Outer space - Knowledge

2171: 817: 501: 1918: 928:. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kilopascals (0.3 psi). Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5 mi) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi) pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism. Most space suits use around 30–39 kilopascals (4–6 psi) of pure oxygen, about the same as the partial pressure of oxygen at the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause 1532: 1152: 1968: 1932: 1882: 387: 1950: 1628: 2078: 10393: 1407: 2027: 1805: 2045: 2000: 9789: 38: 1900: 1847:(WHIM). Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 10 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics. Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state. When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 10 K and above in the so-called 11622: 1037: 10375: 11586: 2015: 1513: 2506: 10384: 11673: 1338: 1868: 11685: 2380: 11649: 11610: 11598: 10121: 1988: 901:—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest. Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture. Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to 2604: 2063: 11661: 1839:(IGM). The density of these filaments of intergalactic medium is about one atom per cubic meter, which is 5–200 times the average density of the universe after including the cosmic voids. The IGM is inferred to be mostly primordial in composition, with 76% hydrogen by mass, and enriched with higher mass elements from high-velocity galactic outflows. 1330:, threatening any space activity in this region. Some of this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically. Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density inside low-Earth orbital space, the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line, is still sufficient to produce significant 418:. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space. Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep 1137:

been argued for setting no specified singular altitude in international law, instead applying different limits depending on the case, in particular based on the craft and its purpose. Spacecraft have flown over foreign countries as low as 30 km (19 mi), as in the example of the Space Shuttle.

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speculated that the universe lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained. These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher

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As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 10 K to 10 K. Hence, collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electron to escape from the hydrogen nuclei; this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the

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and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of

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of the present day universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters. The density of the

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would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return. An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $ 9,000–$ 30,000 per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then). The cost of access to space has

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arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void. This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.

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where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun. The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind. The heliopause in turn deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, with

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The transition between Earth's atmosphere and outer space lacks a well-defined physical boundary, with the air pressure steadily decreasing with altitude until it mixes with the solar wind. Various definitions for a practical boundary have been proposed, ranging from 30 km (19 mi) out to

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mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei. The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water

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below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. At altitudes above

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There is no internationally recognized legal altitude limit on national airspace, although the Kármán line is the most frequently used for this purpose. Objections have been made to setting this limit too high, as it could inhibit space activities due to concerns about airspace violations. It has

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became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the

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is defined by the United States government as all of outer space which lies further from Earth than a typical low-Earth-orbit, thus assigning the moon to deep-space. Other definitions vary the starting point of deep-space from, "That which lies beyond the orbit of the moon," to "That which lies

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For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the American

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in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK). As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.

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Space in proximity to the Earth is physically similar to the remainder of interplanetary space, but is home to a multitude of Earth–orbiting satellites and has been subject to extensive studies. For identification purposes, this volume is divided into overlapping regions of space.

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800 km (500 mi), orbital lifetime is measured in centuries. Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere.

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of stellar ejecta outward, distributing it throughout the interstellar medium, including the heavy elements previously formed within the star's core. The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 10 particles per m, but cold

1067:. The altitude of 118 km (73.3 mi) above Earth was the midpoint for charged particles transitioning from the gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more extreme flows of outer space. The latter can reach velocities well over 268 m/s (880 ft/s). 890:. At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule. 473:

that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter. Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the universe, dark energy's influence is 5

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gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kilopascals (1 psi), and this condition is called

445:", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity. The flat universe, combined with the measured mass density of the universe and the accelerating 1253:, this velocity is about 7,800 m/s (28,100 km/h; 17,400 mph); by contrast, the fastest piloted airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2,200 m/s (7,900 km/h; 4,900 mph) in 1967 by the 854:

hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially

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allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the

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that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.

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for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys lasting several decades. For example, the

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Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space. Four additional

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by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. The Earth's atmospheric

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mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent.

2123:, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher 1174:, the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty, calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a 1465:

model. In the case of Earth this includes all space from the Earth to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun, or 1.5 million km (0.93 million mi). Beyond Earth's Hill sphere extends along

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containers and other barriers. The impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.

921:. The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. 8650:

Fichtner, Horst; Liu, W. William (2011), "Advances in Coordinated Sun-Earth System Science Through Interdisciplinary Initiatives and International Programs", written at Sopron, Hungary, in Miralles, M.P.; Almeida, J. Sánchez (eds.),

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One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window

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per cubic meter. By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 10 molecules per cubic meter. The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the

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can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and

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have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fully

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Frisch, Priscilla C.; Müller, Hans R.; Zank, Gary P.; Lopate, C. (May 6–9, 2002), "Galactic environment of the Sun and stars: interstellar and interplanetary material", in Livio, Mario; Reid, I. Neill; Sparks, William B. (eds.),

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Wassmann, Marko; et al. (May 2012), "Survival of Spores of the UV-ResistantBacillus subtilis Strain MW01 After Exposure to Low-Earth Orbit and Simulated Martian Conditions: Data from the Space Experiment ADAPT on EXPOSE-E",

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In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, The Republic of the Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia: with their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or the

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The lack of pressure in space is the most immediate dangerous characteristic of space to humans. Pressure decreases above Earth, reaching a level at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi) that matches the

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turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.

2194:. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon. 2548:

of the Earth. The latter role serves a variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and

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Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through

973:, and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in 1178:

has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations. It prohibits the deployment of

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that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii. For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.

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Daytime radiative cooling has attracted considerable attention recently due to its tremendous potential for passively exploiting the coldness of the universe as clean and renewable energy.

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activity of the gas, as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in

741:. The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 10 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of 1750:. The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more. This volume contains about 10–10 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the 406:

The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent. According to the Big Bang theory, the very early universe was an extremely hot and dense state about

5425:"ESIL Reflection – Clearing up the Space Junk – On the Flaws and Potential of International Space Law to Tackle the Space Debris Problem – European Society of International Law" 5061:

Sangalli, L.; et al. (2009), "Rocket-based measurements of ion velocity, neutral wind, and electric field in the collisional transition region of the auroral ionosphere",

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influences. Satellites make use of the significantly reduced drag in space to stay in stable orbits, allowing them to efficiently span the whole globe, compared to for example

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are now only awarded to spacecraft crew members that "demonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety."

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have reached altitudes above Earth of up to 50 km. Up until 2021, the United States designated people who travel above an altitude of 50 mi (80 km) as astronauts.

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Flynn, G. J.; et al. (2003), "The Origin of Organic Matter in the Solar System: Evidence from the Interplanetary Dust Particles", in Norris, R.; Stootman, F. (eds.),

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knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. It would remain for his pupil

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universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and

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bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium. A bow shock is a third boundary characteristic of an astrosphere, laying outside the

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from the atmosphere to support itself, which he calculated to be at an altitude of about 83.8 km (52.1 mi). This distinguishes altitudes below as the region of

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Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA

8235:"Flexible Daytime Radiative Cooling Enhanced by Enabling Three-Phase Composites with Scattering Interfaces between Silica Microspheres and Hierarchical Porous Coatings" 4237: 1808:

Large-scale matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber-like structures represent the matter, and the empty regions in between represent the

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of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the

7900: 2576:, allowing light from more than 13 billion years ago—almost to the time of the Big Bang—to be observed. Not every location in space is ideal for a telescope. The 1816:

Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies show that the universe has a foam-like structure, with

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with a perigee as low as 80 to 90 km (50 to 56 mi), surviving for multiple orbits. At an altitude of 120 km (75 mi), descending spacecraft such as

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temperature of the background radiation is about 2.7 K (−455 °F). The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in the

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retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate. In 1887, the

1678:. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a 1555:

where the solar wind remains active. The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun which creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the

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in low Earth orbit around the ISS, which clings to suits and equipment. Other regions of space could have very different smells, like that of different alcohols in

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences – Origin and early evolution of solid matter in the Solar System

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charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.

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at 448,900 km (278,934 mi). This is located beyond the orbit of the Moon and therefore includes cislunar space. Translunar space is the region of lunar

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Raggio, J.; et al. (May 2011), "Whole Lichen Thalli Survive Exposure to Space Conditions: Results of Lithopanspermia Experiment with Aspicilia fruticulosa",

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in 1576. But the scale of the universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer

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required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 11,200 m/s (40,300 km/h; 25,100 mph).

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Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about every class of celestial object. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scale

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Outer space has become an important element of global society. It provides multiple applications that are beneficial to the economy and scientific research.

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Near-Earth space showing the low-Earth (blue), medium Earth (green), and high Earth (red) orbits. The last extends beyond the radius of geosynchronous orbits

312:, as meaning 'the region beyond Earth's sky', predates the use of full term "outer space", with the earliest recorded use of this meaning in an epic poem by 11406: 7951:

Maccone, Claudio (August 2001), "Searching for bioastronomical signals from the farside of the Moon", in Ehrenfreund, P.; Angerer, O.; Battrick, B. (eds.),

1386:. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. 1105:, is set at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This line is named after 10871: 10715: 10685: 4370: 2285:

in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away. The distance to the

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The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with

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in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicist

3195: 10826: 1216:, they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country. These claims are not internationally accepted. 6893: 2615:

The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces. Like

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provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of

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Wielebinski, Richard; Beck, Rainer (2010), "Cosmic Magnetic Fields − An Overview", in Block, David L.; Freeman, Kenneth C.; Puerari, Ivânio (eds.),

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Fitzpatrick, E. L. (May 2004), "Interstellar Extinction in the Milky Way Galaxy", in Witt, Adolf N.; Clayton, Geoffrey C.; Draine, Bruce T. (eds.),

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The concept that the space between the Earth and the Moon must be a vacuum was first proposed in the 17th century after scientists discovered that

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Mathiesen, B. F.; Evrard, A. E. (2001), "Four Measures of the Intracluster Medium Temperature and Their Relation to a Cluster's Dynamical State",

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is the space between the eight planets, the space between the planets and the Sun, as well as that space beyond the orbit of the outermost planet

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Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

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that forms what is now called outer space. As light has a finite velocity, this theory constrains the size of the directly observable universe.

10491: 8042: 2410:, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi). This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when 961:, and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience 353:

to name the space of altitudes above Earth where spacecrafts reach conditions sufficiently free from atmospheric drag, differentiating it from

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Oppenheimer, Benjamin D.; Davé, Romeel (December 2006), "Cosmological simulations of intergalactic medium enrichment from galactic outflows",

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Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun. There are magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn,

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crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi). This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German

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becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.

414:. About 380,000 years later the universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called 8008:

Chapmann, Glenn (May 22–27, 1991), "Space: the Ideal Place to Manufacture Microchips", in Blackledge, R.; Radfield, C.; Seida, S. (eds.),

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in 1964. Since that time, uncrewed spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many

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and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth. In August 2012,

185:, is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. Certain portions of the upper 10143: 8056:

Forgan, Duncan H.; Elvis, Martin (October 2011), "Extrasolar asteroid mining as forensic evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence",

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Boulares, Ahmed; Cox, Donald P. (December 1990), "Galactic hydrostatic equilibrium with magnetic tension and cosmic-ray diffusion",

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predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new

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Radiative cooling does not consume external energy but rather harvests coldness from outer space as a new renewable energy source.

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An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space.

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at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely empty, and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include

785: 6054: 10896: 10655: 10575: 8708:, Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series, vol. 16, Baltimore, MD, US: Cambridge University Press, p. 21, 7985: 6764:

New Horizons in Astronomy; Proceedings of the Conference Held 16–18 October 2005 at The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA

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The placing of artificial satellites in Earth orbit has produced numerous benefits and has become the dominating sector of the

1923: 579: 399: 5312: 5212:, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs/ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, March 23, 2017, archived from 3452: 232:

was first measured. Humans began the physical exploration of space later in the same century with the advent of high-altitude

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ITU-R Radio Regulations, Article 1, Terms and definitions, Section VIII, Technical terms relating to space, paragraph 1.177.

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Withbroe, George L. (February 1988), "The temperature structure, mass, and energy flow in the corona and inner solar wind",

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Yoder, Charles F. (1995), "Astrometric and Geodetic Properties of Earth and the Solar System", in Ahrens, Thomas J. (ed.),

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indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by

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proposed an experiment to test this hypothesis. In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the

981:. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise. Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the 434: 5814: 5712: 4593:

Harding, R. M.; Mills, F. J. (April 30, 1983), "Aviation medicine. Problems of altitude I: hypoxia and hyperventilation",

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emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an

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as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from

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Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the

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Wakker, B. P.; Savage, B. D. (2009), "The Relationship Between Intergalactic H I/O VI and Nearby (z<0.017) Galaxies",

2844:(n.) physical space independent of what occupies it. The region beyond the earth's atmosphere or beyond the solar system. 2032: 1563:/cm and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph). Interplanetary space extends out to the 1458: 9412: 9090:

Mendillo, Michael (November 8–10, 2000), "The atmosphere of the moon", in Barbieri, Cesare; Rampazzi, Francesca (eds.),

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Fang, T.; et al. (2010), "Confirmation of X-Ray Absorption by Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium in the Sculptor Wall",

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originating from individual stars, or formed by solar wind emanating from the Sun. It is the space between the stars or

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and is the site of most of humanity's space activity. The region has seen high levels of space debris, sometimes dubbed

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Jafelice, Luiz C.; Opher, Reuven (July 1992), "The origin of intergalactic magnetic fields due to extragalactic jets",

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is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as

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A computer-generated map of objects orbiting Earth, as of 2005. About 95% are debris, not working artificial satellites

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Being essentially empty, outer space allows the earliest (redder) galaxies to be viewed without obstruction, as in the

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Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic

11429: 7521: 5606: 5213: 2734: 2700: 1844: 1791: 652:. All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as the 614: 119: 5179: 1272:. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 228:

decreased with altitude. The immense scale of outer space was grasped in the 20th century when the distance to the

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to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury

11554: 9232:

Porter, Roy; Park, Katharine; Daston, Lorraine (2006), "The Cambridge History of Science: Early modern science",

2434:, which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth. 2312:. This theory holds that the universe originated from a state of extreme energy density that has since undergone 2227: 1183: 4332:"Survival of Plant Seeds, Their UV Screens, and nptII DNA for 18 Months Outside the International Space Station" 9499: 8335:

Wang, Tong; et al. (2021), "A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling",

4878:

Curtis, S. B.; Letaw, J. W. (1989), "Galactic cosmic rays and cell-hit frequencies outside the magnetosphere",

4331: 2562: 2449:

became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of

2246:, which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or 1767: 746: 65: 4805:

Williams, David; et al. (June 23, 2009), "Acclimation during space flight: effects on human physiology",

2919:

Gupta, Anjali; et al. (May 2010), "Detection and Characterization of the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium",

11479: 7844:"Space Foundation Releases The Space Report 2023 Q2, Showing Annual Growth of Global Space Economy to $ 546B" 7295:

West, John B. (March 2013), "Torricelli and the Ocean of Air: The First Measurement of Barometric Pressure",

3187: 2513:

is an orbiting laboratory for space applications and habitability. Visible in the background is yellow-green

2488: 2301:. This established that the Andromeda galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way. 1057: 993:. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face. 4567: 1219:

An increasing issue of international space law and regulation has been the dangers of the growing number of

11514: 9866: 7088:

Bykov, A. M.; et al. (February 2008), "Equilibration Processes in the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium",

3998: 2597: 2215: 1364:, which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the 1013: 738: 394:, where visible space is represented by the circular sections. At left, a dramatic expansion occurs in the 28: 8294: 7634:

Assis, A. K. T.; et al. (July 1995), "History of the 2.7 K Temperature Prior to Penzias and Wilson",

2320: 1666:

of sparse matter and radiation. The boundary between an astrosphere and interstellar space is known as an

10710: 9740: 7914:

Landgraf, M.; et al. (February 2001), "IRSI/Darwin: peering through the interplanetary dust cloud",

3007: 2510: 1395:

location and timing. Magnetic storms can be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They create

688: 248:

in 1961. The economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high, limiting human

159: 108: 7801: 6000: 11639: 10083: 9788: 7843: 5757: 5007: 2496: 2211: 1817: 1506: 1175: 1156: 868: 661: 500: 92: 42: 8809:

Much ado about nothing: theories of space and vacuum from the Middle Ages to the scientific revolution

8184: 5450: 5157: 4209: 1917: 637:

in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to

11469: 11464: 10645: 9745: 6383: 6191: 6141:"51 U.S.C 10101 -National and Commercial Space Programs, Subtitle I-General, Chapter 101-Definitions" 5403: 3694: 2577: 1392: 1383: 1008:

count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes,

719: 649: 505: 415: 411: 391: 84: 8385: 5480: 3335:

Planck Collaboration (2014), "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific results",

2253:

The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite universe was the Englishman

11509: 9053: 8295:"Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach" 2749: 2638: 2569: 2533: 2170: 2154:

and created a scientific sensation in Europe. Torricelli suggested that since air has weight, then

1937: 1738:

of the Milky Way galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the

1357: 1106: 1004:

can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the

346: 6960: 6541: 6035:, AGU reference shelf Series, vol. 1, Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, p. 1, 3273: 11589: 10078: 9858: 9649: 9634: 8501:

A history of physics in its elementary branches: including the evolution of physical laboratories

4851: 2794: 2739: 2729: 2681: 2608: 2360: 1675: 1591: 1454: 1265: 1199:. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and 875: 756: 704: 645: 330: 6795:

McComas, D. J.; et al. (2012), "The Heliosphere's Interstellar Interaction: No Bow Shock",

6328: 6260: 5532: 5361: 1571:

The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one

1151: 11710: 11444: 10409: 10319: 10196: 10191: 10070: 9618: 9495: 9096:, Padova, Italy at the Accademia Galileiana Di Scienze Lettere Ed Arti: Springer, p. 275, 8448:

Billings, Charles E. (1973), "Barometric Pressure", in Parker, James F.; West, Vita R. (eds.),

5034: 3298: 2634: 2630: 2573: 2568:

The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the

2147: 2111: 1931: 1881: 1747: 1564: 1509:, but which distance is also far less than the distance between Earth and any adjacent planet. 978: 929: 879: 575: 338: 297: 9485: 9321: 9251: 9091: 9013: 8907: 8787: 8572: 8429: 6852: 850:

has survived 559 days when exposed to low Earth orbit or a simulated Martian environment. The

574:

in intergalactic space is about 10 km, or 10 billion light years. In spite of this,

11715: 11499: 11474: 11112: 10730: 10277: 9730: 9677: 9662: 9577: 9557: 9537: 9426: 9297: 9277: 9213: 9129: 9033: 8993: 8887: 8867: 8827: 8807: 8767: 8631: 8592: 8529: 5206:

Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as of 1 January 2017

4057: 3028:

It turns out that roughly 68% of the Universe is dark energy. Dark matter makes up about 27%.

2716: 2558: 2175: 2054: 1526: 1276:/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. The 1200: 1053: 982: 962: 745:

is only about 1% of that of protons. Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a

617:. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to 426: 214: 8509: 4742:

Webb, P. (1968), "The Space Activity Suit: An Elastic Leotard for Extravehicular Activity",

3358: 2977: 2862: 2327:

made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist

1213: 1063:

In 2009, measurements of the direction and speed of ions in the atmosphere were made from a

699:. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields that exist in several nearby galaxies. 11705: 11560: 11544: 11169: 10540: 10511: 10392: 10216: 9735: 9369: 8953: 8919: 8709: 8656: 8453: 8306: 8196: 8165: 8118: 8075: 7956: 7933: 7694: 7572: 7493: 7484:

Curtis, Heber D. (January 1988), "Novae in Spiral Nebulae and the Island Universe Theory",

7213: 7160: 7107: 7060: 7007: 6902: 6804: 6777: 6716: 6669: 6626: 6587: 6483: 6438: 6415: 6358: 6299: 6114: 6036: 5883: 5749: 5122: 5070: 4887: 4443: 4404: 4346: 4296: 4122: 4063: 4030: 3964: 3917: 3855: 3815: 3746: 3637: 3570: 3523: 3400: 3354: 3070: 2973: 2928: 2589: 2537: 2384: 2077: 1836: 1824:

that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of 7–30 megaparsecs.

1779: 1774:

probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a

1423: 1406: 1323: 898: 894: 834: 700: 696: 442: 202: 9167: 8948:

Kanas, Nick; Manzey, Dietrich (2008), "Basic Issues of Human Adaptation to Space Flight",

8109:

Burton, Rodney; et al. (May 2005), "Low-Cost Launch of Payloads to Low Earth Orbit",

1427: 8: 11689: 11504: 11484: 11297: 10987: 10475: 10339: 10314: 10282: 10201: 10052: 9893: 9667: 9463: 6518: 6095:

Granvik, Mikael; et al. (March 2012), "The population of natural Earth satellites",

2648: 2620: 2402:

climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the uncrewed satellite

2319:

The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist

2223: 2083: 1967: 1941: 1848: 1795: 1759: 1751: 1670:. For the Sun, the astrosphere and astropause are called the heliosphere and heliopause. 1663: 1615: 1536: 1487: 1319: 1254: 1030: 997: 816: 550: 407: 261: 163: 135: 61: 57: 9373: 8957: 8923: 8713: 8660: 8457: 8310: 8200: 8169: 8122: 8079: 7960: 7937: 7698: 7576: 7560: 7497: 7217: 7164: 7111: 7064: 7011: 6906: 6808: 6781: 6720: 6673: 6630: 6591: 6487: 6442: 6419: 6362: 6118: 6040: 5887: 5753: 5677: 5126: 5074: 4891: 4447: 4408: 4350: 4300: 4126: 4067: 4034: 3968: 3921: 3859: 3819: 3750: 3641: 3574: 3527: 3404: 3248: 2985: 2932: 2309: 1949: 1820:

lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms

478:

smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.

11677: 11602: 11524: 11494: 11439: 11316: 11292: 10791: 10725: 10590: 10550: 10401: 10364: 10324: 10303: 10246: 10221: 10125: 10065: 10004: 9888: 9810: 8405: 8357: 8272: 8246: 8212: 8091: 8065: 7923: 7710: 7662: 7590: 7317: 7229: 7203: 7176: 7150: 7123: 7097: 7050: 7023: 7019: 6997: 6830: 6767: 6739: 6642: 6603: 6577: 6499: 6104: 5899: 5578:, Astromaterials Research & Exploration Science: NASA Orbital Debris Program Office 5264: 5112: 5103:

McDowell, Jonathan C. (October 2018), "The edge of space: Revisiting the Karman Line",

4942: 4827: 4670: 4615: 4138: 4112: 3980: 3954: 3736: 3586: 3560: 3370: 3344: 3144: 2989: 2764: 2744: 2704: 2689: 2581: 2472: 2305: 2278: 2247: 2243: 2050: 1887: 1799: 1716: 1621: 1396: 1167: 887: 730: 618: 475: 395: 233: 198: 20:

This article is about the space between celestial bodies. For the general concept, see

8234: 7172: 6621:

Witt, Adolf N. (October 2001), "The Chemical Composition of the Interstellar Medium",

5895: 5359: 4678: 4103:

Letessier-Selvon, Antoine; Stanev, Todor (July 2011), "Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays",

3976: 3412: 3127:

Brady, Maura (October 2007), "Space and the Persistence of Place in "Paradise Lost"",

368:" denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a spacecraft; similarly, " 11549: 11132: 11032: 11002: 10920: 10660: 10545: 10501: 10449: 10256: 10251: 10183: 10092: 9991: 9940: 9915: 9871: 9853: 9797: 9725: 9611: 9585: 9563: 9543: 9523: 9471: 9450: 9432: 9395: 9377: 9348: 9327: 9303: 9283: 9257: 9237: 9219: 9199: 9193: 9173: 9153: 9135: 9115: 9097: 9077: 9059: 9039: 9019: 8999: 8969: 8935: 8893: 8873: 8853: 8833: 8813: 8793: 8773: 8753: 8735: 8717: 8690: 8672: 8637: 8617: 8598: 8578: 8557: 8539: 8533: 8515: 8472: 8435: 8409: 8362: 8276: 8264: 8216: 8095: 8036: 7964: 7714: 7685:

Pfotzer, G. (June 1972), "History of the Use of Balloons in Scientific Experiments",

7322: 7180: 7073: 6834: 6822: 6744: 6503: 6454: 6044: 5977:"To infinity and beyond: New Space Force unit to monitor 'xGEO' beyond Earth's orbit" 4947: 4903: 4899: 4832: 4751: 4662: 4620: 4511: 4468: 4420: 4362: 4312: 4142: 4079: 3984: 3945:

Fixsen, D. J. (December 2009), "The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background",

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tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the

2183: 1891: 1858: 1587: 1572: 1475: 1443: 1387: 1297: 1246: 1242: 1083: 966: 902: 846: 840: 711: 707: 487: 206: 69: 10135: 8706:

Astrophysics of life. Proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium

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From the Earth's surface, the ultracold temperature of outer space can be used as a

2335:

to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933. American physicists

2273:(compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 2124: 1203:

have been successfully tested by the USA, USSR, China, and in 2019, India. The 1979

676:

reaches temperatures over 1,200,000–2,600,000 K (2,200,000–4,700,000 °F).

11653: 11626: 11614: 11534: 11434: 11339: 11287: 10720: 10595: 10560: 10481: 10469: 10429: 10334: 10267: 10031: 9982: 9835: 9715: 9682: 9510: 9505: 8961: 8927: 8664: 8397: 8352: 8344: 8314: 8256: 8204: 8156:

Crawford, I. A. (September 1990), "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers",

8126: 8083: 7702: 7594: 7580: 7563:(May 1931), "The Beginning of the World from the Point of View of Quantum Theory", 7501: 7312: 7304: 7221: 7168: 7115: 7068: 7015: 6910: 6812: 6734: 6724: 6677: 6634: 6595: 6491: 6446: 6122: 5891: 5130: 5078: 4937: 4929: 4895: 4822: 4814: 4654: 4610: 4602: 4412: 4354: 4304: 4263: 4130: 4071: 4038: 3972: 3925: 3863: 3823: 3655: 3578: 3531: 3446: 3408: 3362: 3136: 2981: 2779: 2696: 2653: 2500: 2324: 2294: 2286: 2266: 2258: 2210:

cosmology to the concept of an infinite universe filled with a substance he called

2198: 1977: 1734:, which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the 1692: 1679: 1650:

Interstellar space is the physical space outside of the bubbles of plasma known as

1602: 1467: 1457:

remains dominant against gravitational potentials from other bodies, is the body's

1419: 1400: 1349: 1232: 1114: 1094: 1087: 1005: 913: 811: 669: 626: 495: 470: 438: 229: 218: 201:, which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of 178: 80: 9878: 5940: 3366: 1559:) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 369: 11720: 11222: 11197: 10735: 10675: 10459: 10359: 10344: 10329: 10236: 10226: 10097: 10057: 10047: 10019: 9962: 9898: 9767: 8847: 8668: 8466: 8318: 8208: 6931: 6126: 4972:"Why defining the boundary of space may be crucial for the future of spaceflight" 3100: 2712: 2642: 2616: 2593: 2313: 2239: 2143: 1973: 1832: 1771: 1723:

to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.

1720: 1711: 1707: 1659: 1491: 1479: 1327: 1277: 1250: 1064: 954: 807: 793: 768: 753: 586:

of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic

446: 253: 123: 8965: 6450: 5242:, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, January 1, 2008, archived from 4505: 4075: 3628:

Tadokoro, M. (1968), "A Study of the Local Group by Use of the Virial Theorem",

1594:. A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the 365: 11459: 11424: 11207: 11097: 11062: 11047: 10982: 10977: 10876: 10776: 10695: 10670: 10635: 10580: 10555: 10424: 10272: 9972: 9935: 9699: 9672: 8511:

Theory of planetary atmospheres: an introduction to their physics and chemistry

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exist in interstellar space, which can form dust particles as tiny as 0.1

1595: 1579: 1447: 1431: 1331: 1179: 1102: 1071: 1009: 986: 974: 945: 883: 789: 733:

known as cosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 10

567: 562: 530: 509: 461: 293: 127: 96: 9419:

All Earth in madness moved,—o'erthrown, / To outer space—driven—racked—undone!

9015:

Astrophysical formulae: Radiation, gas processes, and high energy astrophysics

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Nicholson, W. L. (April 2010), "Towards a General Theory of Lithopanspermia",

4134: 3603: 3582: 2820: 2163: 1109:, who argued for an altitude where a vehicle would have to travel faster than 695:

to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical

11699: 11489: 11344: 11227: 11202: 11183: 11127: 11007: 10965: 10960: 10700: 10690: 10650: 10525: 10419: 10374: 10349: 10231: 10211: 10009: 9967: 9957: 9830: 9825: 9805: 9317: 8386:"Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential" 6412:

Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars, Proceedings of IAU Symposium No. 213

4933: 3843: 2774: 2550: 2529: 2484: 2340: 2328: 2254: 2159: 2131: 2026: 1739: 1635: 1353: 1236: 1110: 1079: 990: 925: 856: 638: 606: 491: 450: 318: 237: 210: 177:

Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above Earth's surface. The

131: 6817: 6766:, Frank N. Bash Symposium ASP Conference Series, vol. 352, p. 79, 6729: 6474:

Johnson, R. E. (August 1994), "Plasma-Induced Sputtering of an Atmosphere",

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Peebles, P.; Ratra, B. (2003), "The cosmological constant and dark energy",

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A wide field view of outer space as seen from Earth's surface at night. The

37: 11665: 11565: 11419: 11272: 11212: 11192: 11164: 11092: 10972: 10955: 10910: 10861: 10766: 10486: 10439: 10287: 10102: 10026: 9952: 9910: 9883: 9815: 9757: 9694: 9361: 8366: 8268: 8260: 7429: 7326: 6826: 6748: 6638: 5573: 5510: 5360:

Representatives of the States traversed by the Equator (December 3, 1976),

4951: 4907: 4836: 4666: 4515: 4472: 4424: 4366: 4316: 3785: 3420: 2462: 2419: 2411: 2407: 2366: 2336: 2290: 2207: 2155: 1959: 1905: 1731: 1655: 1643: 1548: 1483: 1372: 1361: 1220: 1160: 1126: 1118: 949: 933: 799: 734: 684: 673: 634: 285: 269: 245: 241: 225: 193:

are sometimes referred to as "near space". The framework for international

186: 9720: 5600: 4755: 4624: 4416: 4358: 4308: 3908:

Chiaki, Yanagisawa (June 2014), "Looking for Cosmic Neutrino Background",

3514:

Krumm, N.; Brosch, N. (October 1984), "Neutral hydrogen in cosmic voids",

2214:, which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies. English philosopher 2044: 386: 11449: 11414: 11381: 11307: 11282: 11122: 11027: 10997: 10881: 10796: 10786: 10516: 10444: 9930: 9903: 9820: 9772: 9490:, Washington D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, p. 536 9340: 9323:

Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth

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Ferrière, Katia M. (2001), "The interstellar environment of our galaxy",

6388: 6070: 5305:"India Enters the Elite Club: Successfully Shot Down Low Orbit Satellite" 5083: 3828: 3741: 3651: 3565: 2584:

out past the dust increases its effectiveness. Likewise, a site like the

2394: 2370: 2235: 2187: 2036: 1899: 1828: 1821: 1809: 1775: 1687: 1651: 1556: 1531: 1503:

