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1165:" then a "bow-tie", then a ring, then a cylinder of "beads", and finally a framed array of cylinders. Each stage of growth shares more radiation shielding and capital equipment, increasing redundancy and safety while reducing the cost per person. This concept was originally proposed by a professional architect because it can grow much like Earth-bound cities, with incremental individual investments, unlike those that require large start-up investments. The main disadvantage is that the smaller versions use a large structure to support the radiation shielding, which rotates with them. In large sizes, the shielding becomes economical, because it grows roughly as the square of the colony radius. The number of people, their habitats, and the radiators to cool them grow roughly as the cube of the colony radius.
1036:. NASA studies with chickens and plants have proven that this is an effective physiological substitute for gravity. Turning one's head rapidly in such an environment causes a "tilt" to be sensed as one's inner ears move at different rotational rates. Centrifuge studies show that people get motion-sick in habitats with a rotational radius of less than 100 metres, or with a rotation rate above 3 rotations per minute. However, the same studies and statistical inference indicate that almost all people should be able to live comfortably in habitats with a rotational radius larger than 500 meters and below 1 RPM. Experienced persons were not merely more resistant to motion sickness, but could also use the effect to determine "spinward" and "antispinward" directions in the centrifuges.
1161:. It has a comfortably long and slow rotational radius for a relatively small station mass. Also, if some of the equipment can form the counter-weight, the equipment dedicated to artificial gravity is just a cable, and thus has a much smaller mass-fraction than in other concepts. For a long-term habitation, however, radiation shielding must rotate with the habitat, and is extremely heavy, thus requiring a much stronger and heavier cable. This speculative design was also considered by the NASA studies. Small habitats would be mass-produced to standards that allow the habitats to interconnect. A single habitat can operate alone as a bola. However, further habitats can be attached, to grow into a "
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air in an electric arc, and distilling the result. The resulting carbon dioxide and water would be immediately usable in agriculture. The nitrates and salts in the ash could be dissolved in water and separated into pure minerals. Most of the nitrates, potassium and sodium salts would recycle as fertilizers. Other minerals containing iron, nickel, and silicon could be chemically purified in batches and reused industrially. The small fraction of remaining materials, well below 0.01% by weight, could be processed into pure elements with zero-gravity
1253:"Bubbleworld" is also the name of a different concept of space settlement thought of by Dani Eder in 1995 (it is alternatively known as an Ederworld). This is a relatively thin, spherical shell surrounding a mass of gas great enough to be held together by gravity. If hydrogen is used as the gas, the shell would have a radius of about 240,000 km. The outside of the shell would have a living space 2,400 km thick (filled with breathable air) with an additional outer shell (possibly made of 500 m of steel) above it to hold in the air.
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rotational forces help shape it into a cylindrical form. Once expanded and allowed to cool, it can be spun to produce artificial gravity by centrifugation, and the interior filled with soil, air and water. By creating a slight bulge in the middle of the cylinder, a ring-shaped lake can be made to form. Reflectors would allow sunlight to enter and to be directed where needed. This method would require a significant human and industrial presence in space to be at all feasible. The concept was popularized by
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886:(78%), is a basic requirement of any space settlement. Basically, most space settlement designs concepts envision large, thin-walled pressure vessels. The required oxygen could be obtained from lunar rock. Nitrogen is most easily available from the Earth, but is also recycled nearly perfectly. Also, nitrogen in the form of ammonia (
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as steel and glass. Also, the students solved problems such as radiation protection from cosmic rays (almost free in the larger sizes), getting naturalistic Sun angles, provision of power, realistic pest-free farming and orbital attitude control without reaction motors. O'Neill published an article about these colony concepts in
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partial gravity. This test and evaluation centrifuge would have the capability to become a Sleep Module for ISS crew. The subsequent vehicle design would be a long-duration crewed space transport vehicle including the artificial gravity compartment intended to promote crew-health for a crew of up to
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substance, possibly water. A very large solar reflector would be constructed nearby, focusing solar heat onto the asteroid, first to weld and seal the tunnel ends, then more diffusely to slowly heat the entire outer surface. As the metal softens, the water inside expands and inflates the mass, while
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Water walls or ice walls can provide protection from solar and cosmic radiation, as 7 cm of water depth blocks approximately half of incident radiation. Alternatively, rock could be used as shielding; 4 metric tons per square meter of surface area could reduce radiation dosage to several mSv or less
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in engineering. He hit upon the idea of assigning them feasibility calculations for large space-settlements. To his surprise, the habitats seemed feasible even in very large sizes: cylinders 8 km (5 mi) in diameter and 32 km (20 mi) long, even if made from ordinary materials such
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materials for food production would also need to be provided. At first, most of these would have to be imported from Earth. After that, feces recycling should reduce the need for imports. One proposed recycling method would start by burning the cryogenic distillate, plants, garbage and sewage with
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Long-term on-orbit studies have proven that zero gravity weakens bones and muscles, and upsets calcium metabolism and immune systems. Most people have a continual stuffy nose or sinus problems, and a few people have dramatic, incurable motion sickness. Most habitat designs would rotate in order to
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orbits are now thought to be too far away from the Moon and Earth. A more modern proposal is to use a two-to-one resonance orbit that alternately has a close, low-energy (cheap) approach to the Moon, and then to the Earth. This provides quick, inexpensive access to both raw materials and the major
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Even the smallest of the settlement designs mentioned below are more massive than the total mass of all items that humans have ever launched into Earth orbit combined. Prerequisites to building settlements are either cheaper launch costs or a mining and manufacturing base on the Moon or other body
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from lunar materials. O'Neill did not emphasize the building of solar power satellites as such, but rather offered proof that orbital manufacturing from lunar materials could generate profits. He and other participants presumed that once such manufacturing facilities had started production, many
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Space settlements are in principle space stations, developments in space station construction therefore share many elements. The following projects and proposals, while not truly space settlements, incorporate aspects of what they would have and may represent stepping stones towards eventually
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In some designs (O'Neill/NASA Ames "Stanford Torus" and "Crystal palace in a Hatbox" habitat designs have a non-rotating cosmic ray shield of packed sand (~1.9 m thick) or even artificial aggregate rock (1.7 m ersatz concrete). Other proposals use the rock as structure and integral shielding
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was announced in mid-2010. Bigelow has publicly shown space station design configurations with up to nine modules containing 100,000 cu ft (2,800 m) of habitable space. Bigelow began to publicly refer to the initial configuration as "Space
Complex Alpha" in October 2010.
