1871:
164:
1883:
650:
1513:
1931:
29:
1895:
1919:
1845:
1907:
738:. However, it is theorized that, though different forms of sodium have been released into the Mercury exosphere via meteor impact, it is a small driver for the concentration of both sodium and potassium atoms overall. Calcium is more likely to be a result of impacts, though its transport is thought to be completed through
734:
are capable of transporting gaseous materials and compounds to
Mercury's exosphere. During the impact, the former elements of the colliding bodies are mostly devolved into atoms rather than molecules that can then be reformed during a cooling, quenching process. Such materials have been observed as Na, NaOH, and O
762:
the components of the surface that become possible sources of material in the exosphere. The weathering is capable of eroding the elements, such as sodium, and transporting them to the atmosphere. However, this occurrence is not constant, and it is unable to account for all atoms or molecules of the
733:
Meteoroids have been reported to commonly impact the surface of
Mercury at speeds ranging up to 80 km/s, which are capable of causing vaporization of both the meteor and surface regolith upon contact. These expulsions can result in clouds of mixed materials due to the force of the impact, which
757:
relationship. The magnetosphere of this celestial body is hypothesized to be an incomplete shield from the weathering of solar wind. If accurate, there are openings in the magnetosphere in which solar wind is able to surpass the magnetosphere, reach the body of
Mercury, and
1000:
Leblanc, F.; Chassefière, E.; Johnson, R. E.; Hunten, D. M.; Kallio, E.; Delcourt, D. C.; Killen, R. M.; Luhmann, J. G.; Potter, A. E.; Jambon, A.; Cremonese, G.; Mendillo, M.; Yan, N.; Sprague, A. L. (1 June 2007).
681:
exceeds that of Earth's gravitational pull. This happens at half the distance to the Moon or somewhere in the neighborhood of 200,000 kilometres (120,000 mi). The exosphere, observable from space as the
632:
575:
673:, i.e. particles still have ballistic orbits that will take them back towards Earth. The upper boundary of the exosphere can be defined as the distance at which the influence of solar
68:
are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density is so low that the molecules are essentially collision-less. In the case of bodies with substantial atmospheres, such as
400:
485:
943:
155:
until they collide with the surface. Smaller bodies such as asteroids, in which the molecules emitted from the surface escape to space, are not considered to have exospheres.
580:
which is the equation for the pressure scale height. As the pressure scale height is almost equal to the density scale height of the primary constituent, and because the
515:
430:
340:
320:
300:
280:
874:
1411:
240:
no longer apply. Atmospheric temperature becomes nearly a constant above this altitude. On Earth, the altitude of the exobase ranges from about 500 to 1,000
1723:
637:
The fluctuation in the height of the exobase is important because this provides atmospheric drag on satellites, eventually causing them to fall from
195:
near its base. Because it can be hard to define the boundary between the exosphere and outer space, the exosphere may be considered a part of the
1221:
848:
1669:
1486:
254:
If we define the exobase as the height at which upward-traveling molecules experience one collision on average, then at this position the
917:
1381:
104:
have surface boundary exospheres, which are exospheres without a denser atmosphere underneath. The Earth's exosphere is mostly
48:. The layers are to scale. From the Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius.
584:
is the ratio of mean free path and typical density fluctuation scale, this means that the exobase lies in the region where
1214:
742:
of its former oxides or hydroxides rather than atoms released during the moment of impact such as sodium, potassium, and
1349:
1182:
981:
878:
587:
1128:
Killen, R. M.; Potter, A. E.; Reiff, P.; Sarantos, M.; Jackson, B. V.; Hick, P.; Giles, B. (25 September 2001).
523:
436:. From the requirement that each molecule traveling upward undergoes on average one collision, the pressure is:
1207:
969:
833:
352:
442:
1590:
777:
1464:
1861:
1807:
1512:
852:
787:
1048:
1002:
1469:
1129:
1802:
1582:
1373:
1358:
726:(Ca). Each material has been suggested as a result of processes such as impacts, solar wind, and
654:
179:
The most common molecules within Earth's exosphere are those of the lightest atmospheric gases.
1794:
1342:
782:
695:
171:, as seen from the Moon. This ultraviolet picture was taken in 1972 with a camera operated by
1875:
1454:
1401:
1386:
699:
196:
730:
from the terrestrial body that cause the atoms or molecules to form the planet's exosphere.
1459:
1087:
493:
408:
152:
132:
93:
686:, is seen to extend to at least 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi) from Earth's surface.