International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication

1462: 1439: 1376: 1204: 1001: 958: 803: 760: 692: 609:

at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the

518: 454: 342: 313: 273: 249: 171: 167: 155: 104: 100: 5903: 4818: 3148: 2553:

of military activities. They facilitate the discovery and monitoring of

1627: 11454: 11396: 11359: 11334: 11232: 11042: 10905: 10014: 9920: 8812:, The Cambridge history of science series, Cambridge University Press, 8614:

The dawn of fluid dynamics: a discipline between science and technology

8401: 7706: 7405: 6495: 4774: 4569:

A prospective look at medical problems from hazards of space operations

2939: 2769: 2754: 2685: 2673: 2518: 2423: 2399: 2332: 2274: 2135: 2120: 1909: 1703: 1667: 1471: 1365: 1269: 1261: 1036: 851: 821: 820:

Because of the hazards of a vacuum, astronauts must wear a pressurized

715: 665: 630: 594: 583: 466: 289: 190: 88: 8931: 8908:"Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond" 6854:

NASA – IBEX Reveals a Missing Boundary at the Edge of the Solar System

6384:"What scientists found after sifting through dust in the solar system" 5656: 5654: 2014: 1582:

and various subatomic particles. There is gas, plasma and dust, small

1040:

Illustration of Earth's atmosphere gradual transition into outer space

11386: 11251: 11087: 10891: 10771: 10625: 10600: 9925: 9215:

The Biology of Human Survival: Life and Death in Extreme Environments

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Essentials of physics: a text for students of science and engineering

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Galaxies and their Masks: A Conference in Honour of K.C. Freeman, FRS

2785:

Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium

2759: 2661: 2471:

became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter

2467: 2458: 2454: 2403: 2270: 2151: 2102: 2006: 1763: 1743: 1735: 1683: 1631: 1411: 1273: 1192: 1146: 912:

dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the

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Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race

8130: 7870:"In a world of drones and satellites, why use a spy balloon anyway?" 6953: 5266:

Index of Online General Assembly Resolutions Relating to Outer Space

1249:

acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a

11354: 11266: 11067: 10930: 10915: 10886: 10755: 10530: 10354: 10298: 10292: 10261: 10206: 10174: 9562:, Contemporary military, strategic, and security issues, ABC-CLIO, 8636:, Springer-Praxis books in astronomy and space sciences, Springer, 8251: 7506: 7225: 6681: 5651: 5117: 4920:

Setlow, Richard B. (November 2003), "The hazards of space travel",

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The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100

1540: 1512: 1426:(GEO) at approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi), out to the 1122: 1049: 970: 918: 844:

germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of

742: 723: 683:, creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μ 657: 599: 534: 381: 354: 151: 112: 73: 9542:, History and Management of Technology Series, vol. 33, IET, 9150:

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Proceedings of the 10th International Space Development Conference

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Thermal Protection Systems Expert and Material Properties Database

3467: 3349: 3033: 2178:(left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right) 893:

Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low

11519: 11349: 11302: 11261: 11217: 11159: 11154: 11117: 11107: 11102: 11057: 11052: 10992: 10925: 10816: 10811: 10761: 10640: 10630: 10383: 9018:, Astronomy and astrophysics library (3rd ed.), Birkhäuser, 8995:

Physics of Space Storms: From the Surface of the Sun to the Earth

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8514:, International geophysics series, vol. 22, Academic Press, 6281: 6279: 5807:

Report of the Living With a Star Geospace Mission Definition Team

2572:. This is evidenced by the spectacular pictures sent back by the 2514: 1552: 1337: 538: 139: 9501:

Cosmos: a survey of the general physical history of the Universe

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An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution

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NASA's Hubble Provides First Census of Galaxies Near Cosmic Dawn

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Redfield, S. (September 2006), "The Local Interstellar Medium",

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Klemperer, William (August 15, 2006), "Interstellar chemistry",

6147:, Office of Law Revision Council, U. S. House of Representatives 1159:

remain legal under space law, even though they create hazardous

656:(CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of 11570: 11391: 11373: 10836: 10806: 10308: 9750: 9603: 7721: 7333: 7252: 6234:: Space at distances from the Earth equal to, or greater than, 5843: 5831: 5803: 5338:, European Science Foundation, November 5, 2007, archived from 3391:

Turner, Michael S. (September 2009), "Origin of the Universe",

2672:

system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems include

2439: 2379: 1867: 1727: 1583: 1560: 1360:

lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the

909: 859:-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars. 829: 764: 680: 571: 558: 419: 277: 265: 147: 77: 8872:, Springer Praxis Books / Space Exploration Series, Springer, 7953:

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7276: 6276: 5874:

Hones, Edward W. Jr. (March 1986), "The Earth's Magnetotail",

5506:

100 lbs to Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Small-Payload Launch Options

4286: 4161: 3879: 3877: 1318:

is the region of space extending from low Earth orbits out to

341:. The term was eventually popularized through the writings of 158:

consist almost entirely of empty space. Most of the remaining

10605: 10535: 7369: 4485: 4000:

ALMA reveals ghostly shape of 'coldest place in the universe'

3846:(January 1948), "The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. I", 3155: 2699:

cooling technology for various applications on Earth through

2450: 2437:

The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet

1502: 1501:

beyond the farthest reaches of the Solar System itself." The

1284: 546: 542: 21: 8185:"Enhanced radiative cooling paint with broken glass bubbles" 7984:

Hughes, Amanda Jane; Soldini, Stefania (November 26, 2020),

5950:, CENTRA Technology, Inc., pp. 1–69, January 14, 2011, 4786: 2624:

declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the

2603: 1987: 1719:. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant 1418:

xGeo space is a concept used by the US to refer to space of

357:, identifying a legal space above territories free from the 7836: 7781: 7441: 6794: 6688: 6351:"A Shifting Shield Provides Protection Against Cosmic Rays" 5855: 4988: 4503: 4393: 3874: 3806:

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3050: 3048: 2821:"Applicable definitions of outer space, space, and expanse" 2282: 2062: 1410:

Earth and the Moon as seen from cislunar space on the 2022

1075: 1017: 644:

The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the

257: 143: 11660: 9074:

To infinity and beyond: a cultural history of the infinite

8952:, Space Technology Library, vol. 22, pp. 15–48, 8571:

Davis, Jeffrey R.; Johnson, Robert; Stepanek, Jan (2008),

7733: 6987: 6929: 6069:. This work lists a Hill sphere radius of 234.9 times the 5804:

Kintner, Paul; GMDT Committee and Staff (September 2002),

5502: 5362:"Declaration of the first meeting of equatorial countries" 5284: 4804: 3665: 3167: 1662:

within a nebula or galaxy. Interstellar space contains an

1474:

space. This space is co-populated by groups of co-orbital

832:

facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of

7913: 7646: 6542:"Interstellar space: What is it and where does it begin?" 6519:"How do we know when Voyager reaches interstellar space?" 6409: 6171: 6073:

of Earth, or 234.9 × 6,371 km = 1.5 million km.

5060: 4062:, Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 67–82, 3266: 2443:, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. In 1961, 1576: 1535:

The sparse plasma (blue) and dust (white) in the tail of

1245:

acceleration due to gravity is less than or equal to the

996:

During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an

924:

Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a

622: 333:

called "The Maiden of Moscow", but in astronomy the term

150:. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the 9520:

Measuring the universe: the cosmological distance ladder

9131:

Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and heritage

9128:

O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009), Darrin, Ann Garrison (ed.),

7824: 7393: 7381: 7357: 7345: 6256:, which is 19.2% of two million km, or about one-fifth. 6094: 6076: 5909: 5627: 5625: 5623: 4695: 4535:

Krebs, Matthew B.; Pilmanis, Andrew A. (November 1996),

4003:, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, October 24, 2013 3889: 3757: 3045: 2158:

should decrease with altitude. The French mathematician

1827:

Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a

1620:"Interstellar space" redirects here. For the album, see 9236:, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, p. 27, 9147: 8826:

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8825: 8137: 7892: 7763: 7486:

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272:. Outer space represents a challenging environment for 9417:, How and Parsons, Canto X, section XIV, lines 14–15, 8702: 7886: 7769: 7465: 7034: 6872: 6510: 6159: 5554: 5509:, The Mitre Corporation, pp. 1–39, archived from 4102: 2839:(n.) space immediately outside the earth's atmosphere. 2190:: a device that would further refute the principle of 1195:

treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's

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6029:

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5620: 4387: 4323: 4280: 2960:"Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe" 1568:

this modulation effect peaking during solar maximum.

779: 759:

have a burned/metallic odor, similar to the scent of

726:

sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.

372:" means based in outer space or on a planet or moon. 329:

existed in a poem from 1842 by the English poet Lady

142:. Local concentrations of matter have condensed into 8570: 8017:, San Antonio, Texas, pp. 25–33, archived from 7453: 7264: 7240: 4780: 4762: 4461:

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found its application for the first time in 1845 by

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Cepheid Variable Stars & Distance Determination

