Atmosphere of Earth

4928: 4984: 9429: 4125: 5001: 3990: 1293: 488: 4927: 1119: 4972: 7639: 9441: 5063: 1473: 981: 380: 5035: 4477: 5049: 793: 404:. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by mole fraction in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by mole fraction in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are other 9403: 8304: 7565: 37: 4983: 1541: 9465: 9477: 4183: 9453: 1378:) -- for altitudes out to around 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account. At heights over 100 km, an atmosphere may no longer be well mixed. Then each chemical species has its own scale height. 1359:. Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×10 kg (1.135×10 lb), about 2.5% less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and 3975:, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal before reaching your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset. 4703: 1227:. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000 ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the 1280:. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 metres (330 ft) on clear, calm nights to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) or more during the afternoon in dry regions. 951:, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin. 1266:

is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the

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of ice particles. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or similarly before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. Lightning-induced

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are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the lowest part of the thermosphere, where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by

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Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate

814:, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The altitudes of the five layers are: 1492:

The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes over a large vertical distance through the rest of the

3929:. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that humans cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be 877:

This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without colliding with one another.

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The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar

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This image shows the Moon at the centre, with the limb of Earth near the bottom transitioning into the orange-colored troposphere. The troposphere ends abruptly at the tropopause, which appears in the image as the sharp boundary between the orange- and blue-colored atmosphere. The silvery-blue

4197:) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles. 1173:

Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the

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of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi;

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The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi;

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concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–21.7 mi;

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at an altitude range of 500–1000 km (310–620 mi; 1,600,000–3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the

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Earth's atmosphere. Lower four layers of the atmosphere in three dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Aurorae shown at the bottom of the thermosphere can form at any altitude within this

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The upper limit varies depending on the definition. Various authorities consider it to end at about 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) or about 190,000 kilometres (120,000 mi)—about halfway to the moon, where the influence of Earth's gravity is about the same as

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depends only on temperature and not on pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.

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of air is close to, but just greater than, 1. Systematic variations in the refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers on board ships can see other vessels just over the

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The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m (1.2 g/L, 0.0012 g/cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the

1088:, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of 801:

In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, the temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the

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Composition of Earth's atmosphere by molecular count, excluding water vapor. Lower pie represents trace gases that together compose about 0.0434% of the atmosphere (0.0442% at August 2021 concentrations). Numbers are mainly from 2000, with

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O) absorbs at many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.

4093:), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 °C; 62 °F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans. 4545:. Free oxygen molecules did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reductant materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a 297:

10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and

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appeared as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the

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The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the

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dating from between about 2.15 and 2.08 billion years ago provide a record of Earth's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.

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is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are

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If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density equal to sea level density (about 1.2 kg per m) from sea level upwards, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft).

4081:" emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 845:

The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (though it is so tenuous that some scientists consider it to be part of interplanetary space rather than part of the atmosphere). It extends from the

904:—the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights)—sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains many of the 4694:. The cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not precisely understood. Periods with more oxygen in the atmosphere were often associated with more rapid development of animals. 5000: 1047:

burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by

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release sulfur into the atmosphere, which reacts and hence reduces oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which can fuel oxygenic photosynthesis by

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of dry air, which can be used to calculate densities or to convert between mole fraction and mass fraction, is about 28.946 or 28.96 g/mol. This is decreased when the air is humid.

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in the Northern Hemisphere with a maximum around May. The maximum in the vegetation cycle follows in the late summer. Following the peak in vegetation, the drawdown of atmospheric CO

862:. The altitude of the exobase varies from about 500 kilometres (310 mi; 1,600,000 ft) to about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) in times of higher incoming solar radiation. 4096:

Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H

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The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this

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Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere. Here, the chemical composition varies with altitude. This is because the

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10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27

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The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height and can rise as high as 1500 °C (2700 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its

8433: 306:, at 100 km (62 mi) or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during 1284:

The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth's surface is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K) or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K), depending on the reference.

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will occur resulting in a return to Earth. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

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49,000–115,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

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The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the

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are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by

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is 1866.1 ppbv (parts per billion). Two older reliable sources have dry atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that total less than 100%:

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by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named

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The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago during the

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day when you cannot see your shadow, there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called

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casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above-lying

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Within the five principal layers above, which are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:

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orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi). It is this layer where many of the satellites orbiting the Earth are present.

6750: 6151: 1497:, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by the capture of significant 4077:

is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "

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or the solar wind. Every second, the Earth loses about 3 kg of hydrogen, 50 g of helium, and much smaller amounts of other constituents.

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typically cruise between 10 and 13 km (33,000 and 43,000 ft) where the lower density and temperature of the air improve fuel economy;

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that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85

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values were increased to 345 ppmv, without changing their other constituents to compensate. This is made worse by the April 2019 CO

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Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can condense into polar-mesospheric

1073:. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the 5127: 1430:

begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's

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Air pressure actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/

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Two recent reliable sources cited here have total atmospheric compositions, including trace molecules, that exceed 100%. They are

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The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the

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About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major component of the then-stable "second atmosphere". The influence of the

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O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.

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Timothy W. Lyons, Christopher T. Reinhard & Noah J. Planavsky (2014). "Atmospheric oxygenation three billion years ago".

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Geometric altitude vs. temperature, pressure, density, and the speed of sound derived from the 1962 U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

5419: 5379: 5297: 5688: 7540: 5169: 9502: 6853: 936:. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth's surface, contains the 6786: 9256: 6326: 6291: 6247: 5971: 5607: 5488: 5202: 5133: 1548: 1336: 874:

visible in the far ultraviolet (caused by neutral hydrogen) extends to at least 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi).

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This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the

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influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental

1566:). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the 8333: 7270: 6988: 5143: 5112: 4060:

at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimetre to about eleven-metre waves.

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is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through

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Trenberth, Kevin E.; Smith, Lesley (1970-01-01). "The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global Analyses".

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can be distinguished in the atmosphere based on characteristics such as temperature and composition, namely the

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Temperature trends in two thick layers of the atmosphere as measured between January 1979 and December 2005 by

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weather satellites. The instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Source:

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The volume fraction of the main constituents of the Earth's atmosphere as a function of height, based on the

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more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, surrounding Earth in a visibly blue layer at the

6058: 5276:. Astrophysics and Space Science Library. Vol. 331. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 17. 9497: 8949: 8784: 7781: 7776: 6761: 6432: 4485: 4453:

proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the

267: 203:, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air composition, temperature and 6158: 4460: 4124: 9273: 8006: 8000: 7870: 7441: 7363: 5148: 1439: 963: 52: 7886:

Atmospheres in boldface are significant atmospheres; atmospheres in italics are unconfirmed atmospheres.

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On October 19, 2015, NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth at

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period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: the

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Before this time, any oxygen produced by cyanobacterial photosynthesis would be readily removed by the

432:. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as 7722: 6825: 1395:. By international convention, this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered 354: 8821: 7594: 7373: 5863:"Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations" 5742: 4861: 4143: 1371: 6819: 6208: 6076: 5963: 1174:

troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence, the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος,

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The geological record however shows a continuous relatively warm surface during the complete early

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stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the

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of Earth – with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late

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The relative concentration of gases remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).

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the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional

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which eventually cooled and condensed to contribute to ocean water at the end of the Hadean.

1352: 1348: 1231:. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on Earth. 1163: 1089: 1081: 859: 374: 153: 5956: 4404:. Water-related sediments have been found that date from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. 9375: 9347: 9312: 9239: 9039: 8976: 8794: 8615: 7908: 7860: 7809: 7696: 7587: 7303: 7255: 7036: 6611: 6494: 6441: 6195: 5874: 5277: 4411:

has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere because hints of

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higher in the 2011–2020 decade than they were in 1850. It has raised concerns of man-made

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metazoan life began to appear and rapidly diversify in another radiation event called the

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model (the eight dotted lines in each "decade" are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)

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Bergman, Theodore L.; Lavine, Adrienne S.; Incropera, Frank P.; DeWitt, David P. (2007).

6259: 4893: 4889: 4869: 4833: 4806: 4546: 4542: 4431:, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently due to a billion years of 4412: 3972: 1416: 1292: 1139: 1077:

at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).

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to four significant digits without affecting the total because 0.004% was removed from N

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is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for

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propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the

1423: 1224: 1118: 879: 867: 736: 530: 238:, but the atmosphere changed significantly over time, affected by many factors such as 224: 7791: 6734: 408:, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Besides argon, other 9352: 8816: 8722: 8695: 8542: 8492: 8428: 8382: 7753: 7545: 7527: 7431: 7398: 6692: 6674: 6627: 6558: 6524: 6471: 6332: 6322: 6297: 6287: 6243: 5967: 5603: 5484: 5415: 5375: 5293: 5198: 4991: 4905: 4757: 4753: 4687: 4683: 4643: 4408: 4284: 4194: 4104: 4069: 1360: 1356: 1031: 996: 735:

The total ppm above adds up to more than 1 million (currently 83.43 above it) due to

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Limb view of Earth's atmosphere. Colors roughly denote the layers of the atmosphere.

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In summary, the mass of Earth's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:

1257:, which places it about 20 km (12 mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause. 9517: 9457: 9302: 9261: 9244: 9131: 9029: 8561: 8465: 8349: 8107: 7996: 7966: 7843: 7766: 7458: 7325: 7310: 7187: 7167: 7109: 7013: 7008: 6682: 6666: 6639: 6619: 6548: 6540: 6502: 6457: 6449: 6374: 6213: 5882: 5285: 4845: 4675: 4603: 4318: 4288: 4210: 4206: 4149: 4041: 4029: 1451: 1412: 1392: 1250: 959: 778: 473: 362: 303: 129: 114: 9440: 4954: 9319: 9285: 9171: 9151: 9061: 8710: 8676: 8610: 8407: 8392: 8307: 8182: 8137: 8031: 8026: 8016: 7901: 7865: 7453: 7436: 7393: 7383: 7275: 5411: 5343: 4881: 4873: 4788: 4664: 4627: 4599: 4495: 4049: 1570:. More sophisticated models are used to predict the orbital decay of satellites. 1151: 1048: 955: 811: 722: 358: 287: 283: 7829: 7786: 6544: 5573: 5514:. Both are used as references in this article. Both exceed 100% because their CO 5062: 4193:

is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with

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activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer accessible by

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heated the atmosphere, driving off the most volatile gases. The collision with

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is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of

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Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly

598: 477: 405: 279: 255: 212: 117:. The atmosphere serves as a protective buffer between the Earth's surface and 7735: 6838: 6670: 1158:, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the 1080:

The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the

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section). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile, or

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The composition of air is unchanged until elevation of approximately 10.000 m

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value, which is 413.32 ppmv. Although minor, the January 2019 value for

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Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O

3998: 3994: 1563: 1455: 1443: 1404: 1340: 1228: 1127: 1040: 890: 749: 718: 379: 271: 172: 7703: 6336: 6301: 6286:(9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. pp. 600–606. 5289: 3997:(or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including 9126: 9084: 8860: 8811: 8747: 8603: 8507: 8215: 8201: 7714: 7550: 7501: 7491: 7481: 7421: 7202: 7056: 7046: 6895: 6885: 6834:

Interactive global map of current atmospheric and ocean surface conditions.

