Sharia - Knowledge

2314: 4113:), also called the Sharia court. Qadis were trained in Islamic law, though not necessarily to a level required to issue fatwas. Court personnel also included a number of assistants performing various roles. Judges were theoretically independent in their decisions, though they were appointed by the ruler and often experienced pressure from members of the ruling elite where their interests were at play. The role of qadis was to evaluate the evidence, establish the facts of the case, and issue a verdict based on the applicable rulings of Islamic jurisprudence. The qadi was supposed to solicit a fatwa from a mufti if it was unclear how the law should be applied to the case. Since Islamic legal theory does not recognize the distinction between private and public law, court procedures were identical for civil and criminal cases, and required a private plaintiff to produce evidence against the defendant. The main type of evidence was oral witness testimony. The standards of evidence for criminal cases were so strict that a conviction was often difficult to obtain even for apparently clear-cut cases. Most historians believe that because of these stringent procedural norms, qadi's courts at an early date lost their jurisdiction over criminal cases, which were instead handled in other types of courts. 4090: 1422: 4182:(religious scholars) were involved in management of communal affairs and acted as representatives of the Muslim population vis-à-vis the ruling dynasties, who before the modern era had limited capacity for direct governance. Military elites relied on the ulema for religious legitimation, with financial support for religious institutions being one of the principal means through which these elites established their legitimacy. In turn, the ulema depended on the support of the ruling elites for the continuing operation of religious institutions. Although the relationship between secular rulers and religious scholars underwent a number of shifts and transformations in different times and places, this mutual dependence characterized Islamic history until the start of the modern era. Additionally, since Sharia contained few provisions in several areas of public law, Muslim rulers were able to legislate various collections of economic, criminal and administrative laws outside the jurisdiction of Islamic jurists, the most famous of which is the 6607:. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy". In an analysis, Maurits S. Berger found the ruling to be "nebulous" and surprising from a legal point of view, since the Court neglected to define what it meant by "Sharia" and would not, for example, be expected to regard Sharia rules for Islamic rituals as contravening European human rights values. Kevin Boyle also criticized the decision for not distinguishing between extremist and mainstream interpretations of Islam and implying that peaceful advocacy of Islamic doctrines ("an attitude which fails to respect ") is not protected by the European Convention provisions for freedom of religion. 5529:. Several countries, including Iran, Pakistan, Sudan, and some Nigerian states have incorporated hudud rules into their criminal justice systems, which, however, retained fundamental influences of earlier Westernizing reforms. In practice, these changes were largely symbolic, and aside from some cases brought to trial to demonstrate that the new rules were being enforced, hudud punishments tended to fall into disuse, sometimes to be revived depending on the local political climate. The supreme courts of Sudan and Iran have rarely approved verdicts of stoning or amputation, and the supreme courts of Pakistan and Nigeria have never done so. Nonetheless, Islamization campaigns have also had repercussions in several other areas of law, leading to curtailment of rights of women and religious minorities, and in the case of Sudan contributing to the breakout of a civil war. 6387:

contracts drafted with reference to such laws, as long as they do not violate secular law or the U.S. constitution. After failing to gather support for a federal law making observing Sharia a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, anti-Sharia activists have focused on state legislatures. By 2014, bills aimed against use of Sharia have been introduced in 34 states and passed in 11. A notable example of this would be 2010 Oklahoma State Question 755, which sought to permanently ban the use of Sharia law in courts. While approved by voters, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals placed an injunction on the law. Citing the unconstitutionality of the law's impartial focus on a specific religion, the law was struck down and never took effect. These bills have generally referred to banning foreign or religious law in order to thwart legal challenges.

1968:: it is the consensus that could in principle elevate a ruling based on probable evidence to absolute certainty. This classical doctrine drew its authority from a series of hadiths stating that the Islamic community could never agree on an error. This form of consensus was technically defined as agreement of all competent jurists in any particular generation, acting as representatives of the community. However, the practical difficulty of obtaining and ascertaining such an agreement meant that it had little impact on legal development. A more pragmatic form of consensus, which could be determined by consulting works of prominent jurists, was used to confirm a ruling so that it could not be reopened for further discussion. The cases for which there was a consensus account form less than 1 percent of the body of classical jurisprudence. 4266:

cases or at all. This legal framework was implemented with varying degree of rigor. In some periods or towns, all inhabitants apparently used the same court without regard for their religious affiliation. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb imposed Islamic law on all his subjects, including provisions traditionally applicable only to Muslims, while some of his predecessors and successors are said to have abolished jizya. According to Ottoman records, non-Muslim women took their cases to a Sharia court when they expected a more favorable outcome on marital, divorce and property questions than in Christian and Jewish courts. Over time, non Muslims in the Ottoman Empire could be more or less likely to use Islamic courts. For example, in 1729 at the Islamic court in

6946: 7321:, "t no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism" and the terrorist practice of suicide bombing "has no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law or tradition". In the modern era the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to an ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some radicals have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. For al-Qaeda ideologues, in jihad all means are legitimate, including targeting Muslim non-combatants and the mass killing of non-Muslim civilians. 4034: 6271:, including Afghanistan (99%), Iraq (91%), Niger (86%), Malaysia (86%), Pakistan (84%), Morocco (83%), Bangladesh (82%), Egypt (74%), Indonesia (72%), Jordan (71%), Uganda (66%), Ethiopia (65%), Mali (63%), Ghana (58%), and Tunisia (56%). In Muslim regions of Southern-Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the support is less than 50%: Russia (42%), Kyrgyzstan (35%), Tajikistan (27%), Kosovo (20%), Albania (12%), Turkey (12%), Kazakhstan (10%), Azerbaijan (8%). Regional averages of support were 84% in South Asia, 77% in Southeast Asia, 74% in the Middle-East/North Africa, 64%, in Sub-Saharan Africa, 18% in Southern-Eastern Europe, and 12% in Central Asia . 4166:). In court disputes, qadis were generally less concerned with legal theory than with achieving an outcome that enabled the disputants to resume their previous social relationships. This could be accomplished by avoiding a total loss for the losing side or simply giving them a chance to articulate their position in public and obtain a measure of psychological vindication. Islamic law required judges to be familiar with local customs, and they exercised a number of other public functions in the community, including mediation and arbitration, supervision of public works, auditing waqf finances, and looking after the interests of orphans. 6851: 6335: 4170: 7279: 1616:

religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.

4353:, was treated by the British as a model for legal reforms in their other colonies. Like the British in India, colonial administrations typically sought to obtain precise and authoritative information about indigenous laws, which prompted them to prefer classical Islamic legal texts over local judicial practice. This, together with their conception of Islamic law as a collection of inflexible rules, led to an emphasis on traditionalist forms of Sharia that were not rigorously applied in the pre-colonial period and served as a formative influence on the modern identity politics of the Muslim world. 2590: 4494: 4018:(legal opinions), generally free of charge, in response to questions from laypersons or requests for consultation coming from judges, which would be stated in general terms. Fatwas were regularly upheld in courts, and when they were not, it was usually because the fatwa was contradicted by a more authoritative legal opinion. The stature of jurists was determined by their scholarly reputation. The majority of classical legal works, written by author-jurists, were based in large part on fatwas of distinguished muftis. These fatwas functioned as a form of legal 7210: 7081:

maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by a judge and the legal guardian of the adolescent. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age.

6155: 4508:(1849–1905). Abduh viewed only Sharia rules pertaining to religious rituals as inflexible, and argued that the other Islamic laws should be adapted based on changing circumstances in consideration of social well-being. Following precedents of earlier Islamic thinkers, he advocated restoring Islam to its original purity by returning to the Quran and the sunna instead of following the medieval schools of jurisprudence. He championed a creative approach to ijtihad that involved direct interpretation of scriptures as well as the methods of 8274:"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance." The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25. 5598: 6346:, Sharia has been called a source of "hysteria", "more controversial than ever", the one aspect of Islam that inspires "particular dread". On the Internet, "dozens of self-styled counter-jihadis" emerged to campaign against Sharia law, describing it in strict interpretations resembling those of Salafi Muslims. Also, fear of Sharia law and of the ideology of extremism among Muslims as well as certain congregations donating money to terrorist organizations within the Muslim community reportedly spread to mainstream conservative 6035:

of Sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Modern fatwas deal with topics as diverse as insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration and beer drinking. Most Muslim-majority states have established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population. State-employed muftis generally promote a vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.

7742:"...the essential features of old Muhammadan jurisprudence, such as the idea of the 'living tradition' of the ancient schools of law ; a body of common doctrine expressing the earliest effort to systematize; legal maxims which often reflect a slightly later stage, and an important nucleus of legal traditions... it is safe to say that Muhammadan legal science started in the later part of the Umaiyad period, taking the legal practice of the time as its raw material and endorsing, modifying, or rejecting it" 2070: 5653:

constitutions usually also refer to universal principles such as democracy and human rights, leaving it up to legislators and the judiciary to work out how these norms are to be reconciled in practice. Conversely, some countries (e.g., Algeria), whose constitution does not mention Sharia, possess Sharia-based family laws. Nisrine Abiad identifies Bahrain, Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia as states with "strong constitutional consequences of Sharia "on the organization and functioning of power".

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swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff. Taking an oath for Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony right up to the moment of oath-taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case." Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Quran should the defendant commit perjury.

4447:(qadi's/Sharia court) were preserved, they generally came to mean judge and court in the Western sense. While in the traditional Sharia court all parties represented themselves, in modern courts they are represented by professional lawyers educated in Western-style law schools, and the verdicts are subject to review in an appeals court. In the 20th century, most countries abolished a parallel system of Sharia courts and brought all cases under a national civil court system. 19356: 4424: 5427: 6027: 7618:

accounting. Such factors, according to Timur Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East. However, the rise of monopoly wealth and corporations have proven to also be detrimental to the economic equality of a society. Ziauddin Sardar also suggests that the promotion of equitable wealth distribution and suppression of monopoly capital are a part of Islam's message that emphasises genuine equity and justice.

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across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world. For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia. The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs. The

1480:. The basis of this resolution was that a member from the tribe to which the murderer belonged was handed over to the victim's family for execution, equivalent to the social status of the murdered person. The "condition of social equivalence" meant the execution of a member of the murderer's tribe who was equivalent to the murdered person. For example, only a slave could be killed for a slave, and a woman for a woman. In other cases, 8530:: "Muslim fundamentalists claim that Shari’a and its sources constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states . Muslim modernists, on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari’a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari’a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework." 1582: 6394:, "nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of Sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to Sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high-ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite." 4451:

Sharia-based laws are an authentic representation of the pre-modern legal tradition. In reality, they generally represent the result of extensive legal reforms made in the modern era. As traditional Islamic jurists lost their role as authoritative interpreters of the laws applied in courts, these laws were codified by legislators and administered by state systems which employed a number of devices to effect changes, including:

4527:. He drafted the civil codes of Egypt (1949) and Iraq (1951) based on a variety of sources, including classical fiqh, European laws, existing Arab and Turkish codes, and the history of local court decisions. Sanhuri's Egyptian code incorporated few classical Sharia rules, but he drew on traditional jurisprudence more frequently for the Iraqi code. Sanhuri's codes were subsequently adopted in some form by most Arab countries. 3803:(social relations). Many jurists further divided the body of substantive jurisprudence into "the four quarters", called rituals, sales, marriage and injuries. Each of these terms figuratively stood for a variety of subjects. For example, the quarter of sales would encompass partnerships, guaranty, gifts, and bequests, among other topics. Juristic works were arranged as a sequence of such smaller topics, each called a "book" ( 4306: 5772: 1959:; however, the vast majority of hadiths were handed down by only one or a few transmitters and were therefore seen to yield only probable knowledge. The uncertainty was further compounded by ambiguity of the language contained in some hadiths and Quranic passages. Disagreements on the relative merits and interpretation of the textual sources allowed legal scholars considerable leeway in formulating alternative rulings. 4238: 9809:"short reports (sometimes just a line or two) recording what an early figure, such as a companion of the prophet or Muhammad himself, said or did on a particular occasion, preceded by a chain of transmitters". However, she adds that "nowadays, hadith almost always means hadith from Muhammad himself." Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Muhammad?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 16 April 2018. 5416: 668: 11818:(Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 February 2003, No. 123 (siehe S. 39): "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, since principles such as pluralism in the political sphere and the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it and a regime based on sharia clearly diverges from Convention values"; see Alastair Mowbray, 4393:, was produced for use in both Sharia and secular courts. It adopted the Turkish language for the benefit of the new legal class who no longer possessed competence in the Arabic idiom of traditional jurisprudence. The code was based on Hanafi law, and its authors selected minority opinions over authoritative ones when they were felt to better "suit the present conditions". The Mecelle was promulgated as a 1699:. It was an important area of debate among traditional fiqh scholars how much space should be given to rational methods in creating provisions such as extracting provisions from religious texts, as well as expanding, restricting, abolishing or postponing these provisions according to new situations, considering the purpose and benefit, together with new sociologies, in the face of changing conditions. 4302:

laws, which impeded colonial administration and were soon replaced by European regulations. Islamic commercial laws were also replaced by European (mostly French) laws in Muslim states which retained formal independence, because these states increasingly came to rely on Western capital and could not afford to lose the business of foreign merchants who refused to submit to Islamic regulations.

3904: 1683:" to derive judgments for new situations by taking into account certain purposes and mesalih. Textual phrases usually dealt with under simple antithetical headings: general and particular, command and prohibition, obscure and clear, truth and metaphor. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is 77: 2751: 2438:, there was a hierarchy and power ranking among the sources of Sharia; for example, a subcategory or an auxiliary source will not be able to eliminate a provision clearly stated in the main source or prohibit a practice that was not prohibited though it was known and practiced during the prophetic period. If we look at an example such as the abolition of the validity of 5944:) payable from a Muslim man to a Muslim woman. The brideprice is considered by a Sharia court as a form of debt. Written contracts were traditionally considered paramount in Sharia courts in the matters of dispute that are debt-related, which includes marriage contracts. Written contracts in debt-related cases, when notarized by a judge, is deemed more reliable. 8265:"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of men in different societies and cultures." Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31 4531:

objections from religious conservatives. Various procedural changes have been made in a number of countries to restrict polygamy, give women greater rights in divorce, and eliminate child marriage. Inheritance has been the legal domain least susceptible to reform, as legislators have been generally reluctant to tamper with the highly technical system of

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the Islamic legal system in India were supplanted by British law, with the exception of Sharia rules retained in family laws and some property transactions. Among other changes, these reforms brought about abolition of slavery, prohibition of child marriage, and a much more frequent use of capital punishment. The resulting legal system, known as

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before the 11th century, but later jurists lowered the bar for applying the death penalty, allowing judges to interpret the apostasy law in different ways, which they did sometimes leniently and sometimes strictly. In the late 19th century, the use of criminal penalties for apostasy fell into disuse, although civil penalties were still applied.

9725:"well into the second century A.H. scholarly opinion on the birth date of the Prophet displayed a range of variance of 85 years. On the assumption that chronology is crucial to the stabilization of any tradition of historical narrative, whether transmitted orally or in writing, one can see in this state of affairs a clear indication that 4288:

where peasants "almost always" won cases against oppressive landowners, and non-Muslims often prevailed in disputes against Muslims, including such powerful figures as the governor of their province. In family matters the Sharia court was seen as a place where the rights of women could be asserted against their husband's transgressions.

4543:, which sought to reconcile universal human rights norms and the country's Islamic heritage, was drafted by a commission that included parliamentarians, religious scholars and feminist activists, and the result has been praised by international rights groups as an example of progressive legislation achieved within an Islamic framework. 6669:

human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters—in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam."

6093:, but its legal opinions are not binding. The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of different muftis or heed their rulings in real life. 7000:) forms and in part to prevailing social tolerance toward same-sex relationships. Historical instances of prosecution for homosexual acts are rare, and those which followed Sharia rules are even rarer. Public attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world turned more negative starting from the 19th century through the 3844:, where the goal of punishment is correction or rehabilitation of the culprit and its form is largely left to the judge's discretion. In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to Sharia. 7132:, the pillar of late medieval Sunni Hadith scholarship, concludes that, contrary to what seems to be an explicit command in the Qur'an, the Hadiths of the Prophet leave no doubt that striking one's wife to discipline her actually falls under the Shariah ruling of 'strongly disliked' or 'disliked verging on prohibited'. 2567:) 2.The expression of the text referring to the subject must be clear and precise enough not to allow other interpretations. The term wajib is used for situations that do not meet the second of these conditions. However, this understanding may not be sufficient to explain every situation. For example, Hanafis accept 4051:, which spread during the 10th and 11th centuries. Madrasas were institutions of higher learning devoted principally to study of law, but also offering other subjects such as theology, medicine, and mathematics. The madrasa complex usually consisted of a mosque, boarding house, and a library. It was maintained by a 4063:) certifying a student's competence in its subject matter. Students specializing in law would complete a curriculum consisting of preparatory studies, the doctrines of a particular madhhab, and training in legal disputation, and finally write a dissertation, which earned them a license to teach and issue fatwas. 6885:. This view is dominant in conservative societies like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. A number of liberal and progressive Islamic scholars have argued that apostasy should not be viewed as a crime. Others argue that the death penalty is an inappropriate punishment, inconsistent with the Qur'anic verses such as 6275:

who support making Sharia the law of the land, most do not believe that it should be applied to non-Muslims. In the Muslim-majority countries surveyed this proportion varied between 74% (of 74% in Egypt) and 19% (of 10% in Kazakhstan), as percentage of those who favored making Sharia the law of the land.