163:
8:
1951:
1776:
1617:
1391:
1230:
904:
69:
921:
1923:
1849:
1789:
1728:
1612:
1534:
808:
674:
433:
325:
305:
285:
265:
237:
72:, the exosphere is the uppermost layer, where the atmosphere thins out and merges with
1816:
1715:
1664:
1639:
1595:
1577:
1521:
1449:
1335:
1188:
1178:
1149:
1107:
1068:
1022:
977:
739:
61:
20:
1899:
1755:
1706:
1559:
1439:
1406:
1141:
1099:
1060:
1014:
749:
Another possible method of the exosphere formation of
Mercury is due to its unique
711:
128:
85:
1882:
1602:
1821:
1781:
1771:
1743:
1686:
1622:
1491:
1172:
1103:
1064:
262:. This is shown in the following. Consider a volume of air, with horizontal area
144:
101:
1935:
1887:
1696:
1659:
1423:
1396:
710:
Many hypotheses exist about the formation of the surface boundary exosphere of
581:
255:
188:
1199:
1018:
649:
32:
Diagram showing the five primary layers of the Earth's atmosphere: exosphere,
1945:
1733:
1691:
1681:
1554:
1549:
1529:
1192:
1153:
1111:
1072:
1026:
750:
658:
192:
140:
97:
1003:"Mercury's exosphere origins and relations to its magnetosphere and surface"
1911:
1826:
1750:
1676:
1634:
1607:
1539:
1481:
1418:
1256:
1246:
259:
147:, have exospheres without a denser atmosphere underneath, referred to as a
77:
41:
33:
1444:
517:
is the mean molecular mass of the gas. Solving these two equations gives:
1654:
1627:
1544:
1496:
1306:
1289:
1279:
1241:
1145:
1088:"Evidence for Magnetospheric Effects on the Sodium Atmosphere of Mercury"
219:
200:
73:
45:
1738:
1644:
1316:
1311:
1274:
1251:
759:
754:
665:
In principle, the exosphere covers distances where particles are still
37:
1930:
1649:
1284:
727:
719:
683:
343:
241:
207:
172:
168:
117:
28:
772:
678:
180:
105:
81:
65:
1293:
723:
666:
901:
Planetary
Aeronomy: Atmosphere Environments in Planetary Systems
694:
If the atmosphere of a celestial body is very tenuous, like the
1474:
1327:
999:
715:
184:
109:
57:
670:
638:
113:
812:
743:
245:
136:
89:
1906:
167:
The Earth and its hydrogen envelope of its exosphere, the
1174:
Physics of the Earth's Space
Environment: An Introduction
1127:
809:"NASA's LADEE Spacecraft Finds Neon in Lunar Atmosphere"
1047:
Berezhnoy, Alexey A.; Klumov, Boris A. (1 June 2008).
689:
1859:
834:"Exosphere - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
590:
526:
496:
445:
411:
355:
328:
308:
288:
268:
714:, which has been noted to include elements such as
626:
569:
509:
479:
424:
394:
334:
314:
294:
274:
224:The lower boundary of the exosphere is called the
135:and several large natural satellites, such as the
80:. Very little is known about it due to a lack of
1943:
1049:"Impacts as sources of the exosphere on Mercury"
972:. In Spohn, T.; Breuer, D.; Johnson, T. (eds.).
702:, the whole atmosphere is considered exosphere.
56:is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a
1229:
1046:
948:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
251:The exobase can be defined in one of two ways:
183:is present throughout the exosphere, with some
1177:. Translated by Michael Keith Bird. Springer.
967:
346:, the number of molecules contained in it is:
1343:
1215:
641:if no action is taken to maintain the orbit.
627:{\displaystyle \mathrm {Kn} (h_{EB})\simeq 1}
123:
1086:Potter, A. E.; Morgan, T. H. (18 May 1990).
1085:
840:
800:
961:
851:. NASA Ames Research Center. Archived from
806:
705:
1350:
1336:
1222:
1208:
970:"Earth as a Planet: Atmosphere and Oceans"
570:{\displaystyle l={\frac {k_{B}T}{m_{A}g}}}
1134:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
648:
162:
27:
1130:"Evidence for space weather at Mercury"
968:Showman, A. P.; Dowling, T. E. (2014).
877:. NASA. 30 January 2014. Archived from
807:Steigerwald, William (17 August 2015).
395:{\displaystyle N={\frac {pAl}{k_{B}T}}}
282:and height equal to the mean free path
258:of a molecule is equal to one pressure
1944:
1412:Psychological and sociological effects
1170:
480:{\displaystyle p={\frac {m_{A}Ng}{A}}}
1331:
1203:
1123:
1121:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
976:(3 ed.). Elsevier. p. 427.