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Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing from the bottom as bands of

9222: 9166: 8988: 8966: 8961: 8828: 8705: 8671: 8659: 8547: 8470: 8174: 8049: 7298: 7104: 7041: 6945: 6928: 6918: 6880: 6453: 6321:(6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 941–950. 6316: 6281: 6011: 5097: 5092: 4938: 4802: 4795: 4623: 4577: 4566: 4519: 4393: 4256: 4221: 4057: 4044:(commonly called light), at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the 4037: 1609:

Table of physical and thermal properties of air at atmospheric pressure:

1545: 1498: 1317: 1305: 1208: 1123: 1113: 1085: 1074: 988: 928: 897: 847: 693: 346: 315: 310:

of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several

299: 275: 149: 126: 118: 98: 48: 27: 6623: 6217: 484:) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. 9329: 9146: 9104: 9046: 9015: 8654: 8586: 8524: 8497: 8460: 8266: 8147: 7610: 7388: 7355: 7330: 7212: 7132: 7051: 6955: 6950: 6913: 6890: 6462: 6426:

Marshak, Alexander; Várnai, Tamás; Kostinski, Alexander (15 May 2017).

4949:(pink area) extends to the orange and faintly green line of the lowest 4946: 4646: 4619: 4585: 4570: 4428: 4389: 4341: 4337: 4090: 4078: 3967:

is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an

1431: 1277: 1245: 1235: 1220: 1159: 1070: 1020: 1000: 975: 937: 886: 883: 855: 807: 792: 537: 331: 323: 247: 5048: 9212: 9094: 8902: 8897: 8875: 8764: 8757: 8576: 8571: 8478: 8455: 8225: 8187: 8142: 8132: 8072: 7893: 7820: 7320: 7265: 7250: 7222: 7192: 7119: 7061: 6923: 6900: 6745: 5087: 5015: 4934: 4780: 4772: 4768: 4611: 4596: 4581: 4550: 4526: 4499: 4491: 4397: 4385: 4373: 4345: 4322: 4276: 4244: 4158: 4013: 3922: 1524: 1408: 1396: 1012: 984: 905: 871: 840: 457: 449: 409: 335: 239: 196: 165: 122: 8318: 6427: 1422:

Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as

428:

are also present. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other

36: 9339: 8907: 8833: 8774: 8769: 8717: 8627: 8598: 8591: 8581: 8512: 8486: 8482: 8474: 8276: 8220: 8152: 8087: 7973: 7961: 7933: 6260:"Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979–2005 : Image of the Day" 5927: 4885: 4741: 4635: 4631: 4615: 4565:, until reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of the 4401: 4361: 4349: 4329: 4236: 4045: 3968: 3959:. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called 3916: 1540: 1435: 1309: 1264:

distance that particles can move without colliding with one another

1249:

found at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the very

1188: 1147: 544: 465: 461: 393: 208: 180: 176: 6016:

It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.

1391:

99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the

227:

is found only within 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from the ground.

9207: 9003: 8998: 8944: 8850: 8779: 8622: 8423: 8271: 8259: 8197: 8127: 8102: 8062: 8041: 8011: 7413: 7290: 7260: 7076: 7066: 6932: 6736:

Pollution – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary

6400:"Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away" 5107: 5102: 5007: 4950: 4841: 4837: 4607: 4562: 4381: 4369: 4357: 4292: 4264: 4260: 4248: 4240: 4154: 4086: 1447: 1427: 1374:(0.368) every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), (this is called the 1155: 1150:

varies from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the

1135: 1016: 933: 672: 651: 433: 421: 157: 137: 102: 94: 71: 6833: 4032:, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The 1589:

10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5

1415:

reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest

1335:

The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the

9056: 9021: 8845: 8801: 8649: 8447: 8254: 8247: 7956: 7951: 7925: 7647: 7280: 7147: 7127: 4962: 4775:

in the Earth's atmosphere, causing noticeable problems such as

4679: 4668: 4538: 4515: 4446: 4252: 4225: 4182: 4165: 4082: 3952: 1178:, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the 1044: 1024: 948: 901: 635: 563: 445: 441: 417: 397: 184: 148:), redistributes heat and moisture among different regions via 7579: 6722:

Back to Earth History : Summary Chart for the Precambrian

4911: 4012:

absorb almost all radiation with wavelengths shorter than 300

1039:(TLEs) occasionally form in the mesosphere above tropospheric 388:

and methane from 2019, and do not represent any single source.

9089: 8929: 8855: 8642: 8284: 8242: 8235: 8230: 8067: 8021: 7983: 7941: 7468: 7245: 7227: 6997: 5904:"Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme" 4765: 4671: 4660: 4464: 4296: 3963:

and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun.

1578: 1212: 909: 582: 425: 401: 259: 188: 141: 106: 83: 6314: 4480:

Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last billion years

4449:

from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (

1581:

or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American

1573:

The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5

341:

The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called

9034: 8890: 8885: 8865: 8739: 8690: 8534: 8162: 8097: 8092: 8082: 8077: 7946: 7618: 7517: 7137: 6746: 6056: 5888:

10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2

4776: 4186:

An idealised view of three pairs of large circulation cells

1485: 1344: 1179: 619: 437: 413: 161: 110: 79: 56: 26:"Qualities of air" redirects here. Not to be confused with 4805:

radiations, is also caused by air pollution, chiefly from

4557:

showed major variations during the Proterozoic, including

1243:

turbulence. This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the

8993: 8637: 5267: 4723:

due to photosynthesis is apparent, particularly over the

3926: 1502: 68: 6966: 6655:"The human physiological impact of global deoxygenation" 6653:

Martin, Daniel; McKenna, Helen; Livina, Valerie (2016).

4667:, and the consumption of oxygen by rapidly diversifying 4157:

because light is refracted in the same direction as the

1419:

flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).

999:

begins, leaving smoke trails, such as in this case of a

5861:

States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000).

1544:

Temperature and mass density against altitude from the

392:

The three major constituents of Earth's atmosphere are

6425: 5457:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (1976),

4328:

to the surface, causing the atmosphere to cool, which

4283:, in particular, melted and ejected large portions of 4028:

of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows" of low

810:, is constant and measurable by means of instrumented 9417: 6590:

Earth's Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evolution.

4852:, with the global average surface temperatures being 4678:

and their own metabolic needs at night. Breakdown of

818:

Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)

345:(aerology), and includes multiple subfields, such as 6787:"Daily Views of Earth Available on New NASA Website" 6522: 6485:

Edlén, Bengt (1966). "The refractive index of air".

5030: 4961:(invisible). Continuing with green and red bands of 4918:(DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day. 4771:

have significantly increased the amount of airborne

4457:

became established as early as 4 billion years ago.

3925:(or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the 1211:

is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer

6652: 6238:Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995) 6152:"Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run" 6134:"Earth's Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes" 5760: 5758: 5600:

Luft: Chemie, Physik, Biologie, Reinhaltung, Recht.