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The religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world. (...) In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious

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is currently a legal punishment in Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, some northern states in Nigeria, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, parts of Somalia, and Yemen, all of which have Sharia-based criminal laws. It is unclear whether the laws of Afghanistan and United Arab Emirates provide for the death penalty

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subjects free speech to unspecified Sharia restrictions: Article 22(a) of the Declaration states that "Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shariah." Others, in contrast, consider blasphemy laws to violate freedom

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states that Sharia is structured around the concept of mutual obligations of a collective, and it considers individual human rights as potentially disruptive and unnecessary to its revealed code of mutual obligations. In giving priority to this religious collective rather than individual liberty, the

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In the internet age, a large number of websites provide fatwas in response to queries from around the world, in addition to radio shows and satellite television programs offering call-in fatwas. Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have

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for Muslims in 2004, though according to a 2006 US State Department report, the penal code still discriminates against other religious minorities and women. According to Human Rights Watch and the US State Department, in Saudi Arabia Jewish or Christian male plaintiffs are entitled to half the amount

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cases in favor of eyewitnesses in some modern interpretations. In the case of regulations that were part of local Malaysian legislation that did not go into effect, this could cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases. In Pakistan, DNA evidence is rejected in paternity cases on the

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According to classical jurisprudence, testimony must be from at least two free Muslim male witnesses, or one Muslim male and two Muslim females, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character. Testimony to establish the crime of adultery, fornication or rape must be from

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Countries in the Muslim world generally have criminal codes influenced by civil law or common law, and in some cases a combination of Western legal traditions. Saudi Arabia has never adopted a criminal code and Saudi judges still follow traditional Hanbali jurisprudence. In the course of Islamization

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punishments are at the core of the divine Sharia because they are specified by the letter of scripture rather than by human interpreters. Modern Islamists have often rejected, at least in theory, the stringent procedural constraints developed by classical jurists to restrict their application. To the

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Formal legal disabilities for some groups coexisted with a legal culture that viewed Sharia as a reflection of universal principles of justice, which involved protection of the weak against injustices committed by the strong. This conception was reinforced by the historical practice of Sharia courts,

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Classical fiqh acknowledges and regulates slavery as a legitimate institution. It granted slaves certain rights and protections, improving their status relative to Greek and Roman law, and restricted the scenarios under which people could be enslaved. However, slaves could not inherit or enter into a

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The body of hadith provides more detailed and practical legal guidance, but it was recognized early on that not all of them were authentic. Early Islamic scholars developed personal criteria for evaluating their authenticity by assessing trustworthiness of the individuals listed in their transmission

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that regarding apostasy as a wrongdoing is not a sign of intolerance of other religions, and is not aimed at one's freedom to choose a religion or to leave Islam and embrace another faith, but that on the contrary, it is more correct to say that the punishment is enforced as a safety precaution when

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writes that " a culture whose lynchpin is religion, religious principles and religious morality, apostasy is in some way equivalent to high treason in the modern nation-state". Early Islamic jurists set the standard for apostasy from Islam so high that practically no apostasy verdict could be passed

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tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments as imposition of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and of Islam. In

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It has been argued that the extent to which Sharia is compatible with democracy depends on how it is culturally interpreted, with a cultural position that Sharia represents the human attempt to interpret God's message associated with a greater preference for democracy than an Islamist interpretation

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The legal systems of most Muslim-majority countries can be classified as either secular or mixed. Sharia plays no role in secular legal systems. In mixed legal systems, Sharia rules are allowed to influence some national laws, which are codified and may be based on European or Indian models, and the

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drew on leftist anticolonialist rhetoric by framing their call for Sharia as a resistance struggle. They accused secular leaders of corruption and predatory behavior, and claimed that a return to Sharia would replace despotic rulers with pious leaders striving for social and economic justice. In the

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British administrators felt that Sharia rules too often allowed criminals to escape punishment, as exemplified by Hastings' complaint that Islamic law was "founded on the most lenient principles and on an abhorrence of bloodshed". In the course of the 19th century, criminal laws and other aspects of

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Unlike pre-modern cultures where the ruling dynasty promulgated the law, Islamic law was formulated by religious scholars without involvement of the rulers. The law derived its authority not from political control, but rather from the collective doctrinal positions of the legal schools (madhhabs) in

2579:, who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times, not 5 times. In addition, in religious literature, wajib is widely used for all kinds of religious requirements, without expressing any fiqh definition. 1081:

by new jurisprudences. In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references

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Some are derived from the science of Aristotelian logic which the philosopher-theologian writers mutakallimun had become accustomed to discussing in the introductions to their works. ........... Some are derived from Ilm al Kalam Scholastic Theology, and include discussions of such questions as the

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Islam has classified the values vis-a-vis the ahkams into two categories: an action or thing is considered to be bad (qabih) if it falls within the categories of makruh or haram. Those actions and things falling within the remaining three categories of mubah, mustahabb and halal are said to be good

7240:("that which your right hand owns") to refer to women slaves, seized as captives of war. Under Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves. Sharia, in Islam's history, provided a religious foundation for enslaving non-Muslim women and men, but allowed for the 7127:

as well as a leading early scholar in Iran, collected all the Hadiths showing Muhammad's disapproval of beating in a chapter entitled 'The Prohibition on Striking Women'. A thirteenth-century scholar from Granada, Ibn Faras, notes that one camp of ulama had staked out a stance forbidding striking a

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that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangladesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their

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has argued that there is no single, shared understanding of the notions "Sharia" and "Islamic law" among the respondents. In particular, in countries where Muslim citizens have little experience with rigid application of Sharia-based state laws, these notions tend to be more associated with Islamic

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The spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced traditional muftis from their historical role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. Instead, fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects

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Saudi Arabia and some other Persian Gulf states possess what may be called classical Sharia systems, where national law is largely uncodified and formally equated with Sharia, with ulema playing a decisive role in its interpretation. Iran has adopted some features of classical Sharia systems, while

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Traditional Islamic law assumes a patriarchal society with a man at the head of the household. Different legal schools formulated a variety of legal norms which could be manipulated to the advantage of men or women, but women were generally at a disadvantage with respect to the rules of inheritance

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According to this theory, most canonical hadiths did not originate with Muhammad but were actually created at a later date, despite the efforts of hadith scholars to weed out fabrications. After it became accepted that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources, proponents of rules

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points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the

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However, while most of those who support implementation of Sharia favor using it in family and property disputes, fewer supported application of severe punishments such as whippings and cutting off hands, and interpretations of some aspects differed widely. According to the Pew poll, among Muslims

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In Egypt, a law based on the doctrine of hisba had for a time allowed a Muslim to sue another Muslim over beliefs that may harm society, though because of abuses it has been amended so that only the state prosecutor may bring suit based on private requests. Before the amendment was passed, a hisba

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The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice

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as important legal principles, they held different views regarding the role they should play in Islamic law. Some jurists viewed them as auxiliary rationales constrained by scriptural sources and analogical reasoning. Others regarded them as an "independent" source of law, whose general principles

7186:

have been used by traditional jurists when discussing sexual assault and its punishment. Imam Al-Shāfi‘ī defined rape as: "Forcing a woman to commit zinā against her will". To the Ḥanafis, illegal intercourse is considered rape when there is no consent and no deliberate action from the victim. In

7089:

Islamic law granted Muslim women certain legal rights, such as property rights which women in the West did not possess until "comparatively recent times". Starting with the 20th century, Western legal systems evolved to expand women's rights, but women's rights in the Muslim world have to varying

5661:

Except for secular systems, Muslim-majority countries possess Sharia-based laws dealing with family matters (marriage, inheritance, etc.). These laws generally reflect influence of various modern-era reforms and tend to be characterized by ambiguity, with traditional and modernist interpretations

4438:

Westernization of legal institutions and expansion of state control in all areas of law, which began during the colonial era, continued in nation-states of the Muslim world. Sharia courts at first continued to exist alongside state courts as in earlier times, but the doctrine that sultanic courts

4301:

Starting from the 17th century, European powers began to extend political influence over lands ruled by Muslim dynasties, and by the end of the 19th century, much of the Muslim world came under colonial domination. The first areas of Islamic law to be impacted were usually commercial and criminal

4265:

tax. Dhimmi communities had legal autonomy to adjudicate their internal affairs. Cases involving litigants from two different religious groups fell under jurisdiction of Sharia courts, where (unlike in secular courts) testimony of non-Muslim witnesses against a Muslim was inadmissible in criminal

3939:

madhhabs. They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab. These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries. Rulings of these schools are followed

1615:

and modified other aspects, aiming to meet the practical need of establishing Islamic norms of behavior and adjudicating disputes arising in the early Muslim communities. Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss

1610:

While the origin of hadith remains a subject of scholarly controversy, this theory (of Goldziher and Schacht) has given rise to objections, and modern historians generally adopt more cautious, intermediate positions, and it is generally accepted that early Islamic jurisprudence developed out of a

1577:

in the mid-20th century. Schacht and other scholars argued that having conquered much more populous agricultural and urban societies with already existing laws and legal needs, the initial Muslim efforts to formulate legal norms regarded the Quran and Muhammad's hadiths as just one source of law,

7751:

Islamic "law did not derive directly from the Koran but developed... out of popular and administrative practices under the Umayyads, and this practice often diverged from the intentions and even the explicit wording of the Koran... Norms derived from the Koran were introduced into Muhammadan law

6745:

or refusing to accept a religious commandment. Jurists of different schools prescribed different punishment for blasphemy against Islam, by Muslims and non-Muslims, ranging from imprisonment or fines to the death penalty. In some cases, sharia allows non-Muslims to escape death by converting and

5947:

In commercial and civil contracts, such as those relating to exchange of merchandise, agreement to supply or purchase goods or property, and others, oral contracts and the testimony of Muslim witnesses historically triumphed over written contracts. Islamic jurists traditionally held that written

4530:

Aside from the radical reforms of Islamic family law carried out in Tunisia (1956) and Iran (1967), governments often preferred to make changes that made a clear break from traditional Sharia rules by imposing administrative hurdles rather than changing the rules themselves, in order to minimize

3977:

as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has

17416:

In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not

6304:, stated that there was "no reason why sharia principles should not be the basis for mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution." A 2008 YouGov poll in the United Kingdom found 40% of Muslim students interviewed supported the introduction of sharia into British law for Muslims. 5487:, including the failure of authoritarian secular regimes to meet the expectations of their citizens, and a desire of Muslim populations to return to more culturally authentic forms of socio-political organization in the face of a perceived cultural invasion from the West. Shiite leaders such as 4161:

The social fabric of pre-modern Islamic societies was largely defined by close-knit communities organized around kinship groups and local neighborhoods. Conflicts between individuals had the potential to escalate into a conflict between their supporting groups and disrupt the life of the entire

2127:

While the latter view was held by a minority of classical jurists, in modern times it came to be championed in different forms by prominent scholars who sought to adapt Islamic law to changing social conditions by drawing on the intellectual heritage of traditional jurisprudence. These scholars

2065:

used maslaha and madasıd as equivalent terms. Synonyms for the term maqāṣid aš-šarīʿa are the expressions maqāṣid aš-šāriʿ (“intentions of the legislature”), maqāṣid at-tašrīʿ (“intentions of the legislature ”), ruḥ aš -šarīʿa (“Spirit of Sharia”), ḥikmat at-tašrīʿ (“Wisdom of Legislation”) and

6080:

and his associates issued a fatwa in 1998 proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders", many Islamic jurists, in addition to denouncing its content, stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or proclaim a jihad. New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that

4324:. Hastings' plan of legal reform envisioned a multi-tiered court system for the Muslim population, with a middle tier of British judges advised by local Islamic jurists, and a lower tier of courts operated by qadis. Hastings also commissioned a translation of the classic manual of Hanafi fiqh, 3873:

and could stretch to dozens of large volumes, recorded alternative rulings with their justifications, often accompanied by a proliferation of cases and conceptual distinctions. The terminology of juristic literature was conservative and tended to preserve notions which had lost their practical

7617:

of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives. Interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping and delaying the introduction of modern

7080:

distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi limits of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual

6926:

rights. In the years 1985–2006, four individuals were legally executed for apostasy from Islam: "one in Sudan in 1985; two in Iran, in 1989 and 1998; and one in Saudi Arabia in 1992." While modern states have rarely prosecuted apostasy, the issue has a "deep cultural resonance" in some Muslim

6386:

allows family law disputes to be arbitrated only under Ontario law. In the U.S., opponents of Sharia have sought to ban it from being considered in courts, where it has been routinely used alongside traditional Jewish and Catholic laws to decide legal, business, and family disputes subject to

5956:

In lieu of written evidence, oaths are traditionally accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath

5652:

Constitutions of many Muslim-majority countries refer to Sharia as a source or the main source of law, though these references are not in themselves indicative of how much the legal system is influenced by Sharia, and whether the influence has a traditionalist or modernist character. The same

4378:

under state control. This reform, passed in 1826, enriched the public treasury at the expense of the waqfs, thereby depleting the financial support for traditional Islamic legal education. Over the second half of the 19th century, a new hierarchical system of secular courts was established to

2528:

It is a sin or a crime to perform a forbidden action or not to perform a mandatory action. Reprehensible acts should be avoided, but they are not considered to be sinful or punishable in court. Avoiding reprehensible acts and performing recommended acts is held to be subject of reward in the

1860:

undertaken by competent jurists" The textual integrity and divinity of the Quran, which are considered primary sources in traditional Islam, cannot be questioned, taken lightly, or made a subject of criticism and comedy. The authenticity of hadiths can only be questioned through the chain of

6295:

courts should be integrated into the British legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts to handle marriage and divorce, subject to agreement of all parties and strict requirements for protection of equal rights for women. His reference to the sharia sparked a controversy. Later that year,

4450:

In most Muslim-majority countries, traditional rules of classical fiqh have been largely preserved only in family law. In some countries religious minorities such as Christians or Shia Muslims have been subject to separate systems of family laws. Many Muslims today believe that contemporary

1976:: it is the Analogical reasoning that is used to derive a ruling for a situation not addressed in the scripture by analogy with a scripturally based rule. In a classic example, the Quranic prohibition of drinking wine is extended to all intoxicating substances, on the basis of the "cause" ( 6769:

Blasphemy laws were rarely enforced in pre-modern Islamic societies, but in the modern era some states and radical groups have used charges of blasphemy in an effort to burnish their religious credentials and gain popular support at the expense of liberal Muslim intellectuals and religious

5952:

states that the treatment of written evidence in religious courts in Islamic regions created an incentive for opaque transactions, and the avoidance of written contracts in economic relations. This led to a continuation of a "largely oral contracting culture" in Muslim-majority nations and

1941:

legislation today, according to some research, the opposite was true in the early Islamic society. Sunnah originally meant a tradition that did not contain the definition of good and bad. Later, “good traditions” began to be referred to as sunnah and the concept of "Muhammad's sunnah" was

5478:

of the late 20th century brought the topic of Sharia to international attention in the form of numerous political campaigns in the Muslim world calling for full implementation of Sharia. A number of factors have contributed to the rise of these movements, classified under the rubric of

6989:

Homosexual intercourse is illegal in classical Sharia, with different penalties, including capital punishment, stipulated depending on the situation and legal school. In pre-modern Islam, the penalties prescribed for homosexual acts were "to a large extent theoretical" according to the

7800:

Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its

4044:

Islamic law was initially taught in study circles that gathered in mosques and private homes. The teacher, assisted by advanced students, provided commentary on concise treatises of law and examined the students' understanding of the text. This tradition continued to be practiced in

6216:

during their 1996–2001 and 2021– rule of Afghanistan. Religious police organizations tend to have support from conservative currents of public opinion, but their activities are often disliked by other segments of the population, especially liberals, urban women, and younger people.

6134:(market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud, disturbance of public order and infractions against public morality. This office disappeared in the modern era everywhere in the Muslim world, but it was revived in Arabia by the first Saudi state, and later instituted as a 4338:

would be used as a basis for classroom commentary by a professor, and the doctrines thus learned would be mediated in court by judicial discretion, consideration of local customs and availability of different legal opinions that could fit the facts of the case. The British use of

1755:, and rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus ( 1767:). It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of 17020:

Islam imposed upon the Muslim master an obligation to convert non-Muslim slaves and become members of the greater Muslim society. Indeed, the daily observation of well defined Islamic religious rituals was the outward manifestation of conversion without which emancipation was

6489:

countries; most Muslims see no contradiction between democratic values and religious principles, desiring neither a theocracy, nor a secular democracy, but rather a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of Sharia.

5503:

Full implementation of Sharia theoretically refers to expanding its scope to all fields of law and all areas of public life. In practice, Islamization campaigns have focused on a few highly visible issues associated with the conservative Muslim identity, particularly women's

4139:), which took initiative in preventing and investigating crime, operated its own courts. Like the mazalim courts, police courts were not bound by the rules of Sharia and had the powers to inflict discretionary punishments. Another office for maintaining public order was the 12127:. "The Saudi law system differs in critically important respects from the system of legal thought employed by the common law countries, including the United States. Perhaps most significant is that Islamic law does not embrace the common law system of binding precedent and 9731:

studies in the second century were still in a state of flux" Conrad (June 1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: Some Observations Apropos of Chronology and Literary topoi in the Early Arabic Historical Tradition". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 50 (2): 239.

7020:

enacted under colonial rule. In recent decades, prejudice against LGBT individuals in the Muslim world has been exacerbated by increasingly conservative attitudes and the rise of Islamist movements, resulting in Sharia-based penalties enacted in several countries. The

6676:

Islamic law justifies the formal inequality of individuals (women, non-Islamic people). Bassam Tibi states that Sharia framework and human rights are incompatible. Abdel al-Hakeem Carney, in contrast, states that Sharia is misunderstood from a failure to distinguish

1208:: This includes the entire body of all principles, rules, cases and interpretations developed and transmitted throughout a history of more than one thousand years across the entire Muslim world, since the closing of the gate of free interpretation up to the present. 15477:

There is a long-running debate in Islam over whether apostasy is a crime. Some liberal scholars hold the view that it is not (...), Others say apostasy is (...). The latter is the dominant view in conservative Muslim states such as Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan

7761:"In the time of Shafi’i, traditions from the Prophet were already recognized as one of the material bases of Muhammadan law. Their position in the ancient schools of law was, as we have seen, much less certain." Another example is that an early major works of fiqh— 7110:

The vast majority of the ulama across the Sunni schools of law inherited the Prophet's unease over domestic violence and placed further restrictions on the evident meaning of the 'Wife Beating Verse'. A leading Meccan scholar from the second generation of Muslims,

4126:(lit. wrongs, grievances) courts was to address the wrongs that Sharia courts were unable to address, including complaints against government officials. Islamic jurists were commonly in attendance and a judge often presided over the court as a deputy of the ruler. 1214:: This contains the full spectrum of principles, rules, cases and interpretations developed and applied at present. Migration, modernisation and new technologies of information and communication have decreased the dominance of the legal schools of classical sharia. 6515:(consultation between ruler and ruled). This perspective, which stresses comprehensive implementation of Sharia, was widespread in the 1970s and 1980s among various movements seeking to establish an Islamic state, but its popularity has diminished in recent years. 6056:

is credited with bringing the notion of fatwa to world's attention, although some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.

5893:

A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of Muslim witnesses are the main evidence admissible in traditional sharia courts for hudud crimes, i.e., the religious crimes of adultery, fornication, rape, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to prove it,

7187:

Mālik's view, rape refers to any kind of unlawful sexual intercourse by usurpation and without consent. This includes instances when the condition of the victims prevents them from expressing their resistance, such as insanity, sleep or being under age. The

1493:

178: "Believers! Retaliation is ordained for you regarding the people who were killed. Free versus free, slave versus slave, woman versus woman. Whoever is forgiven by the brother of the slain for a price, let him abide by the custom and pay the price well."

4379:

supplement and eventually replace most religious courts. Students hoping to pursue legal careers in the new court system increasingly preferred attending secular schools over the traditional path of legal education with its dimming financial prospects. The

1955:

chains. These studies narrowed down the vast corpus of prophetic traditions to several thousand "sound (seeming to collectors)" hadiths, which were collected in several canonical compilations. The hadiths which enjoyed concurrent transmission were deemed

7161:

Others believe that wife-beating is not consistent with a more modernist perspective of the Quran. Many Imams and scholars who learned Shariah in traditional Islamic seminaries object to the misuse of this verse to justify domestic violence. Muslims for

4276:

As it was illegal for non-Muslims to own Muslims and for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women in the Ottoman empire, conversion to Islam would have been an option for non-Muslim women to free themselves of a spouse or master they did not want to subject

17137: 4022:, unlike court verdicts, which were valid only for the given case. Although independent muftis never disappeared, from the 12th century onward Muslim rulers began to appoint salaried muftis to answer questions from the public. Over the centuries, 2472:

Fiqh is concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms, seeking to establish not only what is and is not legal, but also what is morally right and wrong. Sharia rulings fall into one of five categories known as "the five decisions"

16368: 5544:, who have advocated both free-market and socialist economic models. The notion of "Sharia-compliant" finance has become an active area of doctrinal innovation and its development has had a major impact on business operations around the world. 6914:. As of 2014, apostasy from Islam was a capital offense in Afghanistan, Brunei, Mauritania, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In other countries, Sharia courts could use family laws to void the Muslim apostate's 6783:

of speech, stating that freedom of expression is essential to empowering both Muslims and non-Muslims, and point to the abuse of blasphemy laws in prosecuting members of religious minorities, political opponents, and settling personal scores.