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The governance or regulation of space settlements is crucial for responsible habitation conditions, the physical as well as socio-political architecture of a space settlement, if poorly established threatend to hold the potential for particular tyrannical and precarious conditions.
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Alternative concepts based on active shielding are untested yet and more complex than such passive mass shielding, but usage of magnetic and/or electric fields, like through spacecraft encapsulating wires, to deflect particles could potentially greatly reduce mass requirements.
288:: set of constructed elements supporting habitats and/or settlements such as (and not limited to): power plant, water plant, greenhouse and waste management facilities, communication facilities, transportation facilities, EVAs, roads, spaceport, research platforms, and so on.
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Proposals are available to move even kilometer-sized NEOs to high Earth orbits, and reaction engines for such purposes would move a space settlement and any arbitrarily large shield, but not in any timely or rapid manner, the thrust being very low compared to the huge mass.
1204:: another concept that would use carbon nanotubes, a McKendree cylinder is paired cylinders in the same vein as the Island Three concept, but each 460 km in radius and 4600 km long (versus 3.2 km radius and 32 km long in the Island Three).
1060:(O'Neill, "the High Frontier". Sheppard, "Concrete Space Colonies"; Spaceflight, journal of the B.I.S.) In any of these cases, strong meteoroid protection is implied by the external radiation shell ~4.5 tonnes of rock material, per square meter.
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in the U.S., a group of enthusiasts that desired to build and live in such colonies. The group was named after the space-colony orbit which was then believed to be the most profitable, a kidney-shaped orbit around either of Earth's lunar
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Lewis One: A cylinder of radius 250 m with a non-rotating radiation shielding. The shielding protects the micro-gravity industrial space, too. The rotating part is 450m long and has several inner cylinders. Some of them are used for
1285:, a Bishop Ring is a torus 1000 km in radius, 500 km in width, and with atmosphere retention walls 200 km in height. The habitat would be large enough that it could be "roofless", open to outer space on the inner rim.
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Note that Solar Power
Satellites are proposed in the multi-GW ranges, and such energies and technologies would allow constant radar mapping of nearby 3D space out-to arbitrarily far away, limited only by effort expended to do so.
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Multi-Mission Space
Exploration Vehicle (MMSEV). The ISS module would have an outside diameter of 30 feet (9.1 m) with a 30 inches (760 mm) ring interior cross-section diameter and would provide 0.08 to
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Kalpana One, revised: A short cylinder with 250 m radius and 325 m length. The radiation shielding is 10 t/m and rotates. It has several inner cylinders for agriculture and recreation. It is sized for 3,000
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The requirements for a space settlement are many. They would have to provide all the material needs for hundreds or thousands of humans, in an environment out in space that is very hostile to human life.
1052:, dust, etc. Most meteoroids that strike the earth vaporize in the atmosphere. Without a thick protective atmosphere meteoroid strikes would pose a much greater risk to a space settlement.
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would raise hot air "up" (toward the center), and cool air would fall down into the outer habitat. Some other designs would distribute coolants, such as chilled water from a central radiator.
947:, and added in appropriate amounts to the fertilizers and industrial stocks. It is likely that methods would be greatly refined as people began to actually live in space settlements.
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would allow habitats to be constructed to give an immense total population capacity. Using the free-floating resources of the Solar System, this estimate extended into the trillions.
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No space settlement has been constructed yet, but many design concepts, with varying degrees of realism, have been introduced in science-fiction or proposed for actual realization.
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burner, which effectively decomposes most organics. Further protection might be provided by a small cryogenic distillation system which would gradually remove impurities such as
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Space has an abundance of light produced from the Sun. In Earth orbit, this amounts to 1400 watts of power per square meter. This energy can be used to produce electricity from
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will sweep the space around each habitat mapping the trajectory of debris and other man-made objects and allowing corrective actions to be taken to protect the habitat.
644:). One could produce breathing oxygen, drinking water, and rocket fuel with the help of ISRU. It may become possible to manufacture solar panels from lunar materials.
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to sponsor a couple of summer workshops led by O'Neill. Several concepts were studied, with sizes ranging from 1,000 to 10,000,000 people, including versions of the
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for travel to other planets or distant stars (L. R. Shepherd described a generation starship in 1952 comparing it to a small planet with many people living in it.)
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Protection can be attained through passive or active shielding. Passive shielding through the use of materials has been the methode to shield current spacecrafts.
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Most asteroids have a mixture of materials, that could be mined, and because these bodies do not have substantial gravity wells, it would require low delta-V to
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in the late 1950s and 1960s speculated about hollowing out asteroids and then rotating the to use as settlements in various magazine articles and books, notably
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There is estimated to be enough material in the main asteroid belt alone to build enough space settlements to equal the habitable surface area of 3,000 Earths.
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2642:, a website that refers to Space habitats as Segits or Self-sufficient Extra-terrestrial Green-habitat Intentional Transparent self-replicating communities.
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2014:
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in 1964. The concept calls for drilling a tunnel through the longest axis of a large asteroid of iron or nickel-iron composition and filling it with a
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effort, as well as producing a number of feasibility studies. One of the early projects, for instance, involved a series of functional prototypes of a
919:. However, these do not remove certain industrial pollutants, such as volatile oils, and excess simple molecular gases. The standard method used on
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2136:. Space 98: Sixth International Conference and Exposition on Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space. Albuquerque, New Mexico.
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to eliminate heat from absorbed sunlight. Very small habitats might have a central vane that rotates with the habitat. In this design,
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used instead of rocket motors. The advantage of these is that they either use no reaction mass at all, or use cheap reaction mass.
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Earth-to-space settlement trade would be easier than Earth-to-planetary habitat trade, as habitats orbiting Earth will not have a
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profitable uses for them would be found, and the colony would become self-supporting and begin to build other colonies as well.
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Space settlements have been elements of different science-fiction stories, across different media, from books to movies like
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The concept studies generated a notable groundswell of public interest. One effect of this expansion was the founding of the
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2015:"Jeff Bezos foresees a trillion people living in millions of space colonies. Here's what he's doing to get the ball rolling"
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Implications of
Molecular Nanotechnology Technical Performance Parameters on Previously Defined Space System Architectures
238:, which more broadly includes habitats built on or within a body other than Earth, such as a settlement developed from a
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Water Walls
Architecture: Massively Redundant andn Highly Reliable Life Support for Long Duration Exploration Missions
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338:", a fictional story written in 1869 by Edward Everett Hale, is perhaps the first treatment of this idea in writing.