5986: 5955: 5389:but includes only ten of its largest constituents. 4200: 1585:, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 1154:to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the 1011:Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the 460:also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as 6592:Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1983 6059:"The 4 Most Abundant Gases in Earth's Atmosphere" 4812:Since 1750, human activity, especially after the 1597:10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 1454:to require reboosts every few months, otherwise, 1122:A picture of Earth's troposphere, with different 821:Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles) 211:. Within the atmosphere, air suitable for use in 55:at an altitude of 335 km (208 mi) (the 9489: 6008:Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology 5755: 5197:(Fourth ed.), AIP Press, pp. 258–259, 4752:that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. The 4321:at the end of the Hadean closed off most of the 1407:is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial 850:(also known as the "exobase") at the top of the 59:is visible as a crescent in the far background). 6868: 6829:. Vol. III (9th ed.). pp. 28–36. 6379:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5736: 5734: 4820:, most importantly carbon dioxide, methane and 1446:typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the 962:are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The 6185: 5483:(Third ed.), Athlone Press, p. 119, 5397: 5395: 5374:(97th ed.), CRC Press, p. 14-3, 4941:in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the 4816:, has increased the concentrations of various 4715:Animation shows the buildup of tropospheric CO 4506:and its appearance is indicated by the end of 3951:When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, 1450:of the ionosphere where they encounter enough 1355:). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of 1320:with approximate altitudes of various objects. 1043:. The mesosphere is also the layer where most 827:Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles) 8334: 7909: 7595: 6982: 6854: 6419: 6057:Anne Marie Helmenstine, PhD (June 16, 2018). 5860: 5824: 5740: 5348:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA 5321:Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network, NOAA 824:Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles) 361:. The study of historic atmosphere is called 6391: 5953: 5928:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences (1993). 5731: 5006:Earth's atmosphere backlit by the Sun in an 725:; these are identical for an ideal gas only. 5921: 5404:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey 5392: 5369: 5188: 5186: 4965:stretching over several hundred kilometers. 4376:. A major part of carbon dioxide emissions 4348:, supplemented by gases introduced by huge 900:phenomena to be possible. However, Earth's 830:Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles) 501:Major constituents of air, by mole fraction 8341: 8327: 7916: 7902: 7602: 7588: 6989: 6975: 6861: 6847: 6533:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 5989:The Weather and Climate of Southern Africa 5592: 5365: 5363: 4040:-C) up into the range humans can see, the 1385:50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft). 1008:260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level. 995:(blue) and the mesosphere (dark) at which 199:. Air also contains a variable amount of 19:"Air" redirects here. For other uses, see 6710:Graph: Atmospheric Oxygen and CO2 vs Time 6686: 6552: 6518: 6516: 6461: 6397: 6207: 5987:Tyson, P.D.; Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2013). 5962:. London: Menthuen & Co Ltd. p. 5886: 5851:. Published by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005. 5705: 5470: 5338: 5336: 5274:Ultraviolet Radiation in the Solar System 5128:COSPAR international reference atmosphere 4953:, at about one hundred kilometers at the 4798:, which shields the surface from harmful 4380:in water and reacted with metals such as 1388:90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft). 1324: 896:The exosphere is too far above Earth for 5901: 5640:"Air - Molecular Weight and Composition" 5623: 5450: 5183: 4701: 4649:was fuelled by the rising oxygen level. 4475: 4181: 4132:upon the shape of the sun at the horizon 4123: 3988: 1583:National Center for Atmospheric Research 1539: 1471: 1291: 1162:, a boundary marked in most places by a 1138:as a band of its characteristic glow of 1117: 979: 791: 769:Water vapor varies significantly locally 486: 378: 35: 6784: 6262:. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 2000-01-01 6050: 5838:May 2009, p. 26 (accessed 25 July 2012) 5786: 5784: 5782: 5626:Termodinamica e trasmissione del calore 5360: 5235:"What Is... Earth's Atmosphere? - NASA" 4360:atmosphere, which consisted largely of 4332:most of the water vapor out of the air 4048:to around 1100 nm. There are also 1604: 495:; the model only works above 85 km 436:in an unfiltered air sample, including 293:The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 9490: 7923: 6813: 6513: 6318:Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer 6279: 6116:"Global Surface Temperature Anomalies" 6039:from the original on 14 September 2010 5830:David C. Catling and Kevin J. Zahnle, 5510:(2016–2017, 100.004667%), which cites 5496: 5333: 5317:"Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide" 5170:"Gateway to Astronaut Photos of Earth" 4809:and other ozone-depleting substances. 4514:that can react with oxygen to produce 4215: 3985:Absorption (electromagnetic radiation) 1287: 854:to a poorly defined boundary with the 353:. Early pioneers in the field include 230:Earth's early atmosphere consisted of 8348: 8322: 7897: 7583: 6970: 6842: 6659:The Journal of Physiological Sciences 6484: 6478: 6351:"Absorption / reflection of sunlight" 6242:, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp. 14–17, 5508:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5476: 5401:Wallace, John M. and Peter V. Hobbs. 5372:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5311: 5309: 4994:extend far above Earth's troposphere. 3910: 882:. These free-moving particles follow 7541:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 6097:from the original on 30 October 2010 5779: 5686: 5268:Vázquez, M.; Hanslmeier, A. (2006). 4899: 4302: 1183:18,000 ft) of the troposphere. 440:of mineral and organic composition, 51:, when seen from space on board the 6398:St. Fleur, Nicholas (19 May 2017). 5954:Barry, R.G.; Chorley, R.J. (1971). 5867:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 5192: 4610:life forms (including the earliest 4471: 4119: 1535: 311: 13: 5414:. Elsevier. Second Edition, 2006. 5306: 5258:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1996: 14–17 3993:Rough plot of Earth's atmospheric 889:and may migrate in and out of the 264:contributed to atmospheric changes 14: 9529: 6807: 5256:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 5134:Environmental effects of aviation 4220:The first atmosphere, during the 1512: 1482:advanced microwave sounding units 1337:International Standard Atmosphere 787: 9475: 9463: 9451: 9439: 9427: 9402: 9401: 8303: 8302: 7637: 7564: 7563: 5798:from the original on 17 May 2017 5512:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5504:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5387:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5370:Haynes, H. M., ed. (2016–2017), 5195:Allen's Astrophysical Quantities 5061: 5047: 5033: 4999: 4982: 4970: 4926: 4914:. The images are taken from the 4740:is the introduction of airborne 4697: 4533:on the Earth's surface, notably 4510:(which signals the depletion of 4267:. During this earliest era, the 4056:that transmit some infrared and 803: 472:vapor. Sulfur compounds such as 121:, shields the surface from most 7609: 7271:Human impact on the environment 6778: 6739: 6727: 6714: 6703: 6646: 6595: 6582: 6569: 6367: 6343: 6308: 6273: 6252: 6232: 6179: 6168: 6144: 6126: 6108: 6083: 6065: 6021: 5999: 5980: 5958:Atmosphere, Weather and Climate 5947: 5906:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from 5895: 5854: 5841: 5810: 5680: 5656: 5632: 5617: 5566: 5540: 5435:. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from 5425: 5344:"Trends in Atmospheric Methane" 5144:Instrumental temperature record 5113:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 4490:The constant re-arrangement of 4243:such as those now found in the 4201:Evolution of Earth's atmosphere 1198: 1058: 915: 7100:Climate variability and change 6760:. pp. 4–5. Archived from 6529:"Earth's Earliest Atmospheres" 6091:"NASA – Earth Fact Sheet" 6035:. Amsglossary.allenpress.com. 5766:"The height of the tropopause" 5531:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 5460:U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 5261: 5248: 5227: 5224:. It includes 20 constituents. 5162: 4916:Deep Space Climate Observatory 4569:. The rise of the more robust 4171: 4036:runs from around 300 nm ( 1461: 1107: 945:temperature in the usual sense 368: 136:(temperature extremes between 90:, with variable quantities of 1: 7536:Evolution of the Solar System 6785:Northon, Karen (2015-10-19). 5548:"Vital signs: Carbon Dioxide" 5155: 4860:, which can have significant 4663:and their increasing role in 3978: 3940: 1403:By comparison, the summit of 969: 464:(elemental or in compounds), 195:, and small amounts of other 134:diurnal temperature variation 8367:Pollution / quality 7276:Evolutionary history of life 6433:Geophysical Research Letters 5818:"Earth's Atmospheric Layers" 5715:. UCAR. 2011. Archived from 5193:Cox, Arthur N., ed. (2000), 4945:in white and blue. Next the 4486:Geological history of oxygen 4442:), which have been found as 4231:, consisted of gases in the 1527:of constant composition the 834: 750:increasing in recent decades 721:is sometimes referred to as 132:, keeps it warm and reduces 7: 7871:Extraterrestrial atmosphere 6545:10.1101/cshperspect.a004895 6355:Understanding Global Change 5506:(2000, 100.001241343%) and 5149:Reference atmospheric model 5026: 4912:https://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/ 4850:rise in global temperatures 4591:, which was followed by an 4518:deposits) during the early 4063: 1440:International Space Station 964:International Space Station 762:Water vapor is about 0.25% 493:MSIS-E-90 atmospheric model 179:), dry air contains 78.08% 74:that surrounds the Earth's 10: 9534: 9503:Atmospheric thermodynamics 6751:"Summary for Policymakers" 6579:Wiley Press, New York 1984 5689:"Earth's Upper Atmosphere" 5687:Zell, Holly (2015-03-02). 5644:www.engineeringtoolbox.com 4957:and the lower edge of the 4903: 4848:, have caused an observed 4785:pollution-related diseases 4730: 4483: 4306: 4204: 4175: 4141: 4135: 4067: 3982: 3944: 3914: 1554: 1516: 1465: 1357:standard atmospheres (atm) 1328: 1253:itself as accepted by the 1111: 1062: 973: 919: 838: 692: 671: 650: 634: 618: 597: 581: 562: 543: 372: 144:) through heat retention ( 67:is composed of a layer of 47:, above the clouds of the 17: 9397: 9338: 9203: 9196: 9077: 8938:Types / location 8937: 8928: 8738: 8533: 8446: 8416: 8365: 8356: 8298: 8211: 8170: 8161: 8118: 8040: 7982: 7932: 7884: 7853: 7819: 7752: 7713: 7646: 7635: 7617: 7559: 7526: 7510: 7467: 7412: 7354: 7289: 7236: 7166: 7118: 7075: 7022: 7004: 6996: 6941: 6909: 6876: 6671:10.1007/s12576-016-0501-0 6507:10.1088/0026-1394/2/2/002 5849:Essentials of Meteorology 5666:. The Engineering ToolBox 5602:Walter de Gruyter, 2003, 5270:"Historical Introduction" 4626:eon, during the earliest 4356:, created the subsequent 4144:Scintillation (astronomy) 3955:interact with it through 1193:propeller-driven aircraft 1037:transient luminous events 712: 687: 514: 511: 506: 86:), known collectively as 7546:Location in the Universe 7477:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7176:List of sovereign states 6720:Christopher R. Scotese, 6577:The Evolving Continents. 