224:). Any carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from a pressurised source combines with the carbonic acid water vapour and momentarily reduces the atmospheric pH by negligible amounts. Respiration from animals releases out of equilibrium carbonic acid and low levels of other ions. Combustion of hydrocarbons which is not a chemical reaction releases to atmosphere carbonic acid water as; saturates, condensates, vapour or gas (invisible steam). Combustion can releases particulates (carbon/soot and ash) as well as molecules forming nitrites and sulphites which will reduce the atmospheric pH of the water slightly or harmfully in highly industrialised areas where this is classed as air pollution and can create the phenomena of acid rain, a pH lower than the natural pH5.56. The negative effects of the by-products of combustion released into the atmospheric vapour can be removed by the use of scrubber towers and other physical means, the captured pollutants can be processed into a valuable by-product. The sources of atmospheric water vapor are the bodies of water (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps), and vegetation on the
1813:
473:. The gas layers of the troposphere are less dense at the geographic poles and denser at the equator, where the average height of the tropical troposphere is 13 km, approximately 7.0 km greater than the 6.0 km average height of the polar troposphere at the geographic poles; therefore, surplus heating and vertical expansion of the troposphere occur in the tropical latitudes. At the middle latitudes, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average temperature of 15 °C (59 °F) at sea level to approximately −55 °C (−67 °F) at the
20:
1287:), then a rising and expanding parcel of air will arrive at the new altitude at a lower temperature than the surrounding air. In which case, the air parcel is denser than the surrounding air, and so falls back to its original altitude as an air mass that is stable against being lifted. If the upper air is cooler than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate, then, when the air parcel rises to a new altitude, the air mass will have a higher temperature and a lower density than the surrounding air and will continue to accelerate and rise.
1825:
691:(no energy transfer by way of heat). As the rising parcel of air loses energy while it acts upon the surrounding atmosphere, no heat energy is transferred from the atmosphere to the air parcel to compensate for the heat loss. The parcel of air loses energy as it reaches greater altitude, which is manifested as a decrease in the temperature of the air mass. Analogously, the reverse process occurs within a cold parcel of air that is being compressed and is sinking to the planetary surface.
151:
1897:
1353:
1382:
latitude because of the varying strength of the sunlight that strikes each of the three atmospheric cells, consequent to the inclination of the axis of planet Earth within its orbit of the Sun. The resultant atmospheric circulation transports warm tropical air to the geographic poles and cold polar air to the tropics. The effect of the three cells is the tendency to the equilibrium of heat and moisture in the planetary atmosphere of Earth.
1861:
1885:
1837:
1873:
1305:, and is located by measuring the changes in temperature relative to increased altitude in the troposphere and in the stratosphere. In the troposphere, the temperature of the air decreases at high altitude, however, in the stratosphere the air temperature initially is constant, and then increases with altitude. The increase of air temperature at stratospheric altitudes results from the
1849:
48:
200:, which therefore has an approximate natural pH of 5.0 to 5.5 (slightly acidic). (Water other than atmospheric water vapour fallen as fresh rain, such as fresh/sweet/potable/river water, will usually be affected by the physical environment and may not be in this pH range.) Atmospheric water vapour holds suspended gasses in it (not by mass),78.08%
1381:
to describe the flow of energy and the circulation of the planetary atmosphere. Balance is the fundamental principle of the model — that the solar energy absorbed by the Earth in a year is equal to the energy radiated (lost) into outer space. The Earth's energy balance does not equally apply to each
1309:'s absorption and retention of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation that Earth receives from the Sun. The coldest layer of the atmosphere, where the temperature lapse rate changes from a positive rate (in the troposphere) to a negative rate (in the stratosphere) locates and identifies the tropopause as an
549:
The difference in temperature derives from the planetary surface absorbing most of the energy from the sun, which then radiates outwards and heats the troposphere (the first layer of the atmosphere of Earth) while the radiation of surface heat to the upper atmosphere results in the cooling of that
1398:
term meaning that the general flow pattern is west to east along the Earth's latitude lines, with weak shortwaves embedded in the flow. The use of the word "zone" refers to the flow being along the Earth's latitudinal "zones". This pattern can buckle and thus become a meridional flow.