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or other habitat. This design has been proposed as a Mars ship, initial construction shack for a space habitat, and
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space habitat, from «Space
Settlements: A Design Study» book. Charles Holbrow and Richard D. Johnson, NASA, 1977.
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2394:. Space Technology and Applications International Forum (STAIF) Conference. Albuquerque, NM. Archived from
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The idea of space settlements either in fact or fiction goes back to the second half of the 19th century. "
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If a large area at the rotation axis is enclosed, various zero-g sports are possible, including swimming,
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276:: pressurized volume(s) within which humans live and work, including relevant facilities for life support.
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Scharmen, Fred (Jul 3, 2017). "Highest and Best Use: Subjectivity and
Climates Off and After Earth".
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based power stations, process ores, provide light for plants to grow and to warm space settlements.
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has differentiated space settlements to space habitats and space infrastructure the following way:
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for approximately two-thirds of the time (as happens with the Moon), putting residents at risk of
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While not automatically constituting a colonial entity, a space settlement can be an element of a
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1566:"NSS Roadmap to Space Settlement Milestone 30: Development of Interstellar Travel and Settlement"
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The habitat is in a vacuum, and therefore resembles a giant thermos bottle. Habitats also need a
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35:
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The 1975 space habitat video credited with inspiring Blue Origin (Jeff "Amazon" Bezos as a boy).
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NASA video about space habitats and space settlements construction as seen around 1970"s (5 min)
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1827:"Islands in Space: The Challenge of the Planetoids, the Pioneering Work of Dandridge M. Cole"
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to overcome to export to Earth, and a smaller gravity well to overcome to import from Earth.
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282:: group of permanently inhabited habitats installed near each other, possibly interconnected.
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2458:. The Fourth Foresight Conference on Molecular Nanotechnology. Palo Alto, California, USA.
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Ames Summer Study on Space
Settlements and Industrialization Using Nonterrestial Materials
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A space settlement can be the passenger compartment of a large spacecraft for colonizing
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Hein, Andreas M.; Pak, Mikhail; Pütz, Daniel; Bühler, Christian; Reiss, Philipp (2012).
1261:: a similar idea to the bubble world, the asteroid terrarium, appears in the 2012 novel
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Most mirror geometries require something on the habitat to be aimed at the Sun and so
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1198:"Island Three", an even larger O'Neil cylinder design (3.2 km radius and 32 km long).
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904:. The air of a habitat could be recycled in a number of ways. One concept is to use
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A number of arguments are made for space settlements having a number of advantages:
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Space settlements may be supplied with resources from extraterrestrial places like
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2310:"Plans for a modular Martian base that would provide its own radiation shielding"
2075:"A new, lower value of total solar irradiance: Evidence and climate significance"
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2631:, a video about affordable spaceflight and building a spacefaring civilization.
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A dumbbell-shaped self-sufficient and self-reproducible habitat for 10 persons
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2414:"Space Settlements: A Design Study -- Chapter 4: Choosing Among Alternatives"
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A Minimized
Technological Approach towards Human Self Sufficiency off Earth
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to roll the colony, and pushed the sunward pivots together or apart to use
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Notes: † Never inhabited due to launch or on-orbit failure, ‡ Part of the
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Bubbleworld: The
Bubbleworld or Inside/Outside concept was originated by
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Professor Robert B. Laughlin, Department of Physics, Stanford University
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A 1974 estimate assumed that collection of all the material in the main
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1752:"Architectural evolution of space settlements in cinema and television"
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810:, then its orbit will take it outside of the protection of the Earth's
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Recreational habitation, either as visitors or residents at space (see
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O'Neill's concepts had an example of a payback scheme: construction of
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182:
2177:"Colonies in Space, Chapter 11: What's to Do on Saturday Night ?"
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398:, was looking for a topic to tempt his physics students, most of them
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2591:"Homesteading the High Frontier: The Shape of Space Stations to Come"
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is necessary. The original O'Neill design used the two cylinders as
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565:, claiming extraterrestrial space for settler colonial independence
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1680:"People are calling for a movement to decolonize space-here's why"
1618:"Essay on the Causes and Consequences of Extraterrestrial Tyranny"
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1980:
O'Neill, Gerard K.; Reynolds, Ginie. Habitats in Space (Report).
1979:
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There are a range of arguments for space settlements, including:
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297:. The term "space colony" has been viewed critically, prompting
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stories, describing such worlds as the primary habitats of the
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Economic growth, developing access to resources in space and a
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military program, ° Never inhabited, lacks docking mechanism.
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1927:
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Journal of Design for Resilience in Architecture and Planning
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vapor, and noble gases that cannot be catalytically burned.
1185:, a Bernal sphere settlement for about 10,000–20,000 people.
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Exterior of a 1970s Stanford adaptation of the Bernal sphere
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The habitat would need to withstand potential impacts from
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speculated about rotating cylindrical space settlements in
215:) around the Earth or any other celestial body, as well as
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579:, in case of a disaster on the Earth (natural or man-made)
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1486: – Instrument in space to study astronomical objects
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six persons on missions of up to two years duration. The
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16:
Type of space station, intended as a permanent settlement
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The optimal settlement orbits are still debated, and so
705:, moons, and planets. It can also function as one for a
1592:"World ships—architectures & feasibility revisited"
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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if built with the 40 feet (12 m) diameter option.
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is a planned lunar space station, the first outside of
1153:-like spacecraft or habitat, connected by a cable to a
418:
2608:"Visions Of The High Frontier: Space Colonies of 1970"
2243:"Radiation Shielding Techniques for Human Spaceflight"
1853:
1653:
Federation, International Astronautical (2024-02-08).
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was proposed in 2011 as a demonstration project for a
1824:
2197:
Shepherd, L. R. (July 1952). "Interstellar Flight".
923:, a similar form of closed environment, is to use a
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See the "online books" about halfway down the page.
2326:
2001:"Space oddity: NASA's retro guide to future living"
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1646:
1343:compartment, preparatory for a similar module of a
1145:
Various concepts merging into a cylindrical station
647:
330:– was the first fictional space station or habitat.
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2675:
2332:
2174:
2153:"The Kalpana One Orbital Space Settlement Revised"
1542:"The Kalpana One Orbital Space Settlement Revised"
1128:
507:efficiently from the Moon to space colony orbits.