6375:"The Atmospheric Window" 6280:Holman, Jack P. (2002). 5991:(2nd ed.). Oxford: 5535:Astrophysical Quantities 5480:Astrophysical Quantities 4826:Greenhouse gas emissions 1478:microwave sounding units 1274:planetary boundary layer 468:compounds and elemental 6826:Encyclopædia Britannica 6093:. Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 5993:Oxford University Press 5290:10.1007/1-4020-3730-9_1 5118:Atmospheric electricity 5083:Air (classical element) 4674:and also by plants for 4504:Great Oxygenation Event 4440:Great Oxygenation Event 4418:faint young Sun paradox 4400:that were deposited as 4295:significant amounts of 4191:Atmospheric circulation 4178:Atmospheric circulation 1468:Atmospheric temperature 1296:Comparison of the 1962 1053:rocket-powered aircraft 744:The concentration of CO 355:Léon Teisserenc de Bort 41:Blue light is scattered 5832:The Planetary Air Leak 5792:"Exosphere - overview" 5741:Randy Russell (2008). 5713:"Exosphere - overview" 5612:(View in Google Books) 5574:"Vital signs: Methane" 4894:mass dying of wildlife 4728: 4593:evolutionary radiation 4508:banded iron formations 4481: 4354:Late Heavy Bombardment 4269:Moon-forming collision 4239:, and probably simple 4187: 4138:Atmospheric refraction 4133: 4130:atmospheric refraction 4001: 3947:Atmospheric scattering 1630:Thermal conductivity 1552: 1489: 1325:Pressure and thickness 1321: 1298:US Standard Atmosphere 1143: 1004: 798: 496: 389: 175:(i.e., by quantity of 60: 7256:Biogeochemical cycles 7181:dependent territories 6527:; Fegley, B. (2010). 5477:Allen, C. W. (1976), 4862:environmental impacts 4814:Industrial Revolution 4714: 4559:a billion-year period 4479: 4185: 4128:Distortive effect of 4127: 4068:Further information: 3992: 1633:Thermal diffusivity 1627:Kinematic viscosity 1543: 1475: 1295: 1164:temperature inversion 1121: 1090:ultraviolet radiation 1082:pressure at sea level 983: 906:artificial satellites 860:interplanetary medium 795: 490: 456:. Various industrial 382: 375:Atmospheric chemistry 39: 9313:remnant natural area 8950:storage and recovery 8616:habitat conservation 8434:Deforestation (REDD) 8183:Evolutionary history 7861:Prebiotic atmosphere 7304:Computer cartography 7037:Prebiotic atmosphere 6454:10.1002/2017GL073248 6073:"Earth's Atmosphere" 5836:Scientific American, 5537:(1976, 99.9999357%). 4750:biological materials 4309:Prebiotic atmosphere 4161:of Earth's surface. 1605:Tabulated properties 1493:troposphere. In the 1331:Atmospheric pressure 1102:jet-powered aircraft 1035:discharges known as 766:over full atmosphere 205:atmospheric pressure 160:conditions allowing 21:Air (disambiguation) 9498:Atmosphere of Earth 9267:Earth Overshoot Day 8841:Marine conservation 8822:non-timber products 8120:Natural environment 7447:Geologic time scale 7168:Culture and society 7032:Atmosphere of Earth 6624:10.1038/nature13068 6616:2014Natur.506..307L 6499:1966Metro...2...71E 6446:2017GeoRL..44.5197M 6218:10.1175/JCLI-3299.1 6200:2005JCli...18..864T 5879:2000JAtS...57...66S 5847:Ahrens, C. Donald. 5820:. January 22, 2013. 5533:(99.9997147%); and 5282:2005ASSL..331.....V 4890:ecological collapse 4870:ocean acidification 4807:chlorofluorocarbons 4547:reducing atmosphere 4543:atmospheric methane 4531:reducing substances 4413:earliest life forms 4216:Earliest atmosphere 3973:Rayleigh scattering 3937:in the atmosphere. 1624:Dynamic viscosity 1549:standard atmosphere 1501:radiation from the 1288:Physical properties 1278:turbulent diffusion 1134:can be seen at the 870:from sunlight. The 732:by molecular count 688:If air is not dry: 599:Carbon dioxide 503: 351:atmospheric physics 343:atmospheric science 308:atmospheric reentry 225:terrestrial animals 152:, and provides the 113:), all retained by 65:atmosphere of Earth 9252:Ecosystem services 8375:Ambient standards 7876:Stellar atmosphere 7754:Natural satellites 7442:Geological history 7316:Geodetic astronomy 6870:Earth's atmosphere 6820:"Atmosphere" 6724:, Paleomar Project 6405:The New York Times 6188:Journal of Climate 5743:"The Thermosphere" 5410:2018-07-28 at the 5078:Aerial perspective 5041:Environment portal 4992:noctilucent clouds 4746:particulate matter 4729: 4684:volcanic eruptions 4640:Cambrian explosion 4482: 4425:temperature record 4188: 4134: 4026:absorption spectra 4002: 3965:Indirect radiation 3911:Optical properties 1568:barometric formula 1553: 1509:above 90 km. 1490: 1322: 1302:geometric altitude 1144: 1084:. It contains the 1032:noctilucent clouds 1005: 868:radiation pressure 799: 737:experimental error 499: 497: 430:chemical compounds 390: 262:activity has also 254:(particularly the 217:terrestrial plants 61: 9415: 9414: 9393: 9392: 9192: 9191: 8871:genetic resources 8807:genetic resources 8442: 8441: 8350:Natural resources 8316: 8315: 8294: 8293: 7967:chemical elements 7891: 7890: 7577: 7576: 7528:Planetary science 7511:Natural satellite 7432:Extremes on Earth 7399:Signal processing 6964: 6963: 6815:Buchan, Alexander 5664:"Air Composition" 5439:on 9 October 2010 5420:978-0-12-732951-2 5381:978-1-4987-5428-6 5299:978-1-4020-3730-6 4937:illuminating the 4906:Weather satellite 4900:Images from space 4876:(which threatens 4846:land developments 4758:industrialization 4754:population growth 4712: 4595:event during the 4589:global glaciation 4461:Ancient sediments 4409:evolution of life 4303:Second atmosphere 4195:ocean circulation 4105:greenhouse effect 4070:Emission spectrum 3908: 3907: 1267:lightest element. 1096:stratospheric or 997:atmospheric entry 880:escape into space 812:balloon soundings 775: 774: 752:, as has that of 730:parts per million 252:evolution of life 146:greenhouse effect 105:features such as 76:planetary surface 9525: 9480: 9479: 9478: 9468: 9467: 9466: 9456: 9455: 9454: 9444: 9443: 9432: 9431: 9430: 9423: 9405: 9404: 9356: 9303:Natural heritage 9262:overexploitation 9201: 9200: 8935: 8934: 8881:herbal medicines 8861:FAO Plant Treaty 8401: 8378: 8363: 8362: 8343: 8336: 8329: 8320: 8319: 8306: 8305: 8178: 8168: 8167: 8108:tropical cyclone 8058: 7918: 7911: 7904: 7895: 7894: 7641: 7604: 7597: 7590: 7581: 7580: 7567: 7566: 7459:History of Earth 7110:Paleoclimatology 6991: 6984: 6977: 6968: 6967: 6863: 6856: 6849: 6840: 6839: 6830: 6822: 6801: 6800: 6798: 6797: 6782: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6766: 6755: 6743: 6737: 6731: 6725: 6718: 6712: 6707: 6701: 6700: 6690: 6650: 6644: 6643: 6610:(7488): 307–15. 6599: 6593: 6586: 6580: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6556: 6520: 6511: 6510: 6482: 6476: 6475: 6465: 6423: 6417: 6416: 6414: 6412: 6395: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6371: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6361: 6347: 6341: 6340: 6312: 6306: 6305: 6277: 6271: 6270: 6268: 6267: 6256: 6250: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6211: 6183: 6177: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6157:. Archived from 6156: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6136:. Archived from 6130: 6124: 6123: 6118:. Archived from 6112: 6106: 6105: 6103: 6102: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6075:. Archived from 6069: 6063: 6062: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6025: 6019: 6018: 6003: 5997: 5996: 5984: 5978: 5977: 5961: 5951: 5945: 5944: 5942: 5941: 5932:. Archived from 5925: 5919: 5918: 5916: 5915: 5899: 5893: 5892: 5890: 5858: 5852: 5845: 5839: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5814: 5808: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5788: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5773: 5762: 5753: 5752: 5750: 5749: 5738: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5724: 5709: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5699: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5672: 5671: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5650: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5621: 5615: 5596: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5544: 5538: 5528: 5500: 5494: 5493: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5444: 5429: 5423: 5399: 5390: 5384: 5367: 5358: 5357: 5356: 5355: 5340: 5331: 5330: 5329: 5328: 5313: 5304: 5303: 5265: 5259: 5252: 5246: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5231: 5225: 5208:, which rounds N 5207: 5190: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5166: 5071: 5066: 5065: 5057: 5052: 5051: 5043: 5038: 5037: 5003: 4986: 4974: 4930: 4855: 4818:greenhouse gases 4713: 4676:photorespiration 4606:, where complex 4604:Avalon explosion 4472:Third atmosphere 4211:Paleoclimatology 4207:History of Earth 4150:refractive index 4120:Refractive index 4042:visible spectrum 3961:direct radiation 3904: 3903: 3896: 3891: 3889: 3882: 3877: 3875: 3868: 3866: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3830: 3823: 3818: 3816: 3809: 3807: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3783: 3782: 3775: 3770: 3768: 3761: 3756: 3754: 3747: 3745: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3721: 3720: 3713: 3708: 3706: 3699: 3694: 3692: 3685: 3683: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3659: 3658: 3651: 3646: 3644: 3637: 3632: 3630: 3623: 3621: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3597: 3596: 3589: 3584: 3582: 3575: 3570: 3568: 3561: 3559: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3523: 3516: 3511: 3509: 3502: 3500: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3476: 3475: 3468: 3463: 3461: 3454: 3449: 3447: 3440: 3438: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3414: 3413: 3406: 3401: 3399: 3392: 3387: 3385: 3378: 3376: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3352: 3351: 3344: 3339: 3337: 3330: 3325: 3323: 3316: 3314: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3290: 3289: 3282: 3277: 3275: 3268: 3263: 3261: 3254: 3252: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3228: 3227: 3220: 3215: 3213: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3192: 3190: 3183: 3178: 3173: 3166: 3165: 3158: 3153: 3151: 3144: 3139: 3137: 3130: 3128: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3104: 3103: 3096: 3091: 3089: 3082: 3077: 3075: 3068: 3066: 3059: 3054: 3049: 3042: 3041: 3034: 3029: 3027: 3020: 3015: 3013: 3006: 3004: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2980: 2979: 2972: 2967: 2965: 2958: 2953: 2951: 2944: 2942: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2918: 2913: 2908: 2906: 2899: 2898: 2891: 2889: 2882: 2880: 2873: 2871: 2864: 2859: 2852: 2851: 2844: 2839: 2837: 2830: 2829: 2822: 2820: 2813: 2811: 2804: 2802: 2795: 2790: 2783: 2782: 2775: 2770: 2768: 2761: 2760: 2753: 2751: 2744: 2742: 2735: 2733: 2726: 2721: 2714: 2713: 2706: 2701: 2699: 2692: 2691: 2684: 2682: 2675: 2673: 2666: 2664: 2657: 2652: 2645: 2644: 2637: 2632: 2630: 2623: 2622: 2615: 2613: 2606: 2604: 2597: 2595: 2588: 2583: 2576: 2575: 2568: 2563: 2561: 2554: 2553: 2546: 2544: 2537: 2535: 2528: 2526: 2519: 2514: 2507: 2506: 2499: 2494: 2492: 2485: 2480: 2478: 2471: 2469: 2462: 2460: 2453: 2448: 2441: 2440: 2433: 2428: 2426: 2419: 2418: 2411: 2409: 2402: 2400: 2393: 2391: 2384: 2379: 2372: 2371: 2364: 2359: 2357: 2350: 2349: 2342: 2340: 2333: 2331: 2324: 2322: 2315: 2310: 2303: 2302: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2281: 2276: 2274: 2267: 2265: 2258: 2256: 2249: 2244: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2225: 2218: 2217: 2210: 2208: 2201: 2199: 2192: 2190: 2183: 2178: 2171: 2170: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2149: 2148: 2141: 2139: 2132: 2130: 2123: 2121: 2114: 2109: 2102: 2097: 2092: 2090: 2083: 2082: 2075: 2073: 2066: 2064: 2057: 2052: 2047: 2040: 2039: 2032: 2027: 2025: 2018: 2017: 2010: 2008: 