6884: 6088: 5726: 4497: 4149: 4049: 2918: 6930:Wadsley, James W.; et al. (August 20, 2002), 6426: 5948:OECD/IFP Futures Project on "Future Global Shocks" 4538:Human pulmonary tolerance to dynamic over-pressure 4528: 4504:Battisti, Amanda S.; et al. (June 27, 2022), 4460: 2656:study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by the 2418:. The first humans to escape low Earth orbit were 2308:, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist 2304:The modern concept of outer space is based on the 2127:argued that the entirety of space must be filled. 2020:The Sun within the structure of the Milky Way 1399:seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the 897:, such as during a rapid decompression, can cause 8685:Freedman, Roger A.; Kaufmann, William J. 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He extended the Copernican 1155:Conventional anti-satellite weapons such as the 181:, an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above 115:, is 2.7 kelvins (−270 °C; −455 °F). 9360: 9315: 8292: 7633: 7514: 7193: 7040: 6357:, American Astronomical Society, p. 2992, 5837: 5671: 5669: 5660: 4843: 4798: 4055: 3724: 3473: 2668:, would require 36 years to reach the "nearby" 939: 722:have been detected even among the most distant 9556:Wong, Wilson; Fergusson, James Gordon (2010), 9504:, New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 9462: 9428:A concise history of solar and stellar physics 9425:Tassoul, Jean Louis; Tassoul, Monique (2004), 9424: 9407: 9299:Information Communication and Space Technology 9169:Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference 8484: 8176: 7624: 7547: 7375: 6246: 5968: 5472: 4707: 4467:, Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 3808:Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 3671: 3544: 3161: 3065: 3063: 3000: 2813: 2297:in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by 2289:was determined in 1923 by American astronomer 10151: 9619: 9555: 9483: 9392:Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium 9112:The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China 8832:, National Geographic Books, pp. 89–90, 8383: 8149: 7983: 7134: 7081: 6978: 6890: 6755: 6653: 6558: 6314: 5732: 5496: 5290: 5141: 5091: 4994: 4631: 4534: 4431: 3381: 2921:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 2684:. More advanced propulsion systems could use 1197:Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 1182:in outer space. The treaty was passed by the 429:has been determined from measurements of the 9494: 9487:United States Code 2006 Edition Supplement V 9368:(2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, 9109: 8653:The Sun, the Solar Wind, and the Heliosphere 8293:Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018), 8182: 8102: 8001: 7944: 7678: 7282: 7140: 6923: 6788: 6516: 6467: 6375: 5867: 5666: 5524: 5009:FAA Commercial Space Astronaut Wings Program 4913: 4592: 4575:, Clinical Space Medicine, NASA, NASA-CR-856 3938: 3836: 3799: 3550: 3173: 2914: 2912: 2521:and the interstellar field of the Milky Way. 2115:. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE 1706:. The tally of molecules discovered through 1322:. This region includes the major orbits for 989:, balance disorders, and a weakening of the 122:is thought to account for about half of the 9559:Military space power: a guide to the issues 9191: 9127: 9114:, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, 8998:, Environmental Sciences Series, Springer, 8947: 8905: 8649: 8507: 8334: 8055: 7727: 7477: 7339: 7187: 7143:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 6659: 6432: 6342: 6297: 6285: 6252:The semi-major axis of the Moon's orbit is 5849: 5503:Dimotakis, P.; et al. (October 1999), 5383: 5326: 5296: 4877: 4792: 4201: 4096: 3763: 3730: 3513: 3328: 3179: 3060: 3054: 2965:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2951: 1758:When stars are moving at sufficiently high 1461:or gravity well, mostly described with the 1438:is a region outside of Earth that includes 1348:is a region of space that includes Earth's 522:(center), which is visually crossed by the 10158: 10144: 9626: 9612: 9535: 9282:, Translated by T. N. 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This can cause nausea and vomiting, 672:is 1 K (−458 °F), while the 449:, indicates that space has a non-zero 375: 213:for the peaceful uses of outer space, 166:is made up of an unknown form, dubbed 10139: 9607: 9409:Stuart Wortley, Emmeline Charlotte E. 9055:CRC handbook of chemistry and physics 8982: 8805: 8765: 8729: 8321:– via Elsevier Science Direct, 8219:– via Elsevier Science Direct, 8058:International Journal of Astrobiology 7764:Hardesty, Eisman & Krushchev 2008 7526:, CSIRO Australia, October 25, 2004, 7436:Olenick, Apostol & Goodstein 1986 7412:Olenick, Apostol & Goodstein 1986 7399: 7387: 7246: 6025: 5933: 5873: 5774: 5715:from the original on February 7, 2016 5560: 5543:from the original on October 30, 2010 5429:European Society of International Law 5148:Petty, John Ira (February 13, 2003), 5147: 4969: 4958: 4565: 4442:, vol. 1538, pp. 5272–528, 3683: 3291: 3225:"The Kármán Line: Where space begins" 3126: 2887: 1768:Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) 1609: 1045:1,600,000 km (990,000 mi). 654:cosmic microwave background radiation 508:is visible as the horizontal band of 402:. 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This pressure level is called the 435:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 56:) is the expanse that exists beyond 9035:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 8769:Atmospheric Science and Environment 8491:Note: this source gives a value of 7903:from the original on 22 March 2015. 6850: 6517:Jia-Rui Cook (September 12, 2013), 5957:from the original on March 14, 2012 5639:(in Kinyarwanda), December 15, 2022 5392:"Who Owns the Geostationary Orbit?" 4849: 3646:This source estimates a density of 3274:"Spaceborne definition and meaning" 3105:, The Online Etymology Dictionary, 2986:10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233 2611:system to beam energy down to Earth 2033:Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way 1958:and interstellar medium map of the 1486:, with some NEOs at times becoming 1241:A spacecraft enters orbit when its 1086:(termed the Entry Interface), when 398:, and at the center, the expansion 13: 11530:Nexus for Exoplanet System Science 8892:, University of California Press, 8574:Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 8556:, University of California Press, 8468:Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight 8232: 6435:Physics of the Inner Heliosphere I 5479:Shiner, Linda (November 1, 2007), 5043:from the original on July 14, 2009 5033:Thompson, Andrea (April 9, 2009), 4781:Davis, Johnson & Stepanek 2008 4208:Lizzie Schiffman (July 17, 2013), 3776:Squire, Tom (September 27, 2000), 3496:from the original on July 26, 2016 3185: 2540:, and permit direct monitoring of 2457:. The first fly-by of Mars was by 2331:used the total measured energy of 2119:argument by the Greek philosopher 1762:, their astrospheres can generate 1539:are being shaped by pressure from 1101:, and used internationally by the 780:Effect on biology and human bodies 14: 11732: 11430:Atomic and molecular astrophysics 10167:Molecules detected in outer space 9599: 9195:Space Physics and Space Astronomy 8633:An introduction to space robotics 8508:Chamberlain, Joseph Wyan (1978), 8503:, New York: The Macmillan Company 8452:, vol. 3006 (2nd ed.), 8111:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 7802:"Voyager 1 Has Left Solar System" 7800:Wall, Mike (September 12, 2013), 6942:from the original on June 9, 2009 6861:from the original on May 12, 2012 5896:10.1038/scientificamerican0386-40 5742:NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N 5708:The cislunar gateway with no gate 5678:"What Is a Geosynchronous Orbit?" 3455:from the original on June 1, 2012 3413:10.1038/scientificamerican0909-36 3099:Harper, Douglas (November 2001), 3018:from the original on June 2, 2013 2888:Chuss, David T. 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(2001), 8966:10.1007/978-1-4020-6770-9_2 8528:Collins, Martin J. (2007), 7173:10.1088/0067-0049/182/1/378 6451:10.1007/978-3-642-75361-9_5 5838:Schrijver & Siscoe 2010 5661:Schrijver & Siscoe 2010 5633:"42 USC 18302: Definitions" 5396:Annals of Air and Space Law 4970:Grush, Loren (2018-12-13). 4182:What Does Space Smell Like? 4076:10.1007/978-1-4419-7317-7_5 3977:10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916 3474:Sparke & Gallagher 2007 3451:, NASA, December 21, 2012, 3367:10.1051/0004-6361/201321529 3192:Online Etymology Dictionary 2722: 2511:International Space Station 2228:Michelson–Morley experiment 1812:of the intergalactic medium 1283:Orbiting spacecraft with a 1024: 431:cosmic microwave background 408:13.8 billion years ago 361:jurisdiction of countries. 10: 11737: 9394:, Wiley Classics Library, 8495:molecules per cubic meter. 8434:, CRC Press, p. 253, 8420: 8349:10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 7548:Tyson & Goldsmith 2004 7376:Tassoul & Tassoul 2004 7309:10.1152/physiol.00053.2012 6600:10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 6193:Collins English Dictionary 5575:Frequently Asked Questions 5485:, Air & Space Magazine 4880:Advances in Space Research 4566:Busby, D. E. (July 1967), 4464:Aerospace Pressure Effects 4211:What Does Space Smell Like 3672:Borowitz & Beiser 1971 3278:Collins English Dictionary 3249:"Definition of SPACEBORNE" 3008:"Dark Energy, Dark Matter" 2891:Cosmic Background Explorer 2825:Merriam-Webster dictionary 2497:Commercialization of space 2482: 2406:was launched by a Russian 2364: 2354: 2182:In 1650, German scientist 1976:around the Sun inside the 1789: 1619: 1613: 1524: 1453:The region where a body's 1295: 1291: 1264:must travel faster than a 1230: 1176:common heritage of mankind 1144: 1028: 985:, decreased production of 943: 869:Uncontrolled decompression 866: 797: 783: 662:cosmic neutrino background 553:stage. The deep vacuum of 485: 460:Estimates put the average 433:using satellites like the 379: 276:because of the hazards of 209:. Despite the drafting of 126:in the universe, having a 124:baryonic (ordinary) matter 18: 11579: 11470:Earliest known life forms 11465:Diffuse interstellar band 11405: 11325: 11250: 11141: 11076: 11016: 10944: 10936:Protonated cyanoacetylene 10850: 10744: 10706:Protonated carbon dioxide 10666:Hydromagnesium isocyanide 10614: 10400: 10371: 10182: 10173: 10115: 10040: 9990: 9981: 9846: 9796: 9785: 9708: 9648: 9641: 9536:Williamson, Mark (2006), 9296:Razani, Mohammad (2012), 9276:Rauchfuss, Horst (2008), 9012:Lang, Kenneth R. (1999), 8786:Goodman, John M. (2006), 8552:Davies, P. C. W. (1977), 8450:Bioastronautics Data Book 8431:Fundamentals of Astronomy 8088:10.1017/S1473550411000127 7196:The Astrophysical Journal 7120:10.1007/s11214-008-9309-4 6990:The Astrophysical Journal 6965:Harvard & Smithsonian 6932:"The Universe in Hot Gas" 6570:Reviews of Modern Physics 5291:Wong & Fergusson 2010 4995:Wong & Fergusson 2010 4607:10.1136/bmj.286.6375.1408 4135:10.1103/RevModPhys.83.907 4105:Reviews of Modern Physics 3947:The Astrophysical Journal 3583:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559 3553:Reviews of Modern Physics 3223:Betz, Eric (2023-11-27). 3071:"Where does space begin?" 2639:momentum exchange tethers 2534:long-range communications 1358:Van Allen radiation belts 862: 650:thermodynamic equilibrium 506:interplanetary dust cloud 447:expansion of the universe 392:expansion of the universe 85:electromagnetic radiation 11515:Iron–sulfur world theory 11510:Photodissociation region 11213:Methyl-cyano-diacetylene 9576:Wszolek, Bogdan (2013), 9198:, Taylor & Francis, 9093:Earth-Moon Relationships 9076:, Princeton paperbacks, 8992:Koskinen, Hannu (2010), 8612:Eckert, Michael (2006), 8499:Cajori, Florian (1917), 7283:Needham & Ronan 1985 5390:Gangale, Thomas (2006), 4934:10.1038/sj.embor.7400016 4717:Human Exposure to Vacuum 2948:, pp. 573, 599–601. 2750:Outline of space science 2570:electromagnetic spectrum 1938:Local Interstellar Cloud 533:. It has effectively no 154:, but even galaxies and 64:. It contains ultra-low 11590:Category:Astrochemistry 11180:, fullerene, buckyball) 10867:Cyanobutadiynyl radical 10842:Silicon-carbide cluster 10832:Protonated formaldehyde 9511:2027/nyp.33433071596906 9496:Von Humboldt, Alexander 9316:Schrijver, Carolus J.; 9250:Prialnik, Dina (2000), 9052:Lide, David R. (1993), 9032:Liddle, Andrew (2015), 8983:Kelly, Suzanne (1965), 7659:Apollo 8 Flight Journal 7340:Holton & Brush 2001 6916:10.1093/mnras/257.1.135 6818:10.1126/science.1221054 6730:10.1073/pnas.0605352103 6382:NASA (March 12, 2019), 5850:Fichtner & Liu 2011 4793:Kanas & Manzey 2008 4659:10.1136/jramc-157-01-15 4595:British Medical Journal 3931:10.3389/fphy.2014.00030 3359:2014A&A...571A...1P 2978:1987ARA&A..25..425T 2867:, Elsevier, p. 6, 2795:Timeline of spaceflight 2740:List of topics in space 2730:Absolute space and time 2690:relativistic velocities 2682:beam-powered propulsion 2631:reusable launch systems 2609:space-based solar power 2414:was sent into orbit on 2361:Human presence in space 1676:stellar nucleosynthesis 1507:Moon's orbital distance 1455:gravitational potential 1266:sub-orbital spaceflight 1260:To achieve an orbit, a 876:vapor pressure of water 757:extravehicular activity 689:Davis–Greenstein effect 561:, as it contains a few 469:—to conditions in vast 331:Emmeline Stuart-Wortley 197:was established by the 120:plasma between galaxies 43:Webb's First Deep Field 11603:Outer space portal 11445:Circumstellar envelope 10410:Aluminium(I) hydroxide 10320:Phosphorus mononitride 10197:Aluminium monofluoride 10192:Aluminium monochloride 10126:Outer space portal 9518:Webb, Stephen (1999), 9484:United States (2016), 9447:Conceptual revolutions 9445:Thagard, Paul (1992), 8849:Optical interferometry 8846:Hariharan, P. (2003), 8806:Grant, Edward (1981), 8748:Genz, Henning (2001), 8730:Gatti, Hilary (2002), 8591:Dickson, Paul (2010), 8261:10.1021/acsami.1c02145 7661:, NASA, archived from 6961:"Intergalactic medium" 6639:10.1098/rsta.2001.0889 6327:, NASA, archived from 6300:"Interplanetary space" 5156:, NASA, archived from 3784:, NASA, archived from 2717:Photonic metamaterials 2635:non-rocket spacelaunch 2612: 2574:Hubble Space Telescope 2559:stratospheric balloons 2532:. They allow relay of 2522: 2388: 2186:constructed the first 2179: 2148:Evangelista Torricelli 2142:The Italian scientist 2107:nature abhors a vacuum 1813: 1695:can hold 10–10 per m. 1647: 1592:microwave spectroscopy 1544: 1517: 1422:, ranging from beyond 1415: 1384:Earth's magnetic field 1342: 1303:Regions near the Earth 1201:anti-satellite weapons 1163: 1054:high-altitude balloons 1041: 1014:gastrointestinal tract 979:spaceflight osteopenia 930:decompression sickness 825: 763:fumes, resulting from 613:(IUPAC) definition of 526: 403: 339:Alexander von Humboldt 215:anti-satellite weapons 134:per cubic metre and a 46: 11500:Interplanetary medium 11475:Extraterrestrial life 11113:Octatetraynyl radical 10731:Tricarbon monosulfide 10278:Magnesium monohydride 9758:Extraterrestrial life 8772:, Allied Publishers, 8766:Ghosh, S. N. (2000), 8630:Ellery, Alex (2000), 8428:Barbieri, C. (2006), 8337:Nature Communications 8233:Ma, Hongchen (2021), 7687:Space Science Reviews 7665:on September 23, 2008 7297:Physiology (Bethesda) 7090:Space Science Reviews 6476:Space Science Reviews 4417:10.1089/ast.2011.0772 4359:10.1089/ast.2011.0744 4309:10.1089/ast.2010.0588 4170:, p. 11-217. 