455:, the Toroidal Colony and the Cylindrical Colony.
409:in 1974. He expanded the article in his 1976 book
189:, its particular purpose is permanent habitation.
2341:. Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College
1589:
859:above the horizon at the atmospheric and orbital
359:Islands In Space: The Challenge Of The Planetoids
4379:
1367:spacecraft structures and would provide 0.11 to
2403:11–15 February 2007. Retrieved 18 December 2010
1454:(artificially created controlled human habitat)
619:
2072:
760:A 1970s NASA concept for routs and locating a
364:
4144:
3306:
2960:Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station
2661:
2215:
2199:Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
1622:Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
1596:Journal of the British Interplanetary Society
451:. Three concepts were presented to NASA: the
141:, showing alternating land and window stripes
1363:would utilize both standard metal-frame and
801:
790:market. Most settlement designs plan to use
2045:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2035:
1962:
1671:
995:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
835:annually, below the rate of some populated
4151:
4137:
3313:
3299:
2668:
2654:
2146:
2144:
2066:
1966:The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space
1652:
775:is probably a commercial issue. The lunar
486:
412:The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space
353:speculated about giant space settlements.
2378:
2098:
1969:. New York: William Morrow & Company.
1935:
1879:
1767:
1301:
1117:The two common original concepts are the
1015:Learn how and when to remove this message
738:
591:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2624:Video explaining rotating space habitats
2559:NASA's table of contents for the studies
2544:. Institute of Atomic-Scale Engineering.
2307:
2196:
2032:
1703:
1475: – Facility for scientific research
1309:
1288:
1211:
1172:
1140:
1132:
850:
755:
716:
690:
457:
430:
422:
374:
317:
132:
120:
3798:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
2141:
1825:Bonnici, Alex Michael (8 August 2007).
1820:
1818:
1677:
1615:
607:
517:Human presence in space § Purposes
4380:
4158:
3820:Psychological and sociological effects
3229:Space stations and habitats in fiction
3224:List of films featuring space stations
3147:Japanese Space Station Module (Mitsui)
2535:
1849:
1847:
1794:Trans. by Kenneth Syers. Oxford, 1960.
1749:
1745:
1743:
1611:
1609:
1493:Space stations and habitats in fiction
1447:Floating cities and islands in fiction
1039:
656:and haul them to a construction site.
503:, the essential technology for moving
266:International Astronautical Federation
254:A space settlement is any large-scale
4132:
3294:
2649:
2605:
2588:
2451:
1854:O'Neill, Gerard K. (September 1974).
1655:"IAF : Space Habitats Committee"
950:
2517:Orion's Arm - Encyclopedia Galactica
2301:
2235:
2007:
1998:
1916:(Report). NASA. 1977. Archived from
1898:(Report). NASA. 1975. Archived from
1815:
993:adding citations to reliable sources
960:
806:If a space settlement is located at
674:
419:NASA Ames/Stanford 1975 Summer Study
261:, or more particularly in an orbit.
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
2384:
2129:
1844:
1750:Ceylan, Salih (December 30, 2022).
1740:
1606:
1558:
1168:
1087:
874:, with normal partial pressures of
748:from the desired habitat location.
13:
3529:Weather and environment monitoring
2583:Lifeboat Foundation Space Habitats
2430:
2216:Gilster, Paul (28 February 2012).
2150:
1936:Pournelle, Dr. Jerrold E. (1980).
1712:(2). Informa UK Limited: 184–196.
1706:Journal of Architectural Education
934:
14:
4409:
2713:International Space Station (ISS)
2697:List of commercial space stations
2585:, a space habitat advocacy group.
2566:
2296:Space Settlements: A Design Study
2118:Space Settlements: A Design Study
1896:Space Settlements: A Design Study
1071:
792:electromagnetic tether propulsion
721:Configuration of a Stanford torus
435:Collage of figures and tables of
4112:
4102:
4101:
2915:Bigelow Commercial Space Station
2726:
2589:Lucas, Paul (21 February 2005).
2133:Artificial-Gravity Swimming-Pool
1678:Bartels, Meghan (May 25, 2018).
1379:Bigelow Commercial Space Station
1112:
965:
648:Asteroids and other small bodies
534:Relieving Earth of industry and
234:Space settlements are a form of
23:
3573:Space launch market competition
3320:
3075:Russian Orbital Service Station
2529:
2505:
2481:
2463:
2445:
2424:
2406:
2353:
2285:
2260:
2209:
2190:
2168:
2123:
2107:
1992:
1973:
1963:O'Neill, Dr. Gerard K. (1977).
1956:
1906:
1888:
1797:
1307:building of space settlements.
1191:: an alternative to Island One.
1129:Dumbbell-shape assembly concept
712:
394:, an experimental physicist at
137:Interior view of a large scale
34:needs additional citations for
3810:Health threat from cosmic rays
2471:"Kalpana One Space Settlement"
2130:Collins, Patrick; et al.
1784:
1534:
825:Health threat from cosmic rays
175:habitation facilities in space
173:, sustaining more extensively
1:
2551:
2308:Williams, Matt (2018-10-17).
2046:Doehring, James; et al.
1718:10.1080/10464883.2017.1340775
1385:
1281:: a speculative design using
846:
837:high natural background areas
729:
662:
583:
510:
386:Around 1970, near the end of
249:
3142:Bharatiya Antariksha Station
2930:Exploration Gateway Platform
2718:Tiangong space station (TSS)
2573:Gallery about space habitats
2452:McKendree, Thomas Lawrence.
1999:Page, Thomas (29 May 2016).
1769:10.47818/DRArch.2022.v3si072
638:in-situ resource utilization
620:In-situ resource utilization
491:In 1977 O'Neill founded the
314:Space station § History
236:extraterrestrial settlements
7:
3926:Self-replicating spacecraft
3762:International Space Station
2175:T. A. Heppenheimer (1977).
1856:"The Colonization of Space"
1415:
1248:colonized the asteroid belt
1177:Interior of a Bernal sphere
1107:
751:
365:O'Neill - The High Frontier
10:
4414:
4174:Interplanetary spaceflight
3440:Space Liability Convention
2945:Manned Orbiting Laboratory
2606:Frank, Adam (1 May 2011).
1805:"Tsiolkovsky's Greenhouse"
1762:((Special Issue)): 66–78.