1338:
1163:
554:
lapse rate (DALR) accounts for the effect of the expansion of dry air as it rises in the atmosphere, and the wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR) includes the effect of the condensation-rate of water vapor upon the environmental lapse rate.
273:, wherein the air pressure is equal to the weight of the air above a given point on the planetary surface. The relation between decreased air pressure and high altitude can be equated to the density of a fluid, by way of the following
986:
236:
respectively, and which influences the occurrence of weather phenomena; the greatest proportion of water vapor is in the atmosphere nearest the surface of the Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases at high
867:
is the entropy. The isentropic equation states that atmospheric entropy does not change with altitude; the adiabatic lapse rate measures the rate at which temperature decreases with altitude under such conditions.
370:
694:
The compression and the expansion of an air parcel are reversible phenomena in which energy is not transferred into or out of the air parcel; atmospheric compression and expansion are measured as an
542:
and the temperature of the tropopause divided by the altitude. Functionally, the ELR equation assumes that the planetary atmosphere is static, that there is no mixing of the layers of air, either by
481:, the tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) at sea level to approximately −70 to −75 °C (−94 to −103 °F) at the tropopause. At the
1052:
1411:" arises. Meridional flow patterns feature strong, amplified troughs of low pressure and ridges of high pressure, with more north–south flow in the general pattern than west-to-east flow.
861:
892:. In the troposphere, the average environmental lapse rate is a decrease of about 6.5 °C for every 1.0 km (1,000m) of increased altitude. For dry air, an approximately
493:
regions, the tropospheric temperature decreases from an average temperature of 0 °C (32 °F) at sea level to approximately −45 °C (−49 °F) at the tropopause.
1034:
1245:
675:
rises and expands because of the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitudes. The expansion of the air parcel pushes outwards against the surrounding air, and transfers
1285:
1321:
The general flow of the atmosphere is from west to east, which, however, can be interrupted by polar flows, either north-to-south flow or a south-to-north flow, which
31:
casting shadows. Sunlight is reflected off the ocean, after it was filtered into a reddish light by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset. The above lying
1006:
816:
536:
1205:
754:
725:
781:
501:
The temperature of the troposphere decreases with increased altitude, and the rate of decrease in air temperature is measured with the
Environmental Lapse Rate (
221:
131:(PBL) that varies in height from hundreds of meters up to 2 km (1.2 mi; 6,600 ft). The measures of the PBL vary according to the latitude, the
899:
147:
in which air-temperature increases with altitude, the temperature of the tropopause remains constant. The layer has the largest concentration of nitrogen.
1628:
550:
layer of the atmosphere. The ELR equation also assumes that the atmosphere is static, but heated air becomes buoyant, expands, and rises. The dry
90:
phenomena occur. From the planetary surface of the Earth, the average height of the troposphere is 18 km (11 mi; 59,000 ft) in the
1695:
1603:
1578:
283:
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880:, then cooling of the air can cause the water to condense, and the air no longer functions as an ideal gas. If the air is at the
727:) wherein there occurs no change in entropy as the air parcel rises or falls within the atmosphere. Because the heat exchanged (
196:
The Earth's planetary atmosphere contains, besides other gases, water vapour and carbon dioxide, which produce carbonic acid in
182:
The distance from the planetary surface to the edge of the stratosphere is ±50 km, less than 1.0% of the radius of the Earth.
1369:
The three-cell model of the atmosphere of the Earth describes the actual flow of the atmosphere with the tropical-latitude
1407:
When the zonal flow buckles, the atmosphere can flow in a more longitudinal (or meridional) direction, and thus the term "
1325:
describes as a zonal flow and as a meridional flow. The terms are used to describe localized areas of the atmosphere at a
1158:{\displaystyle {\frac {\,dT\,}{dz}}=-{\frac {\;mg\;}{R}}{\frac {\;\gamma \,-\,1\;}{\gamma }}=-9.8^{\circ }\mathrm {C/km} }
1927:
1688:
1668:
1329:; the three-cell model more fully explains the zonal and meridional flows of the planetary atmosphere of the Earth.