3848:Astrophysical Journal 3075:Aerospace Engineering 2606: 2508: 2382: 2176:Magdeburg hemispheres 2173: 1807: 1630: 1534: 1527:Interplanetary medium 1515: 1470:path its orbital and 1409: 1340: 1324:artificial satellites 1154: 1113:to derive sufficient 1097:, established by the 1039: 983:cardiovascular system 963:space motion sickness 819: 503: 427:shape of the universe 389: 322:, published in 1667. 260:. On the other hand, 40: 11627:Chemistry portal 11615:Astronomy portal 11561:RNA world hypothesis 11545:PAH world hypothesis 11238:Heptatrienyl radical 11170:Buckminsterfullerene 11058:Methylcyanoacetylene 10566:Silicon carbonitride 10541:Methylidynephosphane 10507:Magnesium isocyanide 10415:Aluminium isocyanide 10217:Carbon monophosphide 9464:Tyson, Neil deGrasse 9234:Early Modern Science 7790:, pp. 7, 68–69. 5941:"Geomagnetic Storms" 5711:, The Space Review, 5342:on December 15, 2008 5084:10.1029/2008JA013757 3910:Frontiers in Physics 3829:10.2151/jmsj.85b.193 3733:Astrophysics of Dust 3516:Astronomical Journal 3303:Cambridge Dictionary 2958:Trimble, V. (1987), 2590:far side of the Moon 2385:first image of Earth 2321:Charles É. Guillaume 2314:continuous expansion 2306:"Big Bang" cosmology 2097:History of discovery 1859:regions around Earth 1837:intergalactic medium 1833:galactic filamentary 1782:and the astropause. 1521:Interplanetary space 1488:temporary satellites 1424:geosynchronous orbit 1320:geostationary orbits 899:pulmonary barotrauma 835:Arabidopsis thaliana 749:to space travelers. 701:Magneto-hydrodynamic 217:have been tested in 203:national sovereignty 109:background radiation 27:For other uses, see 11505:Interstellar medium 11485:Forbidden mechanism 11298:Hydrogen isocyanide 10988:Hexatriynyl radical 10571:c-Silicon dicarbide 10476:Hydrogen isocyanide 10340:Silicon monosulfide 10315:Phosphorus monoxide 10283:Methylidyne radical 10242:Fluoromethylidynium 10202:Aluminium(II) oxide 9374:2007gitu.book.....S 8958:2008spp..book.....K 8924:2001PhT....54j..69H 8714:2005asli.symp...21F 8661:2011sswh.book..341F 8530:"Mariner 2 Mock-up" 8458:1973NASSP3006.....P 8311:2018Ene...152...27Z 8245:(16): 19282–19290, 8201:2022REne..194..129Y 8170:1990QJRAS..31..377C 8123:2006JSpRo..43..696B 8080:2011IJAsB..10..307F 7961:2001ESASP.496..277M 7938:2001ESABu.105...60L 7730:, pp. 209–224. 7699:1972SSRv...13..199P 7577:1931Natur.127..706L 7550:, pp. 114–115. 7498:1988PASP..100....6C 7450:, pp. 206–209. 7438:, pp. 357–365. 7366:, pp. 127–128. 7342:, pp. 267–268. 7218:2001ApJ...546..100M 7165:2009ApJS..182..378W 7112:2008SSRv..134..141B 7065:2006MNRAS.373.1265O 7012:2010ApJ...714.1715F 6907:1992MNRAS.257..135J 6809:2012Sci...336.1291M 6782:2006ASPC..352...79R 6721:2006PNAS..10312232K 6715:(33): 12232–12234, 6674:1990ApJ...365..544B 6631:2001RSPTA.359.1949W 6592:2001RvMP...73.1031F 6488:1994SSRv...69..215J 6443:1990pihl.book..207L 6420:2004IAUS..213..275F 6363:2017nova.pres.2992K 6119:2012Icar..218..262G 6041:1995geph.conf....1Y 5888:1986SciAm.254c..40H 5876:Scientific American 5852:, pp. 341–345. 5754:1999STIN...9941786P 5663:, p. 363, 379. 5160:on October 27, 2011 5127:2018AcAau.151..668M 5075:2009JGRA..114.4306S 5036:Edge of Space Found 4922:Science and Society 4892:1989AdSpR...9c.293C 4819:10.1503/cmaj.090628 4783:, pp. 270–271. 4601:(6375): 1408–1410, 4494:, pp. 188–189. 4448:2010LPICo1538.5272N 4409:2012AsBio..12..498W 4351:2012AsBio..12..517T 4301:2011AsBio..11..281R 4214:, Popular Science, 4127:2011RvMP...83..907L 4068:2010gama.conf...67W 4035:1988ApJ...325..442W 3969:2009ApJ...707..916F 3922:2014FrP.....2...30Y 3886:, pp. 195–196. 3860:1948ApJ...107....6S 3820:2007JMeSJ..85B.193F 3788:on October 15, 2011 3751:2004ASPC..309...33F 3642:1968PASJ...20..230T 3575:2003RvMP...75..559P 3528:1984AJ.....89.1461K 3476:, pp. 329–330. 3436:, pp. 105–308. 3405:2009SciAm.301c..36T 3393:Scientific American 3162:Stuart Wortley 1841 3042:, pp. 650–653. 2933:2010AAS...21631808G 2649:Interstellar travel 2621:space manufacturing 2224:luminiferous aether 2084:Observable Universe 1942:interstellar medium 1849:intracluster medium 1796:Intracluster medium 1786:Intergalactic space 1760:peculiar velocities 1700:number of molecules 1664:interstellar medium 1616:Interstellar medium 1480:horseshoe librators 1459:sphere of influence 1255:North American X-15 1107:Theodore von Kármán 1031:observable universe 998:acute health hazard 731:subatomic particles 708:elliptical galaxies 555:intergalactic space 476:orders of magnitude 416:recombination epoch 376:Formation and state 347:Theodore von Kármán 262:uncrewed spacecraft 207:explore outer space 164:observable universe 136:kinetic temperature 70:near-perfect vacuum 11525:Molecules in stars 11495:Intergalactic dust 11440:Circumstellar dust 11382:Naphthalene cation 11317:Trihydrogen cation 11293:Hydrogen deuteride 11218:Methyltriacetylene 11053:Hexapentaenylidene 10872:E-Cyanomethanimine 10792:Cyclopropenylidene 10726:Tricarbon monoxide 10716:Silicon tricarbide 10686:Methylene amidogen 10676:Isothiocyanic acid 10591:Thioxoethenylidene 10551:Trihydrogen cation 10365:Titanium(II) oxide 10325:Potassium chloride 10304:Sulfur mononitride 10247:Helium hydride ion 10222:Carbon monosulfide 10041:Other technologies 9072:Maor, Eli (1991), 8402:10.1039/D2TC00318J 7707:10.1007/BF00175313 7675:TIMETAG 003:42:55. 7610:Big Bang Cosmology 7402:, pp. 97–107. 7390:, pp. 99–104. 6496:10.1007/BF02101697 6288:, pp. 12–149. 6145:United States Code 5864:, pp. 32, 42. 5533:"Earth Fact Sheet" 4744:Aerospace Medicine 3844:Spitzer, Lyman Jr. 3700:on 7 December 2013 3229:Astronomy Magazine 2765:Space and survival 2613: 2582:infrared telescope 2542:weather conditions 2538:precise navigation 2523: 2473:interstellar space 2389: 2269:of just 0.31 2248:frame of reference 2244:special relativity 2180: 1892:Near-Earth objects 1888:Inner Solar System 1814: 1800:Intergalactic dust 1717:trihydrogen cation 1648: 1638:of the young star 1622:Interstellar Space 1610:Interstellar space 1545: 1518: 1476:Near-Earth Objects 1416: 1388:Geomagnetic storms 1343: 1214:Bogotá Declaration 1168:Outer Space Treaty 1164: 1042: 1016:. On a round-trip 957:for life in Earth 888:Harry G. Armstrong 826: 619:radiation pressure 537:, allowing stars, 527: 453:, which is called 404: 396:inflationary epoch 199:Outer Space Treaty 58:Earth's atmosphere 47: 11635: 11634: 11550:Pseudo-panspermia 11246: 11245: 11193:Cyanodecapentayne 11133:N-Methylformamide 11108:Methyldiacetylene 11033:Aminoacetonitrile 11003:Methyl isocyanate 10921:Methyl isocyanide 10802:Isocyanoacetylene 10782:Cyanoformaldehyde 10661:Hydrogen peroxide 10546:Potassium cyanide 10502:Magnesium cyanide 10455:Disilicon carbide 10450:Dicarbon monoxide 10257:Hydrogen fluoride 10252:Hydrogen chloride 10133: 10132: 10111: 10110: 10020:Carbonated drinks 9992:Human spaceflight 9872:of items in space 9783: 9782: 9591:978-1-4899-1225-1 9569:978-0-313-35680-3 9549:978-0-86341-553-1 9529:978-1-85233-106-1 9477:978-0-393-05992-2 9456:978-0-691-02490-5 9438:978-0-691-11711-9 9401:978-0-471-29335-4 9383:978-0-521-85593-8 9354:978-0-8050-7256-3 9333:978-0-521-11294-9 9318:Siscoe, George L. 9309:978-1-4398-4163-1 9289:978-3-540-78822-5 9263:978-0-521-65937-6 9243:978-0-521-57244-6 9225:978-0-19-974807-5 9205:978-0-677-04000-4 9179:978-0-16-050631-4 9159:978-0-521-30430-6 9141:978-1-4200-8431-3 9121:978-0-521-31536-4 9103:978-0-7923-7089-5 9083:978-0-691-02511-7 9065:978-0-8493-0595-5 9045:978-1-118-50214-3 9025:978-3-540-29692-8 9005:978-3-642-00310-3 8975:978-1-4020-6769-3 8941:978-0-8135-2908-0 8932:10.1063/1.1420555 8899:978-0-520-23677-6 8879:978-0-387-77639-2 8859:978-0-12-311630-7 8839:978-1-4262-0321-3 8819:978-0-521-22983-8 8799:978-0-387-23671-1 8779:978-81-7764-043-4 8759:978-0-7382-0610-3 8752:, Da Capo Press, 8741:978-0-8014-8785-9 8723:978-0-521-82490-3 8696:978-0-7167-8694-8 8678:978-90-481-9786-6 8643:978-1-85233-164-1 8623:978-3-527-40513-8 8604:978-0-8018-9504-3 8584:978-0-7817-7466-6 8563:978-0-520-03247-7 8545:978-0-06-089781-9 8538:, HarperCollins, 8521:978-0-12-167250-8 8478:978-0-08-045875-5 8441:978-0-7503-0886-1 8396:(27): 9915–9937, 7970:978-92-9092-806-5 7833:, pp. 97–99. 7766:, pp. 89–90. 7742:, pp. 60–63. 7474:, pp. 71–73. 7354:, pp. 64–66. 7285:, pp. 82–87. 6697:, pp. 72–81. 6460:978-3-642-75363-3 6060:on April 26, 2012 6050:978-0-87590-851-9 5563:, pp. 47–48. 5246:on April 27, 2011 5219:on March 22, 2018 5154:Human Spaceflight 5105:Acta Astronautica 4928:(11): 1013–1016, 4853:Radiation Effects 4850:Kennedy, Ann R., 4813:(13): 1317–1323, 4795:, pp. 15–48. 4085:978-1-4419-7317-7 3186:Harper, Douglas, 3174:Von Humboldt 1845 2874:978-0-444-59874-5 2864:Vacuum Technology 2861:Roth, A. (2012), 2709:thermal radiation 2705:longwave infrared 2493:Earth observation 2375:Human spaceflight 2357:Space exploration 2299:Henrietta Leavitt 2295:cepheid variables 2184:Otto von Guericke 1956:Star associations 1940:and neighbouring 1906:Solar System 1874:Earth-Moon System 1780:termination shock 1573:astronomical unit 1420:high Earth orbits 1401:geomagnetic poles 1298:Location of Earth 1084:atmospheric entry 847:Bacillus subtilis 841:Nicotiana tabacum 691:causes elongated 615:standard pressure 557:is not devoid of 551:initial formation 488:Space environment 349:used the term of 292:that causes both 274:human exploration 130:of less than one 72:of predominantly 68:, constituting a 11728: 11688: 11687: 11686: 11676: 11675: 11674: 11664: 11663: 11652: 11651: 11650: 11643: 11625: 11624: 11623: 11613: 11612: 11611: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11588: 11587: 11535:Organic compound 11435:Chemical formula 11340:Dihydroxyacetone 11288:Hydrogen cyanide 10973:Cyanodiacetylene 10827:Propadienylidene 10721:Thioformaldehyde 10596:Titanium dioxide 10561:Sodium hydroxide 10482:Hydrogen sulfide 10470:Hydrogen cyanide 10430:Carbonyl sulfide 10395: 10386: 10377: 10335:Silicon monoxide 10268:Hydroxyl radical 10180: 10179: 10160: 10153: 10146: 10137: 10136: 10124: 10123: 10122: 9988: 9987: 9791: 9646: 9645: 9628: 9621: 9614: 9605: 9604: 9594: 9572: 9552: 9532: 9514: 9513: 9491: 9480: 9459: 9441: 9421: 9404: 9386: 9362:Sparke, Linda S. 9357: 9336: 9312: 9292: 9272: 9271: 9270: 9246: 9228: 9208: 9188: 9187: 9186: 9162: 9144: 9124: 9106: 9086: 9068: 9048: 9028: 9008: 8988: 8979: 8944: 8902: 8882: 8862: 8842: 8822: 8802: 8782: 8762: 8744: 8726: 8699: 8681: 8646: 8626: 8608: 8587: 8566: 8548: 8524: 8504: 8494: 8490: 8481: 8461: 8444: 8414: 8413: 8381: 8375: 8374: 8360: 8332: 8326: 8325: 8290: 8284: 8283: 8254: 8230: 8224: 8223: 8189:Renewable Energy 8180: 8174: 8173: 8153: 8147: 8141: 8135: 8134: 8106: 8100: 8099: 8073: 8053: 8047: 8046: 8040: 8032: 8030: 8029: 8023: 8016: 8005: 7999: 7998: 7996: 7995: 7981: 7975: 7974: 7948: 7942: 7941: 7931: 7929:astro-ph/0103288 7911: 7905: 7904: 7899:, NASA, 12-428, 7890: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7880: 7865: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7855: 7848:Space Foundation 7840: 7834: 7828: 7822: 7821: 7819: 7817: 7797: 7791: 7785: 7779: 7773: 7767: 7761: 7755: 7749: 7743: 7737: 7731: 7725: 7719: 7718: 7682: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7670: 7650: 7644: 7643: 7631: 7622: 7621: 7619: 7618: 7605: 7599: 7598: 7588: 7586:10.1038/127706b0 7557: 7551: 7545: 7539: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7518: 7512: 7511: 7509: 7481: 7475: 7469: 7463: 7457: 7451: 7445: 7439: 7433: 7427: 7421: 7415: 7409: 7403: 7397: 7391: 7385: 7379: 7373: 7367: 7361: 7355: 7349: 7343: 7337: 7331: 7330: 7320: 7292: 7286: 7280: 7274: 7268: 7262: 7256: 7250: 7244: 7238: 7237: 7211: 7209:astro-ph/0004309 7191: 7185: 7184: 7158: 7138: 7132: 7131: 7105: 7096:(1–4): 141–153, 7085: 7079: 7078: 7076: 7058: 7056:astro-ph/0605651 7049:(4): 1265–1292, 7038: 7032: 7031: 7005: 6985: 6976: 6975: 6973: 6972: 6957: 6951: 6950: 6948: 6947: 6927: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6888: 6882: 6876: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6866: 6848: 6839: 6838: 6820: 6803:(6086): 1291–3, 6792: 6786: 6785: 6775: 6773:astro-ph/0601117 6759: 6753: 6752: 6742: 6732: 6704: 6698: 6692: 6686: 6685: 6657: 6651: 6650: 6618: 6612: 6611: 6585: 6583:astro-ph/0106359 6576:(4): 1031–1066, 6565: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6552: 6537: 6531: 6530: 6514: 6508: 6507: 6482:(3–4): 215–253, 6471: 6465: 6464: 6430: 6424: 6423: 6407: 6401: 6400: 6398: 6396: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6369: 6346: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6336: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6295: 6289: 6286:Papagiannis 1972 6283: 6274: 6273: 6271: 6270: 6255: 6250: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6227: 6226: 6220: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6200: 6187: 6181: 6175: 6169: 6163: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6152: 6137: 6131: 6130: 6112: 6092: 6086: 6080: 6074: 6068: 6066: 6065: 6059: 6053:, archived from 6034: 6023: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6012: 6001:"Why We Explore" 5997: 5991: 5990: 5988: 5987: 5981:Breaking Defense 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5956: 5945: 5937: 5931: 5925: 5919: 5913: 5907: 5906: 5871: 5865: 5859: 5853: 5847: 5841: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5826: 5825: 5819: 5812: 5801: 5795: 5794: 5792: 5791: 5778: 5772: 5771: 5769: 5768: 5762: 5756:, archived from 5739: 5730: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5720: 5702: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5688: 5673: 5664: 5658: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5644: 5637:uscode.house.gov 5629: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5614: 5596: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5570: 5564: 5558: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5548: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5490: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5446: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5436: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5411: 5402:, archived from 5387: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5357: 5351: 5350: 5348: 5347: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5320: 5311:, archived from 5300: 5294: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5278: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5224: 5218: 5211: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5166: 5165: 5145: 5139: 5138: 5120: 5100: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5030: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5014: 5004: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4983: 4982: 4967: 4956: 4955: 4945: 4917: 4911: 4910: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4865: 4847: 4841: 4840: 4830: 4802: 4796: 4790: 4784: 4778: 4772: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4729: 4724:on July 21, 2009 4711: 4705: 4704:, pp. 1–34. 4699: 4693: 4692: 4690: 4689: 4683: 4677:, archived from 4644: 4635: 4629: 4628: 4618: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4574: 4563: 4557: 4556: 4554: 4553: 4543: 4532: 4526: 4525: 4523: 4522: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4480: 4479: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4382: 4381: 4375: 4336: 4327: 4321: 4320: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4274: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4249: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4205: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4177: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4120: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4018: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4008: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3962: 3942: 3936: 3935: 3933: 3905: 3899: 3898:, p. 28–30. 