1400:(2013) for a wheel shaped
1389:
954:
694:
514:
368:
311:
307:
195:Space settlements include
4339:
4313:
4243:
4212:
4166:
4096:
4063:
4016:
3968:
3854:
3803:Space adaptation syndrome
3790:
3695:
3615:
3606:
3494:
3328:
3277:
3216:
3165:
3134:
3114:
3083:
3067:
3060:
2995:
2940:Industrial Space Facility
2902:
2895:
2863:
2835:
2814:
2742:
2735:
2724:
2705:
2687:
2629:Opening the High Frontier
2538:"Open Air Space Habitats"
2489:"Bubbleworld (Dani Eder)"
2073:G. Kopp; J. Lean (2011).
1392:Space stations in fiction
1293:Artist's impression of a
1246:, a civilization who had
802:Protection from radiation
187:closed ecological systems
3536:Communications satellite
2536:Bishop, Forrest (1997).
2433:"Lewis One Space Colony"
2361:"A Space Habitat Design"
2333:Shepherd, Simon George.
1528:
1432:Closed ecological system
1410:cylindrical O'Neill type
654:draw materials from them
4298:Trans-Neptunian objects
4040:reusable launch systems
3657:Extravehicular activity
3568:Commercial use of space
3472:Militarisation of space
3445:Registration Convention
3361:Accidents and incidents
1616:Cockell, C. S. (2010).
1104:to change their angle.
493:Space Studies Institute
487:Space Studies Institute
427:Stanford torus exterior
341:In 1903, space pioneer
129:interior (cutaway view)
4357:National Space Society
4189:Planetary habitability
4088:Mission control center
4050:Non-rocket spacelaunch
3484:Billionaire space race
2692:List of space stations
2335:"Spacecraft Shielding"
2298:. NASA (SP-413), 1975.
1318:
1302:Space station projects
1298:
1217:
1178:
1146:
1138:
867:
773:orbital stationkeeping
768:
739:Initial capital outlay
722:
685:human-powered aircraft
592:Access to solar energy
468:solar power satellites
463:
440:
428:
383:
343:Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
331:
326:" – an 1869 serial by
291:
256:habitation facility in
142:
130:
4367:The Planetary Society
3938:Spacecraft propulsion
3388:European Space Agency
3152:Lunar Orbital Station
2054:. Lifeboat Foundation
1313:
1292:
1215:
1176:
1144:
1136:
854:
759:
720:
695:Further information:
691:Passenger compartment
551:, without destroying
461:
443:The result motivated
434:
426:
378:
321:
312:Further information:
270:
185:. Possibly including
136:
124:
4314:Terraforming targets
4244:Colonization targets
4184:Intergalactic travel
3563:Satellite navigation
2100:10.1029/2010GL045777
1831:Discovery Enterprise
1468:Planetary chauvinism
1273:Kim Stanley Robinson
1269:hard science fiction
989:improve this section
863:, captured from the
608:Outside gravity well
396:Princeton University
301:to propose the term
43:improve this article
4179:Interstellar travel
3948:Electric propulsion
3635:Life-support system
3519:Imagery and mapping
3479:Private spaceflight
2903:Individual projects
2460:9–11 November 1995.
2222:centauri-dreams.org
2218:"Les Shepherd, RIP"
2091:2011GeoRL..38.1706K
1872:1974PhT....27i..32O
1792:Beyond Planet Earth
1458:Locomotion in space
1314:Concept art of the
1216:Kaplana One concept
1040:Meteoroids and dust
536:population pressure
351:John Desmond Bernal
347:Beyond Planet Earth
328:Edward Everett Hale
197:orbital settlements
4225:McKendree cylinder
4194:Space and survival
4160:Space colonization
3901:Robotic spacecraft
3827:Space and survival
3682:Space colonization
3578:Space architecture
3430:Outer Space Treaty
3270:(2016 documentary)
3267:A Beautiful Planet
3262:(2009 documentary)
3254:(2008 documentary)
3246:(2002 documentary)
3238:(1997 documentary)
3183:McKendree cylinder
2996:Incorporated into
2920:Deep Space Habitat
2385:Curreri, Peter A.
2138:April 26–30, 1998.
2114:"Limits to Growth"
2079:Geophys. Res. Lett
1939:A Step Farther Out
1523:Underwater habitat
1513:Underground living
1479:Space architecture
1341:artificial gravity
1319:
1299:
1259:Asteroid terrarium
1218:
1202:McKendree cylinder
1179:
1147:
1139:
957:Artificial gravity
951:Artificial gravity
921:nuclear submarines
902:outer Solar System
868:
769:
723:
697:Space and survival
563:Space colonization
497:space colonization
464:
441:
429:
384:
332:
143:
131:
58:"Space settlement"
4375:
4374:
4126:
4125:
4073:Flight controller
3850:
3849:
3608:Human spaceflight
3583:Space exploration
3509:Earth observation
3288:
3287:
3251:Orphans of Apollo
3130:
3129:
3056:
3055:
2891:
2890:
2577:Wikimedia Commons
1881:10.1063/1.3128863
1554:on 16 April 2024.
1484:Space observatory
1223:Dandridge M. Cole
1025:
1024:
1017:
945:mass spectrometry
861:boundary to space
675:Zero g recreation
530:space exploration
392:Gerard K. O'Neill
381:O'Neill cylinders
355:Dandridge M. Cole
221:interstellar arks
119:
118:
111:
93:
4405:
4230:O'Neill cylinder
4199:Space settlement
4153:
4146:
4139:
4130:
4129:
4116:
4105:
4104:
3815:Space psychology
3640:Animals in space
3613:
3612:
3593:Space technology
3435:Rescue Agreement
3315:
3308:
3301:
3292:
3291:
3243:Space Station 3D
3198:Space settlement
3188:O'Neill cylinder
3065:
3064:
2900:
2899:
2843:Tiangong program
2740:
2739:
2730:
2670:
2663:
2656:
2647:
2646:
2615:
2602:
2597:. Archived from
2595:Strange Horizons
2546:
2545:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2499:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2473:. Archived from
2467:
2461:
2459:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2439:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2416:. Archived from
2410:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2393:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2305:
2299:
2292:"Mass Shielding"
2289:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2272:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2228:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2148:
2139:
2137:
2127:
2121:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2102:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2048:"Space Habitats"
2043:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1933:
1922:
1921:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1851:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1822:
1813:
1812:
1801:
1795:
1790:K. Tsiolkovsky.