1359:
The meridional flow pattern of 23 October 2003 shows amplified troughs and ridges in the 500 hPa height pattern.
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123:
mixes the layers of air and so determines the structure and the phenomena of the troposphere. The rotational
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135:, and the time of day when the meteorological measurement is realized. Atop the troposphere is the
128:
102:
in winter; thus the average height of the troposphere is 13 km (8.1 mi; 43,000 ft).
885:
818:) the equation governing the air temperature as a function of altitude for a mixed atmosphere is:
1364:
1310:
1210:
1207:), at which temperature decreases with altitude, usually is unequal to the adiabatic lapse rate (
270:
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144:
59:
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of the troposphere against the planetary surface affects the flow of the air, and so forms the
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683:) from the parcel of air to the atmosphere. Transferring energy to a parcel of air by way of
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1313:
in which limited mixing of air layers occurs between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
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730:
701:
8:
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indicates the dominant west-to-east flow of the atmosphere in the 500 hPa height pattern.
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71:
40:
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62:
of the planetary atmosphere of the Earth, of which the troposphere is the lowest layer.
19:
1661:
981:{\displaystyle p(z){\Bigl }^{-{\frac {\gamma }{\,\gamma \,-\,1\,}}}={\text{constant}}}
139:, which is the functional atmospheric border that demarcates the troposphere from the
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1345:
688:
539:
482:
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1841:
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95:
1824:
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The tropopause is the atmospheric boundary layer between the troposphere and the
1901:
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is a slow and inefficient exchange of energy with the environment, which is an
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1911:
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274:
249:, which is the atmospheric boundary that demarcates the troposphere from the
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99:
28:
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1045:) for air. The combination of the equation for the air pressure yields the
884:, then the rate at which temperature decreases with altitude is called the
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250:
175:
163:
140:
98:; and 6 km (3.7 mi; 20,000 ft) in the high latitudes of the
32:
1247:). If the upper air is warmer than predicted by the adiabatic lapse rate (
888:. The actual rate at which the temperature decreases with altitude is the
253:. At higher altitudes, the low air-temperature consequently decreases the
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The planetary surface of the Earth heats the troposphere by means of
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It contains about four-fifths of the mass of the whole atmosphere.
421:
412:
365:{\displaystyle {\frac {dP}{dz}}=-\rho g_{n}=-{\frac {mPg_{n}}{RT}}}
238:
201:
132:
124:
257:, the amount of atmospheric water vapor in the upper troposphere.
1767:
1579:"Meteorology – MSN Encarta, "Energy Flow and Global Circulation""
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538:) which is the numeric difference between the temperature of the
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220:, trace gases, and variable amounts of condensing water (from
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1629:"American Meteorological Society Glossary – Meridional Flow"
1337:
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and decreases at high altitude because the atmosphere is in
684:
1848:
265:
The maximum air pressure (weight of the atmosphere) is at
228:, which humidify the troposphere through the processes of
1604:"American Meteorological Society Glossary – Zonal Flow"
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1511:. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc. p. 12.
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A picture of Earth's troposphere with its different
1555:. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.
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94:; 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) in the
1909:
1449:Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology
1703:
1660:. U.S. National Weather Service. Archived from
1571:
154:The atmosphere of the Earth is in five layers:
1621:
1536:
1689:
1521:
1631:. Allen Press Inc. June 2000. Archived from
1606:. Allen Press Inc. June 2000. Archived from
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666:
1545:
1526:. Freeman. chapter 6, problem 11.
1500:
74:. It contains 80% of the total mass of the
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143:. As such, because the tropopause is an
46:
39:as a band of its characteristic glow of
18:
1506:
1476:Danielson W, Levin J, Abrams E (2003).
588: 0.0 – 11,000
546:or winds that could create turbulence.