3893: 3887: 3881: 3872: 3871: 3840: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3803: 3797: 3796: 3794: 3793: 3773: 3767: 3764:Chamberlain 1978 3761: 3755: 3754: 3744: 3742:astro-ph/0401344 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3699: 3693:, archived from 3692: 3681: 3675: 3669: 3663: 3661: 3656:atomic mass unit 3649: 3645: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3600: 3594: 3593: 3568: 3566:astro-ph/0207347 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3501: 3483: 3477: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3462: 3460: 3443: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3388: 3379: 3378: 3352: 3332: 3326: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3311: 3310: 3295: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3260: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3236: 3235: 3220: 3207: 3206: 3204: 3203: 3183: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3129:Milton Quarterly 3124: 3118: 3117: 3115: 3114: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3086: 3067: 3058: 3052: 3043: 3037: 3031: 3030: 3025: 3023: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2916: 2907: 2906: 2904: 2903: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2858: 2852: 2851: 2832: 2831: 2817: 2780:Space technology 2703:. This enhances 2654:Daedalus Project 2501:Space habitation 2325:Arthur Eddington 2310:Georges Lemaître 2287:Andromeda Galaxy 2259:Friedrich Bessel 2199:Nicolaus Cusanus 2080: 2068:Laniakea SCl in 2065: 2047: 2029: 2017: 2002: 1990: 1978:Orion-Cygnus Arm 1974:Molecular clouds 1970: 1952: 1934: 1920: 1902: 1884: 1870: 1712:molecular clouds 1693:molecular clouds 1680:planetary nebula 1478:(NEOs), such as 1350:upper atmosphere 1316: 1315: 1314:Near-Earth space 1268:along an arcing 1233:Geocentric orbit 1115:aerodynamic lift 1111:orbital velocity 1088:atmospheric drag 1012:, lungs and the 1006:white blood cell 936:if not managed. 914:partial pressure 812:Animals in space 769:molecular clouds 670:Boomerang Nebula 627:dynamic pressure 605: 549:, following the 512:, including the 496:Space weathering 439:spatial geometry 425:The present day 390:Timeline of the 230:Andromeda galaxy 62:celestial bodies 32: 25: 11736: 11735: 11731: 11730: 11729: 11727: 11726: 11725: 11696: 11695: 11694: 11684: 11682: 11672: 11670: 11658: 11648: 11646: 11638: 11636: 11631: 11621: 11619: 11609: 11607: 11597: 11595: 11575: 11401: 11377: 11368: 11321: 11311: 11254: 11242: 11223:Propionaldehyde 11198:Ethylene glycol 11187: 11179: 11175: 11146: 11144: 11137: 11093:Cyanohexatriyne 11079: 11072: 11019: 11012: 10947: 10940: 10900: 10853: 10846: 10817:Methoxy radical 10747: 10740: 10736:Thiocyanic acid 10617: 10610: 10520: 10460:Ethynyl radical 10396: 10390: 10389: 10388: 10387: 10381: 10380: 10379: 10378: 10369: 10360:Sulfur monoxide 10345:Sodium chloride 10330:Silicon carbide 10237:Diatomic carbon 10227:Carbon monoxide 10169: 10164: 10134: 10129: 10120: 10118: 10107: 10036: 9977: 9842: 9792: 9779: 9704: 9637: 9632: 9602: 9597: 9592: 9570: 9550: 9530: 9478: 9457: 9439: 9402: 9384: 9355: 9334: 9310: 9290: 9268: 9266: 9264: 9244: 9226: 9206: 9184: 9182: 9180: 9160: 9142: 9122: 9104: 9084: 9066: 9046: 9026: 9006: 8976: 8942: 8900: 8880: 8860: 8840: 8820: 8800: 8780: 8760: 8742: 8724: 8697: 8679: 8644: 8624: 8605: 8585: 8564: 8546: 8522: 8492: 8479: 8442: 8423: 8418: 8417: 8382: 8378: 8333: 8329: 8291: 8287: 8231: 8227: 8181: 8177: 8154: 8150: 8142: 8138: 8131:10.2514/1.16244 8107: 8103: 8054: 8050: 8034: 8033: 8027: 8025: 8021: 8014: 8006: 8002: 7993: 7991: 7982: 7978: 7971: 7949: 7945: 7912: 7908: 7891: 7887: 7878: 7876: 7874:Washington Post 7866: 7862: 7853: 7851: 7842: 7841: 7837: 7829: 7825: 7815: 7813: 7798: 7794: 7786: 7782: 7774: 7770: 7762: 7758: 7750: 7746: 7738: 7734: 7726: 7722: 7683: 7679: 7668: 7666: 7651: 7647: 7632: 7625: 7616: 7614: 7607: 7606: 7602: 7558: 7554: 7546: 7542: 7533: 7531: 7520: 7519: 7515: 7482: 7478: 7470: 7466: 7458: 7454: 7446: 7442: 7434: 7430: 7422: 7418: 7410: 7406: 7398: 7394: 7386: 7382: 7374: 7370: 7362: 7358: 7350: 7346: 7338: 7334: 7293: 7289: 7281: 7277: 7269: 7265: 7257: 7253: 7245: 7241: 7192: 7188: 7139: 7135: 7086: 7082: 7039: 7035: 6986: 6979: 6970: 6968: 6959: 6958: 6954: 6945: 6943: 6928: 6924: 6889: 6885: 6877: 6873: 6864: 6862: 6849: 6842: 6793: 6789: 6760: 6756: 6705: 6701: 6693: 6689: 6658: 6654: 6619: 6615: 6566: 6559: 6550: 6548: 6538: 6534: 6515: 6511: 6472: 6468: 6461: 6437:, p. 207, 6431: 6427: 6408: 6404: 6394: 6392: 6380: 6376: 6367: 6365: 6347: 6343: 6334: 6332: 6319: 6315: 6296: 6292: 6284: 6277: 6268: 6266: 6262:Moon Fact Sheet 6257: 6254:384,400 km 6253: 6251: 6247: 6237: 6235: 6224: 6222: 6218: 6212: 6211: 6207: 6198: 6196: 6189: 6188: 6184: 6178:Williamson 2006 6176: 6172: 6164: 6160: 6150: 6148: 6139: 6138: 6134: 6093: 6089: 6081: 6077: 6063: 6061: 6057: 6051: 6032: 6024: 6020: 6010: 6008: 6007:, June 13, 2013 5999: 5998: 5994: 5985: 5983: 5973: 5969: 5960: 5958: 5954: 5943: 5939: 5938: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5914: 5910: 5872: 5868: 5860: 5856: 5848: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5823: 5821: 5817: 5810: 5802: 5798: 5789: 5787: 5780: 5779: 5775: 5766: 5764: 5760: 5737: 5731: 5727: 5718: 5716: 5703: 5696: 5686: 5684: 5674: 5667: 5659: 5652: 5642: 5640: 5631: 5630: 5621: 5612: 5610: 5597: 5590: 5581: 5579: 5572: 5571: 5567: 5559: 5555: 5546: 5544: 5529: 5525: 5516: 5514: 5501: 5497: 5488: 5486: 5482:X-15 Walkaround 5477: 5473: 5464: 5462: 5447: 5443: 5434: 5432: 5423: 5422: 5418: 5409: 5407: 5388: 5384: 5375: 5373: 5358: 5354: 5345: 5343: 5332: 5331: 5327: 5318: 5316: 5301: 5297: 5289: 5285: 5276: 5274: 5263: 5262: 5258: 5249: 5247: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5222: 5220: 5216: 5209: 5203: 5202: 5198: 5188: 5186: 5176: 5172: 5163: 5161: 5146: 5142: 5101: 5092: 5059: 5055: 5046: 5044: 5031: 5027: 5018: 5016: 5012: 5006: 5005: 5001: 4993: 4989: 4980: 4978: 4968: 4959: 4918: 4914: 4886:(10): 293–298, 4876: 4872: 4863: 4861: 4848: 4844: 4803: 4799: 4791: 4787: 4779: 4775: 4767: 4763: 4740: 4736: 4727: 4725: 4712: 4708: 4700: 4696: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4642: 4636: 4632: 4591: 4587: 4578: 4576: 4572: 4564: 4560: 4551: 4549: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4520: 4518: 4502: 4498: 4492:Piantadosi 2003 4490: 4486: 4477: 4475: 4459: 4455: 4436: 4432: 4392: 4388: 4379: 4377: 4373: 4334: 4328: 4324: 4285: 4281: 4272: 4270: 4260: 4256: 4247: 4245: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4221: 4219: 4206: 4202: 4192: 4190: 4179: 4178: 4174: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4150: 4101: 4097: 4086: 4054: 4050: 4019: 4015: 4006: 4004: 3997: 3996: 3992: 3943: 3939: 3906: 3902: 3894: 3890: 3882: 3875: 3841: 3837: 3804: 3800: 3791: 3789: 3774: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3729: 3725: 3717: 3713: 3703: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3682: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3659: 3647: 3626: 3622: 3612: 3610: 3602: 3601: 3597: 3549: 3545: 3512: 3508: 3499: 3497: 3484: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3458: 3456: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3432: 3428: 3389: 3382: 3333: 3329: 3321: 3317: 3308: 3306: 3297: 3296: 3292: 3283: 3281: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3258: 3256: 3253:Merriam-Webster 3247: 3246: 3242: 3233: 3231: 3221: 3210: 3201: 3199: 3184: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3156: 3125: 3121: 3112: 3110: 3097: 3093: 3084: 3082: 3069: 3068: 3061: 3053: 3046: 3038: 3034: 3021: 3019: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2956: 2952: 2944: 2940: 2917: 2910: 2901: 2899: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2859: 2855: 2845: 2840: 2835: 2829: 2827: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2745:Olbers' paradox 2725: 2713:infrared window 2643:space elevators 2617:asteroid mining 2594:radio telescope 2592:could shield a 2586:Daedalus crater 2503: 2481: 2377: 2363: 2355:Main articles: 2353: 2240:Albert Einstein 2216:William Gilbert 2144:Galileo Galilei 2105:suggested that 2099: 2094: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2090: 2081: 2073: 2072: 2066: 2058: 2057: 2048: 2040: 2039: 2030: 2022: 2021: 2018: 2010: 2009: 2003: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1971: 1963: 1962: 1953: 1945: 1944: 1935: 1927: 1926: 1921: 1913: 1912: 1903: 1895: 1894: 1885: 1877: 1876: 1871: 1862: 1861: 1802: 1790:Main articles: 1788: 1721:carbon monoxide 1708:radio astronomy 1660:stellar systems 1625: 1618: 1612: 1541:solar radiation 1537:comet Hale–Bopp 1529: 1523: 1468:Earth's orbital 1448:Lagrange points 1432:transfer orbits 1334:on satellites. 1328:space pollution 1313: 1312: 1305: 1300: 1294: 1278:escape velocity 1251:low Earth orbit 1239: 1231:Main articles: 1229: 1180:nuclear weapons 1149: 1143: 1065:sounding rocket 1058:Astronaut wings 1034: 1027: 987:red blood cells 952: 944:Main articles: 942: 871: 865: 852:lithopanspermia 814: 808:Plants in space 796: 794:Bioastronautics 784:Main articles: 782: 777: 754:low Earth orbit 664:.) The current 603: 602:drops to about 578:, which is the 498: 486:Main articles: 484: 384: 378: 306: 254:low Earth orbit 234:balloon flights 138:of millions of 103:. The baseline 97:magnetic fields 83:, permeated by 33: 26: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11734: 11724: 11723: 11718: 11713: 11708: 11693: 11692: 11680: 11668: 11656: 11633: 11632: 11630: 11629: 11617: 11605: 11593: 11580: 11577: 11576: 11574: 11573: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11532: 11527: 11522: 11517: 11512: 11507: 11502: 11497: 11492: 11487: 11482: 11477: 11472: 11467: 11462: 11460:Cosmochemistry 11457: 11452: 11447: 11442: 11437: 11432: 11427: 11425:Astrochemistry 11422: 11417: 11411: 11409: 11403: 11402: 11400: 11399: 11394: 11389: 11384: 11379: 11375: 11371: 11366: 11362: 11357: 11352: 11347: 11342: 11337: 11331: 11329: 11323: 11322: 11320: 11319: 11314: 11309: 11305: 11300: 11295: 11290: 11285: 11280: 11278:Formyl radical 11275: 11270: 11264: 11258: 11256: 11248: 11247: 11244: 11243: 11241: 11240: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11220: 11215: 11210: 11208:Methyl acetate 11205: 11200: 11195: 11190: 11185: 11181: 11177: 11173: 11167: 11162: 11157: 11151: 11149: 11139: 11138: 11136: 11135: 11130: 11125: 11120: 11115: 11110: 11105: 11100: 11098:Dimethyl ether 11095: 11090: 11084: 11082: 11074: 11073: 11071: 11070: 11065: 11063:Methyl formate 11060: 11055: 11050: 11048:Glycolaldehyde 11045: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11024: 11022: 11014: 11013: 11011: 11010: 11005: 11000: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10983:Glycolonitrile 10980: 10978:Ethylene oxide 10975: 10970: 10969: 10968: 10958: 10952: 10950: 10942: 10941: 10939: 10938: 10933: 10928: 10923: 10918: 10913: 10908: 10903: 10898: 10894: 10889: 10884: 10879: 10877:Cyclopropenone 10874: 10869: 10864: 10858: 10856: 10848: 10847: 10845: 10844: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10814: 10809: 10804: 10799: 10794: 10789: 10784: 10779: 10777:Cyanoacetylene 10774: 10769: 10764: 10759: 10752: 10750: 10742: 10741: 10739: 10738: 10733: 10728: 10723: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10696:Methyl radical 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10671:Isocyanic acid 10668: 10663: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10636:Isocyanic acid 10633: 10628: 10622: 10620: 10612: 10611: 10609: 10608: 10603: 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10581:Sulfur dioxide 10578: 10573: 10568: 10563: 10558: 10556:Sodium cyanide 10553: 10548: 10543: 10538: 10533: 10528: 10523: 10518: 10514: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10489: 10484: 10479: 10473: 10467: 10465:Formyl radical 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10427: 10425:Carbon dioxide 10422: 10417: 10412: 10406: 10404: 10398: 10397: 10372: 10370: 10368: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10352: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10306: 10301: 10296: 10290: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10273:Iron(II) oxide 10270: 10265: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10214: 10209: 10204: 10199: 10194: 10188: 10186: 10177: 10171: 10170: 10163: 10162: 10155: 10148: 10140: 10131: 10130: 10116: 10113: 10112: 10109: 10108: 10106: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10089: 10088: 10087: 10086: 10084:for spacecraft 10081: 10073: 10068: 10060: 10055: 10050: 10044: 10042: 10038: 10037: 10035: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10023: 10022: 10012: 10007: 10002: 9996: 9994: 9985: 9979: 9978: 9976: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9949: 9948: 9938: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9907: 9906: 9901: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9875: 9874: 9869: 9861: 9856: 9850: 9848: 9844: 9843: 9841: 9840: 9839: 9838: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9802: 9800: 9794: 9793: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9780: 9778: 9777: 9776: 9775: 9765: 9763:Microorganisms 9760: 9755: 9754: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9738: 9733: 9728: 9723: 9712: 9710: 9706: 9705: 9703: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9691: 9690: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9658:The human body 9654: 9652: 9643: 9639: 9638: 9631: 9630: 9623: 9616: 9608: 9601: 9600:External links 9598: 9596: 9595: 9590: 9573: 9568: 9553: 9548: 9533: 9528: 9515: 9492: 9481: 9476: 9460: 9455: 9442: 9437: 9422: 9405: 9400: 9387: 9382: 9358: 9353: 9337: 9332: 9313: 9308: 9293: 9288: 9273: 9262: 9247: 9242: 9229: 9224: 9209: 9204: 9189: 9178: 9163: 9158: 9145: 9140: 9125: 9120: 9107: 9102: 9087: 9082: 9069: 9064: 9049: 9044: 9038:, John Wiley, 9029: 9024: 9009: 9004: 8989: 8980: 8974: 8945: 8940: 8903: 8898: 8883: 8878: 8863: 8858: 8843: 8838: 8823: 8818: 8803: 8798: 8783: 8778: 8763: 8758: 8745: 8740: 8727: 8722: 8700: 8695: 8682: 8677: 8647: 8642: 8627: 8622: 8609: 8603: 8588: 8583: 8568: 8562: 8549: 8544: 8525: 8520: 8505: 8496: 8482: 8477: 8462: 8460:, NASA SP-3006 8445: 8440: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8416: 8415: 8376: 8372:(λ ~ 8–13 μm). 8327: 8285: 8225: 8175: 8148: 8136: 8117:(3): 696–698, 8101: 8064:(4): 307–313, 8048: 8000: 7976: 7969: 7943: 7922:(105): 60–63, 7906: 7885: 7860: 7835: 7823: 7792: 7780: 7768: 7756: 7744: 7732: 7720: 7693:(2): 199–242, 7677: 7645: 7623: 7600: 7552: 7540: 7513: 7507:10.1086/132128 7476: 7464: 7462:, p. 195. 7452: 7440: 7428: 7424:Hariharan 2003 7416: 7414:, p. 356. 7404: 7392: 7380: 7368: 7356: 7344: 7332: 7287: 7275: 7263: 7251: 7239: 7226:10.1086/318249 7186: 7133: 7080: 7033: 6977: 6952: 6922: 6901:(1): 135–151, 6883: 6871: 6840: 6787: 6754: 6699: 6695:Rauchfuss 2008 6687: 6682:10.1086/169509 6652: 6613: 6557: 6532: 6509: 6466: 6459: 6425: 6402: 6374: 6341: 6313: 6304:Universe Today 6290: 6275: 6245: 6205: 6182: 6170: 6158: 6132: 6103:(1): 262–277, 6087: 6085:, p. 253. 6075: 6049: 6018: 5992: 5967: 5932: 5930:, p. 244. 5920: 5918:, p. 275. 5908: 5866: 5854: 5842: 5840:, p. 379. 5830: 5796: 5773: 5725: 5694: 5665: 5650: 5619: 5588: 5565: 5553: 5523: 5495: 5471: 5441: 5416: 5382: 5352: 5325: 5295: 5283: 5256: 5229: 5196: 5170: 5140: 5090: 5069:(A4): A04306, 5053: 5025: 4999: 4987: 4957: 4912: 4870: 4842: 4797: 4785: 4773: 4761: 4750:(4): 376–383, 4734: 4706: 4694: 4630: 4585: 4558: 4527: 4496: 4484: 4453: 4430: 4403:(5): 498–507, 4386: 4345:(5): 517–528, 4322: 4295:(4): 281–292, 4279: 4254: 4229: 4200: 4172: 4160: 4158:, p. 462. 4148: 4111:(3): 907–942, 4095: 4084: 4048: 4043:10.1086/166015 4013: 3990: 3953:(2): 916–920, 3937: 3900: 3888: 3873: 3868:10.1086/144984 3835: 3798: 3768: 3756: 3723: 3711: 3676: 3664: 3620: 3595: 3559:(2): 559–606, 3543: 3537:10.1086/113647 3506: 3478: 3466: 3438: 3426: 3380: 3327: 3325:, pp. 33. 3315: 3290: 3265: 3240: 3208: 3178: 3166: 3164:, p. 410. 