1788:
1782:
1781:
1771:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1613:
1604:
1603:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1547:. Archived from
1546:
1538:
1518:Underground city
1489:
1473:Research station
1373:
1351:
1283:carbon nanotubes
1169:Further concepts
1123:O'Neill cylinder
1094:attitude control
1088:Attitude control
1034:simulate gravity
1020:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1000:
969:
961:
917:forest gardening
898:
897:
896:
371:O'Neill Cylinder
246:or an asteroid.
225:generation ships
147:space settlement
139:O'Neill cylinder
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
4413:
4412:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4371:
4335:
4309:
4251:Lagrange points
4239:
4208:
4162:
4157:
4127:
4122:
4092:
4059:
4031:Escape velocity
4012:
3964:
3931:Space telescope
3884:Reentry capsule
3846:
3786:
3691:
3662:Overview effect
3645:Bioastronautics
3602:
3490:
3324:
3319:
3289:
3284:
3273:
3212:
3161:
3157:Voyager Station
3126:
3110:
3079:
3052:
2991:
2925:Excalibur Almaz
2887:
2859:
2831:
2810:
2744:
2731:
2722:
2701:
2683:
2674:
2569:
2564:
2554:
2549:
2534:
2530:
2521:
2519:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2450:
2446:
2437:
2435:
2429:
2425:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2391:
2383:
2379:
2369:
2367:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2344:
2342:
2331:
2327:
2318:
2316:
2306:
2302:
2290:
2286:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2265:
2261:
2252:
2250:
2240:
2236:
2226:
2224:
2214:
2210:
2195:
2191:
2181:
2179:
2173:
2169:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2149:
2142:
2128:
2124:
2112:
2108:
2071:
2067:
2057:
2055:
2044:
2033:
2024:
2022:
2013:
2012:
2008:
1997:
1993:
1978:
1974:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1934:
1925:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1852:
1845:
1835:
1833:
1823:
1816:
1811:. 21 July 2010.
1803:
1802:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1748:
1741:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1676:
1672:
1663:
1661:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1636:
1614:
1607:
1588:
1584:
1575:
1573:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1487:
1427:Bioastronautics
1418:
1394:
1388:
1368:
1349:
1337:Centrifuge Demo
1327:Low Earth Orbit
1304:
1232:science fiction
1171:
1131:
1115:
1110:
1098:momentum wheels
1090:
1074:
1042:
1021:
1010:
1004:
1001:
986:
970:
959:
953:
937:
935:Food production
911:, possibly via
895:
892:
891:
890:
888:
849:
816:proton exposure
804:
787:
780:
766:cis-lunar space
754:
741:
732:
715:
707:generation ship
699:
693:
683:and the use of
677:
665:
650:
642:Asteroid mining
622:
610:
594:
586:
555:and displacing
519:
513:
489:
481:Lagrange points
476:L5 Society
421:
373:
367:
316:
310:
252:
201:orbital habitat
177:than a general
149:(also called a
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4411:
4401:
4400:
4395:
4393:Human habitats
4390:
4388:Space habitats
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4317:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4307:
4302:
4301:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4253:
4247:
4245:
4241:
4240:
4238:
4237:
4235:Stanford torus
4232:
4227:
4222:
4216:
4214:
4213:Space habitats
4210:
4209:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4170:
4168:
4164:
4163:
4156:
4155:
4148:
4141:
4133:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4120:
4109:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4078:Ground station
4075:
4069:
4067:
4065:Ground segment
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4033:
4028:
4022:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3998:Interplanetary
3995:
3994:
3993:
3991:Geosynchronous
3988:
3978:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3958:Gravity assist
3955:
3950:
3945:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3898:
3893:
3892:
3891:
3889:Service module
3886:
3881:
3879:Orbital module
3871:
3866:
3864:Launch vehicle
3860:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3842:Space sexology
3839:
3834:
3832:Space medicine
3829:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3812:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3758:
3757:
3747:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3725:
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3715:
3710:
3705:
3699:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3690:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3667:Weightlessness
3664:
3659:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3619:
3617:
3610:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3588:Space research
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3533:
3532:
3531:
3526:
3524:Reconnaissance
3521:
3516:
3506:
3500:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3486:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3422:
3421:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3393:European Union
3390:
3385:
3380:
3370:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3338:
3332:
3330:
3326:
3325:
3318:
3317:
3310:
3303:
3295:
3286:
3285:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3271:
3263:
3259:Space Tourists
3255:
3247:
3239:
3235:Mission to Mir
3231:
3226:
3220:
3218:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3203:Stanford torus
3200:
3195:
3193:Rotating wheel
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3125:
3124:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3069:
3062:
3061:In development
3058:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3018:
3017:
3016:
3006:Space Station
3002:
3000:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2910:Aurora Station
2906:
2904:
2897:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2884:
2883:
2878:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2808:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2748:
2746:
2737:
2733:
2732:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2699:
2694:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2677:Space stations
2673:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2603:
2601:on 2006-11-14.
2586:
2580:
2568:
2567:External links
2565:
2563:
2562:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2547:
2528:
2504:
2480:
2477:on 2013-02-15.
2462:
2444:
2423:
2420:on 2009-11-03.
2405:
2401:on 2011-06-06.
2377:
2352:
2325:
2300:
2294:, Appendix E,
2284:
2273:(Report). NASA
2259:
2234:
2208:
2189:
2167:
2140:
2122:
2106:
2065:
2031:
2006:
1991:
1972:
1955:
1949:978-0491029414
1948:
1923:
1920:on 2010-05-28.
1905:
1902:on 2002-11-19.
