Social stress - Knowledge

728:(TSST) is widely used to induce social stress in the laboratory. In the TSST, participants are told that they have to prepare and give a speech about why they would be a great candidate for their ideal job. The experimenter films the participant while they give the speech and informs the participant that a panel of judges will evaluate that speech. After the public speaking component, the experimenter administers a mathematics task that involves counting backwards by certain increments. If the participant makes a mistake, the experimenter prompts them to start again. The threat of negative evaluation is the social stressor. Researchers can measure the stress response by comparing pre-stress salivary cortisol levels and post-stress salivary cortisol levels. Other common stress measures used in the TSST are self-report measures like the 1094:(SES) was inversely related to mortality. Those with the lowest SES have worse health outcomes and greater mortality rates than those with the greatest SES. Other studies have replicated this relationship between SES and mortality in a range of diseases, including infectious, digestive, and respiratory diseases. A study examining the link between SES and mortality in the elderly found that education level, household income, and occupational prestige were all related to lower mortality in men. In women, however, only household income was related to lower mortality. 950:

are 10–25 times more at risk for developing clinical depression. Similarly, social stress arising from discrimination is related to greater depressive symptoms. In one study, African-Americans and non-Hispanic whites reported on their daily experiences of discrimination and depressive symptoms. Regardless of race, those who perceived more discrimination had higher depressive symptoms. Posselt and Lipson found, in 2016, that undergraduates had a 37% higher chance of developing depression if they perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive.

756:, was proposed for diagnosis of stress and successfully used in physiology and finance. Its applicability for early diagnosis of social stress in large groups was demonstrated by the analysis of crises. It was examined in the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and also in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years. 1317:

stressful social interaction with their caregiver. Over time, low-SES children show progressively greater output of cortisol. Although these studies point to a disrupted HPA system accounting for the link between social stress and physical health, they did not include disease outcomes. Nevertheless, a dysfunctional HPA response to stress is thought to increase risk for developing or exacerbating diseases such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension.

36: 966:, which is the defining emotion of an anxiety disorder, occurs when someone perceives a situation (a stressor) as threatening. This activates the stress response. If a person has difficulty regulating this stress response, it may activate inappropriately. Stress can therefore arise when a real stressor is not present or when something isn't actually threatening. This can lead to the development of an anxiety disorder ( 780: 876: 1277:

Although humans cannot be randomized to receive social stress due to ethical concerns, studies have nevertheless shown that negative social interactions characterized by conflict lead to increases in blood pressure and heart rate. Social stress stemming from perceived daily discrimination is also associated with elevated levels of blood pressure during the day and a lack of blood pressure dipping at night.

1104:, which is defined as "the comfort, assistance, and/or information one receives through formal or informal contacts with individuals or groups", has been linked to physical health outcomes. Research shows the three aspects of social support, available attachments, perceived social support, and frequency of social interactions, can predict mortality thirty months after assessment. 580: 1211:, stress may affect the progression from the virus to the disease. Research shows the HIV-positive males who have more negative life events, social stress, and lack of social support progress to a clinical AIDS diagnosis more quickly than HIV-positive males who do not have as high levels of social stress. For HIV-positive females, who have also contracted the 679:

situations". Ilfield (1977) defined social stressors as "circumstances of daily social roles that are generally considered problematic or undesirable". Dormann and Zapf (2004) defined social stressors as "a class of characteristics, situations, episodes, or behaviors that are related to psychological or physical strain and that are somehow social in nature".

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that skin conductance and heart rate are significantly higher during the post-song message interval than the previous 1-minute intervals. The stress levels are comparable to that induced in the Trier Social Stress Task. In 2020, a systematic review about the TSST provided several guidelines to standardize the use of the TSST across studies

1313:. Social stress can lead to adverse health outcomes by chronically activating the HPA axis or disrupting the HPA system. There are a number of studies that link social stress and indications of a disrupted HPA axis; for instance, monkey infants neglected by their mothers show prolonged cortisol responses following a challenging event. 642:

extended period of time (ex. divorce, unemployment). Daily hassles are defined as minor events that occur, which require adaptation throughout the day (ex. bad traffic, disagreements). When stress becomes chronic, one experiences emotional, behavioral, and physiological changes that can put one under greater risk for developing a

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A number of animal and human studies have confirmed that social stress increases risk for negative health outcomes by increasing SNS activity. Studies of rodents show that social stress causes hypertension and atherosclerosis. Studies of non-human primates also show that social stress clogs arteries.

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found that children were more likely to have a psychiatric disorder (e.g. anxiety, depressive, disruptive, personality, and substance use disorders) in late adolescence and early adulthood when their parents showed more maladaptive child-rearing behaviors (e.g., loud arguments between parents, verbal

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In addition to self-report questionnaires, researchers can employ structured interview assessments. The Life Events and Difficulties Schedule (LEDS) is one of the most popular instruments used in research. The purpose of this type of measure is to probe the participant to elaborate on their stressful

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In humans, abused women exhibit a prolonged elevation in cortisol following a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor compared to those without an abuse history. Maltreated children show higher morning cortisol values than non-maltreated children. Their HPA systems also fail to recover after a

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Social stress leads to a number of physiological changes that mediate its relationship to physical health. In the short term, the physiological changes outlined below are adaptive, as they enable the stressed organism to cope better. Dysregulation of these systems or repeated activation of them over

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In regard to substance abuse, cocaine-dependent individuals report greater cravings for cocaine following exposure to a social stressor. Traumatic life events and social stressors can also trigger the exacerbation of the symptoms of mental health disorders. Socially phobic children who experience a

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Research shows a connection between social stress, such as traumatic life events and chronic strains, and the development of anxiety disorders. A study that examined a subpopulation of adults, both young and middle-age, found that those who had diagnosed panic disorder in adulthood also experienced

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populations, people with friends and family who make too many demands, criticize, and create tension and conflict tend to have more depressive symptoms. Conflict between spouses leads to more psychological distress and depressive symptoms, especially for wives. In particular, unhappy married couples

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Berton, Olivier; McClung, Colleen A.; DiLeone, Ralph J.; Krishnan, Vaishnav; Renthal, William; Russo, Scott J.; Graham, Danielle; Tsankova, Nadia M.; Bolanos, Carlos A.; Rios, Maribel; Monteggia, Lisa M.; Self, David W.; Nestler, Eric J. (10 February 2006). "Essential Role of BDNF in the Mesolimbic

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is an immune response that is critical to fighting infections and repairing injured tissue. Although acute inflammation is adaptive, chronic inflammatory activity can contribute to adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, depression, diabetes, and some

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and found that participants with conflict-ridden relationships were two times more likely to develop a cold than those without such social stress. Social support, especially in terms of support for socioeconomic stressors, is inversely related to physical morbidity. A study that investigated social

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Brouwer and Hogervorst (2014) designed the Sing-a-Song Stress Test (SSST) to induce stress in the laboratory setting. After viewing neutral images with subsequent 1-minute rest periods, the participant is instructed to sing a song after the next 1-minute rest period is complete. Researchers found