3154: 3135:(3): 167–182, 3119: 3091: 3059: 3044: 3032: 2999: 2950: 2938: 2908: 2880: 2873: 2853: 2811: 2810: 2808: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2670:Alpha Centauri 2607:Concept for a 2555:climate change 2546:remote sensing 2480: 2477: 2428:William Anders 2352: 2349: 2232:speed of light 2204:Giordano Bruno 2125:René Descartes 2098: 2095: 2082: 2075: 2074: 2067: 2060: 2059: 2049: 2042: 2041: 2031: 2024: 2023: 2019: 2012: 2011: 2007:Milky Way 2004: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1985: 1984: 1983: 1972: 1965: 1964: 1954: 1947: 1946: 1936: 1929: 1928: 1922: 1915: 1914: 1904: 1897: 1896: 1886: 1879: 1878: 1872: 1865: 1864: 1863: 1856: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1787: 1784: 1740:constellations 1634:formed by the 1614:Main article: 1611: 1608: 1596:zodiacal light 1525:Main article: 1522: 1519: 1436:Cislunar space 1304: 1301: 1293: 1290: 1228: 1225: 1145:Main article: 1142: 1139: 1103:United Nations 1048:High-altitude 1026: 1023: 1010:nervous system 975:muscle atrophy 955:Humans evolved 946:Weightlessness 941: 938: 884:Armstrong line 867:Main article: 864: 861: 790:Space medicine 781: 778: 776: 773: 718:. Non-thermal 568:mean free path 563:hydrogen atoms 531:perfect vacuum 510:zodiacal light 483: 480: 462:energy density 410:which rapidly 380:Main article: 377: 374: 305: 302: 294:muscle atrophy 238:rocket flights 211:UN resolutions 128:number density 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11733: 11722: 11719: 11717: 11714: 11712: 11711:Space plasmas 11709: 11707: 11704: 11703: 11701: 11691: 11681: 11679: 11669: 11667: 11662: 11657: 11655: 11645: 11644: 11641: 11628: 11618: 11616: 11606: 11604: 11594: 11592: 11591: 11582: 11581: 11578: 11572: 11569: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11536: 11533: 11531: 11528: 11526: 11523: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11511: 11508: 11506: 11503: 11501: 11498: 11496: 11493: 11491: 11490:Homochirality 11488: 11486: 11483: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11473: 11471: 11468: 11466: 11463: 11461: 11458: 11456: 11453: 11451: 11448: 11446: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11428: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11412: 11410: 11408: 11404: 11398: 11395: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11372: 11370: 11363: 11361: 11358: 11356: 11353: 11351: 11348: 11346: 11345:Methoxyethane 11343: 11341: 11338: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11330: 11328: 11324: 11318: 11315: 11313: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11268: 11265: 11263: 11260: 11259: 11257: 11253: 11249: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11228:Butyronitrile 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11214: 11211: 11209: 11206: 11204: 11203:Ethyl formate 11201: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11182: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11152: 11150: 11148: 11140: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11128:Propionitrile 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11109: 11106: 11104: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11085: 11083: 11081: 11075: 11069: 11066: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11025: 11023: 11021: 11015: 11009: 11008:Vinyl alcohol 11006: 11004: 11001: 10999: 10996: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10967: 10966:Vinyl cyanide 10964: 10963: 10962: 10961:Acrylonitrile 10959: 10957: 10954: 10953: 10951: 10949: 10943: 10937: 10934: 10932: 10929: 10927: 10926:Pentynylidyne 10924: 10922: 10919: 10917: 10914: 10912: 10909: 10907: 10904: 10902: 10895: 10893: 10890: 10888: 10885: 10883: 10880: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10870: 10868: 10865: 10863: 10860: 10859: 10857: 10855: 10849: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10823: 10822:Methylenimine 10820: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10810: 10808: 10805: 10803: 10800: 10798: 10795: 10793: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10780: 10778: 10775: 10773: 10770: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10757: 10754: 10753: 10751: 10749: 10743: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10701:Propynylidyne 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10691:Methyl cation 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10651:Fulminic acid 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10623: 10621: 10619: 10613: 10607: 10604: 10602: 10599: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10572: 10569: 10567: 10564: 10562: 10559: 10557: 10554: 10552: 10549: 10547: 10544: 10542: 10539: 10537: 10534: 10532: 10529: 10527: 10526:Nitrous oxide 10524: 10522: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10508: 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10477: 10474: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10420:Amino radical 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10407: 10405: 10403: 10399: 10394: 10385: 10376: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10350:Sodium iodide 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10310: 10307: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10232:Cyano radical 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10212:Carbon cation 10210: 10208: 10205: 10203: 10200: 10198: 10195: 10193: 10190: 10189: 10187: 10185: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10172: 10168: 10161: 10156: 10154: 10149: 10147: 10142: 10141: 10138: 10128: 10127: 10114: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10076: 10074: 10072: 10069: 10067: 10064: 10063: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10053:Manufacturing 10051: 10049: 10046: 10045: 10043: 10039: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10021: 10018: 10017: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9997: 9995: 9993: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9980: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9961: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9947: 9944: 9943: 9942: 9939: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9927: 9924: 9922: 9919: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9896: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9851: 9849: 9845: 9837: 9834: 9833: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9826:Magnetosphere 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9803: 9801: 9799: 9795: 9790: 9774: 9771: 9770: 9769: 9766: 9764: 9761: 9759: 9756: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9718: 9717: 9714: 9713: 9711: 9707: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9689: 9686: 9685: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9655: 9653: 9651: 9647: 9644: 9640: 9636: 9629: 9624: 9622: 9617: 9615: 9610: 9609: 9606: 9593: 9587: 9583: 9579: 9574: 9571: 9565: 9561: 9560: 9554: 9551: 9545: 9541: 9540: 9534: 9531: 9525: 9521: 9516: 9512: 9507: 9503: 9502: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9488: 9482: 9479: 9473: 9469: 9465: 9461: 9458: 9452: 9448: 9443: 9440: 9434: 9430: 9429: 9423: 9420: 9416: 9415: 9410: 9406: 9403: 9397: 9393: 9388: 9385: 9379: 9375: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9359: 9356: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9335: 9329: 9325: 9324: 9319: 9314: 9311: 9305: 9302:, CRC Press, 9301: 9300: 9294: 9291: 9285: 9281: 9280: 9274: 9265: 9259: 9255: 9254: 9248: 9245: 9239: 9235: 9230: 9227: 9221: 9217: 9216: 9210: 9207: 9201: 9197: 9196: 9190: 9181: 9175: 9171: 9170: 9164: 9161: 9155: 9151: 9146: 9143: 9137: 9133: 9132: 9126: 9123: 9117: 9113: 9108: 9105: 9099: 9095: 9094: 9088: 9085: 9079: 9075: 9070: 9067: 9061: 9057: 9056: 9050: 9047: 9041: 9037: 9036: 9030: 9027: 9021: 9017: 9016: 9010: 9007: 9001: 8997: 8996: 8990: 8986: 8981: 8977: 8971: 8967: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8951: 8946: 8943: 8937: 8933: 8929: 8925: 8921: 8917: 8913: 8912:Physics Today 8909: 8904: 8901: 8895: 8891: 8890: 8884: 8881: 8875: 8871: 8870: 8864: 8861: 8855: 8851: 8850: 8844: 8841: 8835: 8831: 8830: 8824: 8821: 8815: 8811: 8810: 8804: 8801: 8795: 8791: 8790: 8784: 8781: 8775: 8771: 8770: 8764: 8761: 8755: 8751: 8746: 8743: 8737: 8733: 8728: 8725: 8719: 8715: 8711: 8707: 8701: 8698: 8692: 8688: 8683: 8680: 8674: 8670: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8648: 8645: 8639: 8635: 8634: 8628: 8625: 8619: 8616:, Wiley-VCH, 8615: 8610: 8606: 8600: 8596: 8595: 8589: 8586: 8580: 8576: 8575: 8569: 8565: 8559: 8555: 8550: 8547: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8523: 8517: 8513: 8512: 8506: 8502: 8497: 8488: 8483: 8480: 8474: 8470: 8469: 8463: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8446: 8443: 8437: 8433: 8432: 8426: 8425: 8411: 8407: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8380: 8373: 8368: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8331: 8324: 8320: 8316: 8312: 8308: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8289: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8229: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8179: 8171: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8152: 8146:, p. xv. 8145: 8144:Bolonkin 2010 8140: 8132: 8128: 8124: 8120: 8116: 8112: 8105: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8085: 8081: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8063: 8059: 8052: 8044: 8038: 8024:on 2011-07-06 8020: 8013: 8012: 8004: 7989: 7988: 7980: 7972: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7947: 7939: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7921: 7917: 7910: 7902: 7898: 7897: 7889: 7875: 7871: 7864: 7849: 7845: 7839: 7832: 7827: 7811: 7808:, Space.com, 7807: 7803: 7796: 7789: 7784: 7778:, p. 86. 7777: 7772: 7765: 7760: 7753: 7748: 7741: 7740:Harrison 2002 7736: 7729: 7724: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7681: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7649: 7641: 7637: 7630: 7628: 7612: 7611: 7604: 7596: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7571:(3210): 706, 7570: 7566: 7562: 7556: 7549: 7544: 7529: 7525: 7524: 7517: 7508: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7480: 7473: 7468: 7461: 7456: 7449: 7444: 7437: 7432: 7425: 7420: 7413: 7408: 7401: 7396: 7389: 7384: 7378:, p. 22. 7377: 7372: 7365: 7360: 7353: 7348: 7341: 7336: 7328: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7291: 7284: 7279: 7272: 7267: 7261:, p. 27. 7260: 7255: 7249:, p. 10. 7248: 7243: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7190: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7148: 7144: 7137: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7084: 7075: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6984: 6982: 6966: 6962: 6956: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6926: 6917: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6895: 6887: 6881:, p. 67. 6880: 6875: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6847: 6845: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6791: 6783: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6765: 6758: 6750: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6703: 6696: 6691: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6617: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6564: 6562: 6547: 6543: 6536: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6470: 6462: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6429: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6406: 6391: 6390: 6385: 6378: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6345: 6331:on 2009-10-14 6330: 6326: 6325: 6317: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6294: 6287: 6282: 6280: 6264: 6263: 6249: 6242: 6233: 6217: 6216: 6209: 6195: 6194: 6186: 6180:, p. 97. 6179: 6174: 6168:, p. 57. 6167: 6162: 6146: 6142: 6136: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6091: 6084: 6083:Barbieri 2006 6079: 6072: 6056: 6052: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6031: 6030: 6022: 6006: 6002: 5996: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5936: 5929: 5924: 5917: 5916:Mendillo 2000 5912: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5877: 5870: 5863: 5862:Koskinen 2010 5858: 5851: 5846: 5839: 5834: 5816: 5809: 5808: 5800: 5785: 5784: 5783:Photo Gallery 5777: 5763:on 2000-09-01 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5736: 5729: 5714: 5710: 5709: 5701: 5699: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5670: 5662: 5657: 5655: 5638: 5634: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5608: 5604: 5603: 5595: 5593: 5577: 5576: 5569: 5562: 5557: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5527: 5513:on 2017-08-29 5512: 5508: 5507: 5499: 5484: 5483: 5475: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5445: 5430: 5426: 5420: 5406:on 2011-09-27 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5356: 5341: 5337: 5336: 5329: 5315:on 2019-03-28 5314: 5310: 5306: 5299: 5292: 5287: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5260: 5245: 5241: 5240: 5233: 5215: 5208: 5207: 5200: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5144: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5085: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5057: 5042: 5039:, space.com, 5038: 5037: 5029: 5011: 5010: 5003: 4997:, p. 16. 4996: 4991: 4977: 4973: 4966: 4964: 4962: 4953: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4916: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4859: 4855: 4854: 4846: 4838: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4794: 4789: 4782: 4777: 4771:, p. 68. 4770: 4765: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4710: 4703: 4702:Billings 1973 4698: 4684:on 2012-04-26 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4634: 4626: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4589: 4571: 4570: 4562: 4547: 4540: 4539: 4531: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4508: 4500: 4493: 4488: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4465: 4457: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4390: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4333: 4326: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4283: 4269: 4265: 4258: 4243: 4239: 4233: 4217: 4213: 4212: 4204: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4176: 4169: 4164: 4157: 4152: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4091: 4087: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4060: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4017: 4002: 4001: 3994: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3941: 3932: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3897: 3892: 3885: 3884:Prialnik 2000 3880: 3878: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3839: 3830: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3810:, Series II, 3809: 3802: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3772: 3765: 3760: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3721:, p. 93. 3720: 3715: 3696: 3689: 3688: 3680: 3673: 3668: 3657: 3653: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3538: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3522:: 1461–1463, 3521: 3517: 3510: 3495: 3491: 3490: 3482: 3475: 3470: 3454: 3450: 3449: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3387: 3385: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3279: 3275: 3269: 3254: 3250: 3244: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3176:, p. 39. 3175: 3170: 3163: 3158: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3095: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3066: 3064: 3057:, p. 84. 