1887:
1843:
1814:
1796:
1783:
1739:
1696:
1670:
1645:
1605:
1582:
1557:
1532:
1530:
1527:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1481:
1476:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1449:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1417:
1414:
1402:Stanford torus
1387:
1384:
1303:
1300:
1287:
1286:
1276:
1267:, authored by
1256:
1255:
1254:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1189:Stanford torus
1186:
1170:
1167:
1130:
1127:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1089:
1086:
1073:
1072:Heat rejection
1070:
1041:
1038:
1023:
1022:
973:
971:
964:
955:Main article:
952:
949:
936:
933:
906:photosynthetic
893:
880:carbon dioxide
848:
845:
803:
800:
785:
778:
762:Stanford torus
753:
750:
740:
737:
731:
728:
714:
711:
692:
689:
676:
673:
664:
661:
649:
646:
621:
618:
609:
606:
593:
590:
585:
582:
581:
580:
566:
560:
545:
538:
532:
525:As a base for
512:
509:
488:
485:
449:Stanford torus
437:Stanford Torus
420:
417:
388:Project Apollo
369:Main article:
366:
363:
336:The Brick Moon
324:The Brick Moon
309:
306:
290:
289:
286:Infrastructure
283:
277:
251:
248:
213:orbital colony
127:Stanford torus
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4410:
4399:
4398:Space farming
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4340:Organizations
4338:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4306:
4303:
4299:
4296:
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4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
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4258:
4257:
4254:
4252:
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4248:
4246:
4242:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4169:
4167:Core concepts
4165:
4161:
4154:
4149:
4147:
4142:
4140:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4119:
4115:
4110:
4108:
4099:
4098:
4095:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4026:Direct ascent
4024:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4008:Intergalactic
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3983:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3943:Rocket engine
3941:
3940:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3874:Space capsule
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3853:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3837:Space nursing
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3821:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3791:Health issues
3789:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3745:Space Shuttle
3743:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3694:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3677:Space tourism
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3624:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3598:Space weather
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3501:
3499:
3497:
3493:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3462:Space command
3460:
3459:
3458:
3457:Space warfare
3455:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3419:
3418:United States
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3336:Astrodynamics
3334:
3333:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3311:
3309:
3304:
3302:
3297:
3296:
3293:
3282:
3276:
3269:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3248:
3245:
3244:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3173:Bernal sphere
3171:
3170:
3168:
3164:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3133:
3123:
3122:Lunar Gateway
3120:
3119:
3117:
3115:International
3113:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3091:Axiom Station
3089:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3010:
3009:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2994:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2815:United States
2813:
2807:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
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2738:
2734:
2729:
2719:
2716:
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2695:
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2686:
2682:
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2666:
2664:
2659:
2657:
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2651:
2648:
2641:
2638:
2636:
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2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2560:
2557:
2556:
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2539:
2532:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2494:
2490:
2484:
2476:
2472:
2466:
2457:
2456:
2448:
2434:
2427:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2397:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2366:
2365:quadibloc.com
2362:
2356:
2340:
2339:dartmouth.edu
2336:
2329:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2269:
2263:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2178:
2171:
2154:
2147:
2145:
2135:
2134:
2126:
2120:. NASA, 1975.
2119:
2116:, Chapter 7,
2115:
2110:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2085:(1): L01706.
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2002:
1995:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1967:
1959:
1951:
1945:
1942:. Ace Books.
1941:
1940:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1901:
1897:
1891:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1860:Physics Today
1857:
1850:
1848:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1819:
1810:
1806:
1800:
1793:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1610:
1601:
1597:
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1543:
1537:
1533:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1503:Space station
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1463:Megastructure
1461:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1452:Human outpost
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1413:
1411:
1408:(2014) for a
1407:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1383:
1380:
1375:
1372:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1323:Lunar Gateway
1317:
1316:Lunar Gateway
1312:
1308:
1296:
1291:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1175:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1159:orbital hotel
1156:
1155:counterweight
1152:
1143:
1135:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1119:Bernal sphere
1113:Base concpets
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1019:
1016:
1008:
1005:February 2011
998:
994:
990:
984:
983:
979:
974:This section
972:
968:
963:
962:
958:
948:
946:
941:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
907:
903:
899:
885:
881:
877:
873:
866:
862:
858:
853:
844:
840:
838:
832:
829:
827:
826:
821:
817:
813:
812:magnetosphere
809:
808:L4 or L5
799:
797:
793:
788:
781:
774:
767:
763:
758:
749:
747:
736:
727:
719:
710:
708:
704:
698:
688:
686:
682:
672:
670:
669:asteroid belt
660:
657:
655:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
617:
615:
605:
603:
599:
589:
578:
574:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
554:
550:
549:space economy
546:
543:
539:
537:
533:
531:
528:
524:
523:
522:
518:
508:
506:
502:
498:
494:
484:
483:5 or 4.
482:
477:
472:
469:
460:
456:
454:
453:Bernal Sphere
450:
446:
438:
433:
425:
416:
414:
413:
408:
407:
406:Physics Today
401:
397:
393:
390:(1961–1972),
389:
382:
377:
372:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
339:
337:
329:
325:
320:
315:
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247:
245:
241:
237:
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230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
205:orbital stead
202:
199:(also called
198:
193:
190:
188:
184:
180:
179:space station
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
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54:Find sources:
48:
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32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
4347:Mars Society
4304:
4256:Solar System
4204:Terraforming
4198:
4018:Space launch
4003:Interstellar
3969:Destinations
3738:Apollo–Soyuz
3687:Space diving
3672:Space toilet
3496:Applications
3413:Soviet Union
3373:Space policy
3368:Space launch
3265:
3257:
3249:
3241:
3233:
3208:Wet workshop
3197:
3101:Orbital Reef
3038:
3032:(ISS module)
3029:
3021:
3007:
2964:
2803:
2745:Soviet Union
2680:
2611:
2599:the original
2594:
2541:
2531:
2520:. Retrieved
2516:
2513:"Ederworlds"
2507:
2496:. Retrieved
2493:yarchive.net
2492:
2483:
2475:the original
2465:
2454:
2447:
2436:. Retrieved
2431:Globus, Al.
2426:
2418:the original
2408:
2396:the original
2387:
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2368:. Retrieved
2364:
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2343:. Retrieved
2338:
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2317:. Retrieved
2313:
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2277:November 13,
2275:. Retrieved
2262:
2251:. Retrieved
2249:. 2015-07-17
2246:
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2225:. Retrieved
2221:
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2180:. Retrieved
2170:
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2151:Globus, Al.
2132:
2125:
2117:
2109:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2056:. Retrieved
2052:lifeboat.com
2051:
2023:. Retrieved
2021:. 2019-05-15
2018:
2009:
1994:
1975:
1965:
1958:
1938:
1918:the original
1908:
1900:the original
1890:
1866:(9): 32–40.
1863:
1859:
1834:. Retrieved
1830:
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1687:. Retrieved
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1637:. Retrieved
1625:
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1599:
1595:
1585:
1574:. Retrieved
1572:. 2021-05-19
1569:
1560:
1549:the original
1536:
1442:Dyson sphere
1406:Interstellar
1395:
1376:
1331:
1320:
1305:
1262:
1195:agriculture.