7782:"...a great many traditions in the classical and other collections were put into circulation only after Shafi'i's time; the first considerable body of legal traditions from the Prophet originated towards the middle of the second century..." 6581:

has argued for a "religious democracy" based on religious thought that is democratic, tolerant, and just. Islamic liberals argue for the necessity of constant reexamination of religious understanding, which can only be done in a democratic

6807:

which made it a "crime to disturb a religious assembly, trespass on burial grounds, insult religious beliefs or intentionally destroy or defile a place or an object of worship", with these laws being modified between 1980 and 1986 by the

6150:

as an individual obligation to police religious observance has become more widespread, which led to the appearance of activists around the world who urge fellow Muslims to observe Islamic rituals, dress code, and other aspects of Sharia.

7446:

in classical Sunni legal theory is both more explicitly permissive than Talmudic law with respect to authorizing individual reason as a source of law, and more implicitly restrictive, in excluding other, unauthorized forms of reasoning.

14728:

Wiederhold, Lutz (1997). "Blasphemy against the Prophet Muhammad and his companions (sabb al-rasul, sabb al-sahabah): The introduction of the topic into shafi'i legal literature and its relevance for legal practice under Mamluk rule".

7150:(disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife only after admonishing and staying away from the bed does not work. These interpretations have been criticized as inconsistent with women's rights in domestic abuse cases. 4523:(1895–1971), who possessed expertise in both Islamic and Western law. Sanhuri argued that reviving Islamic legal heritage in a way that served the needs of contemporary society required its analysis in light of the modern science of 3986:

movements. Other currents, such as networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law without focusing on traditions of a particular madhhab.

13257: 6498:

Muslih and Browers identify three major perspectives on democracy among prominent Muslims thinkers who have sought to develop modern, distinctly Islamic theories of socio-political organization conforming to Islamic values and law:

1909:

verses. Therefore, deciding which verses of the Quran will be used, in addition to other knowledge and skills, may be the job of lawyers who know these issues in detail. Whether the Sunnah could limit the Quran remained a matter of

1144:

refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply "justice," and they will consider any law that promotes justice and social welfare to conform to Sharia. Sharia is the first of

6889:; or that it was a man-made rule enacted in the early Islamic community to prevent and punish the equivalent of desertion or treason, and should be enforced only if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder ( 2313: 1611:

combination of administrative and popular practices shaped by the religious and ethical precepts of Islam. It continued some aspects of pre-Islamic laws and customs of the lands that fell under Muslim rule in the aftermath of the

1488:

could be paid to the family of the murdered. On top of this pre-Islamic understanding added a debate about whether a Muslim can be executed for a non-Muslim during the Islamic period. The main verse for implementation in Islam is

16390: 17056:

instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation.

10028: 4253:

and commonly gave the wife financial leverage in divorce proceedings. Women were active in Sharia courts as both plaintiffs and defendants in a wide variety of cases, though some opted to be represented by a male relative.

7598:(issuing of fatwas) omitted. He also argued that these systems shared fundamental freedoms: the freedom of a professor to profess his personal opinion and the freedom of a student to pass judgement on what he is learning. 7536:

Elements of Islamic law also have other parallels in Western legal systems. For example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.

3944:

school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought. The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the

5737:

refers to personal rights of the individual and the right to generate and accumulate wealth. The various ways in which property can be acquired under Sharia are purchase, inheritance, bequest, physical or mental effort,

2648:

A special religious decision, which is "specific to" a person, group, institution, event, situation, belief and practice in different areas of life, and usually includes the approval/disapproval of a judgment, is called

18014: 14829:(or, A ready sword against those who insult the Messenger), Published in 1297 AD in Arabic, Reprinted in 1975 and 2003 by Dar-ibn Hazm (Beirut), the book is on blasphemy/insulting Muhammad and the punishment per sharia 4481:

Changes in administrative law that grant the courts discretionary powers to restrict certain practices which are not forbidden by substantive law (e.g., polygamy), in some cases imposing penal sanctions as additional

5981:

for the death of a free Muslim man is twice as high as for Jewish and Christian victims according to the Maliki and Hanbali madhhabs and three times as high according to Shafi'i rules. Several legal schools assessed

5880:

in Sharia courts traditionally prioritize oral testimony, and witnesses must be Muslim. In criminal cases, women witnesses are unacceptable in stricter, traditional interpretations of Sharia, such as those found in

1918:, though other passages have been used as a source for general principles whose legal ramifications were elaborated by other means. Islamic literature calls the laws that can be associated with the Quran in Sharia " 16247: 14274: 16160: 6454:

Support for democratic procedures such as elections, combined with religious or moral objections toward some aspects of Western democracy seen as incompatible with sharia, as exemplified by Islamic scholars like

4369:

During the colonial era, Muslim rulers concluded that they could not resist European pressure unless they modernized their armies and built centrally administered states along the lines of Western models. In the

3874:

relevance. At the same time, the cycle of abridgement and commentary allowed jurists of each generation to articulate a modified body of law to meet changing social conditions. Other juristic genres include the

7094:

from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Quran. A woman's inheritance can be unequal is she inherits from her father as a daughter's inheritance is usually half of that of her brother's.

6241:

Sharia also plays a role beyond religious rituals and personal ethics in some countries with Muslim minorities. For example, in Israel Sharia-based family laws are administered for the Muslim population by the

1980:) shared by these situations, which in this case is identified to be intoxication. Since the cause of a rule may not be apparent, its selection commonly occasioned controversy and extensive debate. Majority of 7336:

declared that suicide attacks in Chechnya were justified as a "sacrifice". Many prominent Islamic scholars, including al-Qaradawi himself, have issued condemnations of terrorism in general terms. For example,

6446:

Advocacy of democratic ideas, often accompanied by a belief that they are compatible with Islam, which can play a public role within a democratic system, as exemplified by many protestors who took part in the

6209: 6159: 6135: 4330:, from Arabic into Persian and then English, later complemented by other texts. These translations enabled British judges to pass verdicts in the name of Islamic law based on a combination of Sharia rules and 1750:

In this context, the formulation of the Sunni view can be summarized as follows; Human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity. However, use of reason alone is insufficient

1746:

example. Although the rationalists initially seemed to gain the upper hand in this conflict, with the rise of literalism, the Mutazila sank into history and literalism continued to live by gaining supporters.

5662:

often manifesting themselves in the same country, both in legislation and court decisions. In some countries (e.g., parts of Nigeria), people can choose whether to pursue a case in a Sharia or secular court.

1690:

The sources of judgment in classical fiqh are roughly divided into two: Manqūlāt (Quran and hadith) and Aqliyyāt (ijma, qiyas, ijtihad and others). Some of them (Aqliyyāt) are considered to be the product of

1564:

Modern historians have presented alternative theories of the formation of fiqh. At first Western scholars accepted the general outlines of the traditionalist account. In the late 19th century, an influential

6278:

In all of the countries surveyed, respondents were more likely to define Sharia as "the revealed word of God" rather than as "a body of law developed by men based on the word of God". In analyzing the poll,

5671:

campaigns, several countries (Libya, Pakistan, Iran, Sudan, Mauritania, and Yemen) inserted Islamic criminal laws into their penal codes, which were otherwise based on Western models. In some countries only

5520:

A number of legal reforms have been made under the influence of these movements, starting from the 1970s when Egypt and Syria amended their constitutions to specify Sharia as the basis of legislation. The

17134: 7316:

refers to armed struggle against oppressors. Classical jurists developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. According to

7191:, similar to the Mālikites, consider the use of any kind of force as a denial of consent from the victim. The threat of starvation or suffering the cold of winter are also regarded as against one's will. 5562:, some of the classical sharia practices involve serious violations of basic human rights, gender equality and freedom of expression, and the practices of countries governed by sharia are criticized. The 2708:, and in trials, the judge is not expected to observe equality among those on trial, but is expected to act fairly or balanced. Traditional fiqh states that legal and religious responsibility begins with 9568:

So, it was in this way that the Ummah, those who had not become involved with either the Shi'ah or the Khawarij, was divided into two groups, Ahl al Hadith and Ahl al Ra'i; and the conflict between them

6777:

have petitioned the United Nations to condemn "defamation of religions" because "Unrestricted and disrespectful freedom of opinion creates hatred and is contrary to the spirit of peaceful dialogue". The

6320:, has argued that sharia courts can be integrated into the American religious arbitration system, provided that they adopt appropriate institutional requirements as American rabbinical courts have done. 5850:

represent themselves. In Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which have preserved traditional procedure in Sharia courts, trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system. There is no pre-trial

16364: 4249:

and witness testimony, where in some cases a woman's witness testimony is effectively treated as half of that of a man. Various financial obligations imposed on the husband acted as a deterrent against

5925:

basis of legislation that favors the presumption of children's legitimacy, while in sexual assault cases DNA evidence is regarded as equivalent to expert opinion and evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

11862:

Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.

11805:

Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.

10291:

Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.

6085:

sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of issuing fatwas. There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An

16182:

Schacht, J.; Layish, A.; Shaham, R.; Ansari, Ghaus; Otto, J.M.; Pompe, S.; Knappert, J.; Boyd, Jean (1995). "Nikāḥ". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).

7155: 6603:

determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy". Refah's Sharia-based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the

6246:

through the Sharia Courts. In India, the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act provides for the use of Islamic law for Muslims in several areas, mainly related to family law. In England, the

16795: 9057:) // Cited: p. 39 (PDF p. 41/338) // ""Chéri" may sound ambiguous in French but the term, used in our context for Islamic law (Turkish: şer’(i), is widely used in the legal literature at that time." 5517:

broader Muslim public, the calls for Sharia often represent, even more than any specific demands, a vague vision of their current economic and political situation being replaced by a "just utopia".

4284:

contract, and were subject to their master's will in a number of ways. The labor and property of slaves were owned by the master, who was also entitled to sexual submission of his unmarried slaves.

6284:

ideals like equality and social justice than with prohibitions. Other polls have indicated that for Egyptians, the word "Sharia" is associated with notions of political, social and gender justice.

1262:

and its derivatives refers to watering animals at a permanent water-hole or to the seashore. One another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy. The word is cognate with the Hebrew

17202: 10618:

And you are allowed to seek out wives with your wealth in decorous conduct, but not in fornication, but give them their reward for what you have enjoyed of them in keeping with your promise.(4:24)

7065:

report mentions that Sharia law provisions are different for women in financial matters than from general human rights provisions. In many countries, in legal proceedings relating to Sharia-based

13645: 10809: 10048: 4057:(charitable endowment), which paid salaries of professors, stipends of students, and defrayed the costs of construction and maintenance. At the end of a course, the professor granted a license ( 6128:, refers to the duty of Muslims to promote moral rectitude and intervene when another Muslim is acting wrongly. Historically, its legal implementation was entrusted to a public official called 4162:

community. Court litigation was seen as a last resort for cases where informal mediation had failed. This attitude was reflected in the legal maxim "amicable settlement is the best verdict" (

1675:

Classical Islamic jurisprudence refers how to elaborate and interpret religious sources that are considered reliable within the framework of "procedural principles" within its context such as

6138:

responsible for supervising markets and public order. It has been aided by volunteers enforcing attendance of daily prayers, gender segregation in public places, and a conservative notion of

2092:

was God's general purpose in revealing the divine law, and that its specific aim was preservation of five essentials of human well-being: religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property.

4439:

should implement the ideals of Sharia was gradually replaced by legal norms imported from Europe. Court procedures were also brought in line with European practice. Though the Islamic terms

4234:

In both the rules of civil disputes and application of penal law, classical Sharia distinguishes between men and women, between Muslims and non-Muslims, and between free persons and slaves.

19227: 14140: 13208: 12131:. In Saudi Arabia, judicial decisions are not in themselves a source of law, and with minor exceptions, court decisions in Saudi Arabia are not published or even open to public inspection." 5695:

contain a general provision that certain crimes are to be punished according to Islamic law, without specifying the penalties. Some Nigerian states have also enacted Islamic criminal laws.

13800: 2458:, "according to his own opinion" and reliying on power. The Shiite sect did not accept the jurisprudence of Omar, whose political and religious authority they rejected from the beginning. 9886: 4089: 3816:. Jurists developed various restrictions which in many cases made them virtually impossible to apply. Other crimes involving intentional bodily harm are judged according to a version of 7158:, KAFA and other organizations have proposed ways to modify Sharia-inspired laws to improve women's rights in Muslim-majority nations, including women's rights in domestic abuse cases. 6003:

rules into their legal system treat them in different ways. The Pakistan Penal Code modernized the Hanafi doctrine by eliminating distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims. In Iran,

16394: 16650: 14992: 9821:

quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate" Future of Islam by Reza Aslan, (Random House, 2005) p.16

17315: 9297: 6931:, public support for capital punishment for apostasy among Muslims ranged from 78% in Afghanistan to less than 1% in Kazakhstan, reaching over 50% in 6 of the 20 countries surveyed. 1809: 17417:

fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.

13770: 6186:

as a "universal and reciprocal duty", incumbent upon both the government and the people. Its implementation has been carried out by official committees as well as volunteer forces (

4343:, which amounted to an inadvertent codification of Sharia, and its interpretation by judges trained in Western legal traditions anticipated later legal reforms in the Muslim world. 16103: 15183: 15107: 5532:

Advocates of Islamization have often been more concerned with ideology than traditional jurisprudence and there is no agreement among them as to what form a modern Sharia-based "

6233:. Hisba has also been invoked in several Muslim-majority countries as rationale for blocking pornographic content on the internet and for other forms of faith-based censorship. 3810:

Some historians distinguish a field of Islamic criminal law, which combines several traditional categories. Several crimes with scripturally prescribed punishments are known as

18006: 13548: 9392: 1278:), or "path to the water hole" and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment. 2629:

and is accepted in traditional Sunnis and Shi'ism. However, this understanding, along with expressions of respect and visits to the graves of saints, are seen as unacceptable

2586:

when in public; Muslim scholars have differed as how to understand these verses, with some stating that a Hijab is a command (fard) to be fulfilled and others say simply not.

14171: 13402: 1523:. These reports led first to informal discussion and then systematic legal thought, articulated with greatest success in the eighth and ninth centuries by the master jurists 12035:

Birnhack, Michael; Khoury, Amir (10 May 2017). "The Emergence and Development of Intellectual Property Law in the Middle East". In Dreyfuss, Rochelle; Pila, Justine (eds.).

4911: 4650: 1421: 16237: 13464: 7541:

has argued that the madrasa system of attestation paralleled the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system. The triple status of

7390:

which does not possess a body of revealed law, and where theology rather than law is considered to be the principal field of religious study. Both Islamic and Jewish law (

19328: 14271: 12545: 9556:

Legal acts are valid when they fulfill all the essential requirements (arkān), causes, conditions and hindrances. They are void when any of these is lacking or deficient.

1601:(died 820 CE/204 AH), who formulated this idea (that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources) and other elements of classical legal theory in his work 16826: 14012: 12001: 1234:, Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state. 1049:

Approaches to sharia in the 21st century vary widely, and the role and mutability of sharia in a changing world has become an increasingly debated topic in Islam. Beyond

16152: 13518: 9015: 13055: 4539:

through presidential decree, provoked an outcry and was annulled in 1985 by the supreme court on procedural grounds, to be later replaced by a compromise version. The

14980:, p. 74, Quote: "(In the case of blasphemy and Salman Rushdie) the death sentence it pronounced was grounded in a jurisprudential gloss on the Surah al-Ahzab (33:57)" 14930: 2446:, and not prohibited (Sunnis translate the words used in the relevant verse with terms used to describe the ordinary marriage event) according to Sunnis is banned by 2120:), which is often criticized in terms of today's values and seen as problematic, in terms of the purposes of sharia and social benefits will be replaced by new ones. 13905: 6072:), and some of them are issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. The most notorious examples are the fatwas of 16070: 13697: 9610: 9638:

Mirzaee, A. (2012). 'Decline of Mu'tazilite Thought: The Heritage of Conflict between Ahl Al-Hadith and Mu'tazilites', Journal of Seven Heavens, 14(54), pp. 7-26

9600:

Mirzaee, A. (2012). 'Decline of Mu'tazilite Thought: The Heritage of Conflict between Ahl Al-Hadith and Mu'tazilites', Journal of Seven Heavens, 14(54), pp. 7-26

4399:(sultanic code), which represented an unprecedented assertion of the state's authority over Islamic civil law, traditionally the preserve of the ulema. The 1917 17084:

The slave who bore her master's child became known in Arabic as an "umm walad"; she could not be sold, and she was automatically freed upon her master's death.

6599:

over its announced intention to introduce Sharia-based laws, ruling that it would change Turkey's secular order and undermine democracy. On appeal by Refah the

16599:

Brandt, Michele; Kaplan, Jeffrey A. (1995). "The Tension between Women's Rights and Religious Rights: Reservations to Cedaw by Egypt, Bangladesh and Tunisia".

13670: 13472:. Research: Alan Cooperman, Neha Sahgal, Jessica Hamar Martinez, et al. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. pp. 15–19, 46, 147–48. Archived from 6357:

won ovations calling for a federal ban on Sharia law. The issue of "liberty versus Sharia" was called a "momentous civilisational debate" by right-wing pundit

16129: 1901:" to be beyond doubt on account of it having been handed down by many people in each generation, which is known as "recurrence" or "concurrent transmission" ( 6899:, moderate Muslims do not believe that apostasy requires punishment. The death penalty or other punishment for apostasy in Islam is a violation of universal 6542:

provides the basis for representative government institutions that are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values.

6351: 6167: 4130:

verdicts were supposed to conform to the spirit of Sharia, but they were not bound by the letter of the law or the procedural restrictions of qadi's courts.

3881:

Classical jurisprudence has been described as "one of the major intellectual achievements of Islam" and its importance in Islam has been compared to that of

14316:

Christian Moe (2012), Refah Revisited: Strasbourg's Construction of Islam, in Islam, Europe and emerging legal issues (editors: W. Cole Durham Jr. et al.),

5977:

or blood money) is assessed differently for different classes of victims. For example, for Muslim women the amount was half that assessed for a Muslim man.

18845: 16787: 12448: 7030:. Criminalization of consensual homosexual acts and especially making them liable to capital punishment has been condemned by international rights groups. 6297: 15677: 14509:

Bielefeldt, Heiner (2000). "'Western' versus 'Islamic' Human Rights Conceptions?: A Critique of Cultural Essentialism in the Discussion on Human Rights".

12210: 8459:

In addition to encouraging religious violent behavior, textualism and Islamism also correlate positively with general violent behavior and state violence

17198: 14621:

Tibi, Bassam (2008). "The Return of the Sacred to Politics as a Constitutional Law The Case of the Shari'atization of Politics in Islamic Civilization".

11028: 10032: 9235: 7001: 6846:

as of 2020. Some Muslim-majority countries impose the death penalty or a prison sentence for apostasy from Islam, or ban non-Muslims from proselytizing .

6263:

A 2013 survey based on interviews of 38,000 Muslims, randomly selected from urban and rural parts in 39 countries using area probability designs, by the

4906: 4645: 4334:

doctrines, and eliminated the need to rely on consultation by local ulema, whom they mistrusted. In the traditional Islamic context, a concise text like

2413:

The classical process of ijtihad combined these generally recognized principles with other methods, which were not adopted by all legal schools, such as

1702:

In this context, in the Classical period, the ulema were divided into groups (among other divisions such as political divisions) regarding the place of "

18151: 13642: 16735: 6561:'s emphasis on the role of reason in understanding religion. It stresses democratic principles based on pluralism and freedom of thought. Authors like 16577: 14838:

Jerusha Lamptey (2014), Never Wholly Other: A Muslima Theology of Religious Pluralism, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 with footnotes 28, 29 p. 258

7034:, the level of social acceptance for homosexuality ranges from 52% among Muslims in the U.S. to less than 10% in a number of Muslim-majority nations. 11971: 11928: 11500:

Baer, Marc (August 2004). "Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul".