1910:
856:{\displaystyle {\frac {\,dS\,}{dz}}=0}
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1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1669:Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere
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440:thermodynamic (absolute) temperature
119:(sphere) indicating that rotational
1332:
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13:
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1458:
1402:
1151:
1148:
1140:
16:Lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere
14:
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1581:. Encarta.Msn.com. Archived from
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1029:{\displaystyle \gamma \approx \,}
1895:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1847:
1835:
1823:
1811:
1559:from the original on 29 May 2018
180:(v) the troposphere at 8–15 km.
1537:Landau LD, Lifshitz EM (1980).
544:vertical atmospheric convection
1515:
1440:
1173:The environmental lapse rate (
1168:
931:
925:
912:
906:
886:saturated adiabatic lapse rate
756:) is related to the change in
560:Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR)
456:
191:
109:derives from the Greek words
1:
1553:"The Stratosphere — Overview"
1433:
1385:
1290:
896:, the adiabatic equation is:
78:and 99% of the total mass of
1522:Kittel C, Kroemer H (1980).
652:
641:
630:
619:
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597:
586:
186:
7:
1416:
1240:{\displaystyle dS/dz\neq 0}
871:
496:
260:
70:is the lowest layer of the
10:
1946:
1928:Atmospheric thermodynamics
1658:"Layers of the Atmosphere"
1362:
1294:
1280:{\displaystyle dS/dz>0}
1776:
1744:
1711:
1507:Lydolph, Paul E. (1985).
882:saturation vapor pressure
667:Compression and expansion
638: 0.0
582:
579:
576:
571:
568:
565:
255:saturation vapor pressure
1541:. Part 1. Pergamon.
1509:The Climate of the Earth
1047:dry adiabatic lapse rate
890:environmental lapse rate
605: 0.0
129:planetary boundary layer
52:Atmospheric circulation:
1365:Atmospheric circulation
1001:{\displaystyle \gamma }
271:hydrostatic equilibrium
1360:
1349:
1281:
1241:
1201:
1159:
1030:
1002:
982:
857:
812:
811:{\displaystyle dQ=TdS}
777:
750:
721:
532:
531:{\displaystyle -dT/dz}
366:
183:
63:
44:
1493:Landau and Lifshitz,
1451:. McGraw-Hill. 1984.
1355:
1340:
1282:
1242:
1202:
1200:{\displaystyle dT/dz}
1160:
1031:
1003:
983:
858:
813:
778:
751:
722:
533:
367:
222:saturated water vapor
153:
50:
22:
1251:
1211:
1177:
1053:
1016:
992:
900:
876:If the air contains
822:
787:
764:
749:{\displaystyle dQ=0}
731:
720:{\displaystyle dS=0}
702:
505:
284:
86:, and is where most
76:planetary atmosphere
1923:Atmosphere of Earth
1539:Statistical Physics
1373:, the mid-latitude
1010:heat capacity ratio
562:
72:atmosphere of Earth
35:can be seen at the
1705:Earth's atmosphere
1361:
1350:
1277:
1237:
1197:
1155:
1026:
998:
978:
853:
808:
776:{\displaystyle dS}
773:
746:
717:
696:isentropic process
558:
528:
483:geographical poles
362:
245:that occur in the
184:
64:
45:
1799:
1798:
1392:zonal flow regime
1346:zonal flow regime
1121:
1099:
1076:
976:
966:
845:
689:adiabatic process
664:
663:
635: 0.0
540:planetary surface
467:thermal radiation
360:
305:
226:planetary surface
178:at 50–60 km; and
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1497:, Pergamon, 1979
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1357:Meridional Flow:
1333:Three-cell model
1317:Atmospheric flow
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243:inversion layers
96:middle latitudes
56:three-cell model
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1495:Fluid Mechanics
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1485:
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1459:
1447:"Troposphere".
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1445:
1441:
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1409:meridional flow
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1403:Meridional flow
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654:71,000 – 85,000
643:51,000 – 71,000
632:47,000 – 51,000
621:32,000 – 47,000
610:20,000 – 32,000
599:11,000 – 20,000
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1664:on 2017-05-13.
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1651:External links
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1480:. McGraw Hill.
