 2008-02-25 5677: 5673: 5669: 5662: 5656: 5654: 5647: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5562: 5547: 5540: 5526:on 2011-06-06 5525: 5521: 5517: 5510: 5496:on 2006-10-20 5495: 5491: 5487: 5480: 5466:on 2023-06-30 5465: 5461: 5457: 5451: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5420: 5411: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5377: 5363:on 2023-05-27 5362: 5358: 5354: 5348: 5334: 5330: 5329:"Hydrometeor" 5323: 5309: 5305: 5299: 5285:on 2006-08-19 5284: 5280: 5273: 5258: 5252: 5238:on 2008-08-28 5237: 5233: 5226: 5212: 5211:"Glossary: W" 5208: 5202: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5174: 5160:on 2010-06-15 5159: 5155: 5148: 5134: 5130: 5124: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5093: 5087: 5080: 5076: 5073: 5067: 5060: 5056: 5053: 5047: 5033:on 2012-05-25 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5014: 5000: 4999: 4994: 4987: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4959: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4936:Chris Landsea 4931: 4923: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4890: 4888: 4873: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4854: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4821: 4814: 4800:on 2012-01-08 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4774: 4766: 4751: 4744: 4729: 4722: 4708:on 2012-03-15 4707: 4703: 4696: 4682:on 2009-02-15 4681: 4677: 4673: 4666: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4617: 4603:on 2009-06-17 4602: 4598: 4594: 4587: 4572: 4565: 4551: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4532: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4505: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4475: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4436: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4421: 4413: 4399: 4393: 4389: 4388: 4380: 4366:on 2008-03-14 4365: 4361: 4354: 4340:on 2011-08-10 4339: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4310: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4291: 4277:on 2008-03-08 4276: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4247:on 2009-01-18 4246: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4217: 4210: 4203: 4189: 4185: 4178: 4176: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4115:on 2010-06-25 4111: 4107: 4100: 4093: 4079:on 2009-04-03 4078: 4074: 4070: 4063: 4049:on 2008-11-28 4045: 4041: 4034: 4027: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3958: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3939: 3925: 3921: 3914: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3885: 3870:on 2009-10-15 3869: 3865: 3861: 3854: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3813: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3771: 3764: 3750:on 2010-07-25 3749: 3745: 3741: 3734: 3720: 3713: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3685: 3671:on 2008-05-01 3670: 3666: 3662: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3612: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3578: 3576: 3561:on 2009-02-05 3557: 3550: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3522:on 2012-06-18 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3503: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3434: 3419: 3412: 3410: 3395:on 2008-12-24 3394: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3372: 3366: 3362: 3361: 3353: 3339:on 2009-02-25 3335: 3328: 3321: 3313: 3307: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3269:on 2009-02-25 3265: 3261: 3254: 3247: 3233:on 2011-05-12 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3203: 3196: 3182:on 2007-10-17 3181: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3151: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3073:on 2011-07-05 3072: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3043: 3039: 3033: 3018: 3011: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2967: 2963: 2962: 2954: 2946: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2927: 2925: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2889: 2880: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2858: 2853: 2846: 2831: 2827: 2821: 2807: 2803: 2797: 2783: 2779: 2773: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2718: 2715: 2710: 2702: 2695: 2681:on 2011-12-26 2680: 2676: 2669: 2667: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2613: 2598: 2594: 2587: 2573:on 2008-10-09 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2554: 2550: 2540: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2515:Mango showers 2513: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2497: 2496: 2490: 2488: 2487:weather radar 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2442: 2432: 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1499: 1495: 1494:Sierra Nevada 1490: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1466:is observed. 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1444: 1439: 1435: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1394: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1353: 1338: 1330: 1325: 1315: 1312: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1292: 1283: 1278: 1268: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1243: 1238: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1205:freezing rain 1201: 1193: 1188: 1178: 1176: 1170: 1168: 1164: 1156: 1144: 1139: 1134: 1124: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1085:advection fog 1082: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1065: 1056: 1048: 1030: 1025: 1021: 1018: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1008:water density 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 954: 953: 947: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 924: 920: 915: 913: 904: 899: 882: 877: 875: 870: 868: 863: 862: 860: 859: 856: 851: 846: 845: 838: 835: 833: 832:Tornado terms 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 819: 813: 812: 805: 802: 800: 797: 791: 790:United States 788: 786: 783: 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Retrieved 6367:the original 6353: 6329:(1): 76–95. 6326: 6322: 6312: 6285: 6281: 6271: 6260:. Retrieved 6256:the original 6241: 6230:. Retrieved 6223:the original 6205: 6194:. Retrieved 6187:the original 6169: 6158:. Retrieved 6154:the original 6136: 6125:. Retrieved 6120:The Guardian 6118: 6108: 6097:. Retrieved 6083: 6040: 6036: 6026: 6013: 6003: 5979: 5968:. Retrieved 5954: 5943:. Retrieved 5939:the original 5924: 5913:. Retrieved 5909:the original 5895: 5884:. Retrieved 5880:the original 5865: 5854:. Retrieved 5850:the original 5839: 5828:. Retrieved 5824:the original 5809: 5785: 5778: 5767:. Retrieved 5763:the original 5748: 5737:. Retrieved 5730: 5721: 5710:. Retrieved 5706:the original 5691: 5680:. Retrieved 5676:the original 5661: 5650: 5619: 5615: 5605: 5597: 5575: 5571: 5561: 5550:. Retrieved 5539: 5528:. Retrieved 5524:the original 5509: 5498:. Retrieved 5494:the original 5479: 5468:. Retrieved 5464:the original 5450: 5425: 5419: 5392: 5386: 5376: 5365:. 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