7170:

campaigns were held in many parts of the world to speak out against domestic violence and encourage Muslim congregants to eradicate domestic abuse.

16918: 5018: 4985: 2665:

laws, have not been codified, and their discretion and implementation are under the initiative and authority of the judge or political authority.

18201: 14291: 14132: 13936: 13189:

Nancy Gallagher (2005), Apostasy, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Suad Joseph and Afsāna Naǧmābād,

2124:

goes further with an approach that prioritizes purpose and benefit among the sources of sharia and declares it to be the heart of "usul-al fiqh".

1197:: This is the body of Islamic rules, principles and cases compiled by religious scholars during the first two centuries after Muhammad, including 18735: 13879: 13796: 13728: 13340: 9046: 5030: 3973:(combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional 16765: 15411: 15011: 14086: 9890: 7128:

wife altogether, declaring it contrary to the Prophet's example and denying the authenticity of any Hadiths that seemed to permit beating. Even

6569:

have constructed Islamic justifications for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic state by drawing on early Islamic texts. Others, like

1184:

Jan Michiel Otto summarizes the evolutionary stages of understanding by distinguishing four meanings conveyed by the term sharia in discourses.

16680: 14907: 11837: 9037: 8933: 5322: 1578:

with jurist personal opinions, the legal practice of conquered peoples, and the decrees and decisions of the caliphs also being valid sources.

17233: 9544:

nature of the Sovereign Hakim, in the sense of whether it is the Shari'ah itself or reason which decides what is right and what is wrong;....

7178:

Rape is considered a serious crime in the Sharia law since the Islamic prophet Muhammad ordered rapists to be punished by stoning. The terms

2535:

covers the first three or the first four categories. The legal and moral verdict depends on whether the action is committed out of necessity (

1888:

books written in the early period of Islam, changes in sunnah and hadith terminologies and the chains of narration of hadith, respectively.

17728: 6267:

found that a majority—in some cases "overwhelming" majority—of Muslims in a number of countries support making "Sharia" or "Islamic law" the

5717:

has been implementing a "Sharia Penal Code", which includes provisions for stoning and amputation, in stages since 2014. The countries where

4970: 3681: 16642: 14989: 6007:

for non-Muslim victims professing one of the faiths protected under the constitution (Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians) was made equal to

19306: 19280: 19096: 19055: 16818: 14693:

Siraj Khan, Blasphemy against the Prophet, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture (Editors: Coeli Fitzpatrick and Adam Hani Walker),

14568:

Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2016). "Islamic Law and Human Rights: Conundrums and Equivocations". In Gustafson, Carrie; Juviler, Peter H. (eds.).

12826: 12789: 9281: 7691: 7248:) could not be sold, becoming legally free upon her master's death, and the child was considered free and a legitimate heir of the father. 5055: 4980: 2601:

are considered as possessions in Sharia; Masters may sell, bequeath, give away, pledge, share, hire out or compel them to earn Money. See:

17513: 15358:. associate editors Patricia Crone, Wadid Kadi, Devin J. Stewart and Muhammad Qasim Zaman; assistant editor Mahan Mirza. Princeton, N.J.: 13754: 13591: 10348: 7979: 6737:

refers to any form of cursing, questioning or annoying God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam, including denying one of the

1258:

studies records two major areas of the word can appear without religious connotation. In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment,

17875: 17467: 15921: 14487: 14250: 13510: 13025: 5006: 4403:

adopted an innovative approach of drawing rules from minority and majority opinions of all Sunni madhhabs with a modernizing intent. The

4317: 2053:(welfare or public interest) are two related classical doctrines which have come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times. 19290: 19157: 19140: 18959: 18888: 18700:

Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2009). "Anglo-Muhammadan Law". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).

18184: 18134: 18108: 17787:

Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"

17097: 15565: 15104: 15083: 13982: 12704: 10782: 10656:"According to the Bishair the fardh, is like the wajib but the wajib expresses occur and the fard, expresses a definitive assessment. 10595:

Subsequently, the sources of Islamic Law are clarified, showing their legal basis, binding force and position on the hierarchical chart

7954: 4116:

If an accusation did not result in a verdict in a qadi's court, the plaintiff could often pursue it in another type of court called the

19300: 16095: 16024: 15765: 15297: 15258: 15227: 15167: 14825: 9912: 9557: 9532: 8384: 6779: 6637: 6086: 5587: 5455: 2617:

As can be seen above and in many other examples, classification is subjective. For example, believing in the existence and miracles of

2610: 19264: 18804: 18786: 18769: 18718: 18254: 15715: 12764: 10383: 8030: 6066:, i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities ( 4485:

Modernist interpretation of Islamic scriptures without adherence to the rules or methodologies of traditional jurisprudence, known as

1742:) groups and sects regarding the Quran and hadith or the place of reason in understanding the Quran and hadith, as can be seen in the 18534: 13853: 13540: 12808: 12621: 10886:

Heinrichs, Wolfhart; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri Johannes; Bianquis, Thierry, eds. (2012). "Encyclopedia of Islam".

9374: 5312: 15841: 14951: 13827: 11480:

Gocek, Fatma Muge (2005). "The Legal Recourse of Minorities in History: Eighteenth-Century Appeals to the Islamic Court of Galata".

6378:

Some countries and jurisdictions have explicit bans on sharia law. In Canada, for example, sharia law has been explicitly banned in

5940:

Marriage is solemnized as a written financial contract, in the presence of two Muslim male witnesses, and it includes a brideprice (

18975:

Schacht, Joseph; Layish, Aharon (2000). "Ṭalāḳ". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).

14163: 13399: 10099:

Lucas, Scott C. (2006). "The Legal Principles of Muhammad B. Ismāʿīl Al-Bukhārī and Their Relationship to Classical Salafi Islam".

6882: 4975: 18075: 16391:"Salhi and Grami (2011), Gender and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa, Florence (Italy), European University Institute" 15731: 13473: 7357:

of Egypt has stated that "attacking innocent people is not courageous; it is stupid and will be punished on the Day of Judgment".

7016:, and under the influence of sexual notions prevalent in Europe at that time. A number of Muslim-majority countries have retained 959:, in a wide range of topics. Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as legal norms, assigning actions to one of 19036:

Thielmann, Jörn (2017). "Ḥisba (modern times)". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).

13165: 9765: 7070: 6301: 5317: 4257:

Sharia was intended to regulate affairs of the Muslim community. Non-Muslims residing under Islamic rule had the legal status of

3965:

depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of

3572: 451: 19324: 15647: 15041: 12542: 4145:(market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud in economic transactions and infractions against public morality. The 4014:. During the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were private legal specialists who normally also held other jobs. They issued 17365: 17135:

The Challenge of Fragmentation of International Humanitarian Law Regarding the Protection of Civilians – An Islamic Perspective

15746: 15442: 14847:

Carl Ernst (2005), "Blasphemy: Islamic Concept", Encyclopedia of Religion (Editor: Lindsay Jones), Vol 2, Macmillan Reference,

12833:

Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US State Department, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom Report (2011)

12645:

M Kar (2005), Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics (Ed: Suad Joseph, Afsāna Naǧmābādī), Brill,

11993: 8569:

Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis".

7144:. According to some interpretations, Sharia condones certain forms of domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects 4229: 3957:

madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools. The

1905:). According to classical mainstream jurists, the verses of the Quran that were "revealed later" in Islamic language may have 7297:, to justify acts of war and terror against Muslim as well as non-Muslim individuals and governments. The expert on terrorism 5937:

recommends written financial contracts with reliable witnesses, although there is dispute about equality of female testimony.

4535:. Some reforms have faced strong conservative opposition. For example, the 1979 reform of Egyptian family law, promulgated by 18663: 18432: 18297:

Gleave, R.M. (2012). "Maḳāṣid al-Sharīʿa". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).

17695: 17613: 15995: 15709: 15502: 15335: 15221: 14393: 14221: 10897: 10580: 10532: 10396: 10365: 10083: 9747:

Juynboll, G. H. A. (1997). "Sunna". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.).

9587: 9091: 9072: 8999: 8310: 7455:

Early Islamic law developed a number of legal concepts that anticipated similar such concepts that later appeared in English

7338: 7090:

degree remained tied to the Quran, hadiths and their traditional interpretations by Islamic jurists. Sharia grants women the

6881:

According to Abdul Rashied Omar, the majority of modern Islamic jurists continue to regard apostasy as a crime deserving the

6661: 6616: 6229:

led to the annulment of his marriage. The law was also invoked in an unsuccessful blasphemy suit against the feminist author

1031: 338: 18751:

Messick, Brinkley (2017). "Fatwā, modern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).

17491: 13047: 12100: 10682: 5525:

of 1979 represented a watershed for Shiism advocates, demonstrating that it was possible to replace a secular regime with a

3878:(succinct formulas meant to aid the student remember general principles) and collections of fatwas by a particular scholar. 1191:: In this sense, sharia is a rather abstract concept which leaves ample room for various concrete interpretations by humans. 16524:

Bakht, Natasha (2007). "Family Arbitration Using Sharia Law: Examining Ontario's Arbitration Act and its Impact on Women".

15472: 14927: 14551:

Anver M. Emon, Mark Ellis, Benjamin Glahn (2012), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press,

14004: 12591: 12589:

Frank, Michael J. (April 2006). "Trying Times – The Prosecution of Terrorists in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq".

6817: 18422: 18391:

Hardy, P. (1991). "Djizya. iii. India". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).

13901: 13366: 10657: 6142:. Committee officers were authorized to detain violators before a 2016 reform. With the rising international influence of 4383:

reforms of the 19th century saw reorganization of both Islamic civil law and sultanic criminal law after the model of the

18171: 17758:(2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, 24–25 February 1977): 187–98 . 16058: 13693: 10596: 7648: 7166:

was launched in 2010 with Imams and Muslim leaders committing to join with others to work to end violence against women.

6774: 6633: 6604: 6124: 6090: 5591: 2435: 2216: 1752: 1670: 1641: 1015: 988: 835: 11871: 3560: 1914:

Only several verses of the Quran have direct legal relevance, and they are concentrated in a few specific areas such as

19030: 18877: 18858: 18644: 18465: 18384: 18342: 18324: 17869: 17673: 17461: 17428:

Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 151

17309: 17077: 17048: 17013: 16711: 16508: 16450: 16421: 15915: 15623: 15559: 15367: 15291: 15252: 15177: 15077: 14977: 14789: 14765: 14715: 14698: 14577: 14556: 14481: 14444: 14321: 13976: 13764: 13621: 13436: 13317: 13194: 13133: 13019: 12743: 12698: 12674: 12650: 12574: 12530: 12510: 12479: 12310: 12293: 12174: 12157: 10981: 10838: 9291: 8868: 8837: 8628: 8553: 8401: 7345:

has stated that "terrorizing innocent people constitute a form of injustice that cannot be tolerated by Islam", while

2980: 1730:

in theology (syncretists). In the classical age of Islam, there were violent conflicts between rationalists (aqliyyun;

17437:

Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall p. 153

7115:, counseled a husband not to beat his wife even if she ignored him but rather to express his anger in some other way. 6038:

Modern public and political fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world and beyond.

4208:. This early attempt to turn Islamic law into semi-codified state legislation sparked rebellions against Mughal rule. 19129: 19076: 19001: 18948: 18921: 18825: 18567: 18522: 18495: 18244: 18090: 16969:

Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press.

12204:"MENA Gender Equality Profile – Status of Girls and Women in the Middle East and North Africa, UNICEF (October 2011)" 10765: 10555: 10042: 9684: 9386: 9164: 9116: 7940: 7057:

Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws in most Islamic-majority nations. These personal status laws determine

5815: 5162: 4955: 4532: 4408: 3545: 516: 16441:. In Grillo, Ralpho; Ballard, Roger; Ferrari, Alessandro; Hoekema, André J.; Maussen, Marcel; Shah, Prakash (eds.). 16125: 14470:"Progressive Muslims and Islamic jurisprudence: the necessity for critical engagement with marriage and divorce law" 13929:"Religious Arbitration in Ontario – Making the Case Based on the British Example of the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal" 13662: 9927: 6660:

summarized the criticism of the Cairo Declaration in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the

5797: 19401: 12987: 10833:

Jonathan E. Brockopp (2000), Early Mālikī Law: Ibn ʻAbd Al-Ḥakam and His Major Compendium of Jurisprudence, Brill,

7017: 6945: 6869:

According to the classical doctrine, apostasy from Islam is a crime as well as a sin, and can be punished with the

6511:, condemns imitation of foreign ideas, drawing a distinction between Western democracy and the Islamic doctrine of 6347: 5553: 3130: 116: 6365:) declared his opposition to "any expansion of Sharia law in the UK." In Germany, in 2014, the Interior Minister ( 6081:

support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence.

5906:

allowing substitution of up to three male with six female witnesses; however, at least one must be a Muslim male.

4270:

only two percent of cases involved non-Muslims whereas in 1789 non-Muslims were a part of thirty percent of cases.

4261:, which entailed a number of protections, restrictions, freedoms and legal inequalities, including payment of the 3865:

were short specialized treatises or general overviews that could be used in a classroom or consulted by judges. A

1864:

Some researchers however, suggests that primary sources may have also evolved, contrary to traditional knowledge;

17691:"The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College" 17641: 11963: 9701: 7601:

There are differences between Islamic and Western legal systems. For example, Sharia classically recognizes only

7022: 6803:, have been assassinated over their criticism of the blasphemy laws. The Pakistani blasphemy laws are based upon 2058: 1002:

Over time with the necessities brought by sociological changes, on the basis of mentioned interpretative studies

698: 12525:

Timur Kuran (2012), The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, Princeton University Press,

12436: 7306: 5721:

penalties are legal do not use stoning and amputation routinely, and generally apply other punishments instead.

3187: 1388:

In older English-language law-related works in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the word used for Sharia was

19381: 18870:

Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present

17337:

Tyan, E. (2012). "D̲j̲ihād". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).

16991: 16974: 16898: 16201: 15669: 14852: 12203: 7433: 7141: 6600: 6592: 6313: 5782: 5563: 5448: 4415:, but Ottoman civil laws remained in force for several decades in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Iraq. 3768: 3702: 3227: 2728: 2393: 1603: 1437: 1304:

was widely used by Arabic-speaking Jews during the Middle Ages, being the most common translation for the word

956: 819:

and sharia has never been the sole valid legal system in Islam historically; it has always been used alongside

643: 16986:

Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press.

12140:

Tetley (1999), Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified), La. Law Review, 60, 677

11013: 9220: 8404:. Quote: "... by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the 7565:("teacher"), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms 6192:). Elsewhere, policing of various interpretations of Sharia-based public morality has been carried out by the 4478:) of Sharia, which played a limited role in classical fiqh, but were now given wider utilitarian applications. 1266:שָׂרַע and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way" or "path". Some scholars describe it as an archaic 13209:"Apostasy and Public Policy in Contemporary Egypt: An Evaluation of Recent Cases from Egypt's Highest Courts" 7653: 5566:

in Strasbourg (ECtHR) ruled in several cases that sharia is "incompatible with the fundamental principles of

5172: 2228:) are considered unambiguous with regard to the question, or where there is an existing scholarly consensus ( 937:'physical or mental effort'). Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law, 387: 18505:

Jokisch, Benjamin (2015). "Origins of and Influences on Islamic law". In Anver M. Emon; Rumee Ahmed (eds.).

16727: 13308:

Helmi Noman (2013), "In the name of God – Faith based internet censorship in majority Muslim countries", in

12238:

Fadel, Mohammad (2009). "Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought".

9570: 9545: 6473:

Belief that democracy requires restricting religion to private life, held by a minority in the Muslim world.

6250:

makes use of Sharia family law to settle disputes, though this limited adoption of Sharia is controversial.

5212: 4504:

The most powerful influence on liberal reformist thought came from the work of the Egyptian Islamic scholar

3807:). The special significance of ritual was marked by always placing its discussion at the start of the work. 1057:

advocate the complete and uncompromising implementation of "exact/pure sharia" without modifications, while

19386: 16567: 12413: 7332:, have supported attacks against Israeli army reservists and hence should be considered as soldiers, while 7309:". However, sharia-complaint financing actually requires a person to stay away from weapons manufacturing. 7204: 6243: 5696: 5512:

criminal punishments (whipping, stoning and amputation) prescribed for certain crimes. For many Islamists,

4037: 3434: 3389: 3016: 2606: 1465: 1050: 948: 419: 31: 18839:. Vol. Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context (Kindle ed.). Stanford University Press. 11920: 10810:"Opinion: As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity" 8460: 6636:, a group representing all Muslim-majority nations, met in Cairo to respond to the UDHR, then adopted the 4204:

fatwas as well as decisions of Islamic courts, and made it applicable to all religious communities on the

1597:

of the hadith back to Muhammad's companions. In his view, the real architect of Islamic jurisprudence was

17: 19312: 18071: 16915: 10134: 8860: 7773:

and others, in contrast to later works by al-Bukhari, Muslim, etc. that contain only ahadith by Muhammad.

7342: 7302: 7047: 6247: 4657: 3502: 466: 293: 18272:

Contemporary Muslim Reformist Thought and Maqāṣid cum Maṣlaḥa Approaches to Islamic Law: An Introduction

12305:

Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese (2013), Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, Sage publications,

8485: 4387:. In the 1870s, a codification of civil law and procedure (excepting marriage and divorce), called the 19346: 18847:

Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy

17974:"Why the Middle East is Economically Underdeveloped: Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation" 17665: 15359: 15327: 14295: 13928: 13335: 10075: 8507:

Patricia Crone / Martin Hinds: God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986)

7924: 6534:. Islamic leaders are considered to uphold justice if they promote public interest, as defined through 5282: 4950: 4774: 4600: 3667: 2945: 2214:

requires expertise in the Arabic language, theology, religious texts, and principles of jurisprudence (

1727: 952: 506: 50: 18743: 17180:

Pirates, Terrorists, and Warlords: The History, Influence, and Future of Armed Groups Around the World

15403: 14870:

N Swazo (2014). "The Case of Hamza Kashgari: Examining Apostasy, Heresy, and Blasphemy Under Sharia".

13875: 13720: 13330: 10607: 9043: 17582: 16757: 15008: 8393: 7670: 7472: 7333: 6850: 6784: 6462:

Rejection of democracy as a Western import and advocacy of traditional Islamic institutions, such as

5441: 5396: 4739: 4033: 3733: 3035: 1897:: in Islam, the Quran is considered to be the most sacred source of law. Classical jurists held its " 1881: 1512: 601: 313: 46: 16672: 14972:

Brian Winston (2014), The Rushdie Fatwa and After: A Lesson to the Circumspect, Palgrave Macmillan,

14904: 12121: 9558:

https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/ISL431%20Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Jurisprudence%20100713.pdf

9533:

https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/ISL431%20Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Jurisprudence%20100713.pdf

6928: 6577:, have justified pluralism and freedom through non-literalist approaches to textual interpretation. 6334: 5687:(monetary compensation). Iran subsequently issued a new "Islamic Penal Code". The criminal codes of 1780:

jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (

1773:, which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question. 19181: 18274:. Vol. Maqasid al-Shari’a and Contemporary Reformist Muslim Thought: An Examination. Springer. 17387: 17225: 17070:

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9054: 8720: 7200: 7066: 6111: 6012:

a Muslim male would receive, while for all other non-Muslim males the proportion is one-sixteenth.