2001: 1999: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1975: 1974: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1953: 1952: 1945: 1943: 1936: 1934: 1927: 1925: 1918: 1913: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1894: 1887: 1886: 1879: 1877: 1870: 1868: 1861: 1859: 1852: 1847: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1828: 1821: 1820: 1813: 1811: 1804: 1802: 1795: 1793: 1786: 1781: 1774: 1773: 1766: 1761: 1759: 1752: 1751: 1744: 1742: 1735: 1733: 1726: 1724: 1717: 1712: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1693: 1686: 1685: 1678: 1676: 1669: 1667: 1660: 1658: 1651: 1646: 1636:Prandtl number 1612: 1611: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1576: 1536:Density and mass 1452:atmospheric drag 1413:weather balloons 1152:geographic poles 1049:sounding rockets 960:aurora australis 779:molecular weight 758: 504: 498: 474:hydrogen sulfide 406:greenhouse gases 363:paleoclimatology 296: 270:(mainly through 31: 24: 9533: 9532: 9528: 9527: 9526: 9524: 9523: 9522: 9508:Breathing gases 9488: 9487: 9486: 9476: 9474: 9464: 9462: 9452: 9450: 9438: 9428: 9426: 9418: 9416: 9411: 9389: 9354: 9334: 9320:Systems ecology 9286:Natural capital 9188: 9073: 9062:reclaimed water 8924: 8886:UPOV Convention 8734: 8529: 8438: 8412: 8408:Ozone depletion 8399: 8376: 8352: 8347: 8317: 8312: 8290: 8207: 8176: 8157: 8114: 8056: 8036: 8027:Gaia hypothesis 8017:Plate tectonics 7978: 7928: 7922: 7892: 7887: 7880: 7849: 7815: 7748: 7709: 7642: 7633: 7613: 7608: 7578: 7573: 7555: 7522: 7506: 7463: 7454:Geologic record 7408: 7394:Plate tectonics 7384:Mineral physics 7364:Earth structure 7350: 7285: 7232: 7162: 7114: 7071: 7018: 7000: 6995: 6965: 6960: 6937: 6905: 6872: 6867: 6810: 6805: 6804: 6795: 6793: 6783: 6779: 6770: 6768: 6764: 6753: 6744: 6740: 6732: 6728: 6719: 6715: 6708: 6704: 6651: 6647: 6600: 6596: 6587: 6583: 6574: 6570: 6539:(10): a004895. 6521: 6514: 6483: 6479: 6424: 6420: 6410: 6408: 6396: 6392: 6383: 6381: 6373: 6372: 6368: 6359: 6357: 6349: 6348: 6344: 6329: 6313: 6309: 6294: 6278: 6274: 6265: 6263: 6258: 6257: 6253: 6237: 6233: 6209:10.1.1.727.6573 6184: 6180: 6173: 6169: 6161: 6154: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6132: 6131: 6127: 6114: 6113: 6109: 6100: 6098: 6089: 6088: 6084: 6071: 6070: 6066: 6055: 6051: 6042: 6040: 6033:– AMS Glossary" 6027: 6026: 6022: 6006:"Troposphere". 6005: 6004: 6000: 5985: 5981: 5974: 5952: 5948: 5939: 5937: 5926: 5922: 5913: 5911: 5900: 5896: 5859: 5855: 5846: 5842: 5829: 5825: 5816: 5815: 5811: 5801: 5799: 5790: 5789: 5780: 5771: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5756: 5747: 5745: 5739: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5711: 5710: 5706: 5697: 5695: 5685: 5681: 5669: 5667: 5662: 5661: 5657: 5648: 5646: 5638: 5637: 5633: 5622: 5618: 5598:Detlev Möller: 5597: 5593: 5583: 5581: 5572: 5571: 5567: 5557: 5555: 5546: 5545: 5541: 5527: 5523: 5521: 5517: 5501: 5497: 5491: 5475: 5471: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5442: 5440: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5412:Wayback Machine 5400: 5393: 5382: 5368: 5361: 5353: 5351: 5342: 5341: 5334: 5326: 5324: 5315: 5314: 5307: 5300: 5266: 5262: 5254:Lide, David R. 5253: 5249: 5240: 5238: 5233: 5232: 5228: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5205: 5191: 5184: 5175: 5173: 5168: 5167: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5067: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5039: 5032: 5029: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5019: 5004: 4995: 4987: 4978: 4975: 4966: 4931: 4908: 4902: 4882:extreme weather 4874:glacial retreat 4853: 4828:, coupled with 4735: 4722: 4718: 4702: 4700: 4665:carbon fixation 4636:actively moving 4574:photoautotrophs 4556: 4496:plate tectonics 4488: 4474: 4313:The increasing 4311: 4305: 4218: 4213: 4203: 4180: 4174: 4146: 4140: 4122: 4115: 4111: 4099: 4072: 4066: 4019: 4011: 4007: 3987: 3981: 3949: 3943: 3931:reflected light 3919: 3913: 3901: 3899: 3894: 3887: 3885: 3880: 3873: 3871: 3864: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3840: 3835: 3828: 3826: 3821: 3814: 3812: 3805: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3780: 3778: 3773: 3766: 3764: 3759: 3752: 3750: 3743: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3718: 3716: 3711: 3704: 3702: 3697: 3690: 3688: 3681: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3656: 3654: 3649: 3642: 3640: 3635: 3628: 3626: 3619: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3594: 3592: 3587: 3580: 3578: 3573: 3566: 3564: 3557: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3519: 3514: 3507: 3505: 3498: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3481: 3473: 3471: 3466: 3459: 3457: 3452: 3445: 3443: 3436: 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3411: 3409: 3404: 3397: 3395: 3390: 3383: 3381: 3374: 3372: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3349: 3347: 3342: 3335: 3333: 3328: 3321: 3319: 3312: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3287: 3285: 3280: 3273: 3271: 3266: 3259: 3257: 3250: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3233: 3225: 3223: 3218: 3211: 3209: 3204: 3197: 3195: 3188: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3171: 3163: 3161: 3156: 3149: 3147: 3142: 3135: 3133: 3126: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3101: 3099: 3094: 3087: 3085: 3080: 3073: 3071: 3064: 3062: 3057: 3052: 3047: 3039: 3037: 3032: 3025: 3023: 3018: 3011: 3009: 3002: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2977: 2975: 2970: 2963: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2947: 2940: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2923: 2916: 2911: 2904: 2902: 2896: 2894: 2887: 2885: 2878: 2876: 2869: 2867: 2862: 2857: 2849: 2847: 2842: 2835: 2833: 2827: 2825: 2818: 2816: 2809: 2807: 2800: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2780: 2778: 2773: 2766: 2764: 2758: 2756: 2749: 2747: 2740: 2738: 2731: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2711: 2709: 2704: 2697: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2680: 2678: 2671: 2669: 2662: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2642: 2640: 2635: 2628: 2626: 2620: 2618: 2611: 2609: 2602: 2600: 2593: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2573: 2571: 2566: 2559: 2557: 2551: 2549: 2542: 2540: 2533: 2531: 2524: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2504: 2502: 2497: 2490: 2488: 2483: 2476: 2474: 2467: 2465: 2458: 2456: 2451: 2446: 2438: 2436: 2431: 2424: 2422: 2416: 2414: 2407: 2405: 2398: 2396: 2389: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2369: 2367: 2362: 2355: 2353: 2347: 2345: 2338: 2336: 2329: 2327: 2320: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2300: 2298: 2293: 2286: 2284: 2279: 2272: 2270: 2263: 2261: 2254: 2252: 2247: 2242: 2235: 2230: 2223: 2221: 2215: 2213: 2206: 2204: 2197: 2195: 2188: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2168: 2166: 2161: 2154: 2152: 2146: 2144: 2137: 2135: 2128: 2126: 2119: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2100: 2095: 2088: 2086: 2080: 2078: 2071: 2069: 2062: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2045: 2037: 2035: 2030: 2023: 2021: 2015: 2013: 2006: 2004: 1997: 1995: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1972: 1970: 1965: 1958: 1956: 1950: 1948: 1941: 1939: 1932: 1930: 1923: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1904: 1899: 1892: 1890: 1884: 1882: 1875: 1873: 1866: 1864: 1857: 1855: 1850: 1845: 1838: 1833: 1826: 1824: 1818: 1816: 1809: 1807: 1800: 1798: 1791: 1789: 1784: 1779: 1771: 1769: 1764: 1757: 1755: 1749: 1747: 1740: 1738: 1731: 1729: 1722: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1703: 1698: 1691: 1689: 1683: 1681: 1674: 1672: 1665: 1663: 1656: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1621:Specific heat 1607: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1574: 1559: 1538: 1521: 1515: 1470: 1464: 1434:, important to 1347:; 14.6959 1333: 1327: 1290: 1201: 1116: 1110: 1098:nacreous clouds 1067: 1061: 978: 972: 956:aurora borealis 924: 918: 843: 837: 790: 757: 753: 747: 723:volume fraction 701: 661: 654: 608: 601: 571: 552: 483: 387: 377: 371: 359:Richard Assmann 294: 288:acid deposition 284:ozone depletion 256:photoautotrophs 234:gases from the 130:solar radiation 115:Earth's gravity 32: 25: 18: 12: 11: 5: 9531: 9521: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9500: 9485: 9484: 9472: 9460: 9448: 9436: 9434:Earth sciences 9413: 9412: 9410: 9409: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9391: 9390: 9388: 9387: 9378: 9373: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9355:(perpetuation) 9350: 9344: 9342: 9336: 9335: 9333: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9316: 9315: 9308:Nature reserve 9305: 9300: 9299: 9298: 9293: 9283: 9282: 9281: 9271: 9270: 9269: 9264: 9254: 9249: 9248: 9247: 9242: 9232: 9231: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9215: 9204: 9198: 9194: 9193: 9190: 9189: 9187: 9186: 9185: 9184: 9179: 9169: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9144: 9139: 9134: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9113: 9112: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9087: 9081: 9079: 9075: 9074: 9072: 9071: 9066: 9065: 9064: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9043: 9042: 9032: 9027: 9026: 9025: 9013: 9012: 9011: 9006: 9001: 8991: 8986: 8985: 8984: 8979: 8974: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8953: 8952: 8941: 8939: 8932: 8926: 8925: 8923: 8922: 8921: 8920: 8915: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8894: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8837: 8836: 8826: 8825: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8799: 8798: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8785:climate change 8777: 8772: 8767: 8762: 8761: 8760: 8753:Bioprospecting 8750: 8744: 8742: 8736: 8735: 8733: 8732: 8731: 8730: 8725: 8715: 8714: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8688: 8687: 8686: 8681: 8680: 8679: 8674: 8664: 8663: 8662: 8657: 8647: 8646: 8645: 8635: 8630: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8608: 8607: 8606: 8596: 8595: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8558: 8557: 8556: 8555: 8539: 8537: 8531: 8530: 8528: 8527: 8522: 8521: 8520: 8515: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8452: 8450: 8444: 8443: 8440: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8420: 8418: 8414: 8413: 8411: 8410: 8405: 8404: 8403: 8398:Clean Air Act 8390: 8385: 8380: 8371: 8369: 8360: 8354: 8353: 8346: 8345: 8338: 8331: 8323: 8314: 8313: 8311: 8310: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8292: 8291: 8289: 8288: 8281: 8280: 8279: 8274: 8264: 8263: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8251: 8250: 8240: 8239: 8238: 8223: 8218: 8212: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8205: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8171: 8165: 8159: 8158: 8156: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8130: 8124: 8122: 8116: 8115: 8113: 8112: 8111: 8110: 8105: 8095: 8090: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8065: 8060: 8052: 8046: 8044: 8038: 8037: 8035: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8019: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7994: 7988: 7986: 7980: 7979: 7977: 7976: 7971: 7970: 7969: 7964: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7938: 7936: 7930: 7929: 7921: 7920: 7913: 7906: 7898: 7889: 7888: 7885: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7857: 7855: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7847: 7840: 7833: 7825: 7823: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7813: 7806: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7758: 7756: 7750: 7749: 7747: 7746: 7739: 7732: 7725: 7719: 7717: 7711: 7710: 7708: 7707: 7700: 7693: 7686: 7679: 