875:"Is There an Atmosphere on the Moon?"
995:
993:
158:
16:The outermost layer of an atmosphere
1009:. Highlights in Planetary Science.
899:Bauer, Siegfried; Lammer, Helmut.
846:
690:Exosphere of other celestial bodies
206:Earth's exosphere produces Earth's
76:. It is located directly above the
13:
1164:
1118:
1033:
595:
592:
151:. Here, molecules are ejected on
14:
1963:
990:
644:
213:
1929:
1917:
1905:
1893:
1881:
1869:
1843:
1511:
1357:
974:Encyclopedia of the Solar System
236:, as this is the altitude where
1079:
248:) depending on solar activity.
936:
910:
893:
867:
826:
615:
599:
1:
847:Day, Brian (20 August 2013).
793:
1104:10.1126/science.248.4957.835
1065:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.01.005
920:. UCAR. 2011. Archived from
778:Extraterrestrial atmospheres
7:
1007:Planetary and Space Science
766:
10:
1968:
788:List of natural satellites
217:
149:surface boundary exosphere
124:Surface boundary exosphere
18:
1839:
1764:
1714:
1705:
1570:
1520:
1509:
1432:
1372:
1365:
1302:
1270:
1237:
1171:Prölss, Gerd W. (2012) .
1019:10.1016/j.pss.2006.11.008
706:The Exosphere of Mercury
232:. It is also called the
655:energetic neutral atoms
175:astronauts on the Moon.
19:For the racehorse, see
1850:Outer space portal
918:"Exosphere - overview"
783:Extraterrestrial skies
696:atmosphere of the Moon
662:
628:
571:
511:
481:
426:
396:
336:
316:
296:
276:
176:
49:
1482:Extraterrestrial life
652:
629:
572:
512:
510:{\displaystyle m_{A}}
482:
427:
425:{\displaystyle k_{B}}
397:
337:
317:
297:
277:
238:barometric conditions
197:interplanetary medium
166:
153:elliptic trajectories
31:
1146:10.1029/2000JE001401
588:
524:
494:
443:
409:
353:
326:
306:
286:
266:
112:, with some heavier
1140:(E9): 20509–20525.
905:Springer Publishing
849:"Why LADEE Matters"
653:Earth's exosphere,
1765:Other technologies
1231:Earth's atmosphere
881:on 2 November 2019
675:radiation pressure
663:
624:
567:
507:
477:
434:Boltzmann constant
422:
392:
332:
312:
292:
272:
177:
70:Earth's atmosphere
50:
1857:
1856:
1835:
1834:
1744:Carbonated drinks
1716:Human spaceflight
1596:of items in space
1507:
1506:
1325:
1324:
1098:(4957): 835–838.
565:
475:
390:
335:{\displaystyle T}
315:{\displaystyle p}
295:{\displaystyle l}
275:{\displaystyle A}
244:(310 to 620
234:critical altitude
159:Earth's exosphere
62:natural satellite
21:Exosphere (horse)
1959:
1934:
1933:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1909:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1886:
1885:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1865:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1712:
1711:
1515:
1370:
1369:
1352:
1345:
1338:
1329:
1328:
1224:
1217:
1210:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1158:
1157:
1125:
1116:
1115:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1044:
1031:
1030:
1013:(9): 1069–1092.
997:
988:
987:
965:
959:
958:
956:
954:
940:
934:
933:
931:
929:
914:
908:
897:
891:
890:
888:
886:
871:
865:
864:
862:
860:
855:on 18 April 2015
844:
838:
837:
830:
824:
823:
821:
819:
804:
633:
631:
630:
625:
614:
613:
598:
576:
574:
573:
568:
566:
564:
560:
559:
549:
545:
544:
534:
516:
514:
513:
508:
506:
505:
486:
484:
483:
478:
476:
471:
464:
463:
453:
431:
429:
428:
423:
421:
420:
401:
399:
398:
393:
391:
389:
385:
384:
374:
363:
341:
339:
338:
333:
322:and temperature
321:
319:
318:
313:
301:
299:
298:
293:
281:
279:
278:
273:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1904:
1894:
1892:
1880:
1870:
1868:
1860:
1858:
1853:
1844:
1842:
1831:
1760:
1701:
1566:
1516:
1503:
1428:
1361:
1356:
1326:
1321:
1298:
1266:
1233:
1228:
1185:
1167:
1165:Further reading
1162:
1161:
1126:
1119:
1084:
1080:
1045:
1034:
998:
991:
984:
966:
962:
952:
950:
944:"The Exosphere"
942:
941:
937:
927:
925:
916:
915:
911:
898:
894:
884:
882:
873:
872:
868:
858:
856:
845:
841:
832:
831:
827:
817:
815:
805:
801:
796:
769:
737:
708:
700:that of Mercury
692:
667:gravitationally
647:
606:
602:
591:
589:
586:
585:
555:
551:
550:
540:
536:
535:
533:
525:
522:
521:
501:
497:
495:
492:
491:
459:
455:
454:
452:
444:
441:
440:
416:
412:
410:
407:
406:
380:
376:
375:
364:
362:
354:
351:
350:
327:
324:
323:
307:
304:
303:
287:
284:
283:
267:
264:
263:
222:
216:
161:
126:
120:near the base.