4520: 4459:), potentially among multiple madhhabs or denominations, and combining parts of different rulings ( 4225: 4030:

jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from the early modern era.

3577: 3411: 2677: 2602: 2529:

afterlife, while neutral actions entail no judgment from God. Jurists disagree on whether the term

2360: 1011: 533: 333: 19068: 18993: 18487: 18379:. Frankfurt; New York City: Campus Verlag and Chicago: University of Chicago Press (distributor). 17301: 10730:"10. How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone? - Edip-Layth - quranix.org" 10473:"Ijtihād against Madhhab: Legal Hybridity and the Meanings of Modernity in Early Modern Daghestan" 4169: 2267:

prompted leading Sunni jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and then

19104: 17690: 16853: 12502: 8498:

Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015)

7346: 7278: 6193: 5917: 5909: 5793: 5359: 3159: 2626: 2204:, or exertion of a jurist's mentality in finding a solution to a legal question in contrast with 128: 17821:

Makdisi, George (1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West".

16500: 16494: 12823: 12786: 6910:

Twenty-three Muslim-majority countries, as of 2013, penalized apostasy from Islam through their

6873:, typically after a waiting period to allow the apostate time to repent and to return to Islam. 6619:(UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non- 5099: 3672: 916:— developed methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as 19396: 19020:

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Islamic Law and Legal Change: The Concept of Maslaha in Classical and Contemporary Legal Theory

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have used their interpretation of Islamic scriptures and Sharia, in particular the doctrine of

7005: 6992: 6809: 5227: 4663: 3908: 3583: 3208: 3135: 2621:

is presented as a "condition" for orthodox Islam by many prominent Sunni creed writers such as

1612: 1566: 1503:) Muslim view, the major precepts of Sharia were passed down directly from the Islamic prophet 1054: 582: 348: 42: 38: 18514: 17857: 17451: 16553: 16490: 16409: 15899: 14469: 14246: 13129: 13009: 12735: 12726:

Silvia Tellenbach (2014). "Islamic Criminal Law". In Markus D. Dubber; Tatjana Hörnle (eds.).

12275: 11823: 10755: 9106: 8974: 8970: 8541: 6470:(consensus), as exemplified by supporters of absolute monarchy and radical Islamist movements; 5869:, and unlike civil law, Sharia is left to the interpretation in each case and has no formally 2244: 1436:

Some articles that may be considered precursors of sharia law and rituals can be found in the

19189: 19165: 19148: 18967: 18896: 18192: 18142: 18116: 17289: 17105: 16867:

Noor, Azman Mohd (1 January 2010). "Rape: A Problem of Crime Classification in Islamic Law".

16438: 16351: 15549: 15281: 15242: 15067: 13966: 12688: 10786: 8829: 7900: 7633: 7163: 7129: 6442:

distinguish four attitudes toward Sharia and democracy prominent among contemporary Muslims:

5300: 5139: 4940: 2112:- rather than an auxiliary one - will pave the way for the re-critique and reorganization of 1006:

have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as

811:, in a sense the practical application side of sharia, was manipulated over the centuries by 577: 402: 186: 141: 19287:, via Bridging Cultures, National Endowment for the Humanities & George Mason University 18043:

Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study

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Kusha, Hamid R. (2007). "Qur'anic Perspectives on Wife Abuse". In Jackson, Nicky Ali (ed.).

15762: 15209: 12044: 10859:

Jonathan A. C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters: Sunni Skepticism about the Miracles of Saints",

9773: 8516: 8381: 8300: 6366: 2668:

Jurisdiction that concerns individuals is personal and, for example, in a Islamic Qisas or

2589: 1607:, but who was preceded by a body of Islamic law not based on primacy of Muhammad's hadiths. 1456:

inscriptions, and continuity can be observed in many details, especially in todays hajj and

19391: 19121: 18940: 18913: 18817: 18794: 18777: 18726: 18549: 18262: 15699: 13077:

Olaniyi, Rasheed Oyewole (2011). "Hisbah and Sharia Law Enforcement in Metropolitan Kano".

12760: 9611:"The Mihna. Deconstruction and reconsideration of the Mu'tazilite role in the "Inquisition" 9156: 8961: 8623:(Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; 8376: 8038: 7124: 7031: 6508: 6439: 5692: 5217: 5011: 4605: 4519:

One of the most influential figures in modern legal reforms was the Egyptian legal scholar

4349: 4149:

took an active role in pursuing these types of offenses and meted out punishments based on

3782: 3650: 2062: 1483: 14863:

P Smith (2003). "Speak No Evil: Apostasy, Blasphemy and Heresy in Malaysian Syariah Law".

13849: 12805: 12606: 12186:

Etannibi E. O. Alemika (2005), "Human Rights and Shariah Penal Code in Northern Nigeria",

8621:

Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East

8473: 6390:

According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at

5119: 4273:

Ottoman court records also reflect the use of Islamic courts by formerly non-Muslim women.

1140:

can mean "our religion" in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse,

8: 17183: 15833: 15611: 14947: 13823: 12363:(1998). "Punishment in Islamic Law: A Critique of the Hudud Bill of Kelantan, Malaysia". 12169:

Tahir Wasti (2009), The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan, Brill Academic,

7896: 7103: 6896: 6734: 6693: 6643: 6574: 6547: 6482: 6412: 5384: 5354: 4585: 4205: 4106: 4072: 3245: 3194: 2141: 2121: 1885: 1817: 1692: 1100: 932: 798: 741: 691: 587: 221: 121: 16496:

Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century

16312:

Powers, David S. (1993). "The Islamic Inheritance System: a Socio-Historical Approach".

7140:, in the Quran, has been debated for domestic violence and also has been the subject to 5644:

also maintaining characteristics of mixed systems, like codified laws and a parliament.

18096: 17927: 17900:(Fall 2005). "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence". 17838: 17767: 17720: 17712: 16952: 16788:"Muslim Council of Britain urges Imams to speak out against domestic abuse this Friday" 16676: 16624: 16616: 16541: 16329: 16242: 15968: 15880: 15148: 14673: 14638: 14534: 14526: 14078: 13249: 13241: 13094: 12566: 12382: 12365: 12263: 12255: 11517: 10658:

https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047400851/B9789047400851_s012.xml?language=en

10500: 10492: 10453: 10445: 9201: 9031: 8927: 8602: 8594: 8582: 7762: 7628: 7583:, respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West. 7425: 7377: 6955: 6870: 6816:

to make them more severe. A number of clauses were added by the government in order to

6763: 6578: 6183: 6154: 6052: 6039: 5870: 5559: 5522: 5488: 5329: 5305: 5167: 4945: 4930: 4840: 4693: 4493: 4404: 4400: 4374:, the first such changes in the legal sphere involved placing the formerly independent 3761: 3406: 3148: 2952: 1777: 1696: 1477: 1070: 1035: 755: 611: 568: 538: 521: 496: 441: 397: 109: 17750:

Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978). "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems".

16059:"Islam and Homosexuality: Religious Dogma, Colonial Rule, and the Quest for Belonging" 15639: 13511:"The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society. Chapter 1: Beliefs About Sharia" 13155: 10597:

https://www.elevenjournals.com/tijdschrift/ejlr/2014/2/EJLR_1387-2370_2014_016_002_003

1570: 987:, which is frequently repeated in the Quran regarding the attributes of believers as " 19185: 19125: 19072: 19026: 18997: 18944: 18917: 18873: 18854: 18821: 18659: 18640: 18611: 18582: 18563: 18518: 18491: 18461: 18428: 18380: 18338: 18320: 18306: 18240: 18086: 17865: 17724: 17669: 17457: 17407: 17403: 17361: 17346: 17305: 17073: 17044: 17009: 16987: 16970: 16894: 16707: 16628: 16549: 16545: 16504: 16446: 16417: 16197: 16032: 15991: 15960: 15911: 15884: 15818: 15791: 15743: 15705: 15619: 15555: 15527: 15498: 15363: 15331: 15287: 15248: 15217: 15173: 15073: 15033: 14973: 14848: 14785: 14761: 14711: 14694: 14677: 14573: 14552: 14538: 14477: 14450: 14440: 14317: 14082: 14070: 13972: 13760: 13313: 13295: 13253: 13190: 13125: 13098: 13015: 12739: 12694: 12670: 12646: 12570: 12526: 12506: 12475: 12306: 12289: 12271: 12267: 12170: 12153: 12078: 11872:

https://rwi.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2020-OIC-Declaration-of-Human-Rights.pdf

11521: 11513: 10977: 10893: 10834: 10761: 10576: 10551: 10504: 10457: 10392: 10361: 10205: 10079: 10038: 9906: 9680: 9382: 9287: 9193: 9160: 9112: 8864: 8833: 8743: 8624: 8606: 8586: 8549: 8397: 8306: 7946: 7936: 7643: 7614: 7567: 7329: 7325: 7290: 7261: 7257: 7112: 7091: 7058: 6915: 6859: 6843: 6833: 6804: 6738: 6551: 6456: 6391: 6329: 6226: 6073: 5895: 5877: 5856: 5636:

central legislative role is played by politicians and modern jurists rather than the

5537: 5389: 5339: 5267: 5232: 5207: 5187: 5104: 5065: 5041: 4800: 4752: 4713: 4703: 4679: 4595: 4557: 4197: 3425: 3166: 3087: 3025: 2923: 2902: 2642: 2439: 2329: 2299: 2153: 2133: 2109: 1898: 1803: 1548: 1318:. A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers. The Arabic expression 1074: 1058: 839: 652: 616: 563: 476: 436: 298: 19315:– anthropologist John R. Bowen explains the working of Britain's sharia courts in a 19045: 18760: 18709: 18174:. In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). 15434: 7209: 5594:

declared that human rights can only be respected if they are compatible with Islam.

3915:. One of the oldest literary manuscripts of the Islamic world, dated October 879 AD. 3838:

is imposed for non-intentional harm. Other criminal cases belong to the category of

2306:

movements. Among contemporary Muslims in the West there have emerged new visions of

2271:

was gradually restricted. In the modern era, this gave rise to a perception amongst

909: 19117: 19064: 19041: 18989: 18936: 18909: 18813: 18756: 18705: 18553: 18545: 18510: 18483: 18409: 18302: 17985: 17954: 17917: 17909: 17830: 17798: 17759: 17704: 17399: 17342: 17297: 17268: 16944: 16876: 16608: 16533: 16348:

Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy

16321: 16153:"Analysis – Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death" 15972: 15952: 15872: 15814: 15140: 14738: 14665: 14630: 14518: 14357: 14347: 14062: 13291: 13231: 13223: 13086: 12731: 12374: 12247: 12070: 12040: 11509: 10757:

Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women

10484: 10437: 10300: 10280: 10210: 10108: 9152: 8735: 8578: 7928: 7818: 7675: 7298: 6904: 6863: 6672: 6478: 6309: 6292: 6230: 5597: 5272: 5222: 4830: 4728: 4723: 4708: 4412: 3912: 3092: 2966: 2310:

which emphasize substantive moral values over traditional juridical undertandings.

2252: 2001: 1813: 1536: 1405: 853: 461: 456: 407: 392: 377: 286: 165: 18601:. Vol. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). 18532:

Jones-Pauly, Cristina (2009). "Codes and Codification". In Stanley N. Katz (ed.).

17605: 16365:"Surah 4:34 (An-Nisaa), Alim – Translated by Mohammad Asad, Gibraltar (1980)" 15728: 14378: 14206: 14066: 12288:

Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications,

7513:) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems, as are the English 2016:

amongst the Sunnis. Twelver Shia jurisprudence also does not recognize the use of

19376: 19332: 18400:

Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2013). "Fatwa". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).

18234: 17945:

Kuran, Timur (2005). "The logic of financial westernization in the Middle East".

17536:

The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson

17495: 17488: 17141: 16922: 15769: 15750: 15640:"UN rights office deeply concerned over Sudanese woman facing death for apostasy" 15464: 15111: 15015: 14996: 14934: 14911: 14278: 13756:

Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia

13649: 13541:"Conference Call Transcript: The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society" 13406: 13160: 12830: 12812: 12793: 12549: 12096: 10690: 10630: 9277: 9050: 8388: 7932: 7869: 7845: 7602: 7285:

ideologues have used their interpretation of Sharia to justify terrorist attacks.

7273: 7009: 6773:

Blasphemy, as interpreted under Sharia, is controversial. Representatives of the

6742: 6628: 6570: 6566: 6543: 6486: 6268: 6077: 5852: 5541: 5484: 5475: 5431: 5182: 5094: 4935: 4845: 4769: 4640: 4590: 4524: 4384: 4321: 4309: 4280:

However, this would likely lead to them being shunned by their former community.

3744: 3294: 3073: 3052: 2551:

fiqh does not consider both terms as synonymous and makes a distinction between "

2337: 2283: 2235: 2054: 1869: 1429: 1271: 1255: 1083: 1066: 923: 879: 867: 789: 732: 596: 412: 372: 361: 343: 246: 191: 104: 19011:

Stewart, Devin J. (2013). "Shari'a". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).

18007:"The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, By Timur Kuran" 14522: 14431:

Sajoo, Amyn B (Spring 1990). "Islam and Human Rights: Congruence or Dichotomy".

14050: 13090: 10517:

Sociology of religions: perspectives of Ali Shariati (2008) Mir Mohammed Ibrahim

9625: 5789: 2324:, Iran; Religious leaders who have the authority to interpret sharia sources in 1942:

established. Muhammad's sunnah gave way to the "hadiths of Muhammad" which were

1657:), which is devoted to elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles. 1519:) and transmitted this information to the succeeding generations in the form of 1022:

applications of laws and regulations. Although sharia is presented as a form of

19247: 18632: 17958: 17538:. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 297–98 see Bibliography for Conclusion. 15591:

warranted if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder (

14782:

Religious Offence and Human Rights: The Implications of Defamation of Religions

13362: 12378: 10112: 8808: 7579: 7548: 7538: 7222: 7077: 7043: 6970: 6800: 6796: 6665: 6605:

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

6558: 6408: 6305: 6288: 6047: 6043: 5377: 5344: 5247: 5197: 5157: 5134: 5089: 5023: 4925: 4896: 4871: 4825: 4505: 4497: 4371: 4217: 3066: 2897: 2673: 1947: 1943: 1906: 1877: 1873: 1828:(1865–1935 CE) lists the four basic sources of Islamic law, agreed upon by all 1731: 1723: 1684: 1594: 1574: 1552: 1528: 1469: 1401: 827:, integrated with various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by 684: 556: 543: 501: 446: 60: 19341:– manuscript in Arabic, from the late 19th or early 20th century about Sharia. 18236:

Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity. Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran

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Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd Edition, Vol 1, pp. 13–40.

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Ali, K. (2010). Marriage and slavery in early Islam. Harvard University Press.

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Taher, Abul (14 September 2008). Revealed: UK’s first official sharia courts.

12990:. Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA). Archived from 12607:"An Unjust Doctrine of Civil Arbitration: Sharia Courts in Canada and England" 12251: 12152:

Antoinette Vlieger (2012), Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates,

12074: 10573:

The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani

10488: 10441: 8721:"Path to the Universal Self in Haji Baktash Walî: Four Doors - Forty Stations" 7729:

Shia jurisprudence does not recognize the use of qiyas, but relies on reason (

6754:, and some countries prescribe punishments consisting of fines, imprisonment, 6647:

rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic

5496:

these positions are often encapsulated in the slogan "Islam is the solution" (

4361: 2069: 1472:, also coincides with similar distinctions seen in pre-Islamic civilizations. 19370: 19317: 18615: 18586: 17990: 17973: 17802: 17411: 16880: 16036: 15795: 15545: 15531: 14816: 14133:"Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life" 14074: 12082: 9197: 8747: 8739: 8590: 8372: 7492: 7318: 6940: 6919: 6886: 6751: 6702: 6620: 6596: 6562: 6435: 6362: 6354: 6343: 6222: 5865: 5830: 5533: 5349: 5257: 5242: 5192: 5177: 5129: 5109: 5035: 4781: 4718: 4189: 4094: 3961:

legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.

3754: 2816: 2681: 2105: 1981: 1739: 1726:) and those who tried to find a middle way between the two attitudes such as 1711: 1598: 1544: 1540: 1532: 1507:

without "historical development" and the emergence of Islamic jurisprudence (

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Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2001). "Concubines". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.).

17913: 16325: 16181: 14742: 14634: 14454: 13613: 13424: 13114:"Religious Freedom Implications of Sharia Implementation in Aceh, Indonesia" 13113: 12667:

Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law

19180: 18457: 18449: 18221: 18152:"Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the Shariah in Islam" 16537: 16233: 15964: 15593: 14669: 14598: 14593: 13797:"The War On Sharia Started Long Before You Ever Heard 'Ground Zero Mosque'" 13282:

Olsson, Susanne (2008). "Apostasy in Egypt: Contemporary Cases of Ḥisbah".

11820:

Cases, Materials, and Commentary on the European Convention on Human Rights

8905:

Wörterbuch der griechisch-arabischen Übersetzungen des neunten Jahrhunderts

7791:"What theology is for the Christian, law is for the Muslim." referenced in 7606: 7518: 7387: 6911: 6900: 6891: 6747: 6698: 6656: 6280: 5973: 5966: 5683: 5579: 5574:" have been categorically excluded by the governments of countries such as 5571: 5469: 5420: 5401: 5277: 5262: 5202: 5084: 4891: 4876: 4835: 4764: 4735: 4250: 4101:

go to settle their quarrel before a judge (16th century Persian miniature).

3886: 3830: 3818: 3383: 3374: 3351: 3303: 3180: 3059: 3001: 2693: 2669: 2560: 2559:"; In Hanafi fiqh, two conditions are required to impose the fard rule. 1. 2145: 1865: 1791: 1719: 1150: 1062: 775: 672: 628: 365: 97: 86: 18367:(2010). "Islamic Law: History and Transformation". In Robert Irwin (ed.). 15876: 15863:

Falaky, Fayçal (2018). "Radical Islam, Tolerance, and the Enlightenment".

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have been used to convict more than a thousand people, about half of them

6615:

Governments of several predominantly Muslim countries have criticized the

6060:

Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of

4244:

child slave sentenced to transport logs by Arab master in Sultanate, 1890s

3978:

inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the

2377: 1220: 1042:

by most Muslims, not as a period when sharia was dominant, but a kind of "

18691:

Masters, Bruce (2009). "Dhimmi". In Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Masters (eds.).

18364: 18352: 18330: 17897: 16491:"Law-Making in the Name of Islam: Implications for Democratic Governance" 15319: 15214:

Peace-Building by, between, and beyond Muslims and Evangelical Christians

15210:"The Right to religious conversion: Between apostasy and proselytization" 15065: 14806:. Vol. 2. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. 2005. pp. 974–76. 12401: 10619: 10127:

Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse

9571:

https://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/USUL-FIQH.pdf

9546:

https://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/USUL-FIQH.pdf

7770: 7610: 7354: 7241: 7137: 6923: 6874: 6855: 6504: 6448: 6382:

by a 2005 unanimous vote of the National Assembly, while the province of

5949: 5688: 5364: 5252: 5237: 5124: 5048: 4536: 4423: 4395: 4184: 3492: 2851: 2272: 2259:

continued to practise amongst Sunni Muslims. The controversy surrounding

2201: 2137: 1915: 1861:

narration. Acts to the contrary may be punished as denial and apostasy.