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are two common social stress paradigms. In the social disruption paradigm, an aggressive rodent is introduced into a cage housing male rodents that have already naturally established a social hierarchy. The aggressive "intruder" disrupts the social hierarchy, causing the residents social stress. In

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The activation of social stress does not necessarily have to occur linked to a specific event, the mere idea that the event may occur could trigger it. This means that any element that takes a subject out of their personal and intimate environment could become a stressful experience. This situation

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There are several questionnaires used to assess environmental and psychosocial stress. Such self-report measures include the Test of Negative Social Exchange, the Marital Adjustment Test, the Risky Families Questionnaire, the Holmes–Rahe Stress Inventory, the Trier Inventory for the Assessment of

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Researchers define social stress and social stressors in various ways. Wadman, Durkin, and Conti-Ramsden (2011) defined social stress as "the feelings of discomfort or anxiety that individuals may experience in social situations, and the associated tendency to avoid potentially stressful social

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In a laboratory conflict discussion, couples identify several specific areas of conflict in their relationship. The couples then pinpoint a couple topics to discuss later on in the experiment (ex. finances, child-rearing). Couples are told to discuss the conflict(s) for 10 minutes while being

913:, and medication for chronic psychiatric disorders was then gathered from the national registries of mortality and morbidity. Those who had experienced conflict in the workplace with coworkers or supervisors in the last five years were more likely to be diagnosed with a psychiatric condition. 641:

There are three main categories of social stressors. Life events are defined as abrupt, severe life changes that require an individual to adapt quickly (ex. sexual assault, sudden injury). Chronic strains are defined as persistent events which require an individual to make adaptations over an

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significantly increases after experiencing social stress; depressed individuals often experience interpersonal loss before becoming depressed. One study found that depressed individuals who had been rejected by others had developed depression about three times more quickly than those who had

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Social stress has also been tied to worse health outcomes among patients who already have a disease. Patients with end-stage renal disease faced a 46% increased risk for mortality when there was more relationship negativity with their spouse even when controlling for severity of disease and

1348:. Increases in inflammation may persist over time, as studies have shown that chronic relationship stress has been tied to greater IL-6 production 6 months later and children reared in a stressful family environment marked by neglect and conflict tend to show elevated levels of 1360:

There is extensive evidence that the above physiological systems affect one another's functioning. For instance, cortisol tends to have a suppressive effect on inflammatory processes, and proinflammatory cytokines can also activate the HPA system. Sympathetic activity can also

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Amar, Jacques; Fauvel, Josette; Drouet, Ludovic; Ruidavets, Jean Bernard; Perret, Bertrand; Chamontin, Bernard; Boccalon, Henri; Ferrieres, Jean (June 2006). "Interleukin 6 is associated with subclinical atherosclerosis: a link with soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1".

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to allow the heart to beat with more force, arteries leading to muscles dilate, and blood flow to parts of the body not essential for the fight or flight response decreases. If stress persists in the long run, then blood pressure remains elevated, leading to hypertension and

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Exposure to social stress in childhood can also have long-term effects, increasing risk for developing diseases later in life. In particular, adults who were maltreated (emotionally, physically, sexually abused or neglected) as children report more disease outcomes, such as

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sexual abuse during childhood. Children who experience social stressors, such as physical and psychological abuse, as well as parental loss, are also more at risk for developing anxiety disorders during adulthood than children who did not experience such stressors.

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Niskanen, Leo; Laaksonen, David E; Nyyssönen, Kristiina; Punnonen, Kari; Valkonen, Veli-Pekka; Fuentes, Ricardo; Tuomainen, Tomi-Pekka; Salonen, Riitta; Salonen, Jukka T (December 2004). "Inflammation, abdominal obesity, and smoking as predictors of hypertension".

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Taylor, Shelley E; Lehman, Barbara J; Kiefe, Catarina I; Seeman, Teresa E (15 October 2006). "Relationship of early life stress and psychological functioning to adult C-reactive protein in the coronary artery risk development in young adults study".

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Leserman, J.; Petitto, J. M.; Gu, H.; Gaynes, B. N.; Barroso, J.; Golden, R. N.; Perkins, D. O.; Folds, J. D.; Evans, D. L. (August 2002). "Progression to AIDS, a clinical AIDS condition and mortality: psychosocial and physiological predictors".

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Karasek, Robert; Brisson, Chantal; Kawakami, Norito; Houtman, Irene; Bongers, Paulien; Amick, Benjamin (1998). "The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics".

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inflammatory activity. Given the relationships among these physiological systems, social stress may also influence health indirectly via affecting a particular physiological system that in turn affects a different physiological system.

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in society or in particular groups, giving a speech, interviewing with potential employers, caring for a child or spouse with a chronic illness, meeting new people at a party, the threat of or actual death of a loved one, divorce, and

653:, as they typically have a fundamental need and desire to maintain positive social relationships. Thus, they usually find maintaining positive social ties to be beneficial. Social relationships can offer nurturance, foster feelings of 5615:

Pereira, D. B.; Antoni, M. H.; Danielson, A.; Simon, T.; Efantis-Potter, J.; Carver, C. S.; O'Sullivan, M. J. (2003). "Stress as a predictor of symptomatic genital herpes virus recurrence in women with human immunodeficiency virus".

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life events, rather than answering singular questions. The UCLA Life Stress Interview (LSI), which is similar to the LEDS, includes questions about romantic partners, closest friendships, other friendships, and family relationships.

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Marsland, Anna L; Gianaros, Peter J; Prather, Aric A; Jennings, J Richard; Neumann, Serina A; Manuck, Stephen B (November 2007). "Stimulated production of proinflammatory cytokines covaries inversely with heart rate variability".

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Social stress also makes people more sick. People who have fewer social contacts are at greater risk for developing illness, including cardiovascular disease. The lower one's social status, the more likely he or she is to have a

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event were three times more likely to experience another coronary event if they experienced moderate to severe marital strain. This finding remained even after controlling for demographics, health behaviors, and disease status.

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Cesari, Matteo; Penninx, Brenda W J H; Newman, Anne B; Kritchevsky, Stephen B; Nicklas, Barbara J; Sutton-Tyrrell, Kim; Rubin, Susan M; Ding, Jingzhong; Simonsick, Eleanor M; Harris, Tamara B; Pahor, Marco (11 November 2003).

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Back, Sudie E; Hartwell, Karen; DeSantis, Stacia M; Saladin, Michael; McRae-Clark, Aimee L; Price, Kimber L; Moran-Santa Maria, Megan M; Baker, Nathaniel L; Spratt, Eve; Kreek, Mary Jeanne; Brady, Kathleen T (1 January 2010).

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Smart Richman, Laura; Pek, Jolynn; Pascoe, Elizabeth; Bauer, Daniel J (July 2010). "The effects of perceived discrimination on ambulatory blood pressure and affective responses to interpersonal stress modeled over 24 hours".

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Similarly, social stressors in the micro-environment are also linked to increased mortality. A seminal longitudinal study of nearly 7,000 people found that socially isolated people had greater risk of dying from any cause.