7672: 7665: 7658: 7652: 7650: 7644: 7643: 7636: 7634: 7632: 7631: 7623: 7621: 7615: 7614: 7607: 7606: 7599: 7592: 7584: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7571: 7560: 7557: 7556: 7554: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7532: 7530: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7514: 7512: 7508: 7507: 7505: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7487:Atlantic Ocean 7484: 7479: 7473: 7471: 7465: 7464: 7462: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7450: 7449: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7418: 7416: 7410: 7409: 7407: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7369:Fluid dynamics 7366: 7360: 7358: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7341:Geopositioning 7338: 7336:Remote Sensing 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7307: 7306: 7295: 7293: 7287: 7286: 7284: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7242: 7240: 7234: 7233: 7231: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7172: 7170: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7124: 7122: 7116: 7115: 7113: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7095:Climate change 7092: 7090:Energy balance 7087: 7085:Climate system 7081: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7028: 7026: 7020: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7011: 7005: 7002: 7001: 6994: 6993: 6986: 6979: 6971: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6942: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6910: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6877: 6874: 6873: 6866: 6865: 6858: 6851: 6843: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6809: 6808:External links 6806: 6803: 6802: 6777: 6738: 6733:Starting from 6726: 6713: 6702: 6645: 6594: 6581: 6568: 6512: 6477: 6418: 6390: 6366: 6342: 6327: 6307: 6292: 6272: 6251: 6240:The Atmosphere 6231: 6178: 6167: 6164:on 2008-05-28. 6143: 6140:on 2005-03-03. 6125: 6122:on 2009-03-03. 6107: 6082: 6079:on 2009-06-14. 6064: 6049: 6020: 5998: 5979: 5972: 5946: 5920: 5902:Joe Buchdahl. 5894: 5853: 5840: 5823: 5809: 5794:. UCAR. 2011. 5778: 5768:. Das.uwyo.edu 5754: 5730: 5719:on 17 May 2017 5704: 5679: 5655: 5631: 5624:Yunus Çengel. 5616: 5591: 5565: 5539: 5525: 5519: 5515: 5495: 5489: 5469: 5449: 5424: 5391: 5385:, which cites 5380: 5359: 5332: 5305: 5298: 5260: 5247: 5226: 5221: 5220:and added to O 5217: 5213: 5209: 5203: 5182: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5139:Global dimming 5136: 5131: 5125: 5123:Climate system 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5100: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5072: 5058: 5055:Science portal 5044: 5028: 5025: 5021: 5020: 5010:observed from 5005: 4998: 4996: 4988: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4969: 4967: 4932: 4925: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4904:Main article: 4901: 4898: 4880:), increasing 4878:water security 4866:sea level rise 4858:climate change 4739: 4731:Main article: 4725:boreal forests 4720: 4716: 4699: 4696: 4692:aquatic plants 4630:of which, the 4554: 4484:Main article: 4473: 4470: 4436:photosynthesis 4433:cyanobacterial 4366:carbon dioxide 4315:solidification 4304: 4301: 4285:Earth's mantle 4217: 4214: 4202: 4199: 4176:Main article: 4173: 4170: 4136:Main article: 4121: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4097: 4089:; 10,340 4065: 4062: 4034:optical window 4017: 4009: 4005: 3983:Main article: 3980: 3977: 3945:Main article: 3942: 3939: 3912: 3909: 3906: 3905: 3897: 3892: 3883: 3878: 3869: 3860: 3855: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3824: 3819: 3810: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3776: 3771: 3762: 3757: 3748: 3739: 3734: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3714: 3709: 3700: 3695: 3686: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3661: 3660: 3652: 3647: 3638: 3633: 3624: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3590: 3585: 3576: 3571: 3562: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3517: 3512: 3503: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3469: 3464: 3455: 3450: 3441: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3407: 3402: 3393: 3388: 3379: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3354: 3353: 3345: 3340: 3331: 3326: 3317: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3283: 3278: 3269: 3264: 3255: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3221: 3216: 3207: 3202: 3193: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3168: 3167: 3159: 3154: 3145: 3140: 3131: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3097: 3092: 3083: 3078: 3069: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3035: 3030: 3021: 3016: 3007: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2973: 2968: 2959: 2954: 2945: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2900: 2892: 2883: 2874: 2865: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2845: 2840: 2831: 2823: 2814: 2805: 2796: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2776: 2771: 2762: 2754: 2745: 2736: 2727: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2707: 2702: 2693: 2685: 2676: 2667: 2658: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2638: 2633: 2624: 2616: 2607: 2598: 2589: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2569: 2564: 2555: 2547: 2538: 2529: 2520: 2515: 2509: 2508: 2500: 2495: 2486: 2481: 2472: 2463: 2454: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2434: 2429: 2420: 2412: 2403: 2394: 2385: 2380: 2374: 2373: 2365: 2360: 2351: 2343: 2334: 2325: 2316: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2296: 2291: 2282: 2277: 2268: 2259: 2250: 2245: 2239: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2219: 2211: 2202: 2193: 2184: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2164: 2159: 2150: 2142: 2133: 2124: 2115: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2084: 2076: 2067: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2042: 2041: 2033: 2028: 2019: 2011: 2002: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1968: 1963: 1954: 1946: 1937: 1928: 1919: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1902: 1897: 1888: 1880: 1871: 1862: 1853: 1848: 1842: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1822: 1814: 1805: 1796: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1775: 1767: 1762: 1753: 1745: 1736: 1727: 1718: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1687: 1679: 1670: 1661: 1652: 1647: 1641: 1640: 1639:Bulk modulus 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1606: 1603: 1557:Density of air 1555:Main article: 1537: 1534: 1529:speed of sound 1523:Because in an 1519:Speed of sound 1517:Main article: 1514: 1513:Speed of sound 1511: 1466:Main article: 1463: 1460: 1401: 1400: 1389: 1386: 1351:; 760.00 1329:Main article: 1326: 1323: 1314:speed of sound 1289: 1286: 1282: 1281: 1269: 1268: 1259: 1258: 1232: 1217: 1200: 1197: 1140:blue scattered 1128:high altitudes 1112:Main article: 1109: 1106: 1063:Main article: 1060: 1057: 991:(orange), the 974:Main article: 971: 968: 920:Main article: 917: 914: 898:meteorological 839:Main article: 836: 833: 832: 831: 828: 825: 822: 819: 789: 788:Stratification 786: 773: 772: 771: 770: 767: 760: 755: 745: 742: 741: 740: 726: 710: 709: 706: 703: 699: 696: 690: 689: 685: 684: 681: 678: 675: 669: 668: 665: 662: 659: 656: 648: 647: 644: 641: 638: 632: 631: 628: 625: 622: 616: 615: 612: 609: 606: 603: 595: 594: 591: 588: 585: 579: 578: 575: 572: 569: 566: 560: 559: 556: 553: 550: 547: 541: 540: 534: 526: 523: 519: 518: 513: 509: 508: 481: 478:sulfur dioxide 385: 373:Main article: 370: 367: 330:(formally the 280:global warming 268:climate change 213:photosynthesis 193:carbon dioxide 101:(which create 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9530: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9495: 9493: 9483: 9473: 9471: 9461: 9459: 9449: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9435: 9425: 9424: 9421: 9408: 9400: 9399: 9396: 9386: 9385:Non-renewable 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9341: 9337: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9325:Urban ecology 9323: 9321: 9318: 9314: 9311: 9310: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9288: 9287: 9284: 9280: 9277: 9276: 9275: 9272: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9237: 9236: 9233: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9210: 9209: 9206: 9205: 9202: 9199: 9195: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9174: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9157:Privatization 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9135: 9133: 9130: 9128: 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9111: 9108: 9107: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9082: 9080: 9076: 9070: 9067: 9063: 9060: 9059: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9052:Surface water 9050: 9048: 9045: 9041: 9038: 9037: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9024: 9023: 9019: 9018: 9017: 9014: 9010: 9007: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8996: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8969: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8951: 8948: 8947: 8946: 8943: 8942: 8940: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8927: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8910: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8858: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8835: 8832: 8831: 8830: 8827: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8803: 8800: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8782: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8759: 8756: 8755: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8745: 8743: 8741: 8737: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8721: 8720: 8719: 8716: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8693: 8692: 8689: 8685: 8682: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8669: 8668: 8665: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8652: 8651: 8648: 8644: 8641: 8640: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8617: 8614: 8613: 8612: 8609: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8600: 8597: 8593: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8574: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8554: 8553:peak farmland 8551: 8550: 8549: 8546: 8545: 8544: 8541: 8540: 8538: 8536: 8532: 8526: 8523: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8510: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8453: 8451: 8449: 8445: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8421: 8419: 8415: 8409: 8406: 8402: 8396: 8395: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8373: 8372: 8370: 8368: 8364: 8361: 8359: 8355: 8351: 8344: 8339: 8337: 8332: 8330: 8325: 8324: 8321: 8309: 8301: 8300: 8297: 8287: 8286: 8282: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8269: 8268: 8265: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8249: 8246: 8245: 8244: 8241: 8237: 8234: 8233: 8232: 8229: 8228: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8213: 8210: 8203: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8177:(abiogenesis) 8173: 8172: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8160: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8117: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8047: 8045: 8043: 8039: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8023: 8020: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8002: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7992:Earth science 7990: 7989: 7987: 7985: 7981: 7975: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7919: 7914: 7912: 7907: 7905: 7900: 7899: 7896: 7883: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7846: 7845: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7834: 