1148:
1116:
1091:
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1058:
1046:space debris
1043:
1026:
1011:
1002:
987:Please help
975:
938:
869:
841:
833:
830:
823:
805:
796:mass drivers
770:
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713:Requirements
700:
681:hang gliding
678:
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614:gravity well
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573:civilization
569:For survival
520:
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295:space colony
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244:Mars habitat
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209:orbital city
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163:space colony
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99:January 2021
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41:Please help
36:verification
33:
4220:Bishop Ring
3976:Sub-orbital
3911:Space probe
3777:New Shepard
3755:Shuttle–Mir
3514:Archaeology
3467:Space force
3450:Moon Treaty
3322:Spaceflight
3178:Bishop Ring
2681:settlements
1836:26 November
1809:up-ship.com
1498:Spaceflight
1295:Bishop Ring
1279:Bishop Ring
1240:Known Space
1236:Larry Niven
913:hydroponics
744:having low
602:heat engine
598:solar cells
542:space hotel
501:mass driver
303:space city.
259:outer space
229:world ships
171:outer space
4382:Categories
4305:Free space
4045:Launch pad
4036:Expendable
3986:Geocentric
3953:Solar sail
3896:Spaceplane
3856:Spacecraft
3650:Space suit
3628:commercial
3556:Television
3351:Space Race
2987:Tiangong-3
2950:Nautilus-X
2853:Tiangong-2
2848:Tiangong-1
2772:Cosmos 557
2640:Segits.com
2552:References
2522:2024-01-09
2498:2024-01-09
2438:2006-05-28
2370:8 February
2319:2024-08-08
2253:2024-08-08
2205:: 149–167.
2182:30 January
2161:2009-08-29
2025:2024-08-06
1664:2024-04-25
1639:2024-08-07
1576:2024-08-07
1437:Domed city
1390:See also:
1386:In fiction
1365:inflatable
1361:centrifuge
1358:torus-ring
1345:Nautilus-X
1208:residents.
1183:Island One
1102:precession
1082:convection
1050:meteoroids
1032:forces to
847:Atmosphere
839:on Earth.
820:solar wind
730:Regulation
663:Population
584:Advantages
553:ecosystems
515:See also:
511:Motivation
379:A pair of
349:. In 1929
299:Carl Sagan
280:Settlement
250:Definition
183:spacecraft
167:settlement
159:space city
155:spacestead
69:newspapers
4276:Asteroids
4055:Spaceport
3906:Satellite
3623:Astronaut
3551:Telephone
3504:Astronomy
3425:Space law
3378:Australia
2982:Sundancer
2971:FlexCraft
2966:Skylab II
2227:1 January
1778:2757-6329
1734:115502023
1726:1046-4883
1634:0007-084X
1628:: 15–37.
1602:(4): 119.
1404:type and
1355:partial-g
976:does not
925:catalytic
818:from the
703:asteroids
632:, or the
630:asteroids
577:biosphere
571:of human
4107:Category
3772:Tiangong
3767:Shenzhou
3696:Programs
3541:Internet
3346:Timeline
3166:Concepts
3135:Proposed
3030:Columbus
3022:Columbus
2977:Skylab B
2896:Canceled
2822:OPS 0855
2797:Salyut 7
2792:Salyut 6
2787:Salyut 5
2782:Salyut 4
2777:Salyut 3
2767:Salyut 2
2757:Salyut 1
2743:Russia /
2314:Phys.org
2019:NBC News
1986:24128636
1684:Newsweek
1422:Arcology
1416:See also
1227:volatile
1163:dumbbell
1151:dumbbell
1121:and the
1108:Concepts
1078:radiator
1030:inertial
884:nitrogen
872:pressure
752:Location
575:and the
559:on Earth
400:freshmen
240:moonbase
4261:Mercury
3981:Orbital
3782:Artemis
3713:Voskhod
3708:Mercury
3616:General
3356:Records
3341:History
3329:General
3217:Related
3106:Starlab
3096:Haven-1
3084:Private
3008:Freedom
2871:Genesis
2864:Private
2706:Current
2542:iase.cc
2087:Bibcode
2058:29 June
1868:Bibcode
1689:Oct 31,
1398:Elysium
1271:writer
1244:Belters
1238:in his
1234:author
997:removed
982:sources
940:Organic
929:mercury
909:gardens
878:(21%),
857:airglow
746:delta-v
557:peoples
308:History
274:Habitat
217:cyclers
165:) is a
83:scholar
4362:SpaceX
4331:Europa
4281:mining
4118:Portal
4111:
4100:
3916:Lander
3869:Rocket
3733:Skylab
3728:Apollo
3718:Gemini
3703:Vostok
3408:Russia
3068:Russia
2935:Galaxy
2827:Skylab
2752:Salyut
2003:. CNN.
1984:
1946:
1776:
1732:
1724:
1632:
876:oxygen
640:; see
527:crewed
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
4326:Venus
4293:Titan
4266:Venus
3921:Rover
3723:Soyuz
3546:Radio
3403:Japan
3398:India
3383:China
3281:Almaz
3040:Mir-2
2955:OPSEK
2836:China
2762:DOS-2
2575:, in
2399:(PDF)
2392:(PDF)
2345:3 May
2271:(PDF)
2156:(PDF)
1982:JSTOR
1730:S2CID
1552:(PDF)
1545:(PDF)
1529:Notes
1508:Spome
1350:0.51g
1054:Radar
915:, or
822:(see
794:, or
223:, as
90:JSTOR
76:books
4352:NASA
4321:Mars
4288:Moon
4271:Mars
4083:Pass
4038:and
3024:MTFF
3014:USOS
2736:Past
2679:and
2372:2021
2347:2011
2279:2022
2229:2015
2184:2012
2060:2011
1944:ISBN
1838:2014
1774:ISSN
1722:ISSN
1691:2021
1630:ISSN
1377:The
1369:0.69
1332:The
1321:The
1264:2312
1028:use
980:any
978:cite
882:and
870:Air
855:The
782:and
634:Moon
626:Mars
505:ores
445:NASA
264:The
242:, a
219:and
62:news
3750:Mir
3046:ROS
2998:ISS
2805:Mir
2612:NPR
2095:doi
1876:doi
1764:doi
1714:doi
1659:IAF
1570:NSS
1334:ISS
991:by
865:ISS
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764:in
600:or
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