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In 2016, an analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that they had a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety if they perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive.

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In one laboratory study, researchers interviewed participants to determine whether they had been experiencing social conflicts with spouses, close family members and friends. They then exposed the participants to the

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determinants of health in an urban slum in India found that social exclusion, stress, and lack of social support are significantly related to illnesses, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, and diabetes.

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Pincus, T; Callahan, L F; Burkhauser, R V (1987). "Most chronic diseases are reported more frequently by individuals with fewer than 12 years of formal education in the age 18-64 United States population".

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Schulz, Peter; Schlotz, Wolff (January 1999). "Trierer Inventar zur Erfassung von chronischem Streß (TICS): Skalenkonstruktion, teststatistische Überprüfung und Validierung der Skala Arbeitsüberlastung".

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and parental psychiatric disorders did not explain this association. Other studies have documented the robust relationships between children's social stress within the family environment and depression,

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Dettling, A; Pryce, C R; Martin, R D; Döbeli, M (July 1998). "Physiological Responses to parental separation and a strange situation are related to parental care received in juvenile Goeldi's monkeys (

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Slavich, G. M., & Epel, E. S. (2010). The Stress and Adversity Inventory (STRAIN): An automated system for assessing cumulative stress exposure. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles.

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Cohen, Sheldon; Frank, Ellen; Doyle, William J.; Skoner, David P.; Rabin, Bruce S.; Gwaltney, Jack M. (1998). "Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults".

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Stein, M.B.; Walker, J.R.; Anderson, G.; Hazen, Al; Ross, C.A.; Eldridge, G.; et al. (1996). "Childhood physical and sexual abuse in patients with anxiety disorders and in a community sample".

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Prigerson, H. G.; Shear, M. K.; Bierhals, A. J.; Zonarich, D. L.; Reynolds, C. F. (1996). "Childhood adversity, attachment and personality styles as predictors of anxiety among elderly caregivers".

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asked over fifteen hundred Finnish employees whether they had "considerable difficulties with coworkers/superiors/inferiors during the last 6 months, 5 years, earlier, or never". Information on

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Adler, Nancy E.; Boyce, Thomas; Chesney, Margaret A.; Cohen, Sheldon; Folkman, Susan; Kahn, Robert L.; Syme, S. Leonard (1994). "Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient".

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Ditzen, B.; Schaer, M.; Gabriel, B.; Bodenmann, G.; Ehlert, U.; Heinrichs, M. (2009). "Intranasal oxytocin increases positive communication and reduces cortisol levels during couple conflict".

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Romanov, K; Appelberg, K; Honkasalo, M L; Koskenvuo, M (February 1996). "Recent interpersonal conflict at work and psychiatric morbidity: a prospective study of 15,530 employees aged 24-64".

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Manuck, Stephen B.; Marsland, Anna L.; Kaplan, Jay R.; Williams, J. Koudy (1995). "The Pathogenicity of Behavior and Its Neuroendocrine Mediation: An Example From Coronary Artery Disease".

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Stark, Jennifer L.; Avitsur, Ronit; Padgett, David A.; Campbell, Kim A.; Beck, F. Michael; Sheridan, John F. (June 2001). "Social stress induces glucocorticoid resistance in macrophages".

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disorder show greater psychotic symptoms if the most influential person in their life is critical and are more likely to relapse if their familial relationships are marked by tension.

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theory of emotion, stress arises when a person evaluates a situation as personally relevant and perceives that they do not have the resources to cope or handle the specific situation.

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Pynoos, Robert S; Steinberg, Alan M; Piacentini, John C (1999-12-01). "A developmental psychopathology model of childhood traumatic stress and intersection with anxiety disorders".

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Miller, Gregory E; Rohleder, Nicolas; Stetler, Cinnamon; Kirschbaum, Clemens (October 2005). "Clinical depression and regulation of the inflammatory response during acute stress".

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for each kind of chronic familial social stressor experienced in childhood, and this was not due to typical risk factors for heart disease such as demographics, smoking, exercise,

928:, compared to those who identify as heterosexual. Researchers deduce that the LGBT people's higher risk of mental health issues derives from their stressful social environments. 6724:

Steptoe, Andrew; Hamer, Mark; Chida, Yoichi (October 2007). "The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: a review and meta-analysis".

670:). Social stress is typically the most frequent type of stressor that people experience in their daily lives and affects people more intensely than other types of stressors. 2769:

Taylor, Shelley E; Lerner, Jennifer S; Sage, Rebecca M; Lehman, Barbara J; Seeman, Teresa E (December 2004). "Early environment, emotions, responses to stress, and health".

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Sgoifo, A; Koolhaas, J; De Boer, S; Musso, E; Stilli, D; Buwalda, B; Meerlo, P (November 1999). "Social stress, autonomic neural activation, and cardiac activity in rats".

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Finch, J F; Okun, M A; Pool, G J; Ruehlman, L S (August 1999). "A comparison of the influence of conflictual and supportive social interactions on psychological distress".

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Horwitz, A V; McLaughlin, J; White, H R (June 1998). "How the negative and positive aspects of partner relationships affect the mental health of young married people".

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Kirschbaum, C; Pirke, K M; Hellhammer, D H (1993). "The 'Trier Social Stress Test'—a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting".

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Social stress is typically measured through self-report questionnaires. In the laboratory, researchers can induce social stress through various methods and protocols.

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Ruehlman, Linda S.; Karoly, Paul (1991). "With a little flak from my friends: Development and preliminary validation of the Test of Negative Social Exchange (TENSE)".

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Posselt, Julie R.; Lipson, Sarah Ketchen (2016). "Competition, Anxiety, and Depression in the College Classroom: Variations by Student Identity and Field of Study".

657:, and lead to reproductive success. Anything that disrupts or threatens to disrupt their relationships with others can result in social stress. This can include low 3981:

Pinquart, Martin; Sörensen, Silvia (March 2003). "Associations of stressors and uplifts of caregiving with caregiver burden and depressive mood: a meta-analysis".

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Brantley, Phillip J.; Waggoner, Craig D.; Jones, Glenn N.; Rappaport, Neil B. (February 1987). "A daily stress inventory: Development, reliability, and validity".

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Repetti, Rena L.; Taylor, Shelley E.; Seeman, Teresa E. (2002). "Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring".

1344:. Similarly, when faced with another type of social stress, namely social evaluative threat, participants showed increases in IL-6 and a soluble receptor for 5313:

Rich-Edwards, Janet W; Spiegelman, Donna; Lividoti Hibert, Eileen N; Jun, Hee-Jin; Todd, Tamarra James; Kawachi, Ichiro; Wright, Rosalind J (December 2010).

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can face high levels of stigma, prejudice, and discrimination on a regular basis, therefore leading to the development of various mental health disorders.

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experienced stress not involving social rejection. Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles the risk of developing depression. In

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Miklowitz, D. J.; Goldstein, M. J.; Nuechterlein, K. H.; Snyder, K. S.; Mintz, J. (1988). "Family factors and the course of bipolar affective disorder".