7832: 7831: 7827: 7826: 7824: 7822: 7818: 7812: 7811: 7807: 7805: 7804: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7755: 7751: 7745: 7744: 7740: 7738: 7737: 7733: 7731: 7730: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7720: 7718: 7716: 7715:Dwarf planets 7712: 7706: 7705: 7701: 7699: 7698: 7694: 7692: 7691: 7687: 7685: 7684: 7680: 7678: 7677: 7673: 7671: 7670: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7653: 7651: 7649: 7645: 7640: 7630: 7629: 7625: 7624: 7622: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7605: 7600: 7598: 7593: 7591: 7586: 7585: 7582: 7570: 7562: 7561: 7558: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7531: 7529: 7525: 7519: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7509: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7497:Pacific Ocean 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7470: 7466: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7448: 7445: 7444: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7427:Earth science 7425: 7423: 7420: 7419: 7417: 7415: 7411: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7379:Magnetosphere 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7353: 7347: 7346:Virtual globe 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7311:Earth's orbit 7309: 7305: 7302: 7301: 7300: 7297: 7296: 7294: 7292: 7288: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7239: 7235: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7218:World history 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7208:World economy 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7169: 7165: 7159: 7158:South America 7156: 7154: 7153:North America 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7125: 7123: 7121: 7117: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7078: 7074: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7029: 7027: 7025: 7021: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7006: 7003: 6999: 6992: 6987: 6985: 6980: 6978: 6973: 6972: 6969: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6943: 6940: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6911: 6908: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6878: 6875: 6871: 6864: 6859: 6857: 6852: 6850: 6845: 6844: 6841: 6835: 6832: 6828: 6827: 6821: 6816: 6812: 6811: 6792: 6788: 6781: 6767:on 2021-08-11 6763: 6759: 6752: 6748: 6742: 6735: 6730: 6723: 6717: 6711: 6706: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6665:(1): 97–106. 6664: 6660: 6656: 6649: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6598: 6591: 6585: 6578: 6572: 6564: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6519: 6517: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6481: 6473: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6429: 6422: 6407: 6406: 6401: 6394: 6380: 6376: 6370: 6356: 6352: 6346: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6328:9780471457282 6324: 6320: 6319: 6311: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6293:9780072406559 6289: 6285: 6284: 6283:Heat transfer 6276: 6261: 6255: 6249: 6248:0-13-350612-6 6245: 6241: 6235: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6182: 6176: 6171: 6160: 6153: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6129: 6121: 6117: 6111: 6096: 6092: 6086: 6078: 6074: 6068: 6060: 6053: 6038: 6034: 6032: 6024: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6002: 5994: 5990: 5983: 5975: 5973:9780416079401 5969: 5965: 5960: 5959: 5950: 5936:on 2013-10-19 5935: 5931: 5930:"stratopause" 5924: 5910:on 2010-07-01 5909: 5905: 5898: 5889: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5857: 5850: 5844: 5837: 5833: 5827: 5819: 5813: 5797: 5793: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5767: 5761: 5759: 5744: 5737: 5735: 5718: 5714: 5708: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5676: 5665: 5659: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5627: 5620: 5613: 5609: 5608:3-11-016431-0 5605: 5601: 5595: 5579: 5575: 5569: 5553: 5549: 5543: 5536: 5532: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5492: 5490:0-485-11150-0 5486: 5482: 5481: 5473: 5462: 5461: 5453: 5438: 5434: 5433:"Trace Gases" 5428: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5406: 5405: 5398: 5396: 5388: 5383: 5377: 5373: 5366: 5364: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5337: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5310: 5301: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5257: 5251: 5236: 5230: 5206: 5204:0-387-98746-0 5200: 5196: 5189: 5187: 5171: 5165: 5161: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5099: 5096: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5075: 5070: 5064: 5059: 5056: 5050: 5045: 5042: 5036: 5031: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4985: 4980: 4973: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4955:edge of space 4952: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4929: 4924: 4923: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4907: 4897: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4830:deforestation 4827: 4823: 4822:nitrous oxide 4819: 4815: 4810: 4808: 4804: 4801: 4797: 4794: 4793:stratospheric 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4738:Air pollution 4737: 4734: 4733:Air pollution 4726: 4698:Air pollution 4695: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4659: 4655: 4654:Carboniferous 4650: 4648: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4602:known as the 4601: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4553:atmosphere. O 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4478: 4469: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4456: 4452: 4451:isotope ratio 4448: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4421: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4394:crustal rocks 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4334:precipitating 4331: 4327: 4326:heat transfer 4324: 4320: 4319:Earth's crust 4316: 4310: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4271:and numerous 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4212: 4208: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4184: 4179: 4169: 4167: 4162: 4160: 4156: 4151: 4145: 4139: 4131: 4126: 4117: 4106: 4101: 4094: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4071: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4054:radio windows 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4024:The combined 4022: 4015: 4000: 3999:visible light 3996: 3995:transmittance 3991: 3986: 3976: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3948: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3918: 3898: 3893: 3884: 3879: 3870: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3845: 3839: 3834: 3825: 3820: 3811: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3786: 3777: 3772: 3763: 3758: 3749: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3724: 3715: 3710: 3701: 3696: 3687: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3662: 3653: 3648: 3639: 3634: 3625: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3600: 3591: 3586: 3577: 3572: 3563: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3538: 3532: 3527: 3518: 3513: 3504: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3479: 3470: 3465: 3456: 3451: 3442: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3417: 3408: 3403: 3394: 3389: 3380: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3355: 3346: 3341: 3332: 3327: 3318: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3293: 3284: 3279: 3270: 3265: 3256: 3247: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3231: 3222: 3217: 3208: 3203: 3194: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3169: 3160: 3155: 3146: 3141: 3132: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3107: 3098: 3093: 3084: 3079: 3070: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3045: 3036: 3031: 3022: 3017: 3008: 2999: 2994: 2989: 2984: 2983: 2974: 2969: 2960: 2955: 2946: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2921: 2915: 2910: 2901: 2893: 2884: 2875: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2855: 2846: 2841: 2832: 2824: 2815: 2806: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2786: 2777: 2772: 2763: 2755: 2746: 2737: 2728: 2723: 2718: 2717: 2708: 2703: 2694: 2686: 2677: 2668: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2648: 2639: 2634: 2625: 2617: 2608: 2599: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2579: 2570: 2565: 2556: 2548: 2539: 2530: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2510: 2501: 2496: 2487: 2482: 2473: 2464: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2444: 2435: 2430: 2421: 2413: 2404: 2395: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2375: 2366: 2361: 2352: 2344: 2335: 2326: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2306: 2297: 2292: 2283: 2278: 2269: 2260: 2251: 2246: 2241: 2240: 2234: 2229: 2220: 2212: 2203: 2194: 2185: 2180: 2175: 2174: 2165: 2160: 2151: 2143: 2134: 2125: 2116: 2111: 2106: 2105: 2099: 2094: 2085: 2077: 2068: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2044: 2043: 2034: 2029: 2020: 2012: 2003: 1994: 1989: 1984: 1979: 1978: 1969: 1964: 1955: 1947: 1938: 1929: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1909: 1903: 1898: 1889: 1881: 1872: 1863: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1843: 1837: 1832: 1823: 1815: 1806: 1797: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1777: 1768: 1763: 1754: 1746: 1737: 1728: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1708: 1702: 1697: 1688: 1680: 1671: 1662: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1615:Temperature 1614: 1613: 1610: 1602: 1601:10 kg." 1584: 1580: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1564:ideal gas law 1558: 1550: 1547: 1542: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1520: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1457: 1456:orbital decay 1453: 1449: 1445: 1444:Space Shuttle 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1426:still occur. 1425: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1405:Mount Everest 1398: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1383: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1373: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1343:(760.00 1342: 1338: 1332: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1285: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1270: 1265: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1251:edge of space 1248: 1247: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1229:magnetosphere 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1205: 1204: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1181: 1177: 1171: 1170:with height. 