1829: 1825: 1315: 1125: 1043: 897: 424: 382: 306: 18558: 18062:

Amanat, Abbas (2009). "Preface". In Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (eds.).

17931: 16956: 14642: 13245: 12991: 10496: 10472: 9205: 9181: 9011: 8880: 7386:. In both religions, revealed law holds a central place, in contrast to 6996:, owing in part to stringent procedural requirements for their harsher ( 6026: 5934: 5426: 2340:, which directly connect their identities to Allah or Islam, and gained 2263:

started with the beginning of the twelfth century. By the 14th century,

19360: 18478:(2014). "Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). 18475: 18126:

The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800

17716: 17580:

Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law",

16620: 16333: 15152: 14656:

Carney, ABD Al-Hakeem (2003). "The Desacralisation of Power in Islam".

12561:

Lippman, Matthew Ross; McConville, Seán; Yerushalmi, Mordechai (1988).

12386: 10222:

Abdeljelil: „Die Maximen der islamischen Jurisprudenz“. 2014, S. 68–70.

9818: 8891: 8598: 8461:

https://www.jurnalhunafa.org/index.php/hunafa/article/download/618/518/

7661: 7488: 7456: 7397: 6813: 6792: 6624: 6358: 6317: 6197: 5860: 5847: 5843: 5493: 5334: 5114: 4886: 4633: 4411:, abolished its Sharia courts and replaced Ottoman civil laws with the 4331: 4326: 3969:(selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and 3932: 3121: 2672:

decisions, jurist must take into account "personal labels" such as the

2598: 2443: 2363: 2275:

scholars and sections of the Muslim public that the so-called "gate of

2081: 2009: 2005: 1676: 1524: 1170: 1146: 1023: 779: 429: 18414:

The Venture of Islam, Volume 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times

17922: 17842: 17771: 16643:"Lebanon – IRIN, United Nations Office of Humanitarian Affairs (2009)" 14530: 14362: 13236: 12259: 10449: 6927:

societies and Islamists have tended to exploit it for political gain.

5742:

and donations. Certain concepts relating to property under Sharia are

3828:), but the victims or their heirs may accept a monetary compensation ( 1476:

was a practice used as a resolution tool in inter-tribal conflicts in

1199: 19112:

Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009). "Uṣūl al-fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.).

18377:

Democratization and Islamic Law – The Sharia Conflict in Nigeria

18050: 16948: 14249:. The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law. 13 February 2003. 14101: 10729: 10425: 7920: 7765:(edited by Shaibani)—contains 429 ahadith by Muhammad but 750 by the 7686: 7573: 7514: 7500: 7225: 7116: 7013: 6264: 6205: 6143: 5859:

of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges' verdicts do not set binding

5705:) punishments for violation of Islamic norms, but explicitly exclude 5701: 5567: 5526: 4901: 4698: 4455:

Selection of alternative opinions from traditional legal literature (

4193: 4019: 3950: 3853: 3723: 2987: 2960: 2685: 2638: 2622: 2572: 2490: 2333: 2317: 2221: 2074: 1956: 1490: 1158: 1039: 968: 328: 19355: 18083:

Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives

17708: 16612: 15945:

The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care

15144: 12761:"International Religious Freedom Report 2006, U.S. State Department" 12123:

Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corp. v. Mobil Yanbu Petrochemical Co.

8546:

Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives

6795:. While none have been legally executed, two Pakistani politicians, 6221:

suit brought by a group of Islamists against the liberal theologian

5800:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 4188:

promulgated by Ottoman sultans beginning from the 15th century. The

17834: 17763: 16214:

Badawi, Jamal A. (September 1971). "The Status of Women in Islam".

15131:

Peters, Rudolph; Vries, Gert J. J. De (1976). "Apostasy in Islam".

10885: 10608:

https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AUFPPlatypus/2006/46.pdf

7706: 7496: 7460: 7400:) as well as less formal, orally transmitted prophetic traditions ( 7282: 7269: 7120: 6755: 6130: 5480: 4881: 4757: 4623: 4565: 4540: 4380: 4241: 4141: 4084: 4026:

muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while

3882: 3661: 3618: 3520: 2832: 2701: 2634: 2563:, (only verses of the Qur'an can be accepted as evidence here, not 2447: 2427: 2421: 2415: 1808: 1790:

and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the

1707: 1680: 1581: 1504: 1499: 1453: 1425: 1377:

designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to

1162: 1091: 1027: 996: 992: 944: 638: 606: 320: 254: 19338: 19241: 15900:"Oppression and Subalternity: Homosexual and Transgender in Islam" 14113: 14005:"Oklahoma International and Sharia Law, State Question 755 (2010)" 13968:

Scapegoating Islam: Intolerance, Security, and the American Muslim

11379: 11377: 10550:. Oxford, England: One World Publications Oxford. pp. 63–64. 9182:"Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society" 7950: 7558: 6210:

Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice

5971:

In classical jurisprudence monetary compensation for bodily harm (

5536:" should take. This is particularly the case for the theorists of 4320:

were initiated in the late 18th century by the governor of Bengal

4305: 2294:, which they saw as a return to Islamic origins. The advocacy of 1649:), which studies the theoretical principles of jurisprudence, and 1449: 1445: 1428:

script with a figure of a camel on a red sandstone fragment, from

1082:

to sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law. The

18316:

Legal Traditions of the World – Sustainable Diversity in Law

17159: 16573: 15990:(Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–362. 15808: 12892: 12890: 11413: 11170: 11168: 11166: 11164: 11162: 11160: 11158: 10130: 7917:

The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace

7766: 7726: 7701: 7504: 7392: 7383: 7371: 7188: 7167: 7151: 6759: 6520: 6383: 6213: 6062: 5987: 5882: 5835: 5583: 4866: 4628: 4389: 4237: 4118: 4098: 4076: 4047: 4005: 3983: 3954: 3946: 3936: 3898: 3639: 3527: 3475: 3272: 2973: 2825: 2770: 2576: 2451: 2397: 2341: 2165: 2149: 2041: 2037: 2023: 1992: 1856: 1782: 1769: 1703: 1557: 1275: 1178: 1104: 1026:

in addition to its other aspects (especially by the contemporary

1003: 918: 913: 893: 828: 803:'jurisprudence'), which refers to its interpretations by 471: 148: 18931:

Rabb, Intisar A. (2009c). "Ijtihād". In John L. Esposito (ed.).

16293: 12472:

Intent in Islamic Law: Motive and Meaning in Medieval Sunnī Fiqh

11720: 11718: 11716: 11714: 10866: 10853: 9863: 9727: 7244:

of slaves. A slave woman who bore a child to her Muslim master (

2704:, etc. Islamic preachers constantly emphasize the importance of 1511:) also goes back to the lifetime of Muhammad. In this view, his 1157:

and in branches of Islam that are influenced by Sufism, such as

1128:

to designate a prophetic religion in its totality. For example,

17147: 14820: 14570:

Religion and Human Rights: Competing Claims?: Competing Claims?

13643:

Killing for religion is justified, say third of Muslim students

12858: 12856: 12787:

Saudi Arabia 2012, International Religious Freedom Report, p. 4

11461: 11389: 11374: 9000:"A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the 8801:

Understanding Islamic Law – From Classical to Contemporary

8428: 8426: 7529: 7429: 7408: 7402: 7216: 7146: 7062: 6821: 6788: 6379: 6291:, the Archbishop of Canterbury, has suggested that Islamic and 6118: 6105: 6068: 5916:, fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other 5714: 5675:

penalties were added, while others also enacted provisions for

4685: 4267: 4258: 4221: 4201: 4135: 4080: 3979: 3941: 3928: 3924: 3625: 3400: 3393: 3250: 3173: 2994: 2805: 2760: 2709: 2697: 2630: 2594: 2564: 2548: 2510: 2325: 2303: 2225: 2206: 1997: 1933: 1927: 1840: 1520: 1516: 1267: 1243: 1174: 1166: 1154: 976: 939: 905: 901: 848: 767: 763: 491: 481: 238: 230: 215: 209: 93: 18984:

Schneider, Irene (2014). "Fiqh". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).

18085:. Vol. 1. The Hague / Boston / London: Martinus Nijhoff. 17785:

Tai, Emily Sohmer (2007). "Book Reviews: Hassan S. Khalilieh,

17199:"Seven Prohibited Industries in Islamic Financial Investments" 16010:

Tilo Beckers, "Islam and the Acceptance of Homosexuality", in

14990:

Bad-mouthing: Pakistan’s blasphemy laws legitimise intolerance

12887: 11155: 10548:

REVIVAL AND REFORM IN ISLAM: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism

9060: 8783: 8781: 8702: 8700: 8698: 8696: 8694: 8692: 8690: 7833: 7638: 7232:

Sharia authorized the institution of slavery, using the words

4122:

court, administered by the ruler's council. The rationale for

2461: 1298:

occur once each, with the meaning "way" or "path". The word

18904:

Rabb, Intisar A. (2009b). "Fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.).

18835:

Opwis, Felicitas (2007). Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (eds.).

17390:(2011). "Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War". 15772:

Oxford Islamic Studies Online, Oxford University Press (2012)

14760:. Burlington VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. pp. 38–39. 13048:"Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security" 11994:"Brunei Shariah law applies death sentence for homosexuality" 11964:"Brunei to Punish Adultery and Gay Sex With Death by Stoning" 11943: 11757: 11755: 11753: 11751: 11749: 11747: 11745: 11711: 8910: 8335: 8333: 8331: 8329: 7553: 7543: 7509: 7294: 7265: 6623:

countries. Iran declared in the UN assembly that UDHR was "a

6463: 6416: 6188: 6171: 6163: 6139: 6021: 5992: 5921: 5885:

jurisprudence, which forms the basis of law in Saudi Arabia.

5677: 5637: 5505: 4806: 4794: 4746: 4580: 4262: 4179: 4059: 4023: 4015: 4011: 4001: 3974: 3958: 3840: 3824: 3812: 3786: 3717: 3710: 3632: 3611: 3604: 3590: 3534: 3468: 3461: 3454: 3442: 3340: 3329: 3283: 3239: 3114: 3105: 3098: 2918: 2911: 2892: 2871: 2798: 2791: 2779: 2689: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2583: 2568: 2556: 2545:), as expressed in the legal maxim "acts are to intention." 2541: 2531: 2518: 2502: 2467: 2402:("traditionalists") who emphasized on reports or traditions ( 2387: 2372: 2356: 2117: 2113: 1986: 1972: 1938: 1919: 1893: 1850: 1834: 1816:. Possibly the oldest, best preserved and most comprehensive 1763: 1743: 1735: 1715: 1660: 1586: 1473: 1461: 1457: 1356: 1311: 1133: 1096: 1087: 1019: 1007: 980: 972: 960: 888: 843: 823:

from the beginning, and applied in courts by ruler-appointed

816: 812: 804: 759: 751: 633: 511: 202: 160: 153: 76: 68: 15066:

Gerhard Böwering; Patricia Crone; Mahan Mirza, eds. (2013).

14379:"Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case" 14207:"Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case" 12853: 11701: 11699: 11697: 11695: 11693: 11691: 11678: 11676: 11617: 11615: 11613: 11611: 11302: 11300: 11298: 10715:. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh: 10575:. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 6. 8983:, of which the ultimate source is the Koran," – A review of 8423: 8003: 8001: 7594:, of which it is a word-for-word translation, with the term 4500:

exercised a powerful influence on liberal reformist thought.

3903: 17558: 17556: 16850:

Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation

15985: 14161: 12843: 12841: 12839: 11347: 11345: 11343: 11341: 11339: 11215: 11213: 11185: 11183: 11081: 11021:

Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review

10955: 10953: 10951: 10938: 10936: 10934: 10932: 10930: 10153: 10151: 10149: 10147: 10145: 10143: 9228:

Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review

8940: 8778: 8766: 8687: 7836: 7824: 7523: 7480: 7464: 6467: 6420: 6371: 5941: 5903: 5575: 4431: 4375: 4053: 4027: 3597: 3513: 3481: 3312: 3261: 3201: 3041: 2880: 2862: 2844: 2736: 2618: 2552: 2478: 2455: 2382: 2348: 2264: 2230: 1964: 1845: 1757: 1635: 1629: 1515:

and followers took what he did and approved of as a model (

1441: 1380: 1078: 964: 858: 824: 784: 262: 170: 18675:

Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry

18279:

El Achi, Soha (2018). "Slavery". In Jonathan Brown (ed.).

17068:

Kecia Ali (15 October 2010). Bernadette J. Brooten (ed.).

17036:

Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa

14186: 13011:

In Custody: Law, Impunity and Prisoner Abuse in South Asia

11772: 11770: 11742: 11651: 11649: 11364: 11362: 11360: 11324: 11283: 11200: 11198: 11145: 11143: 11141: 11139: 11137: 11135: 11098: 11096: 9987: 9985: 9983: 9981: 9979: 9851: 9841: 9839: 9837: 9835: 9833: 9831: 9829: 9827: 9504: 9502: 9500: 8734:(2). Association for Spiritual Psychology and Counseling. 8326: 7821: 7061:

in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody. A 2011

5619: Sharia influences personal status and criminal laws. 2220:), and is not employed where authentic and trusted texts ( 1593:

of jurisprudence supported by the hadith would extend the

19233: 18682:

Mack, Gregory (2018). "Ḥisbah". In Jonathan Brown (ed.).

18081:. In Witte, John Jr.; Van der Vyver, Johan David (eds.). 18045:. British Institute of International and Comparative Law. 15943:

Dialmy, Abdessamad (13 May 2010). "Sexuality and Islam".

12946: 12944: 12942: 12940: 12938: 12563:

Islamic Criminal Law and Procedure – An Introduction

11688: 11673: 11608: 11312: 11295: 10564: 10034:

Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary

9487: 9485: 8805:

Islamic Law – An Overview of its Origin and Elements

8517:

https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1699430

8282: 8280: 7998: 7396:) are derived from formal textual revelations (Quran and 7305:) is a new weapon in the arsenal of what might be termed 6526: 6397: 4150: 2750: 2705: 2321: 1270:

word denoting "pathway to be followed" (analogous to the

820: 18202:"Saudi Arabia Moves to Curb Its Feared Religious Police" 17553: 16569:

CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground

16414:

What Men Owe to Women: Men's Voices from World Religions

15904:

Journal of the International Relations and Affairs Group

14247:"Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey" 12836: 11336: 11271: 11210: 11180: 10948: 10927: 10640: 10638: 10520: 10140: 9679:. Alexandria, VA: Al-Saadawi Publications. p. 127. 9656: 9108:

Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women

8443: 8441: 8356: 8354: 8352: 8350: 8348: 7586:

Makdisi suggested that the medieval European doctorate,

2633:

by puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements such as

2210:(conformity to precedent ijtihad). According to theory, 19313:"Private Arrangements: 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain" 19274: 19013:

The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

18402:

The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

17541: 16281:

Hafez, Mohammed (September 2006). "Why Muslims Rebel".

15495:

The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought

15356:

The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought

15169:

The Middle East, a Brief History of the Last 2000 Years

15069:

The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

12877: 12875: 12873: 12871: 12039:. Oxford Handbooks (online ed.). Oxford Academic. 11900: 11767: 11661: 11646: 11584: 11550: 11548: 11546: 11437: 11357: 11261: 11259: 11257: 11255: 11195: 11132: 11108: 11093: 11071: 11069: 10974:

The Middle East, a brief history of the last 2000 years

10917: 10915: 10913: 10911: 10909: 10262: 10250: 10009: 9976: 9824: 9646: 9644: 9497: 8474:

https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/10064

7683:– a court in the United Kingdom with no legal authority 7382:

Islamic legal tradition has a number of parallels with

5625: Regional variations in the application of sharia. 2715: 2116:

in the context of maqasid and maslaha, thus (including

1371:

in Greek in the New Testament ). In Muslim literature,

1177:. In each of these gates, there are 10 levels that the 18717:

Masud, Muhammad Khalid; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).

18542:

The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History

16728:"Canadian Muslims Launch Annual White Ribbon Campaign" 16410:"Islam and Gender Justice: Beyond Simplistic Apologia" 15734:

31 December 2017 at Wikiwix Library of Congress (2014)

15349: 15347: 15240: 14474:

Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism

12935: 12925: 12923: 12921: 12919: 12917: 11921:"Greece Scraps Compulsory Shariah for Muslim Minority" 11888: 11816:

Refah Partİsİ (The Welfare Party) And Others V. Turkey

11789: 11787: 11785: 11596: 11533: 11531: 11225: 11120: 11067: 11065: 11063: 11061: 11059: 11057: 11055: 11053: 11051: 11049: 10183: 10181: 9751:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 878–879. 9514: 9482: 9260: 9258: 9256: 9146: 8277: 7360: 5613: Sharia influences personal status (family) laws. 4312:

initiated far-reaching legal reforms in British India.

4178:

their capacity as interpreters of the scriptures. The

3795:(lit. branches of fiqh) is traditionally divided into 1937::Although hadiths have largely replaced the sunnah in 1832:: "the sources of legislation in Islam are four: the 1385:, which refers to a scholar's interpretation thereof. 19344: 18178:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 321–26. 16935:

Mazrui, Ali A. (1997). "Islamic and Western Values".

16096:"How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East" 16025:"How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East" 15493:

Ibrahim, Hassan (2006). Abu-Rabi', Ibrahim M. (ed.).

15397: 15395: 15393: 15391: 15376: 14164:"Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible" 13491: 12902: 12758: 12061:"Outlines of Muhammadan Law. By Asaf A. A. Fyzee. ". 11636: 11634: 11632: 11630: 11572: 11449: 10635: 10324: 10322: 10320: 10318: 10316: 10314: 10312: 10310: 10308: 10168: 10166: 9997: 9472: 9439: 9437: 9435: 9433: 9431: 9429: 9427: 9425: 9312: 8677: 8675: 8673: 8640: 8638: 8636: 8438: 8345: 8249: 8247: 8245: 8243: 8241: 8239: 8237: 8235: 8233: 8231: 8229: 8227: 8225: 8223: 8221: 8219: 8217: 8215: 8213: 7052: 4316:

The first significant changes to the legal system of

3822:

that prescribes a punishment analogous to the crime (

2031: 19088:

Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law

18606:

Khadduri, Majid; Liebesny, Herbert J., eds. (1955).

17144:

School of Law, University of Bedfordshire, pp. 18–25

15616:

The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists

15105:

Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?