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Social stress can also exacerbate current psychopathological conditions and compromise recovery. For instance, patients recovering from depression or

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Berkman, L F; Syme, S L (February 1979). "Social networks, host resistance, and mortality: a nine-year follow-up study of Alameda County residents".

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Chen, Edith; Cohen, Sheldon; Miller, Gregory E. (1 January 2010). "How Low Socioeconomic Status Affects 2-Year Hormonal Trajectories in Children".

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Taylor, J., & Turner, R. J. (2002). Perceived discrimination, social stress, and depression in the transition to adulthood: Racial contrasts.

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Orth-Gomér, Kristina; Wamala, Sarah P.; Horsten, Myriam; Schenck-Gustafsson, Karin; Schneiderman, Neil; Mittleman, Murray A. (20 December 2000).

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Daniel, K.; Christian, Jennifer L.; Mendell, Nancy R. (1994). "A closer look at the link between marital discord and depressive symptomatology".

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Wegman, Holly L; Stetler, Cinnamon (October 2009). "A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood".

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Chronic Stress, the Daily Stress Inventory, the Job Content Questionnaire, the Perceived Stress Scale, and the Stress and Adversity Inventory.

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Kimmel, P L; Peterson, R A; Weihs, K L; Shidler, N; Simmens, S J; Alleyne, S; Cruz, I; Yanovski, J A; Veis, J H; Phillips, T M (August 2000).

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Rybnikov, Sviatoslav R.; Rybnikova, Natalya A.; Portnov, Boris A. (March 2017). "Public Fears in Ukrainian Society: Are Crises Predictable?".

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Students who are being bullied may show signs of depression, impaired academic achievement, impaired quality of sleep, and anxiety disorders.

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Kiecolt-Glaser, Janice K; Preacher, Kristopher J; MacCallum, Robert C; Atkinson, Cathie; Malarkey, William B; Glaser, Ronald (22 July 2003).

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Dong, Maxia; Giles, Wayne H; Felitti, Vincent J; Dube, Shanta R; Williams, Janice E; Chapman, Daniel P; Anda, Robert F (28 September 2004).

1141:. These links are not explained by other, more traditional risk factors such as race, health behaviors, age, sex, or access to health care. 5837:

Gerin, W; Pieper, C; Levy, R; Pickering, T G (May 1992). "Social support in social interaction: a moderator of cardiovascular reactivity".

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Gorban, Alexander N.; Smirnova, Elena V.; Tyukina, Tatiana A. (August 2010). "Correlations, risk and crisis: From physiology to finance".

1336:(the markers of inflammation). Chronic social stressors, such as caring for a spouse with dementia, lead to greater circulating levels of 4138:

Taylor, John; Jay, R. (2002). "Perceived discrimination, social stress and depression in the transition to adulthood: Racial contrasts".

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Baumeister, R F; Leary, M R (May 1995). "The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation".

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Sapolsky, R. M. (1994). Why zebras don't get ulcers: A guide to stress, stress related diseases, and coping. New York: W.H. Freeman.

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Locke, Harvey J.; Wallace, Karl M. (August 1959). "Short Marital-Adjustment and Prediction Tests: Their Reliability and Validity".

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Docherty, Nancy M.; St-Hilaire, Annie; Aakre, Jennifer M.; Seghers, James P.; McCleery, Amanda; Divilbiss, Marielle (1 May 2011).

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Evans, Gary W; Kim, Pilyoung (November 2007). "Childhood poverty and health: cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation".

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Schuster, T L; Kessler, R C; Aseltine, R H Jr (June 1990). "Supportive interactions, negative interactions, and depressed mood".

3547:"Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence" 3343:"A systematic review of the Trier Social Stress Test methodology: Issues in promoting study comparison and replicable research" 547: 1182:(ACE), which includes over seventeen thousand adults, also found that there was a 20% increase in likelihood for experiencing 4235: 3061: 3036: 2370: 1179: 1007:

abuse, difficulty controlling anger toward the child, lack of parental support or availability, and harsh punishment). Child

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McEwen, B S; Underhill, Lisa H.; McEwen, Bruce S. (15 January 1998). "Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators".

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Cicchetti, D; Rogosch, F A (2001). "The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning".

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if their family members make more critical comments, are more hostile, or are over-involved. Similarly, outpatients with

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Social status, a macro-social stressor, is a robust predictor of death. In a study of over 1700 British civil servants,

834: 666:. Social stress can arise from one's micro-environment (e.g., family ties) and macro-environment (e.g., hierarchical 813: 7046:

Jan, Badar U; Coyle, Susette M; Macor, Marie A; Reddell, Michael; Calvano, Steve E; Lowry, Stephen F (April 2010).

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Cohen, Sheldon; Janicki-Deverts, Denise; Miller, Gregory E. (10 October 2007). "Psychological Stress and Disease".

3733: 2284:"Developmental stress and social phenotypes: integrating neuroendocrine, behavioural and evolutionary perspectives" 603: 527: 6920:"Chronic interpersonal stress predicts activation of pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways 6 months later" 3801:"Unemployment and Depression Among Emerging Adults in 12 States, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2010" 6430:"Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men" 5489:"Marital Stress Worsens Prognosis in Women With Coronary Heart Disease: The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study" 1846: 1290: 6024:

Heim, C; Newport, D J; Heit, S; Graham, Y P; Wilcox, M; Bonsall, R; Miller, A H; Nemeroff, C B (2 August 2000).

5248:"Social determinants, suboptimal health behavior, and morbidity in urban slum population: an Indian perspective" 5097:

Seeman, T E (August 2000). "Health promoting effects of friends and family on health outcomes in older adults".

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Wallston, B. S.; Alagna, S. W.; DeVellis, B. M.; DeVellis, R. F. (1983). "Social support and physical health".

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Slavich, GEORGE M.; Thornton, Tiffany; Torres, Leandro D.; Monroe, Scott M.; Gotlib, Ian H. (1 February 2009).

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Research has also found a robust relationship between various social stressors and aspects of physical health.

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Monroe, S. M.; Slavich, G. M.; Georgiades, K. (2009). "The social environment and life stress in depression".

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Almeida, David M. (April 2005). "Resilience and Vulnerability to Daily Stressors Assessed via Diary Methods".

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population has suggested that people who identify as LGBT suffer more from mental health disorders, such as

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is defined as the fear of being judged or evaluated by others, even if no such threat is actually present.

562: 475: 5296: 4450:"Association of maladaptive parental behavior with psychiatric disorder among parents and their offspring" 823: 2557:

Lazarus, R. S., & Launier, R. (1978). Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In

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that stems from one's relationships with others and from the social environment in general. Based on the

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Dickerson, Sally S; Gable, Shelly L; Irwin, Michael R; Aziz, Najib; Kemeny, Margaret E (October 2009).