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1396:meteorological
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1363:Main article:
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241:by way of the
213:
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172:at 95–120 km;
41:blue scattered
29:high altitudes
15:
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1635:on 2006-10-26
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673:parcel of air
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471:sensible heat
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234:transpiration
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100:polar regions
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73:
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61:
57:
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49:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
21:
1890:Solar System
1731:Thermosphere
1721:Stratosphere
1715:
1662:the original
1637:. Retrieved
1633:the original
1623:
1612:. Retrieved
1608:the original
1598:
1587:. Retrieved
1583:the original
1573:
1561:. Retrieved
1547:
1538:
1532:
1523:
1517:
1508:
1502:
1494:
1477:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1412:
1406:
1389:
1368:
1356:
1341:
1320:
1303:stratosphere
1300:
1172:
875:
693:
670:
660: 1.09
649: 1.54
594: 3.57
559:
548:
500:
460:
444:
435:
431:gas constant
426:
417:
408:
393:
381:
374:
264:
251:stratosphere
195:
176:stratosphere
164:thermosphere
160:at 600+ km;
141:stratosphere
114:
110:
106:
104:
67:
65:
55:
51:
33:stratosphere
1878:Outer space
1866:Spaceflight
1781:Ozone layer
1764:Thermopause
1754:Stratopause
1716:Troposphere
1478:Meteorology
1428:Trade winds
1375:Ferrel cell
1371:Hadley cell
1342:Zonal Flow:
1323:meteorology
1307:ozone layer
1169:Environment
878:water vapor
657: 2.00
646: 2.80
591: 6.50
572:Lapse Rate
569:Lapse rate
463:latent heat
457:Temperature
275:hydrostatic
230:evaporation
192:Composition
166:at 600 km;
107:troposphere
80:water vapor
68:troposphere
60:circulation
25:cloud types
1918:Atmosphere
1912:Categories
1791:Ionosphere
1786:Turbopause
1749:Tropopause
1726:Mesosphere
1639:2006-10-03
1614:2006-10-03
1589:2006-10-13
1434:References
1423:Jet stream
1386:Zonal flow
1379:polar cell
1377:, and the
1297:Tropopause
1291:Tropopause
580:(°C / km)
475:tropopause
449:molar mass
277:equation:
247:tropopause
198:rain water
170:mesosphere
168:(iii) the
137:tropopause
121:turbulence
27:of low to
1842:Astronomy
1759:Mesopause
1736:Exosphere
1232:≠
1135:∘
1127:−
1119:γ
1110:−
1106:γ
1082:−
1023:≈
1020:γ
996:γ
958:−
954:γ
949:γ
944:−
894:ideal gas
552:adiabatic
509:−
491:Antarctic
477:. At the
330:−
314:ρ
311:−
267:sea level
208:, 20.95%
187:Structure
174:(iv) the
162:(ii) the
158:exosphere
105:The term
43:sunlight.
1557:Archived
1417:See also
988:wherein
975:constant
872:Humidity
497:Altitude
489:and the
422:pressure
413:altitude
261:Pressure
239:altitude
216:, 0.93%
202:nitrogen
156:(i) the
133:landform
125:friction
84:aerosols
1902:Science
1830:Weather
1804:Portals
1768:Exobase
1563:25 July
1394:is the
1040:⁄
1008:is the
758:entropy
479:equator
447:is the
438:is the
429:is the
420:is the
411:is the
398:density
396:is the
387:is the
375:where:
116:sphaira
92:tropics
88:weather
58:of the
37:horizon
863:where
677:energy
627:−1.54
616:−0.55
487:Arctic
485:, the
469:, and
210:oxygen
111:tropos
1854:Stars
218:argon
1565:2018
1272:>
685:heat
681:work
679:(as
624:−2.8
613:−1.0
577:(m)
232:and
212:as O
204:as N
82:and
66:The
54:the
1131:9.8
783:by
1914::
1766:/
1486:^
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671:A
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910:z
907:(
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842:z
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806:S
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709:S
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698:(
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519:/
515:T
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436:T
427:R
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394:ρ
384:n
382:g
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343:g
339:P
336:m
327:=
322:n
318:g
308:=
302:z
299:d
294:P
291:d
214:2
206:2
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