12868: 12434: 12350:. Karachi: International Islamic Publishers. p. 133. 12316: 12056: 12054: 11876: 11543: 11425: 11401: 11252: 11242: 11240: 10906: 10531:

harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNewman_in_Meri2006 (

10238: 10203:

Ed. Aḥmad Zakī Ḥammād. SIDRA, Riad, 2009?. S. 328. (

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becoming a devout follower of Islam. In the modern

5996:) at one-fifteenth the value of a free Muslim male. 5842:

Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers;

4196:(r. 1658–1707) issued a hybrid body of law known as 1948:

systematized and purified within following centuries

1378: 1372: 1319: 1305: 1299: 1293: 1287: 17257:"Shariah-compliant FinTech in the banking industry" 17003: 15344: 14027: 13466:

The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society

12914: 12690:

The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan

12328: 12125:, Supreme Court of Delaware, January 14, 2005 p. 52 11782: 11528: 11482:

Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies

11046: 10178: 9407: 9253: 9104: 8366: 8074: 8072: 8070: 8068: 8066: 8064: 8062: 8060: 8058: 8056: 7827: 7076:The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the 6518:The moderate Islamic view stresses the concepts of 6338:

Protest against Sharia in the United Kingdom (2014)

2376:) until the Shiite embrace of various doctrines of 1619: 1061:argue that it can/should be brought into line with 19054: 18803: 18533: 18287: 16847: 16493:. In Nathan, K S; Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (eds.). 15388: 15212:. In Mohammed Abu-Nimer; David Augsburger (eds.). 14888: 14119: 14107: 14051:"Sharīʻa, Islamism and Arab support for democracy" 13007: 12016: 11730: 11627: 11560: 11419: 10753: 10382: 10347: 10305: 10209:is available for free viewing and download at the 10163: 9964: 9586:harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBlankinship2008 ( 9422: 8633: 8544:. In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.). 8521: 7664:school – each used to illustrate a fundamental of 6610: 5607: Sharia plays no role in the judicial system. 3990: 2450:towards the end of his lifetime, and according to 2066:falsafat at-tašrīʿ (“Philosophy of Legislation”). 30:"Islamic law" redirects here. For other uses, see 19277:– information and misconceptions about sharia law 19164:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 19147:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18966:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18895:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18793:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18776:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18768:Messick, Brinkley; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009). 18767: 18742:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18725:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18448: 18318:(5th edition) ed.). Oxford University Press. 18288:Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2018). 18261:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18252: 18191:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 18141:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 17165: 17153: 17104:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from 16819:"Imams rally against domestic violence in the UK" 16499:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 16412:. In Raines, John C.; Maguire, Daniel C. 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University of Chicago Press (Kindle edition). 18253:Dallal, Ahmad S.; Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009). 18076:"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights" 18004: 17947:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 17603: 16758:"Call to Action to Eradicate Domestic Violence" 16280: 15426: 15159: 14872:The Review of Faith & International Affairs 13748: 13746: 13312:(Editors: Monroe E. Price, et al.), Routledge, 12862: 12437:"DNA Evidence in Pakistani Courts: An Analysis" 12400:Mohd Noor, Azman; Ibrahim, Ahmad Basri (2008). 11467: 11395: 11383: 10341: 10339: 10337: 9136:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15. 8542:"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights" 8298: 7459:. Similarities exist between the royal English 6402: 2095:Although most classical-era jurists recognized 1706:" vis-à-vis naql: those who rely on narration ( 886:) – a consensus by religious authorities), and 18359:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). 18220:Coulson, Noel James; El Shamsy, Ahmed (2019). 18170:Calder, Norman; Hooker, Michael Barry (2007). 17862:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia 17449: 16056: 15483: 15117: 15021: 14948:"University of Minnesota Human Rights Library" 13842: 13785: 13691: 12198: 12196: 12034: 10990: 10683:"Ek 15 – Dini Görevler: Tanrı'dan Bir Armağan" 10631:https://sunnah.com/search?q=temporary+marriage 10526: 9286:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–24. 9283:Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought 8803:(edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud). Chapter 1 7420:both mean literally "the path to follow". The 2355:until the 12th century. 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Cambridge University Press. 18357:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations 17809: 17594: 17453:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations 17440: 17287: 17217: 17190: 17120: 17006:Uncovering the History of Africans in Asia 16893:* Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?, 16706:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 595–602. 16085: 16014:, ed. Samar Habib, 64–65 (Praeger, 2009). 15203: 15201: 15072:. Princeton University Press. p. 72. 14937:Nina Shea, National Review (31 March 2011) 14727: 14596:, and Tom Flynn. "Defaming Human Rights". 14508: 13960: 13958: 13956: 13954: 13696:. 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Archived from 19069:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 19035: 18994:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 18983: 18557: 18488:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 18115:. Oxford University Press. Archived from 17989: 17921: 17489:Controversial preacher with 'star status' 17302:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001 17272: 17067: 17004:Jean Pierre Angenot; et al. (2008). 16175: 15782:Zwemer, Samuel M. "The Law of Apostasy". 15518:Zwemer, Samuel M. "The Law of Apostasy". 15497:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 167–69. 15457: 15432: 15056: 14361: 14351: 14292:"ECHR press release Refah Partisi (2001)" 13902:"Quebec gives thumbs down to Shariah law" 13451: 13235: 12950: 12759:U.S. State Department (17 October 2008). 12585: 12583: 12233: 12231: 10713:Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi 10423: 10069: 9623: 9140: 9066: 9008:The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy 8846: 8360: 7895: 7412:). According to some scholars, the words 6253: 5816:Learn how and when to remove this message 5313:Liberal and reform movements within Islam 2410:would become a mainstream Shia practice. 1281: 19210: 18684:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law 18654:Lapidus, Ira M.; Salaymeh, Lena (2014). 18576: 18281:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law 18269: 17823:Journal of the American Oriental Society 17688: 17659: 17568: 17336: 17072:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 107–119. 16267: 16265: 16226: 16196:Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?, 16004: 15979: 14689: 14687: 13876:"Germany won't tolerate 'Sharia police'" 13572: 12661: 12659: 12435:Shahbaz Ahmad Cheema (30 January 2017). 12097:"Qatar: The Duality of the Legal System" 10157: 10072:The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law 10021: 9746: 9735: 9381:. Oxford University Press. p. 393. 9377:. In Anver M. 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Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in 10471:Gould, Rebecca (January 2015). 10092: 10063: 9949: 9919: 9879: 9812: 9803: 9788: 9719: 9668: 9632: 9603: 9594: 9562: 9550: 9537: 9526: 9270: 9173: 8991: 8952: 8896: 8885: 8874: 8719:Sevim, Erdem (1 October 2016). 8613: 8510: 8501: 8492: 8478: 8465: 8453: 7776: 7755: 7745: 7736: 7720: 6854:Execution of a Moroccan woman ( 6611:Compatibility with human rights 5724: 5665: 4546: 3991:Pre-modern Islamic legal system 3919:The main Sunni schools of law ( 3278:(unlawful warfare and banditry) 1818:Islamic archaeological document 1753:to distinguish right from wrong 836:theory of Islamic jurisprudence 19269:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam 19252:An Introduction to Islamic Law 18853:. Amsterdam University Press. 18656:A History of Islamic Societies 18637:A History of Islamic Societies 18337:. Cambridge University Press. 18335:An Introduction to Islamic Law 18150:Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2017). 18133:Brown, Jonathan A. C. 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(2013). 13052:RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty 8433:Coulson & El Shamsy 2019 8416:(analogical reasoning), and 7933:10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003 7879: 7613:, i.e., a legal entity that 7533:institutions, respectively. 7521:institutions to the Islamic 7312:In classical fiqh, the term 7251: 7205:Islamic views on concubinage 6741:or scriptures, insulting an 6716: Fines and restrictions 6687: 6403:Compatibility with democracy 4401:Ottoman Law of Family Rights 4038:Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand 2607:Islamic views on concubinage 2584:the way a woman should dress 2366:were unanimous in censuring 2059:Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam 1761:) and analogical reasoning ( 1438:pre-Islamic Arabic Religions 1242:The primary meanings of the 1237: 782:and this is contrasted with 32:Islamic law (disambiguation) 7: 19223:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P. 19190:"Reliance of the Traveller" 19156:Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009c). 19141:"Law. Sunnī Schools of Law" 19139:Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009b). 19063:. Oxford University Press. 18988:. Oxford University Press. 18872:. Leiden University Press. 18802:Nettler, Ronald L. (2009). 18482:. Oxford University Press. 18107:Berger, Maurits S. (2014). 18057:. Harvard University Press. 16601:Journal of Law and Religion 16128:. Death Penalty Worldwide. 15744:Laws Criminalizing Apostasy 15729:Laws Criminalizing Apostasy 15599:The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia 15588:The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia 14658:Religion, State and Society 14523:10.1177/0090591700028001005 13965:Thomas, Jeffrey L. (2015). 13719:Awad, Abed (14 June 2012). 13091:10.2979/africatoday.57.4.71 13008:Nitya Ramakrishnan (2013). 12863:Masud & Kéchichian 2009 12804:Human Rights Watch (2004), 12669:, Oxford University Press, 12533:, pp. 246–49 and Chapter 12 12348:Introduction to Islamic Law 11822:, OUP Oxford, 2012, p 744, 11468:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014 11396:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014 11384:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014 10754:Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011). 10135:University of Chicago Press 9876:: pp. 43-44, 56-59, 122-124 8861:University of Georgia Press 8799:Abdal-Haqq, Irshad (2006). 7860: 7621: 7592:ijazat al-tadris wa-l-ifta’ 7499:. The methodology of legal 7463:protected by the action of 7343:Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia 7324:Some modern ulema, such as 7048:Islam and domestic violence 6887:"no compulsion in religion" 6842:Countries that criminalize 6827: 6785:In Pakistan, blasphemy laws 6248:Muslim Arbitration Tribunal 5796:the claims made and adding 4967:Militant Islamism based in 2386:. After the victory of the 2084:(d. 1111), who argued that 2073:Mausoleum of al-Ghazali in 1620:Traditional jurisprudence ( 1569:hypothesis was advanced by 1379: 1373: 1320: 1306: 1300: 1294: 1288: 1221: 250:("Stories of the Prophets") 10: 19418: 19213:Encyclopaedia of the Quran 19090:. Oxford University Press. 19024:. Oxford University Press. 18958:Rabb, Intisar A. (2009d). 18844:Otto, Jan Michiel (2008). 18736:"Law. Modern Legal Reform" 18719:"Fatwā. Concepts of Fatwā" 18686:. Oxford University Press. 18677:. Oxford University Press. 18424:In the Shadow of the Sword 18314:Glenn, H. Patrick (2014). 18292:. Oxford University Press. 18283:. Oxford University Press. 18033: 17959:10.1016/j.jebo.2004.04.002 17864:. Routledge. p. 203. 17860:. In Josef W. Meri (ed.). 17856:Stewart, Devin J. (2005). 17666:Cambridge University Press 16416:. SUNY. pp. 187–210. 15753:Library of Congress (2014) 15618:. HarperOne. p. 158. 15360:Princeton University Press 15328:Cambridge University Press 15009:Blasphemy: Dangerous words 14731:Journal of Semitic Studies 14417:David P. Forsythe (2009), 14334:Maurits S. Berger (2018). 13336:Israel Ministry of Justice 12513:, pp. 96–101 and Chapter 4 12379:10.1163/026805598125826102 12069:(1): 139–140. March 1951. 10113:10.1163/156851906778946341 10076:Cambridge University Press 9373:Jokisch, Benjamin (2018). 8959:"Corps de Droit Ottoman". 8911: 8907:. Wiesbaden. p. 437. 8855:Weiss, Bernard G. (1998). 8548:. BRILL. pp. 337–59. 8382:Women in Muslim family law 7925:Cambridge University Press 7654:Imam Nawawi's Forty Hadith 7479:, and between the English 7375: 7369: 7255: 7198: 7194: 7041: 6938: 6831: 6691: 6494:Islamic political theories 6406: 6327: 6258: 6116:The classical doctrine of 6109: 6103: 6019: 5964: 5551: 5467: 5283:Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab 4951:Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan 4407:, which emerged after the 4215: 4212:Women, non-Muslims, slaves 4070: 3999: 3995: 3907:Juristic exchange between 3896: 3780: 2465: 2251:Throughout the first five 2163: 2159: 2128:expanded the inventory of 2035: 1882:early Quranic manuscriptss 1801: 1668: 1627: 1561:) of Sunni jurisprudence. 1357: 995::104) and is also used in 953:political / administrative 36: 29: 19281:"Sharia" by Knut S. Vikør 19219:Coulson, Noel J. (1964). 19053:Tillier, Mathieu (2014). 18887:Rabb, Intisar A. (2009). 18610:. Middle East Institute. 18072:An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed 17583:North Carolina Law Review 17388:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 17274:10.1007/s12027-018-0505-8 17226:"Shariah-Compliant Funds" 17133:Anisseh Engeland-Nourai, 15957:10.3109/13625181003793339 15586:Ahmet Albayrak writes in 15280:John L. Esposito (2004). 15247:. Routledge. p. 10. 14995:10 September 2017 at the 14386:Essex Human Rights Review 14353:10.1163/22124810-00602005 14214:Essex Human Rights Review 14193:Muslih & Browers 2009 13852:. BBC. 26 February 2008. 12252:10.1017/S0020743800064461 12075:10.1017/s0008197300015518 12063:The Cambridge Law Journal 11725:Schacht & Layish 2000 10489:10.1017/S0010417514000590 10442:10.1017/S0020743800027598 9956:Schacht, Joseph (1959) . 9795:Schacht, Joseph (1959) . 9677:The Muhammadan Revelation 9414:Schacht, Joseph (1959) . 9358:Schacht, Joseph (1959) . 9343:Schacht, Joseph (1959) . 9319:Schacht, Joseph (1959) . 9134:Women and Gender in Islam 9049:20 September 2019 at the 8857:The Spirit of Islamic Law 8394:Syracuse University Press 7671:Islamic advice literature 7473:assize of novel disseisin 7442:However, the emphasis on 7334:Hamid bin Abdallah al-Ali 7092:right to inherit property 6237:Muslim-minority countries 6196:in the Nigerian state of 5920:may likewise rejected in 5681:(law of retaliation) and 5631:Muslim-majority countries 5601:Use of sharia by country: 5548:Contemporary applications 5397:Islam and other religions 4907:International propagation 4646:International propagation 4066: 3861:(extensive commentary). 2582:About six verses address 2442:, is touched upon in the 1228: 1086:of the late 20th century 750:that forms a part of the 19331:20 February 2015 at the 19221:A History of Islamic Law 19182:Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri 18577:Khadduri, Majid (1955). 17991:10.1257/0895330042162421 17803:10.1163/157006707X222812 17699:(Submitted manuscript). 17494:29 December 2016 at the 16881:10.1163/157302510X526724 16848:Mohammad Hashim Kamali. 16468:De Minimis Non Curat Lex 15768:4 September 2014 at the 14910:22 December 2015 at the 14804:Encyclopedia of Religion 13878:. DW. 6 September 2014. 13648:11 February 2018 at the 13207:Berger, Maurits (2003). 12829:27 December 2020 at the 11012:Forte, David F. (1978). 10070:B. Hallaq, Wael (2005). 9935:Hans Wehr Searchable PDF 9333:Schacht, Origins, p. 224 9219:Forte, David F. (1978). 9055:Martin Luther University 8998:Strauss, Johann (2010). 8947:Calder & Hooker 2007 8788:Calder & Hooker 2007 8773:Calder & Hooker 2007 8740:10.12738/spc.2016.2.0014 8707:Calder & Hooker 2007 8571:Law & Social Inquiry 8302:Sharia - The Islamic Law 7713: 7201:Islamic views on slavery 7037: 6805:colonial-era legislation 6204:in the Aceh province of 6112:Islamic religious police 5059:Governance of the Jurist 4521:Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri 4226:Islamic views on slavery 3847:The two major genres of 3299:("spreading corruption") 2657:, which are outside the 2603:Islamic views on slavery 2140:); justice and freedom ( 2104:could override specific 2020:, but relies on reason ( 1478:pre-Islamic Arab society 1250:, derived from the root 1044:secular Arabic expansion 339:Medieval Islamic science 37:Not to be confused with 19402:Religious legal systems 19303:– UNAA (United Nations) 19095:Vikør, Knut S. (2014). 19086:Vikør, Knut S. (2005). 19040:(3rd ed.). Brill. 18755:(3rd ed.). Brill. 18704:(3rd ed.). Brill. 18673:Lewis, Bernard (1992). 18595:Kamali, Mohammad Hashim 18410:Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 18301:(2nd ed.). Brill. 18239:, New York: Routledge, 18226:Encyclopædia Britannica 18183:Calder, Norman (2009). 18041:Abiad, Nisrine (2008). 