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Springer US. 2533:Social Psychology Quarterly 2490:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497 2050:Asch conformity experiments 1767:Identification (psychology) 1407:Keeping up with the Joneses 1369: 1299:adrenocorticotropic hormone 1285:In response to stress, the 791:reliable medical references 10: 7176: 6447:10.1161/01.cir.101.15.1767 5213:Annual Review of Sociology 5190:10.1037/0278-6133.17.3.214 5111:10.4278/0890-1171-14.6.362 3805:Preventing Chronic Disease 3701:10.1521/jscp.2009.28.2.223 2736:Marriage and Family Living 2065:Stanford prison experiment 1807:Normative social influence 1238:sympathetic nervous system 1232:Sympathetic nervous system 1194:Recovery and other disease 1067: 953: 897:, hospitalizations due to 763: 6738:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.03.011 6569:"Inflammation and cancer" 6079:10.1017/S0954579401004035 5586:10.1017/S0033291702005949 5264:10.1007/s11524-008-9261-3 5049:10.1037/0278-6133.2.4.367 4879:10.1037/0003-066x.49.1.15 4591:10.1001/archpsyc.55.6.547 4467:10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.453 4362:10.1080/10615809208250484 4122:10.1521/jscp.1994.13.1.33 3869:10.1186/s40172-018-0068-5 3296:Frontiers in Neuroscience 2935:10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.322 2864:10.1026//0012-1924.45.1.8 2073: 2042: 2014:Normalization of deviance 1976: 1942:Authoritarian personality 1934: 1694: 1651: 1527: 1520: 1342:proinflammatory cytokines 958:The biological basis for 797:or relies too heavily on 251:Applied behavior analysis 6487:10.1016/j.it.2005.11.006 6171:10.1177/0956797609355566 5542:10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 5506:10.1001/jama.284.23.3008 4927:10.1161/01.cir.88.4.1973 3995:10.1093/geronb/58.2.p112 3472:10.1177/0971333616689398 3309:10.3389/fnins.2014.00224 3082:hammenlab.psych.ucla.edu 2721:10.1037/1040-3590.3.1.97 2709:Psychological Assessment 2686:10.1037/1076-8998.9.1.61 2024:Preference falsification 1258:fight-or-flight response 1044:are also more likely to 947:non-clinically depressed 726:Trier Social Stress Task 6794:10.1073/pnas.1009164107 6692:10.1073/pnas.1531903100 6335:Journal of Hypertension 5252:Journal of Urban Health 4257:Neuropsychopharmacology 3960:10.1111/1467-6494.00066 3167:10.1126/science.1120972 2386:Kreiger, Nancy (2001). 2353:; Ward, Amanda (eds.). 2232:Haller, József (2015). 1686:Tyranny of the majority 1346:tumor necrosis factor-α 1293:(CRH), stimulating the 980:Social anxiety disorder 724:In human research, the 441:Behavioral neuroscience 96:Behavioral neuroscience 7098:Psychosomatic Medicine 6924:Psychosomatic Medicine 6877:Psychosomatic Medicine 6043:10.1001/jama.284.5.592 5896:Psychosomatic Medicine 5839:Psychosomatic Medicine 5755:Psychosomatic Medicine 5574:Psychological Medicine 5364:Psychosomatic Medicine 4619:Schizophrenia Bulletin 4491:Psychological Bulletin 3948:Journal of Personality 3596:Handbook of Depression 3551:Psychological Bulletin 3347:Neurobiology of Stress 2771:Journal of Personality 2604:Journal of Adolescence 2478:Psychological Bulletin 2300:10.1098/rstb.2016.0242 1989:Communal reinforcement 1742:False consensus effect 1462:Stress (psychological) 1338:cytokine interleukin-6 1271:cardiovascular disease 1032:Relapse and recurrence 646:and physical illness. 491:Psychology of religion 431:Behavioral engineering 115:Cognitive neuroscience 81:Affective neuroscience 6970:Biological Psychiatry 6832:Psychological Science 6202:Psychological Science 6159:Psychological Science 5297:"Preventing Bullying" 4978:10.1093/aje/155.6.520 4857:American Psychologist 4824:10.1136/jech.32.4.244 4714:Biological Psychiatry 4631:10.1093/schbul/sbp123 4427:10.1176/ajp.153.2.275 4190:10.1353/csd.2016.0094 4077:10.2105/ajph.77.4.445 3249:Biological Psychiatry 3056:. London: Tavistock. 2651:10.1176/ajp.134.2.161 2093:Anti-social behaviour 2088:Anti-authoritarianism 1827:Pluralistic ignorance 1674:National conservatism 1669:Left-wing nationalism 1652:Governmental pressure 1467:Suicide in LGBT youth 1402:Impression management 1269:, both precursors to 585:Psychology portal 7160:Psychological stress 6475:Trends in Immunology 5465:10.1681/ASN.V1181518 3818:10.5888/pcd12.140451 3078:"Hammen Lab at UCLA" 2405:10.1093/ije/30.4.668 2055:Breaching experiment 1842:Operant conditioning 1787:Mere exposure effect 1397:Identity performance 1377:Displaced aggression 1092:socioeconomic status 940:Risk for developing 907:alcohol intoxication 6785:2010PNAS..10714817S 6779:(33): 14817–14822. 6683:2003PNAS..100.9090K 6593:10.1038/nature01322 6585:2002Natur.420..860C 4767:"Health Psychology" 4269:10.1038/npp.2009.83 3416:2010PhyA..389.3193G 3159:2006Sci...311..864B 1935:Individual pressure 1812:Passing (sociology) 1747:Fear of missing out 1712:Closure (sociology) 1627:Enemy of the people 1018:antisocial behavior 942:clinical depression 911:depressive symptoms 436:Behavioral genetics 351:Occupational health 91:Behavioral genetics 22:Part of a series on 4305:www.psychiatry.org 3907:10.1007/bf00938116 3201:Neuropsychobiology 3109:(6): R1799–R1805. 2891:10.1007/BF00845128 2294:(1727): 20160242. 2103:Civil disobedience 2060:Milgram experiment 1999:Creeping normality 1901:Social integration 1837:Psychosocial issue 1777:Invented tradition 1632:Enemy of the state 1350:C-reactive protein 1295:anterior pituitary 1004:longitudinal study 1000:psychopathological 668:societal structure 553:Schools of thought 391:Sport and exercise 237:Applied psychology 7150:Social psychology 6838:(10): 1237–1244. 6677:(15): 9090–9095. 6579:(6917): 860–867. 6440:(15): 1767–1772. 6389:(19): 2317–2322. 6126:10.1002/dev.20319 5987:Callimico goeldii 5942:Health Psychology 5806:10.1002/ajp.20706 5673:(18): 2093–2101. 5536:(14): 1685–1687. 5499:(23): 3008–3014. 5417:(13): 1761–1766. 5178:Health Psychology 5037:Health Psychology 4720:(11): 1542–1554. 4237:978-0-7817-6003-4 4202:Project MUSE 3780:Los Angeles Times 3400:(16): 3193–3217. 3213:10.1159/000119004 3153:(5762): 864–868. 3063:978-0-422-76310-3 3038:978-0-19-028388-9 2372:978-94-007-6771-3 2203: 2202: 2083:Alternative media 1972: 1971: 1911:Spiral of silence 1782:Memory conformity 1722:Consensus reality 1616:Persona non grata 1537:Damnatio memoriae 1437:Social inequality 1157:Long-term effects 1147:common cold virus 994:Long-term effects 960:anxiety disorders 903:suicidal behavior 891:prospective study 883: 882: 859: 714:social disruption 621: 620: 518:Counseling topics 461:Consumer behavior 202:Psycholinguistics 86:Affective science 7167: 7130: 7129: 7092: 7086: 7085: 7075: 7043: 7037: 7036: 7008: 7002: 7001: 6964: 6958: 6957: 6947: 6915: 6909: 6908: 6872: 6866: 6865: 6855: 6823: 6817: 6816: 6806: 6796: 6764: 6758: 6757: 6721: 6715: 6714: 6704: 6694: 6662: 6656: 6655: 6645: 6636:(3–4): 123–130. 6621: 6615: 6614: 6604: 6564: 6558: 6557: 6547: 6536:10.1172/JCI25102 6530:(5): 1111–1119. 6515: 6509: 6508: 6498: 6466: 6460: 6459: 6449: 6425: 6419: 6418: 6408: 6398: 6373: 6367: 6366: 6341:(6): 1083–1088. 