3056: 3051: 3049: 3041: 3036: 3029: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2966: 2961: 2954: 2947: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2915: 2913: 2897: 2893: 2892: 2884: 2876: 2870: 2866: 2865: 2857: 2850: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2826: 2822: 2816: 2812: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2775:Space station 2773: 2771: 2768: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2756: 2753: 2751: 2748: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2733: 2731: 2728: 2727: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2622: 2618: 2610: 2605: 2601: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2530:space economy 2526: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2485:Space science 2476: 2474: 2470: 2469: 2464: 2463:minor planets 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2447: 2442: 2441: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2396: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2362: 2358: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2341:Robert Herman 2338: 2334: 2330: 2329:Erich Regener 2326: 2322: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2255:Thomas Digges 2251: 2249: 2245: 2242:'s theory of 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2177: 2174:The original 2172: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2160:Blaise Pascal 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2132:ancient China 2128: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2113: 2108: 2104: 2089: 2085: 2079: 2071: 2064: 2056: 2052: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2028: 2016: 2008: 2001: 1989: 1979: 1975: 1969: 1961: 1957: 1951: 1943: 1939: 1933: 1925: 1924:Nearest stars 1919: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1883: 1875: 1869: 1860: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1811: 1806: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1694: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1656:stellar winds 1653: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1636:magnetosphere 1633: 1629: 1623: 1617: 1607: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1580:atomic nuclei 1578: 1574: 1569: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1514: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1484:Earth trojans 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1413: 1408: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1354:magnetosphere 1351: 1347: 1339: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1309: 1299: 1289: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1258: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1238: 1237:Orbital decay 1234: 1224: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1138: 1134: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1080:Space Shuttle 1077: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1038: 1032: 1022: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 992: 991:immune system 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 969:, headaches, 968: 964: 960: 956: 951: 947: 937: 935: 934:gas embolisms 931: 927: 926:pressure suit 922: 920: 915: 911: 906: 904: 900: 896: 891: 889: 885: 881: 877: 870: 860: 858: 857:microorganism 853: 849: 848: 843: 842: 837: 836: 831: 823: 818: 813: 809: 805: 801: 795: 791: 787: 772: 770: 766: 762: 758: 755: 750: 748: 747:health threat 744: 740: 736: 732: 727: 725: 721: 720:radio sources 717: 713: 709: 706: 703:processes in 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 677: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 642: 640: 639:space weather 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 601: 596: 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 525: 521: 520: 515: 511: 507: 502: 497: 493: 492:Space weather 489: 479: 477: 472: 468: 463: 458: 456: 452: 451:vacuum energy 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 401: 397: 393: 388: 383: 373: 371: 367: 362: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 327:outward space 323: 321: 320: 319:Paradise Lost 315: 311: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 222: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 175: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 132:hydrogen atom 129: 125: 121: 116: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 44: 39: 35: 30: 23: 11716:Environments 11690:Solar System 11583: 11566:Spectroscopy 11539: 11420:Astrobiology 11273:Formaldehyde 11165:Benzonitrile 10956:Acetaldehyde 10911:Methanethiol 10862:Acetonitrile 10767:Carbodiimide 10646:Formaldehyde 10641:Cyanoethynyl 10492:Iron cyanide 10487:Hydroperoxyl 10288:Nitric oxide 10117: 10005:Architecture 9889:Colonization 9863:Archaeology 9678:Neuroscience 9635:... in space 9581: 9558: 9538: 9522:, Springer, 9519: 9500: 9486: 9467: 9446: 9427: 9418: 9413: 9391: 9365: 9345:The Big Bang 9344: 9341:Silk, Joseph 9322: 9298: 9278: 9267:, retrieved 9252: 9233: 9214: 9194: 9183:, retrieved 9168: 9149: 9130: 9111: 9092: 9073: 9054: 9034: 9014: 8994: 8984: 8949: 8915: 8911: 8888: 8868: 8848: 8828: 8808: 8788: 8768: 8749: 8731: 8705: 8686: 8652: 8632: 8613: 8593: 8573: 8553: 8534: 8510: 8500: 8486: 8471:, Elsevier, 8467: 8449: 8430: 8393: 8389: 8379: 8370: 8343:(365): 365, 8340: 8336: 8330: 8322: 8302: 8298: 8288: 8280: 8242: 8238: 8228: 8220: 8192: 8188: 8178: 8161: 8157: 8151: 8139: 8114: 8110: 8104: 8061: 8057: 8051: 8026:, retrieved 8019:the original 8010: 8003: 7992:, retrieved 7986: 7979: 7952: 7946: 7919: 7916:ESA Bulletin 7915: 7909: 7895: 7888: 7877:, retrieved 7873: 7863: 7852:, retrieved 7850:, 2023-07-25 7847: 7838: 7826: 7816:13 September 7814:, retrieved 7805: 7795: 7783: 7776:Collins 2007 7771: 7759: 7747: 7735: 7728:O'Leary 2009 7723: 7690: 7686: 7680: 7667:, retrieved 7663:the original 7658: 7648: 7639: 7635: 7615:, retrieved 7609: 7603: 7568: 7564: 7561:Lemaître, G. 7555: 7543: 7532:, retrieved 7522: 7516: 7489: 7485: 7479: 7467: 7455: 7448:Thagard 1992 7443: 7431: 7426:, p. 2. 7419: 7407: 7395: 7383: 7371: 7359: 7347: 7335: 7303:(2): 66–73, 7300: 7296: 7290: 7278: 7273:, p. 5. 7266: 7254: 7242: 7199: 7195: 7189: 7146: 7142: 7136: 7093: 7089: 7083: 7046: 7042: 7036: 6993: 6989: 6969:, retrieved 6967:, 2022-06-16 6964: 6955: 6944:, retrieved 6935: 6925: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6879:Wszolek 2013 6874: 6863:, retrieved 6853: 6800: 6796: 6790: 6763: 6757: 6712: 6708: 6702: 6690: 6665: 6661: 6655: 6622: 6616: 6573: 6569: 6549:. Retrieved 6545: 6535: 6525:, 2013-278, 6522: 6512: 6479: 6475: 6469: 6434: 6428: 6411: 6405: 6393:, retrieved 6387: 6377: 6366:, retrieved 6354: 6344: 6333:, retrieved 6329:the original 6323: 6316: 6303: 6293: 6267:, retrieved 6261: 6248: 6231: 6229: 6223:, retrieved 6214: 6208: 6197:, retrieved 6192: 6185: 6173: 6166:Dickson 2010 6161: 6149:, retrieved 6144: 6135: 6100: 6096: 6090: 6078: 6062:, retrieved 6055:the original 6028: 6021: 6011:December 17, 6009:, retrieved 6004: 5995: 5984:, retrieved 5980: 5970: 5959:, retrieved 5947: 5935: 5928:Goodman 2006 5923: 5911: 5882:(3): 40–47, 5879: 5875: 5869: 5857: 5845: 5833: 5822:, retrieved 5806: 5799: 5788:, retrieved 5782: 5776: 5765:, retrieved 5758:the original 5748:, NASA: 13, 5745: 5741: 5728: 5717:, retrieved 5707: 5685:, retrieved 5681: 5643:December 17, 5641:, retrieved 5636: 5611:, retrieved 5601: 5580:, retrieved 5574: 5568: 5556: 5545:, retrieved 5536: 5526: 5515:, retrieved 5511:the original 5505: 5498: 5487:, retrieved 5481: 5474: 5463:, retrieved 5455:Space Future 5454: 5444: 5433:, retrieved 5431:, 2023-03-09 5428: 5419: 5408:, retrieved 5404:the original 5399: 5395: 5385: 5374:, retrieved 5365: 5355: 5344:, retrieved 5340:the original 5334: 5328: 5317:, retrieved 5313:the original 5308: 5298: 5293:, p. 4. 5286: 5275:, retrieved 5265: 5259: 5248:, retrieved 5244:the original 5238: 5232: 5221:, retrieved 5214:the original 5205: 5199: 5187:, retrieved 5183: 5173: 5162:, retrieved 5158:the original 5153: 5143: 5108: 5104: 5066: 5062: 5056: 5045:, retrieved 5035: 5028: 5017:, retrieved 5008: 5002: 4990: 4979:. Retrieved 4975: 4925: 4921: 4915: 4883: 4879: 4873: 4862:, retrieved 4852: 4845: 4810: 4806: 4800: 4788: 4776: 4764: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4726:, retrieved 4722:the original 4716: 4709: 4697: 4686:, retrieved 4679:the original 4653:(1): 85–91, 4650: 4646: 4633: 4598: 4594: 4588: 4577:, retrieved 4568: 4561: 4550:, retrieved 4537: 4530: 4519:, retrieved 4506: 4499: 4487: 4476:, retrieved 4463: 4456: 4439: 4433: 4400: 4397:Astrobiology 4396: 4389: 4378:, retrieved 4342: 4339:Astrobiology 4338: 4325: 4292: 4289:Astrobiology 4288: 4282: 4271:. Retrieved 4267: 4257: 4246:. Retrieved 4244:. 2023-08-03 4241: 4232: 4222:February 19, 4220:, retrieved 4210: 4203: 4193:February 19, 4191:, retrieved 4181: 4175: 4163: 4151: 4108: 4104: 4098: 4058: 4051: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4005:, retrieved 3999: 3993: 3950: 3946: 3940: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3896:Spitzer 1978 3891: 3851: 3847: 3838: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3790:, retrieved 3786:the original 3781: 3771: 3766:, p. 2. 3759: 3732: 3726: 3714: 3704:13 September 3702:, retrieved 3695:the original 3686: 3679: 3667: 3633: 3629: 3623: 3611:, retrieved 3607: 3604:"False Dawn" 3598: 3556: 3552: 3546: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3498:, retrieved 3488: 3481: 3469: 3457:, retrieved 3447: 3441: 3429: 3399:(3): 36–43, 3396: 3392: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3318: 3307:, retrieved 3302: 3293: 3282:, retrieved 3280:, 2022-05-17 3277: 3268: 3257:, retrieved 3255:, 2022-05-17 3252: 3243: 3232:. Retrieved 3228: 3200:, retrieved 3191: 3181: 3169: 3157: 3132: 3128: 3122: 3111:, retrieved 3101: 3094: 3083:, retrieved 3074: 3055:O'Leary 2009 3035: 3027: 3020:, retrieved 3012:NASA Science 3011: 3002: 2969: 2963: 2953: 2941: 2924: 2920: 2900:, retrieved 2890: 2883: 2863: 2856: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2834: 2828:, retrieved 2824: 2815: 2694: 2647: 2614: 2567: 2551:surveillance 2527: 2524: 2466: 2444: 2438: 2436: 2420:Frank Borman 2412:Yuri Gagarin 2393: 2390: 2367:Astronautics 2337:Ralph Alpher 2318: 2303: 2291:Edwin Hubble 2279:Heber Curtis 2252: 2221: 2208:heliocentric 2196: 2192:horror vacui 2191: 2181: 2156:air pressure 2141: 2129: 2112:horror vacui 2110: 2106: 2100: 2055:Laniakea SCl 1960:Local Bubble 1841: 1826: 1822:cosmic voids 1815: 1810:cosmic voids 1757: 1752:astrospheres 1732:Local Bubble 1725: 1697: 1672: 1654:, formed by 1652:astrospheres 1649: 1644:Orion Nebula 1600: 1570: 1549:Solar System 1546: 1497: 1496: 1452: 1440:lunar orbits 1435: 1417: 1381: 1373:heliophysics 1370: 1362:magnetopause 1345: 1344: 1311: 1310: 1306: 1282: 1259: 1240: 1221:space debris 1218: 1210: 1189: 1171: 1165: 1161:space debris 1157:SM-3 missile 1141:Legal status 1135: 1130: 1127:astronautics 1119:aerodynamics 1092: 1069: 1062: 1047: 1043: 995: 953: 950:Radiobiology 923: 907: 892: 872: 845: 839: 833: 827: 800:Astrobiology 775:Human access 751: 728: 697:polarization 678: 674:solar corona 643: 635:thermosphere 592: 528: 517: 516:(edges) and 513: 459: 424: 405: 363: 350: 345:after 1901. 334: 326: 324: 317: 309: 307: 286:Microgravity 270:Solar System 246:Soviet Union 242:Yuri Gagarin 226:air pressure 223: 187:stratosphere 176: 156:star systems 117: 60:and between 53: 49: 48: 34: 11706:Outer space 11678:Spaceflight 11540:Outer space 11450:Cosmic dust 11415:Abiogenesis 11327:Unconfirmed 11283:Heavy water 11123:Ethanethiol 11038:Cyanoallene 11028:Acetic acid 10998:Methylamine 10882:Diacetylene 10797:Formic acid 10787:Cyanomethyl 10445:Diazenylium 10435:CCP radical 10311:(molecular) 10295:(molecular) 10264:(molecular) 9916:Exploration 9854:Advertising 9798:Environment 9773:Astrobotany 9736:Fruit flies 8195:: 129–136, 8164:: 377–400, 7831:Razani 2012 7788:Harris 2008 7752:Orloff 2001 7669:October 29, 7642:(3): 79–87. 7352:Cajori 1917 7271:Eckert 2006 6996:(2): 1715, 6668:: 544–558, 6389:EurekAlert! 6071:mean radius 5111:: 668–677, 4769:Ellery 2000 4029:: 442–467, 3814:: 193–213, 3719:Davies 1977 3660:1.66 × 10 g 3652:Local Group 3648:7 × 10 g/cm 3613:14 February 3608:www.eso.org 3323:Liddle 2015 2972:: 425–472, 2837:Outer space 2674:light sails 2517:of Earth's 2479:Application 2395:Explorer II 2371:Spaceflight 2351:Exploration 2333:cosmic rays 2281:noted that 2277:. In 1917, 2275:light years 2236:null result 2188:vacuum pump 2164:Puy de Dôme 2117:ontological 2037:Local Group 1770:and NASA's 1688:shock waves 1686:propagates 1557:heliosphere 1492:quasi-moons 1463:Hill sphere 1377:magnetotail 1247:centrifugal 1243:centripetal 1227:Earth orbit 1205:Moon Treaty 1172:outer space 1095:Kármán line 1002:cosmic rays 804:Astrobotany 761:arc welding 716:radio lobes 693:dust grains 660:called the 595:atmospheres 519:gegenschein 482:Environment 467:black holes 455:dark energy 400:accelerates 370:space-based 343:H. G. Wells 335:outer space 314:John Milton 304:Terminology 250:spaceflight 219:Earth orbit 179:Kármán line 172:dark energy 168:dark matter 160:mass-energy 105:temperature 89:cosmic rays 52:(or simply 50:Outer space 11700:Categories 11455:Cosmic ray 11397:Silylidyne 11360:Hemolithin 11335:Anthracene 11252:Deuterated 11233:Pyrimidine 11043:Ethanimine 10906:Ketenimine 10762:Butadiynyl 10586:Thioformyl 10440:Chloronium 10098:Telescopes 9983:Technology 9836:Weathering 9683:Psychology 9668:Locomotion 9269:2015-03-26 9185:2008-01-28 8252:2103.03902 8028:2010-01-12 7994:2024-05-29 7879:2024-04-24 7854:2024-04-24 7617:2024-04-24 7534:2011-09-12 7400:Kelly 1965 7388:Gatti 2002 7247:Grant 1981 7202:(1): 100, 7149:(1): 378, 6971:2024-04-16 6946:2009-06-19 6865:2012-05-14 6551:2024-01-30 6368:2019-01-31 6335:2009-10-20 6269:2023-09-23 6240:10 km 6232:deep space 6225:2018-02-05 6199:2018-01-15 6151:January 5, 6064:2011-12-31 5986:2022-12-17 5961:2012-04-07 5824:2012-04-15 5790:2024-04-27 5767:2012-05-05 5719:2016-02-10 5687:8 December 5613:2011-12-31 5582:2024-04-29 5561:Ghosh 2000 5547:2012-05-10 5517:2012-01-21 5489:2009-06-19 5465:2012-03-18 5435:2024-04-24 5410:2011-10-14 5376:2011-10-14 5346:2009-12-30 5319:2019-03-28 5277:2009-12-30 5250:2009-12-30 5223:2018-03-22 5184:The Nation 5164:2011-12-16 5118:1807.07894 5047:2009-06-19 5019:2022-12-18 4981:2024-04-30 4864:2011-12-16 4728:2009-06-19 4688:2011-12-16 4579:2022-12-20 4552:2011-12-23 4521:2022-12-18 4507:Barotrauma 4478:2024-04-25 4380:2013-05-19 4273:2024-09-18 4248:2024-09-18 4007:2020-10-07 3792:2011-10-23 3500:2011-10-14 3309:2024-04-28 3284:2022-05-18 3259:2022-05-18 3234:2024-04-30 3202:2008-03-24 3113:2009-06-19 3085:2015-11-10 2902:2013-04-27 2830:2024-06-17 2802:References 2770:Space race 2755:Panspermia 2686:antimatter 2519:ionosphere 2483:See also: 2424:Jim Lovell 2408:R-7 rocket 2400:A-4 rocket 2365:See also: 2271:arcseconds 2136:Zhang Heng 2121:Parmenides 1910:Oort cloud 1764:bow shocks 1668:astropause 1640:LL Orionis 1565:heliopause 1498:Deep space 1494:to Earth. 1472:co-orbital 1366:ionosphere 1296:See also: 1270:trajectory 1262:spacecraft 1131:free space 1052:, such as 822:space suit 798:See also: 666:black body 631:solar wind 584:scattering 580:absorption 576:extinction 514:false dawn 366:Spaceborne 351:free space 290:physiology 191:mesosphere 11654:Astronomy 11387:Phosphine 11255:molecules 11188:fullerene 11088:Acetamide 10892:Formamide 10772:Cyanamide 10626:Acetylene 10601:Tricarbon 10512:Methylene 10497:Isoformyl 10402:Triatomic 10175:Molecules 10079:for Earth 10066:Batteries 10048:Logistics 10000:Accidents 9946:Christmas 9811:Corrosion 9751:Tortoises 9709:Non-human 8410:249695930 8277:232147880 8217:248972097 8096:119111392 8071:1103.5369 7715:120710485 7472:Webb 1999 7460:Maor 1991 7364:Genz 2001 7181:119247429 7156:0903.2259 7103:0801.1008 7003:1001.3692 6835:206540880 6546:Space.com 6504:121800711 6110:1112.3781 5682:Space.com 5366:Space Law 5189:6 October 4976:The Verge 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