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1965:
1955:
1954:
1939:
1938:
1926:
1914:
1902:
1890:
1878:
1876:Earth sciences
1855:
1854:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1808:for spacecraft
1805:
1797:
1792:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1585:
1580:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1526:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1489:
1487:Microorganisms
1484:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1415:
1414:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1382:The human body
1378:
1376:
1367:
1363:
1362:
1355:
1354:
1347:
1340:
1332:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1303:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1227:
1226:
1219:
1212:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1184:978364297123-5
1183:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1117:
1078:
1059:(2): 511–522.
1032:
989:
982:
960:
935:
924:on 17 May 2017
909:
892:
866:
839:
825:
798:
797:
795:
792:
791:
790:
785:
780:
775:
768:
765:
735:
707:
704:
691:
688:
646:
645:Upper boundary
643:
623:
620:
617:
612:
609:
605:
601:
597:
594:
582:Knudsen number
578:
577:
563:
558:
554:
548:
543:
539:
532:
529:
504:
500:
488:
487:
474:
470:
467:
462:
458:
451:
448:
419:
415:
403:
402:
388:
383:
379:
373:
370:
367:
361:
358:
331:
311:
302:, at pressure
291:
271:
256:mean free path
218:Main article:
215:
214:Lower boundary
212:
189:carbon dioxide
160:
157:
125:
122:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1964:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1925:
1915:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1852:
1851:
1838:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1777:Manufacturing
1775:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1550:Magnetosphere
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1348:
1346:
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1613:Colonization
1587:Archaeology
1402:Neuroscience
1359:... in space
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1257:Thermosphere
1247:Stratosphere
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947:
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1924:Outer space
1640:Exploration
1578:Advertising
1522:Environment
1497:Astrobotany
1460:Fruit flies
1307:Ozone layer
1290:Thermopause
1280:Stratopause
1242:Troposphere
763:exosphere.
226:thermopause
220:Thermopause
201:outer space
74:outer space
46:troposphere
1952:Atmosphere
1822:Telescopes
1707:Technology
1560:Weathering
1407:Psychology
1392:Locomotion
1317:Ionosphere
1312:Turbopause
1275:Tropopause
1252:Mesosphere
794:References
755:solar wind
740:photolysis
677:on atomic
657:(ENA) and
242:kilometres
38:mesosphere
1900:Astronomy
1803:for Earth
1790:Batteries
1772:Logistics
1724:Accidents
1670:Christmas
1535:Corrosion
1475:Tortoises
1433:Non-human
1285:Mesopause
1262:Exosphere
1193:942901197
1154:0148-0227
1112:0036-8075
1073:0019-1035
1027:0032-0633
953:5 October
818:18 August
728:degassing
722:(K), and
720:potassium
684:geocorona
669:bound to
619:≃
344:ideal gas
342:. For an
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173:Apollo 16
169:geocorona
118:molecules
66:molecules
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1946:Category
1665:Religion
1655:Military
1591:of Earth
1470:Primates
1397:Medicine
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773:Aeronomy
767:See also
679:hydrogen
181:Hydrogen
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82:research
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1795:Nuclear
1756:Writing
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1677:Selfies
1618:Economy
1583:Alcohol
1571:Society
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1387:Hygiene
1366:Biology
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1092:Science
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724:calcium
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64:where
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1660:Music
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1424:Sleep
1374:Human
671:Earth
639:orbit
133:Ceres
114:atoms
94:Ceres
1739:Food
1645:Food
1545:Dust
1465:Mice
1450:Dogs
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1189:OCLC
1179:ISBN
1150:ISSN
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978:ISBN
955:2022
930:2015
887:2016
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820:2015
813:NASA
753:and
744:iron
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