6329: 6323: 6322: 6285: 6279: 6278: 6260: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6154: 6148: 6147: 6137: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6045: 6021: 6015: 6014: 5982: 5976: 5975: 5965: 5954:10.1037/a0019045 5936: 5930: 5929: 5919: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5854: 5834: 5828: 5827: 5817: 5785: 5779: 5778: 5750: 5744: 5743: 5717: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5662: 5656: 5653: 5642: 5641: 5612: 5606: 5605: 5580:(6): 1059–1073. 5568: 5562: 5561: 5525: 5519: 5518: 5508: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5467: 5458:(8): 1518–1525. 5443: 5437: 5436: 5426: 5402: 5396: 5395: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5342: 5310: 5304: 5303: 5301: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5275: 5243: 5237: 5236: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5173: 5167: 5166: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5032: 5026: 5025: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4980: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4939: 4929: 4920:(4): 1973–1998. 4905: 4899: 4898: 4872: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4835: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4786: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4729: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4692: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4642: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4593: 4569: 4560: 4559: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4506: 4486: 4480: 4479: 4469: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4410: 4404: 4403: 4375: 4366: 4365: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4335: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4311: 4297: 4291: 4290: 4280: 4248: 4242: 4241: 4223: 4210: 4209: 4173: 4164: 4163: 4135: 4126: 4125: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4088: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3918: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3881: 3871: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3830: 3820: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3787: 3786: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3762: 3761: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3712: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3610: 3604: 3603: 3591: 3585: 3584: 3574: 3542: 3531: 3530: 3502: 3493: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3455: 3449: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3409: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3372: 3362: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3321: 3311: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3244: 3238: 3231: 3225: 3224: 3196: 3187: 3186: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3089: 3088: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3024: 3015: 3012: 3006: 3005: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2846: 2840: 2839: 2811: 2805: 2804: 2786: 2777:(6): 1365–1393. 2766: 2760: 2759: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2704: 2698: 2697: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2568: 2562: 2555: 2549: 2542: 2536: 2529: 2523: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2456: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2407: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2342: 2331: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2311: 2279: 2273: 2272: 2238: 2229: 2223: 2216: 2128:Devil's advocate 2098:Auto-segregation 1994:Countersignaling 1921:Toxic positivity 1896:Social influence 1857:Social contagion 1702:Bandwagon effect 1659:Authoritarianism 1525: 1524: 1507: 1500: 1493: 1484: 1483: 1457:Stress (biology) 1447:Social rejection 1422:Self-concealment 1139:chronic diseases 1119:gastrointestinal 1042:eating disorders 1038:bipolar disorder 916:Research on the 878: 877: 869: 866: 860: 858: 817: 782: 781: 774: 655:social inclusion 613: 606: 599: 583: 582: 581: 548:Research methods 207:Psychophysiology 67:Basic psychology 38: 19: 18: 7175: 7174: 7170: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7165: 7164: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7093: 7089: 7044: 7040: 7009: 7005: 6965: 6961: 6916: 6912: 6873: 6869: 6824: 6820: 6765: 6761: 6722: 6718: 6663: 6659: 6622: 6618: 6565: 6561: 6516: 6512: 6467: 6463: 6426: 6422: 6374: 6370: 6330: 6326: 6286: 6282: 6258:10.1.1.357.2785 6241: 6237: 6208:(11): 953–957. 6198: 6194: 6155: 6151: 6106: 6102: 6063: 6059: 6022: 6018: 5983: 5979: 5937: 5933: 5888: 5884: 5852:10.1.1.514.1178 5835: 5831: 5786: 5782: 5751: 5747: 5715:10.1.1.473.9291 5698: 5694: 5663: 5659: 5654: 5645: 5613: 5609: 5569: 5565: 5526: 5522: 5485: 5481: 5444: 5440: 5403: 5399: 5360: 5356: 5311: 5307: 5299: 5293: 5289: 5244: 5240: 5209: 5205: 5174: 5170: 5138: 5134: 5095: 5091: 5060: 5056: 5033: 5029: 4998: 4994: 4957: 4953: 4906: 4902: 4870:10.1.1.336.6204 4853: 4849: 4804: 4800: 4763: 4759: 4727:10.1.1.456.8902 4710: 4706: 4660: 4656: 4611: 4607: 4570: 4563: 4532: 4528: 4487: 4483: 4446: 4442: 4415:Am J Psychiatry 4411: 4407: 4376: 4369: 4346: 4342: 4333: 4331: 4323: 4322: 4318: 4309: 4307: 4299: 4298: 4294: 4249: 4245: 4238: 4224: 4213: 4174: 4167: 4152:10.2307/3090120 4136: 4129: 4106: 4102: 4057: 4053: 4030:10.2307/2676395 4014: 4010: 3979: 3975: 3944: 3940: 3891: 3887: 3848: 3844: 3797: 3793: 3784: 3782: 3772: 3768: 3759: 3757: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3736: 3730: 3726: 3681: 3677: 3654: 3650: 3611: 3607: 3592: 3588: 3543: 3534: 3503: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3456: 3452: 3443: 3439: 3390: 3386: 3339: 3335: 3288: 3284: 3245: 3241: 3232: 3228: 3197: 3190: 3142: 3138: 3099: 3095: 3086: 3084: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3064: 3050: 3046: 3039: 3025: 3018: 3013: 3009: 2978:10.2307/2136404 2962: 2958: 2918: 2914: 2875: 2871: 2847: 2843: 2812: 2808: 2784:10.1.1.324.5195 2767: 2763: 2732: 2728: 2705: 2701: 2670: 2666: 2635: 2631: 2596: 2592: 2569: 2565: 2556: 2552: 2543: 2539: 2530: 2526: 2517: 2513: 2474: 2470: 2425: 2421: 2384: 2380: 2373: 2351:DeLamater, John 2347:Umberson, Debra 2345:Carr, Deborah; 2343: 2334: 2329: 2325: 2280: 2276: 2253:10.1038/nrn3918 2236: 2230: 2226: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2170:Insubordination 2118:Culture jamming 2108:Cosmopolitanism 2069: 2038: 2009:Internalization 1968: 1930: 1690: 1681:Totalitarianism 1647: 1516: 1511: 1481: 1442:Social medicine 1372: 1358: 1323: 1307:glucocorticoids 1283: 1267:atherosclerosis 1262:veins constrict 1234: 1225: 1207:With regard to 1196: 1159: 1123:musculoskeletal 1110: 1088: 1080: 1070:Social medicine 1066: 1064:Physical health 1054:schizoaffective 1034: 996: 956: 938: 930:Minority groups 922:substance abuse 879: 875: 870: 864: 861: 824:"Social stress" 818: 807: 799:primary sources 783: 779: 772: 770:Social medicine 762: 746: 706: 693: 685: 676: 644:mental disorder 617: 579: 577: 570: 569: 568: 567: 543:Psychotherapies 511: 501: 500: 421: 413: 412: 411: 410: 239: 229: 228: 227: 226: 187:Neuropsychology 69: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7173: 7163: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7132: 7131: 7104:(8): 709–716. 7087: 7058:(4): 363–368. 7038: 7003: 6976:(8): 819–824. 