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1066: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1041:thunderclouds 1038: 1033: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 977: 967: 965: 961: 957: 952: 950: 946: 941: 939: 935: 930: 923: 913: 911: 907: 903: 899: 894: 892: 891:magnetosphere 888: 885: 881: 875: 873: 869: 863: 861: 857: 853: 849: 842: 829: 826: 823: 820: 817: 816: 815: 813: 809: 805: 794: 785: 782: 780: 768: 765: 761: 751: 743: 738: 734: 733: 731: 727: 724: 720: 719:Mole fraction 717: 716: 715: 711: 707: 704: 697: 695: 691: 686: 682: 679: 676: 674: 670: 666: 663: 657: 653: 649: 645: 642: 639: 637: 633: 629: 626: 623: 621: 617: 613: 610: 604: 602:(April 2022) 600: 596: 592: 589: 586: 584: 580: 576: 573: 567: 565: 561: 557: 554: 548: 546: 542: 539: 535: 533: 532: 527: 524: 521: 520: 517: 516:Mole fraction 510: 505: 502: 494: 489: 485: 479: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 381: 376: 366: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 339: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 291: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 272:deforestation 269: 265: 261: 258:). Recently, 257: 253: 249: 245: 244:impact events 241: 237: 233: 228: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 173:mole fraction 169: 167: 164:to exist and 163: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 70: 66: 58: 54: 50: 46: 42: 38: 34: 29: 22: 16: 9513:Environments 9482:Solar System 9383: / 9257:Exploitation 9142:Conservation 9085:Desalination 9020: 8913:conservation 8748:Biodiversity 8696:conservation 8543:Agricultural 8471:Fossil fuels 8357: 8283: 8216:Biodiversity 8202:astrobiology 8054: 7924:Elements of 7842: 7835: 7828: 7808: 7801: 7741: 7734: 7727: 7702: 7695: 7688: 7681: 7674: 7668: 7667: 7660: 7626: 7551:Solar System 7502:Oceanography 7492:Indian Ocean 7482:Arctic Ocean 7422:Age of Earth 7374:Geomagnetism 7057:Thermosphere 7047:Stratosphere 7031: 7023: 6896:Thermosphere 6886:Stratosphere 6869: 6824: 6794:. Retrieved 6790: 6780: 6769:. Retrieved 6762:the original 6758:IPCC AR6 WG1 6757: 6741: 6729: 6716: 6705: 6662: 6658: 6648: 6607: 6603: 6597: 6589: 6584: 6576: 6575:B. Windley: 6571: 6536: 6532: 6525:Schaefer, L. 6523:Zahnle, K.; 6493:(2): 71–80. 6490: 6486: 6480: 6440:(10): 5197. 6437: 6431: 6421: 6409:. Retrieved 6403: 6393: 6382:. Retrieved 6378: 6369: 6358:. Retrieved 6354: 6345: 6317: 6310: 6282: 6275: 6264:. Retrieved 6254: 6239: 6234: 6191: 6187: 6181: 6170: 6159:the original 6146: 6138:the original 6128: 6120:the original 6110: 6099:. Retrieved 6085: 6077:the original 6067: 6052: 6041:. Retrieved 6030: 6023: 6015: 6007: 6001: 5995:. p. 4. 5988: 5982: 5957: 5949: 5938:. Retrieved 5934:the original 5923: 5912:. Retrieved 5908:the original 5897: 5873:(1): 66–77. 5870: 5866: 5856: 5848: 5843: 5835: 5826: 5812: 5800:. Retrieved 5770:. Retrieved 5746:. Retrieved 5721:. Retrieved 5717:the original 5707: 5696:. Retrieved 5692: 5682: 5674: 5668:. Retrieved 5658: 5647:. Retrieved 5643: 5634: 5625: 5619: 5599: 5594: 5582:. Retrieved 5580:. April 2022 5578:NASA Climate 5577: 5568: 5556:. Retrieved 5554:. April 2022 5552:NASA Climate 5551: 5542: 5534: 5530: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5498: 5479: 5472: 5459: 5452: 5441:. Retrieved 5437:the original 5427: 5403: 5386: 5371: 5352:, retrieved 5347: 5325:, retrieved 5320: 5273: 5263: 5255: 5250: 5239:. Retrieved 5237:. 2024-05-13 5229: 5194: 5174:. Retrieved 5164: 5069:World portal 4959:thermosphere 4943:stratosphere 4909: 4811: 4762:motorization 4736: 4658:evolution of 4651: 4535:ferrous iron 4524: 4489: 4459: 4455:carbon cycle 4444:stromatolite 4422: 4406: 4312: 4235:, primarily 4233:solar nebula 4219: 4190: 4189: 4163: 4147: 4102: 4095: 4085:(5,730 4074: 4073: 4023: 4003: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3950: 3935:ice crystals 3920: 1608: 1572: 1560: 1522: 1507:thermosphere 1495:stratosphere 1491: 1421: 1402: 1380: 1376:scale height 1369: 1365: 1334: 1283: 1244: 1240:heterosphere 1202: 1199:Other layers 1185: 1175: 1172: 1145: 1132:stratosphere 1094: 1079: 1068: 1065:Stratosphere 1059:Stratosphere 1029: 1010: 1006: 993:stratosphere 953: 942: 925: 922:Thermosphere 916:Thermosphere 895: 887:trajectories 876: 864: 852:thermosphere 844: 800: 783: 777:The average 776: 763: 713: 528: 515: 500: 454:volcanic ash 391: 340: 328:thermosphere 320:stratosphere 292: 236:solar nebula 229: 170: 150:air currents 99:particulates 87: 64: 62: 45:stratosphere 33: 15: 9470:Spaceflight 9376:Nationalism 9348:Common-pool 8989:Hydrosphere 8982:remediation 8967:Groundwater 8562:Degradation 8267:Prokaryotes 8055:Atmosphere 8050:Meteorology 7837:HD 209458 b 7611:Atmospheres 7299:Cartography 7238:Environment 7105:Climatology 7042:Troposphere 6946:Ozone layer 6929:Thermopause 6919:Stratopause 6881:Troposphere 6588:J. Schopf: 6463:11603/13118 6012:McGraw-Hill 5466:, p. 3 5422:. Chapter 1 5098:Lithosphere 5093:Hydrosphere 4939:troposphere 4884:events and 4854:1.1 °C 4834:destruction 4803:ultraviolet 4796:ozone layer 4688:terrestrial 4624:Phanerozoic 4620:bilaterians 4567:Precambrian 4520:Proterozoic 4374:inert gases 4352:during the 4275:with large 4257:water vapor 4255:), notably 4222:Early Earth 4172:Circulation 4058:radio waves 4038:ultraviolet 1546:NRLMSISE-00 1499:ultraviolet 1462:Temperature 1393:Kármán line 1318:temperature 1306:air density 1209:ozone layer 1126:at low and 1124:cloud types 1114:Troposphere 1108:Troposphere 1086:ozone layer 1075:stratopause 1023:; 190 1019:(−120 989:troposphere 929:thermopause 848:thermopause 804:temperature 694:Water vapor 410:noble gases 369:Composition 347:climatology 316:troposphere 304:Kármán line 300:outer space 276:fossil fuel 221:respiration 201:water vapor 197:trace gases 127:ultraviolet 119:outer space 49:troposphere 28:Air quality 9492:Categories 9371:Extraction 9330:Wilderness 9291:accounting 9274:Management 9240:ecological 9228:tragedy of 9147:Peak water 9132:Efficiency 9105:Sanitation 9047:Stormwater 9040:harvesting 9016:Irrigation 8918:management 8876:gene banks 8817:management 8795:management 8711:resilience 8677:phosphorus 8633:industrial 8611:Management 8587:soundscape 8493:Geothermal 8148:Wilderness 8001:geological 7821:Exoplanets 7404:Tomography 7389:Seismology 7356:Geophysics 7331:Navigation 7223:Time zones 7188:In culture 7133:Antarctica 7120:Continents 7052:Mesosphere 7024:Atmosphere 6956:Ionosphere 6951:Turbopause 6914:Tropopause 6891:Mesosphere 6796:2015-10-21 6771:2021-11-20 6487:Metrologia 6384:2023-06-13 6360:2023-06-13 6266:2014-06-10 6194:(6): 864. 6101:2010-10-16 6043:2010-10-16 6031:homosphere 5940:2013-10-18 5914:2012-04-18 5772:2012-04-18 5748:2013-10-18 5698:2017-02-20 5670:2017-07-04 5649:2021-04-27 5610:, S. 173. 5443:2010-10-16 5354:2019-05-31 5327:2019-05-31 5241:2024-06-18 5176:2018-01-29 5156:References 5012:deep space 4947:mesosphere 4781:acid rains 4773:pollutants 4647:metabolism 4644:locomotive 4616:placozoans 4612:cnidarians 4586:Cryogenian 4571:eukaryotic 4512:substrates 4492:continents 4429:Neoarchean 4398:carbonates 4390:weathering 4342:outgassing 4340:. Further 4338:superocean 4307:See also: 4277:meteorites 4245:gas giants 4205:See also: 4142:See also: 4079:black body 4016:. Water (H 4014:nanometres 3979:Absorption 3957:scattering 3941:Scattering 3915:See also: 1432:ionosphere 1397:astronauts 1339:as 101325 1246:turbopause 1236:homosphere 1221:ionosphere 1168:isothermal 1160:tropopause 1071:tropopause 1001:spacecraft 976:Mesosphere 970:Mesosphere 938:ionosphere 856:solar wind 808:lapse rate 458:pollutants 332:ionosphere 324:mesosphere 266:, such as 248:weathering 207:vary with 168:on Earth. 123:meteoroids 9458:Astronomy 9381:Renewable 9366:Depletion 9353:Conflict 9235:Economics 9213:enclosure 9172:Resources 9152:Pollution 9069:Watershed 8972:pollution 8903:Seed bank 8898:Rangeland 8780:Fisheries 8765:Biosphere 8758:biopiracy 8701:fertility 8577:cityscape 8572:Landscape 8479:peak coal 8466:Resources 8417:Emissions 8226:Eukaryota 8193:Hierarchy 8188:Biosphere 8153:Wildfires 8143:Radiation 8133:Ecosystem 8073:Moonlight 8007:Structure 7962:particles 7844:Kepler-7b 7830:GJ 1132 b 7787:Enceladus 7321:Geomatics 7266:Ecosystem 7251:Biosphere 7213:Etymology 7193:Earth Day 7143:Australia 7062:Exosphere 6924:Mesopause 6901:Exosphere 6679:1880-6546 6472:109930589 6204:CiteSeerX 5802:April 19, 5723:April 19, 5088:Biosphere 5016:Apollo 12 4935:afterglow 4886:wildfires 4789:depletion 4769:societies 4742:chemicals 4597:Ediacaran 4582:red algae 4551:oxidizing 4527:oxidation 4500:carbonate 4402:sediments 4386:magnesium 4378:dissolved 4350:asteroids 4346:volcanism 4330:condensed 4323:advective 4293:outgassed 4159:curvature 3923:radiation 1618:Density 1525:ideal gas 1409:airliners 1300:graph of 1142:sunlight. 1013:mesopause 985:Afterglow 884:ballistic 872:geocorona 841:Exosphere 835:Exosphere 748:has been 705:0–30,000 683:0.000114 667:0.000191 646:0.000524 630:0.001818 450:sea spray 336:exosphere 278:-related 240:volcanism 183:, 20.95% 177:molecules 92:suspended 9407:Category 9340:Resource 9279:adaptive 9177:improved 9137:Conflict 9122:Security 9117:Scarcity 9110:improved 9100:Leaching 8977:recharge 8957:Drinking 8908:Wildlife 8775:Bushmeat 8770:Bushfood 8723:planning 8628:gemstone 8623:Minerals 8604:property 8592:viewshed 8582:seascape 8513:sunlight 8487:peak oil 8483:peak gas 8308:Category 8277:bacteria 8260:protista 8221:Organism 8088:Sunlight 7934:Universe 7854:See also 7782:Callisto 7777:Ganymede 7736:Makemake 7569:Category 6817:(1878). 6749:(2021). 6697:27848144 6632:24553238 6563:20573713 6337:62532755 6302:46959719 6226:16754900 6095:Archived 6037:Archived 6014:. 1984. 5796:Archived 5408:Archived 5027:See also 5014:onboard 4864:such as 4838:wetlands 4800:ionizing 4642:, whose 4632:Cambrian 4608:metazoan 4396:to form 4362:nitrogen 4241:hydrides 4237:hydrogen 4075:Emission 4064:Emission 4050:infrared 4046:infrared 3969:overcast 3917:Sunlight 1436:HF radio 1310:pressure 1304:against 1189:aviation 1148:altitude 574:209,460 555:780,840 545:Nitrogen 525:Formula 507:Dry air 466:fluorine 462:chlorine 434:aerosols 394:nitrogen 250:and the 232:accreted 209:altitude 191:, 0.03% 187:, 0.93% 181:nitrogen 154:chemical 95:aerosols 9518:Climate 9446:Weather 9420:Portals 9208:Commons 9197:Related 9162:Quality 9078:Aspects 9004:glacial 8945:Aquifer 8851:Pasture 8802:Forests 8728:reserve 8503:Nuclear 8473: ( 8429:Trading 8424:Airshed 8285:Viruses 8272:archaea 8248:animals 8200: ( 8198:Biology 8175:Origin 8128:Ecology 8103:tornado 8063:Climate 8057:(Earth) 8042:Weather 8012:Geology 7999: ( 7997:History 7704:Neptune 7683:Jupiter 7656:Mercury 7648:Planets 7414:Geology 7326:Gravity 7291:Geodesy 7261:Ecology 7077:Climate 7067:Weather 7014:History 7009:Outline 6933:Exobase 6688:5138252 6640:4443958 6612:Bibcode 6554:2944365 6495:Bibcode 6442:Bibcode 6196:Bibcode 5875:Bibcode 5278:Bibcode 5108:Airshed 5103:Airglow 5018:in 1969 5008:eclipse 4963:aurorae 4951:airglow 4842:logging 4634:, more 4563:euxinia 4463:in the 4447:fossils 4388:during 4382:calcium 4370:methane 4358:Archean 4336:into a 4273:impacts 4265:ammonia 4261:methane 4249:Jupiter 4155:horizon 4030:opacity 3953:photons 1448:F-layer 1428:Meteors 1424:auroras 1361:weather 1341:pascals 1225:auroras 1156:Equator 1136:horizon 1045:meteors 1003:reentry 987:of the 934:exobase 912:Earth. 902:auroras 764:by mass 673:Krypton 655:(2022) 652:Methane 614:0.0417 593:0.9340 577:20.946 558:78.084 470:mercury 422:krypton 158:climate 103:weather 72:mixture 9218:global 9182:policy 9127:Supply 9090:Floods 9057:Sewage 9030:Marine 9022:huerta 8856:Plants 8846:Meadow 8706:health 8684:rights 8672:copper 8650:mining 8548:arable 8448:Energy 8388:Indoor 8236:plants 8068:Clouds 8032:Future 8022:Oceans 7974:Change 7957:Matter 7952:Energy 7926:nature 7810:Triton 7772:Europa 7697:Uranus 7690:Saturn 7469:Oceans 7437:Future 7281:Nature 7203:Symbol 7148:Europe 7128:Africa 6695: 6685: 6677: 6638: 6630: 6604:Nature 6561: 6551: 6470: 6411:20 May 6335: 6325: 6300: 6290: 6246: 6224: 6206: 5970: 5606: 5558:16 May 5487: 5418: 5378: 5350:, 2019 5323:, 2019 5296: 5201: 5172:. NASA 5130:(CIRA) 4787:. The 4680:pyrite 4672:faunae 4669:animal 4661:plants 4628:period 4600:period 4549:to an 4539:sulfur 4516:ferric 4253:Saturn 4226:Hadean 4166:mirage 3921:Solar 3853:0.1135 3841:0.0004 3794:0.1394 3732:0.1458 3670:0.1538 3608:0.1602 3546:0.1682 3534:0.0005 3487:0.1762 3425:0.1858 3301:0.2082 3239:0.2211 3205:0.0946 3177:0.2355 3143:0.0891 3115:0.2515 3081:0.0837 3053:0.2707 3019:0.0782 2991:0.2947 2957:0.0732 2929:0.3204 2863:0.3524 2794:0.3716 2725:0.3925 2656:0.4149 2587:0.4405 2518:0.4709 2484:0.0523 2314:0.5879 2280:0.0436 2248:0.6423 2182:0.7048 2113:0.7833 2101:0.0025 2051:0.8826 1917:1.1774 1851:1.4128 1785:1.7684 1716:2.3675 1579:tonnes 1312:, the 1176:tropos 949:oxygen 797:layer. 714:notes: 636:Helium 627:18.18 590:9,340 564:Oxygen 452:, and 446:spores 442:pollen 424:, and 418:helium 400:, and 398:oxygen 334:) and 312:layers 302:. 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