6959: 6910: 6883:(5): 679–687. 6867: 6818: 6759: 6732:(7): 901–912. 6716: 6657: 6616: 6559: 6510: 6461: 6420: 6368: 6324: 6297:(6): 859–865. 6280: 6251:(3): 171–179. 6235: 6192: 6149: 6120:(6): 588–599. 6100: 6073:(4): 783–804. 6057: 6036:(5): 592–597. 6016: 5977: 5948:(4): 403–411. 5931: 5902:(3): 266–272. 5882: 5845:(3): 324–336. 5829: 5800:(9): 742–751. 5780: 5761:(3): 275–283. 5745: 5708:(7): 915–923. 5692: 5657: 5643: 5624:(3): 237–244. 5607: 5563: 5520: 5479: 5438: 5397: 5370:(8): 805–812. 5354: 5325:(6): 529–536. 5305: 5287: 5258:(4): 607–618. 5238: 5203: 5184:(3): 214–223. 5168: 5149:(9): 865–874. 5132: 5105:(6): 362–370. 5089: 5070:(5): 684–694. 5054: 5043:(4): 367–391. 5027: 5008:(2): 186–204. 4992: 4971:(6): 520–533. 4951: 4900: 4847: 4818:(4): 244–249. 4798: 4757: 4704: 4654: 4625:(3): 611–618. 4605: 4584:(6): 547–552. 4561: 4542:(3): 225–231. 4526: 4504:10.1.1.327.165 4497:(2): 330–366. 4481: 4460:(5): 453–460. 4440: 4421:(2): 275–277. 4405: 4386:(5): 234–241. 4367: 4340: 4316: 4292: 4263:(1): 169–191. 4243: 4236: 4211: 4184:(8): 973–989. 4165: 4146:(3): 213–225. 4127: 4100: 4071:(4): 445–451. 4051: 4024:(2): 124–136. 4008: 3989:(2): 112–128. 3973: 3954:(4): 581–621. 3938: 3916:2027.42/117085 3901:(3): 423–438. 3885: 3842: 3791: 3766: 3742: 3724: 3695:(2): 223–243. 3675: 3664:(3): 291–313. 3648: 3621:(418): 61–66. 3605: 3586: 3557:(5): 674–697. 3532: 3513:(2): 169–176. 3494: 3485: 3450: 3437: 3384: 3333: 3282: 3255:(9): 728–731. 3239: 3226: 3207:(1–2): 76–81. 3188: 3136: 3093: 3069: 3062: 3044: 3037: 3016: 3007: 2972:(4): 385–396. 2956: 2929:(4): 322–355. 2912: 2869: 2841: 2822:(2): 213–218. 2806: 2761: 2748:10.2307/348022 2742:(3): 251–255. 2726: 2699: 2664: 2645:(2): 161–166. 2629: 2610:(3): 421–431. 2590: 2563: 2550: 2537: 2524: 2511: 2484:(3): 497–529. 2468: 2419: 2398:(4): 668–677. 2378: 2371: 2332: 2323: 2274: 2247:(5): 290–304. 2224: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2201: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2113:Counterculture 2110: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2079: 2077: 2075:Anticonformity 2071: 2070: 2068: 2067: 2062: 2057: 2052: 2046: 2044: 2040: 2039: 2037: 2036: 2034:Social reality 2031: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1986: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1973: 1970: 1969: 1967: 1966: 1961: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1949: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1931: 1929: 1928: 1926:Untouchability 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1886: 1885: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1864: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1794: 1792:Milieu control 1789: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1772:Indoctrination 1769: 1764: 1762:Herd mentality 1759: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1704: 1698: 1696: 1695:Group pressure 1692: 1691: 1689: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1661: 1655: 1653: 1649: 1648: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1619: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1603: 1593: 1588: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1574:Cancel culture 1571: 1561: 1554: 1549: 1540: 1533: 1531: 1522: 1518: 1517: 1510: 1509: 1502: 1495: 1487: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1357: 1354: 1322: 1319: 1303:adrenal cortex 1282: 1279: 1254:norepinephrine 1233: 1230: 1224: 1221: 1217:genital herpes 1195: 1192: 1158: 1155: 1115:cardiovascular 1109: 1106: 1102:Social support 1087: 1084: 1065: 1062: 1033: 1030: 995: 992: 972:social anxiety 955: 952: 937: 934: 926:mood disorders 889:outcomes. One 881: 880: 873: 871: 786: 784: 777: 761: 758: 745: 742: 705: 702: 692: 689: 684: 681: 675: 672: 664:discrimination 619: 618: 616: 615: 608: 601: 593: 590: 589: 588: 587: 572: 571: 566: 565: 560: 555: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 514: 513: 512: 507: 506: 503: 502: 499: 498: 493: 488: 483: 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 438: 433: 428: 422: 419: 418: 415: 414: 409: 408: 403: 398: 393: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 242: 241: 240: 235: 234: 231: 230: 225: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 132:Cross-cultural 129: 124: 123: 122: 112: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 72: 71: 70: 65: 64: 61: 60: 59: 58: 53: 48: 40: 39: 31: 30: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7172: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7145:Social issues 7143: 7142: 7140: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7091: 7083: 7079: 7074: 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6254: 6250: 6246: 6239: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6196: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6153: 6145: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6061: 6053: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6020: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5935: 5927: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5844: 5840: 5833: 5825: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5749: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5696: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5661: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5567: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5524: 5516: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5483: 5475: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5442: 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3770: 3756: 3752: 3746: 3735: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3609: 3601: 3597: 3590: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3499: 3489: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3466:(1): 98–123. 3465: 3461: 3454: 3447: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3388: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3286: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3243: 3236: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3195: 3193: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3140: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3097: 3083: 3079: 3073: 3065: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3040: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3021: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2873: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2845: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2785: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2765: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2730: 2722: 2718: 2715:(1): 97–104. 2714: 2710: 2703: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2668: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2560: 2554: 2547: 2541: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2327: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2278: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2228: 2221: 2215: 2211: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2165:Individualism 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2066: 2063: 2061: 2058: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2004:Herd behavior 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1959:Control freak 1957: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1940: 1939: 1937: 1933: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1906:Socialization 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1887: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1830: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1822:Peer pressure 1820: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1802:Normalization 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1765: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1740: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1727:Culture shock 1725: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1608: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1585: 1584:Deplatforming 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1538: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1508: 1503: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1489: 1488: 1485: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1452:Social stigma 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1433: 1432:Social defeat 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1415: 1413: 1412:Peer pressure 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1367: 1364: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1327: 1318: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1278: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1229: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1202: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1184:heart disease 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1093: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1050:schizophrenia 1047: 1043: 1039: 1029: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1001: 991: 987: 983: 981: 977: 973: 969: 968:panic attacks 965: 961: 951: 948: 943: 933: 931: 927: 923: 919: 914: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 887:mental health 872: 868: 865:November 2023 857: 854: 850: 847: 843: 840: 836: 833: 829: 826: – 825: 821: 820:Find sources: 815: 811: 805: 801: 800: 796: 792: 787:This article 785: 776: 775: 771: 767: 760:Mental health 757: 755: 751: 741: 737: 733: 731: 727: 722: 719: 718:social defeat 715: 711: 710:rodent models 701: 697: 688: 680: 671: 669: 665: 660: 659:social status 656: 652: 647: 645: 639: 635: 633: 629: 625: 624:Social stress 614: 609: 607: 602: 600: 595: 594: 592: 591: 586: 576: 575: 574: 573: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 538:Psychologists 536: 534: 531: 529: 528:Organizations 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 515: 510: 505: 504: 497: 496:Psychometrics 494: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 477: 474: 472: 469: 467: 464: 462: 459: 457: 456:Consciousness 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 429: 427: 424: 423: 417: 416: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 376:Psychotherapy 374: 372: 371:Psychometrics 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 247: 244: 243: 238: 233: 232: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 142:Developmental 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 121: 118: 117: 116: 113: 111: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 73: 68: 63: 62: 57: 54: 52: 49: 47: 44: 43: 42: 41: 37: 33: 32: 29: 26: 25: 21: 20: 7101: 7097: 7090: 7055: 7051: 7041: 7016: 7012: 7006: 6973: 6969: 6962: 6930:(1): 57–62. 6927: 6923: 6913: 6880: 6876: 6870: 6835: 6831: 6821: 6776: 6772: 6762: 6729: 6725: 6719: 6674: 6670: 6660: 6633: 6629: 6619: 6576: 6572: 6562: 6527: 6523: 6513: 6481:(1): 24–31. 6478: 6474: 6464: 6437: 6433: 6423: 6386: 6382: 6371: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6294: 6291:Hypertension 6290: 6283: 6248: 6244: 6238: 6205: 6201: 6195: 6165:(1): 31–37. 6162: 6158: 6152: 6117: 6113: 6103: 6070: 6066: 6060: 6033: 6029: 6019: 5997:(1): 21–31. 5994: 5990: 5986: 5980: 5945: 5941: 5934: 5899: 5895: 5885: 5842: 5838: 5832: 5797: 5793: 5783: 5758: 5754: 5748: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5670: 5666: 5660: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5533: 5529: 5523: 5496: 5492: 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Retrieved 4329:www.adaa.org 4328: 4319: 4308:. Retrieved 4304: 4295: 4260: 4256: 4246: 4228:Neuroscience 4227: 4181: 4177: 4143: 4139: 4116:(1): 33–41. 4113: 4109: 4103: 4068: 4064: 4054: 4021: 4017: 4011: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3951: 3947: 3941: 3898: 3894: 3888: 3879:10261/170378 3859: 3855: 3845: 3808: 3804: 3794: 3783:. Retrieved 3779: 3769: 3758:. Retrieved 3754: 3745: 3727: 3692: 3688: 3678: 3661: 3657: 3651: 3618: 3614: 3608: 3602:(1): 340–60. 3599: 3595: 3589: 3554: 3550: 3510: 3506: 3488: 3463: 3459: 3453: 3445: 3440: 3397: 3393: 3387: 3350: 3346: 3336: 3299: 3295: 3285: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3234: 3229: 3204: 3200: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3085:. Retrieved 3081: 3072: 3053: 3047: 3028: 3010: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2926: 2922: 2915: 2885:(1): 61–73. 2882: 2878: 2872: 2855: 2851: 2844: 2819: 2815: 2809: 2774: 2770: 2764: 2739: 2735: 2729: 2712: 2708: 2702: 2680:(1): 61–82. 2677: 2673: 2667: 2642: 2638: 2632: 2607: 2603: 2593: 2579:(2): 64–68. 2576: 2572: 2566: 2558: 2553: 2545: 2540: 2532: 2527: 2519: 2514: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2439:(1): 39–45. 2436: 2432: 2422: 2395: 2391: 2381: 2354: 2326: 2291: 2287: 2277: 2244: 2240: 2227: 2219: 2214: 2175:Pueblo clown 2160:Idiosyncrasy 2145:Eccentricity 2029:Social proof 1737:Echo chamber 1717:Collectivism 1707:Brainwashing 1639:Scapegoating 1622:Public enemy 1614: 1605: 1569:Blacklisting 1556: 1535: 1529:Proscription 1472:Unemployment 1427:Slut-shaming 1359: 1331: 1326:Inflammation 1324: 1321:Inflammation 1315: 1309:, including 1287:hypothalamus 1284: 1275: 1235: 1226: 1206: 1197: 1176:hypertension 1168:heart attack 1160: 1152: 1143: 1111: 1100: 1096: 1089: 1081: 1058: 1035: 997: 988: 984: 957: 939: 915: 884: 862: 852: 845: 838: 831: 819: 795:verification 788: 754:correlations 747: 738: 736:videotaped. 734: 723: 707: 698: 694: 691:Self-reports 686: 677: 648: 640: 636: 623: 622: 481:Intelligence 212:Quantitative 177:Mathematical 172:Intelligence 162:Experimental 157:Evolutionary 147:Differential 7019:: 307–338. 6434:Circulation 6406:2434/550370 6383:Circulation 5963:10161/11806 5411:Circulation 4914:Circulation 4777:: 501–524. 4356:(1): 7–19. 2858:(1): 8–19. 2852:Diagnostica 2195:Shock value 2150:Eclecticism 2043:Experiments 1664:Nationalism 1601:Civil death 1521:Enforcement 1477:Victimology 1305:to secrete 1297:to release 1250:epinephrine 1248:to secrete 1219:breakouts. 1137:, or other 1009:temperament 789:needs more 683:Measurement 674:Definitions 523:Disciplines 396:Suicidology 291:Educational 246:Anomalistic 222:Theoretical 197:Personality 127:Comparative 110:Cognitivism 101:Behaviorism 7155:Physiology 7139:Categories 4334:2015-12-06 4310:2020-04-30 3785:2023-11-06 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