17450:Wael B. Hallaq (2009). 17341:(2nd ed.). Brill. 17140:22 January 2015 at the 16854:Oxford University Press 16326:10.1163/157302593X00285 16057:Shafiqa Ahmadi (2012). 15813:(2nd ed.). Brill. 15790:(4): 41–43, Chapter 2. 15749:11 October 2017 at the 15526:(4): 36–37, chapter 2. 15244:Islam: the key concepts 15166:Lewis, Bernard (1995). 14933:19 January 2015 at the 14635:10.3167/th.2008.5511506 14472:. In Safi, Omid (ed.). 14281:, 22 January 2004 (PDF) 13753:Kadri, Sadakat (2012). 13588:New York Times Magazine 13423:Bowen, John R. 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(1995). 8387:19 October 2017 at the 7347:Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy 7236:(slave) and the phrase 7173: 7069:, in financial cases a 6194:Kano State Hisbah Corps 6050:to death for his novel 5960: 5918:circumstantial evidence 5863:under the principle of 5163:Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī 4474:), and the objectives ( 4164:al-sulh sayyid al-ahkam 4157:Socio-political context 2419:(juristic preference), 2406:) by the 19th century, 1990:as a central Pillar of 1728:Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari 1189:Divine, abstract sharia 997:Islamist indoctrination 19226:Potz, Richard (2011), 19038:Encyclopaedia of Islam 18977:Encyclopaedia of Islam 18753:Encyclopaedia of Islam 18702:Encyclopaedia of Islam 18695:. Infobase Publishing. 18623:Köndgen, Olaf (2022). 18608:Law in the Middle East 18393:Encyclopaedia of Islam 18299:Encyclopaedia of Islam 18176:Encyclopaedia of Islam 17364:. Opinionjournal.com. 17339:Encyclopaedia of Islam 17033:Lovejoy, Paul (2000). 16925:BBC Religions Archives 16921:6 October 2018 at the 16538:10.2202/1554-4419.1022 16489:Anwar, Zainah (2005). 16466:Funder, Anna (1993). " 16437:Rohe, Mathias (2009). 16184:Encyclopaedia of Islam 15898:Evans, Daniel (2013). 15811:Encyclopaedia of Islam 15701:Human Rights Diplomacy 14893:. Infobase Publishing. 14780:Lorenz Langer (2014). 14670:10.1080/09637490308281 14346:(2–3). Brill: 236–73. 13216:Human Rights Quarterly 12665:Anver M. Emon (2012), 10889:Encyclopaedia of Islam 9749:Encyclopaedia of Islam 9626:"Coran créé ou incréé" 8986:Corps de Droit Ottoman 7909:), and Legal Methods ( 7697:Sources of Islamic law 7681:Islamic Sharia Council 7660:by the founder of the 7615:limits the liabilities 7471:, between the English 7351:Grand Imam of al-Azhar 7286: 7229: 7142:varied interpretations 7134: 6993:Encyclopaedia of Islam 6986: 6866: 6847: 6730: 6722: Prison sentences 6339: 6308:, professor of law at 6254:Support and opposition 6175: 6031: 5839: 5627: 5228:Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani 4664:Islamic fundamentalism 4501: 4435: 4366: 4313: 4245: 4174: 4102: 4041: 3916: 2716:Branches and details ( 2614: 2380:and classical Sunnite 2345: 2077: 1821: 1653:(lit. the branches of 1595:chains of transmission 1589: 1482:compensatory payment ( 1433: 1409: 1396: 1282:Use in religious texts 1212:Contemporary sharia(s) 1036:early history of Islam 1028:Islamist understanding 349:Succession to Muhammad 19382:Islamic jurisprudence 18421:Holland, Tom (2012). 18255:"Fatwā. Modern usage" 18233:Dahlén, Ashk (2003), 18200:Chan, Sewell (2016). 17914:10.1093/ajcl/53.4.785 16817:Stewart, Philippa H. 16649:. 22 September 2009. 16408:Esack, Farid (2014). 16397:on 27 September 2013. 16352:Oneworld Publications 16346:Jonathan A.C. Brown, 15877:10.1353/sec.2018.0026 15832:E. K. Rowson (2012). 14891:Encyclopedia of Islam 14743:10.1093/jss/XLII.1.39 13228:10.1353/hrq.2003.0026 12792:28 March 2017 at the 12693:. Brill. p. 49. 10078:. pp. 124, 127. 9132:Ahmed, Leila (1992). 8830:Oneworld Publications 7905:, Sunni Islamic Law ( 7634:Criticism of Islamism 7451:Western legal systems 7424:literature parallels 7281: 7256:Further information: 7212: 7164:White Ribbon Campaign 7108: 6948: 6853: 6841: 6818:"Islamicise" the laws 6728: Death sentences 6701: 6654:In 2009, the journal 6627:understanding of the 6407:Further information: 6337: 6328:Further information: 6157: 6110:Further information: 6029: 5833: 5600: 5498:al-Islam huwa al-hall 5301:Criticism of Islamism 5295:Criticism of Islamism 5213:Necip Fazıl Kısakürek 5140:Hibatullah Akhundzada 4496: 4426: 4364: 4308: 4240: 4172: 4092: 4036: 3906: 3781:Further information: 2737:Islamic jurisprudence 2592: 2370:in the field of law ( 2316: 2072: 2063:Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi 1996:. On the other hand; 1811: 1585:Imam Shafi'i tomb in 1584: 1424: 1051:sectarian differences 19151:on 21 November 2008. 18970:on 21 November 2008. 18899:on 21 November 2008. 18780:on 20 November 2015. 18746:on 21 November 2008. 18729:on 20 November 2015. 18265:on 20 November 2015. 18195:on 21 November 2008. 17639:by Lawrence Rosen". 17637:The Justice of Islam 16764:. 16 November 2011. 16734:. 15 November 2013. 15838:Encyclopedia Iranica 15676:. 13 February 2012. 15612:Abou El Fadl, Khaled 15110:25 July 2016 at the 14877:(4). pp. 16–26. 14377:Kevin Boyle (2004). 14205:Kevin Boyle (2004). 13320:, Chapter 14, p. 257 13112:Uddin, Asma (2010). 12687:Tahir Wasti (2009). 12497:Reem Meshal (2014), 12470:Paul Powers (2005). 11824:Google-Books preview 11502:Gender & History 11090:, pp. 9–10, 13. 10872:Christopher Taylor, 9702:"What Is the Koran?" 9069:, p. 41–44, 68. 8969:. Stevens and Sons: 8962:Law Quarterly Review 8918:أني أفرح بشريعة الله 8915:' is translated as ' 8903:Ullmann, M. (2002). 8377:Natana J. DeLong-Bas 7897:Bassiouni, M. Cherif 7238:ma malakat aymanukum 7119:, a teacher of both 6430:General Muslim views 6369:) told a newspaper ( 6146:, the conception of 6136:government committee 5873:universal statutes. 5693:United Arab Emirates 5572:Human rights concept 5100:Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 5057:Islamic Government: 4470:), public interest ( 4350:Anglo-Muhammadan law 4292:Modern legal reforms 3783:Topics in Sharia law 2055:Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī 1206:Historical sharia(s) 1101:corporal punishments 1040:modelled and exalted 889:analogical reasoning 388:Association football 19387:Islamic terminology 19254:. Oxford: Clarendon 19168:on 1 November 2008. 18145:on 11 October 2017. 18102:on 16 January 2014. 17858:"Degrees, or Ijaza" 17791:Medieval Encounters 17362:"Jihad vs. Crusade" 17197:Jamaldeen, Faleel. 17184:Skyhorse Publishing 16679:. 19 October 2010. 16354:(2014), pp. 275-276 16157:The Washington Post 15133:Die Welt des Islams 15040:. 6 November 2014. 15014:7 July 2017 at the 14468:Ali, Kecia (2003). 14277:28 May 2006 at the 14137:Pew Research Center 13694:"Sharia in America" 13663:"Michael J. Broyde" 13545:Pew Research Center 13515:Pew Research Center 13405:18 May 2018 at the 13331:"The Sharia Courts" 13054:. 15 January 2009. 10527:Newman in Meri 2006 10037:. Rowman Altamira. 8859:. Athens, Georgia: 7733:) in their place. 7104:Jonathan A.C. Brown 7067:personal status law 6897:Khaled Abou El Fadl 6844:apostasy from Islam 6810:military government 6733:In classical fiqh, 6694:Islam and blasphemy 6644:Ann Elizabeth Mayer 6575:Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd 6548:Rashid al-Ghannushi 6524:(public interest), 6466:(consultation) and 6413:Islam and democracy 6244:Ministry of Justice 6162:beating a woman in 6089:was created by the 6074:militant extremists 5560:human rights groups 5432:Politics portal 5385:Islam and modernity 5061:("Velayat-e faqih") 5043:Ma'alim fi al-Tariq 4297:Under colonial rule 4206:Indian subcontinent 4073:Judge (Islamic law) 3851:literature are the 2142:Mohammed al-Ghazali 2122:Abdallah bin Bayyah 1820:of Sharia to date. 1693:scholastic theology 1645:(lit. the roots of 1181:must pass through. 1111:Etymology and usage 758:, particularly the 756:scriptures of Islam 754:tradition based on 149:Profession of Faith 122:Day of Resurrection 19197:Amana Publications 18206:The New York Times 17565:, pp. 183–84. 16869:Arab Law Quarterly 16677:Human Rights Watch 16314:Arab Law Quarterly 16243:The New York Times 15674:Human Rights Watch 15597:). Oliver Leaman, 15410:. New York Times. 15408:The New York Times 14867:. 10, pp. 357–73. 14298:on 24 January 2010 14110:, pp. 142–43. 13479:on 30 October 2014 12567:Praeger Publishers 12366:Arab Law Quarterly 11952:, pp. 249–50. 11925:The New York Times 11764:, pp. 503–04. 11708:, pp. 182–83. 11685:, pp. 174–76. 11624:, pp. 176–81. 11333:, pp. 176–77. 11321:, pp. 225–26. 11309:, pp. 166–67. 11292:, pp. 159–62. 10997:Smith, W. (1957). 10693:on 5 November 2021 10507:– via JSTOR. 10460:– via JSTOR. 9893:on 5 December 2010 9665:, pp. 121–22. 9014:. pp. 21–51. 8832:. pp. 2, 14. 7986:on 8 December 2015 7927:. pp. 18–87. 7870:[ʃaˈriːʕa] 7763:Muwatta Imam Malik 7629:Criticism of Islam 7378:Seven Laws of Noah 7287: 7230: 7113:Ata' bin Abi Rabah 7032:According to polls 6987: 6978: Imprisonment 6922:rights as well as 6903:, and an issue of 6867: 6848: 6731: 6579:Abdolkarim Soroush 6367:Thomas de Maizière 6340: 6176: 6170:, for opening her 6053:The Satanic Verses 6040:Ayatollah Khomeini 6032: 5840: 5781:possibly contains 5648:Constitutional law 5628: 5523:Iranian Revolution 5489:Ayatollah Khomeini 5330:Khaled Abu al-Fadl 5306:Criticism of Islam 5168:Qazi Hussain Ahmad 4986:Sub-Saharan Africa 4946:Muslim Brotherhood 4931:Iranian Revolution 4841:Islamic Golden Age 4694:Islamic governance 4502: 4436: 4430:(Sharia court) in 4405:Republic of Turkey 4367: 4314: 4251:unilateral divorce 4246: 4175: 4103: 4042: 3917: 3390:Gender segregation 2953:Islamic leadership 2615: 2475:al-aḥkām al-khamsa 2434:Considering that, 2346: 2078: 1944:transmitted orally 1822: 1697:Aristotelian logic 1590: 1573:and elaborated by 1434: 1417:Historical origins 1404:, and is from the 1222:al-qānūn al-islāmī 1116:Contemporary usage 1071:freedom of thought 19309:– Yale University 19186:Nuh Ha Mim Keller 18665:978-0-521-51430-9 18434:978-0-385-53135-1 18427:. UK: Doubleday. 18119:on 17 April 2019. 17508:Charles Kurzman. 17186:. pp. 84–86. 16823:www.aljazeera.com 16794:. 19 March 2014. 16236:(16 March 2008). 15997:978-0-521-51430-9 15711:978-0-415-15390-4 15504:978-1-4051-2174-3 15337:978-0-521-86147-2 15223:978-0-7391-3523-5 13826:. Times – News . 13547:. 30 April 2013. 13517:. 30 April 2013. 13365:. Law.emory.edu. 13164:. 22 April 2016. 12997:on 25 March 2009. 12565:. New York City: 12000:. 27 March 2019. 11909:, pp. 38–42. 11897:, pp. 18–19. 11280:, pp. 57–60. 11222:, pp. 11–12. 11192:, pp. 45–47. 10962:, pp. 10–11. 10945:, pp. 28–30. 10899:978-90-04-16121-4 10850:Levy (1957) p. 77 10582:978-0-8156-3388-4 10398:978-0-19-512558-0 10367:978-0-19-512558-0 10271:, pp. 68–69. 10259:, pp. 66–68. 10125:Mansoor Moaddel, 10085:978-0-521-80332-8 10074:. Cambridge, UK: 10029:Irshad Abdel Haqq 10018:, pp. 23–24. 9994:, pp. 21–22. 9848:, pp. 16–18. 9582:Blankinship (2008 9511:, pp. 31–35. 9044:info page on book 8312:978-3-640-14967-4 7858: 7644:Glossary of Islam 7503:and reasoning by 7428:developed in the 7330:Sulaiman Al-Alwan 7326:Yusuf al-Qaradawi 7262:Islamic extremism 7258:Islamic terrorism 7125:Muslim bin Hajjaj 7099:Domestic violence 6834:Apostasy in Islam 6552:Yusuf al-Qaradawi 6509:Abul A'la Maududi 6457:Yusuf al-Qaradawi 6392:Leiden University 6330:Ban on sharia law 6298:Nicholas Phillips 5910:Forensic evidence 5878:rules of evidence 5857:cross-examination 5834:Shariah court in 5826: 5825: 5818: 5783:original research 5538:Islamic economics 5466: 5465: 5340:Abdelwahab Meddeb 5268:Haji Shariatullah 5233:Yusuf al-Qaradawi 5218:Abul A'la Maududi 5208:Ruhollah Khomeini 5188:Rached Ghannouchi 5120:Alija Izetbegović 5105:Ruhollah Khomeini 5012:Rashīd Rīďha 1922 4912:by country/region 4801:Two-nation theory 4753:Islamic terrorism 4714:Islamic socialism 4704:Islamic democracy 4680:Apostasy in Islam 4651:by country/region 4428:Mahkamah Syariyah 4198:Fatawa-e-Alamgiri 3779: 3778: 3693: 3692: 3551: 3550: 3365: 3364: 3218: 3217: 3143: 3142: 2936: 2935: 2643:Islamic Modernism 2300:Islamic Modernism 2284:Islamic reformers 2253:Islamic centuries 2154:Yusuf al-Qaradawi 1899:textual integrity 1804:Sources of Sharia 1798:Sources of Sharia 1462:The veiling order 1134:religion of Moses 1092:Islamic movements 1038:, which has been 936: 854:authentic ahadith 840:sources of Sharia 817:qualified jurists 802: 745: 709: 708: 16:(Redirected from 19409: 19359: 19358: 19350: 19216: 19207: 19205: 19203: 19194: 19169: 19152: 19135: 19108: 19091: 19082: 19058: 19049: 19025: 19016: 19007: 18980: 18971: 18960:"Law. Civil Law" 18954: 18927: 18900: 18883: 18864: 18852: 18840: 18831: 18807: 18798: 18797:on 11 June 2017. 18781: 18764: 18747: 18730: 18713: 18696: 18687: 18678: 18669: 18650: 18628: 18619: 18602: 18590: 18573: 18561: 18539: 18528: 18501: 18471: 18445: 18443: 18441: 18417: 18405: 18396: 18372: 18360: 18348: 18319: 18310: 18293: 18284: 18275: 18266: 18249: 18229: 18216: 18214: 18212: 18196: 18179: 18166: 18164: 18162: 18156:Yaqeen Institute 18146: 18129: 18120: 18103: 18101: 18095:. Archived from 18080: 18067: 18058: 18046: 18027: 18026: 18024: 18022: 18002: 17996: 17995: 17993: 17969: 17963: 17962: 17942: 17936: 17935: 17925: 17894: 17888: 17887: 17885: 17883: 17853: 17847: 17846: 17818: 17807: 17806: 17782: 17776: 17775: 17747: 17741: 17740: 17738: 17736: 17686: 17680: 17679: 17657: 17651: 17650: 17632: 17626: 17625: 17623: 17621: 17601: 17592: 17591: 17577: 17566: 17560: 17551: 17545: 17539: 17532: 17526: 17525: 17523: 17521: 17505: 17499: 17486: 17480: 17479: 17477: 17475: 17447: 17438: 17435: 17429: 17426: 17420: 17419: 17392:The Muslim World 17384: 17378: 17377: 17375: 17373: 17357: 17351: 17350: 17334: 17328: 17327: 17325: 17323: 17285: 17279: 17278: 17276: 17252: 17246: 17245: 17243: 17241: 17221: 17215: 17214: 17212: 17210: 17194: 17188: 17187: 17175: 17169: 17163: 17157: 17151: 17145: 17131: 17118: 17117: 17115: 17113: 17108:on 1 August 2017 17093: 17087: 17086: 17065: 17059: 17058: 17030: 17024: 17023: 17001: 16995: 16984: 16978: 16967: 16961: 16960: 16949:10.2307/20048203 16932: 16926: 16916:Slavery in Islam 16913: 16907: 16891: 16885: 16884: 16864: 16858: 16857: 16845: 16839: 16838: 16836: 16834: 16814: 16808: 16807: 16805: 16803: 16784: 16778: 16777: 16775: 16773: 16754: 16748: 16747: 16745: 16743: 16724: 16718: 16717: 16699: 16693: 16692: 16690: 16688: 16669: 16663: 16662: 16660: 16658: 16639: 16633: 16632: 16596: 16590: 16589: 16587: 16585: 16564: 16558: 16557: 16521: 16515: 16514: 16486: 16480: 16479: 16463: 16457: 16456: 16434: 16428: 16427: 16405: 16399: 16398: 16393:. Archived from 16387: 16381: 16380: 16378: 16376: 16361: 16355: 16344: 16338: 16337: 16309: 16303: 16297: 16291: 16290: 16278: 16272: 16269: 16260: 16259: 16257: 16255: 16230: 16224: 16223: 16211: 16205: 16194: 16188: 16187: 16179: 16173: 16172: 16170: 16168: 16148: 16142: 16141: 16139: 16137: 16122: 16116: 16115: 16113: 16111: 16092: 16083: 16082: 16080: 16078: 16054: 16048: 16047: 16045: 16043: 16021: 16015: 16008: 16002: 16001: 15983: 15977: 15976: 15940: 15934: 15933: 15931: 15929: 15895: 15889: 15888: 15860: 15854: 15853: 15851: 15849: 15829: 15823: 15822: 15806: 15800: 15799: 15784:The Muslim World 15779: 15773: 15760: 15754: 15741: 15735: 15726: 15720: 15719: 15696: 15690: 15689: 15687: 15685: 15666: 15660: 15659: 15657: 15655: 15636: 15630: 15629: 15608: 15602: 15584: 15578: 15577: 15575: 15573: 15542: 15536: 15535: 15520:The Muslim World 15515: 15509: 15508: 15490: 15481: 15480: 15461: 15455: 15454: 15452: 15450: 15430: 15424: 15423: 15421: 15419: 15399: 15386: 15380: 15374: 15373: 15351: 15342: 15341: 15316: 15310: 15309: 15307: 15305: 15277: 15271: 15270: 15268: 15266: 15238: 15232: 15231: 15205: 15196: 15195: 15193: 15191: 15163: 15157: 15156: 15128: 15115: 15102: 15096: 15095: 15093: 15091: 15063: 15054: 15053: 15051: 15049: 15030: 15019: 15006: 15000: 14987: 14981: 14970: 14964: 14963: 14961: 14959: 14944: 14938: 14925: 14919: 14901: 14895: 14894: 14886: 14880: 14861: 14855: 14845: 14839: 14836: 14830: 14814: 14808: 14807: 14799: 14793: 14778: 14772: 14771: 14753: 14747: 14746: 14725: 14719: 14708: 14702: 14691: 14682: 14681: 14653: 14647: 14646: 14618: 14612: 14609: 14603: 14590: 14584: 14583: 14565: 14559: 14549: 14543: 14542: 14511:Political Theory 14506: 14500: 14499: 14497: 14495: 14465: 14459: 14458: 14428: 14422: 14415: 14409: 14408: 14406: 14404: 14398: 14383: 14374: 14368: 14367: 14365: 14355: 14331: 14325: 14314: 14308: 14307: 14305: 14303: 14288: 14282: 14269: 14263: 14262: 14260: 14258: 14243: 14237: 14236: 14234: 14232: 14226: 14211: 14202: 14196: 14190: 14184: 14183: 14181: 14179: 14159: 14153: 14152: 14150: 14148: 14139:. 10 July 2012. 14129: 14123: 14117: 14111: 14105: 14099: 14098: 14096: 14094: 14046: 14037: 14031: 14025: 14024: 14022: 14020: 14001: 13995: 13994: 13992: 13990: 13962: 13949: 13948: 13946: 13944: 13924: 13918: 13917: 13915: 13913: 13898: 13892: 13891: 13889: 13887: 13872: 13866: 13865: 13863: 13861: 13846: 13840: 13839: 13837: 13835: 13819: 13813: 13812: 13810: 13808: 13792: 13783: 13782: 13780: 13778: 13750: 13741: 13740: 13738: 13736: 13716: 13710: 13709: 13707: 13705: 13689: 13683: 13682: 13680: 13678: 13659: 13653: 13640: 13634: 13633: 13631: 13629: 13610: 13604: 13603: 13601: 13599: 13579: 13570: 13567: 13561: 13560: 13558: 13556: 13537: 13531: 13530: 13528: 13526: 13507: 13501: 13495: 13489: 13488: 13486: 13484: 13478: 13471: 13460: 13449: 13448: 13446: 13444: 13420: 13414: 13397: 13391: 13389:The Sunday Times 13385: 13379: 13378: 13376: 13374: 13359: 13353: 13352: 13350: 13348: 13327: 13321: 13306: 13300: 13299: 13284:The Muslim World 13279: 13273: 13272: 13270: 13268: 13262: 13239: 13213: 13204: 13198: 13187: 13178: 13177: 13175: 13173: 13152: 13146: 13145: 13143: 13141: 13109: 13103: 13102: 13074: 13068: 13067: 13065: 13063: 13044: 13038: 13037: 13035: 13033: 13005: 12999: 12998: 12996: 12984: 12978: 12972: 12966: 12960: 12954: 12948: 12933: 12927: 12912: 12906: 12900: 12894: 12885: 12879: 12866: 12860: 12851: 12848:Hendrickson 2013 12845: 12834: 12821: 12815: 12802: 12796: 12783: 12777: 12776: 12774: 12772: 12756: 12750: 12749: 12723: 12717: 12716: 12714: 12712: 12684: 12678: 12663: 12654: 12643: 12637: 12636: 12634: 12632: 12626: 12611: 12602: 12596: 12587: 12578: 12559: 12553: 12540: 12534: 12523: 12514: 12495: 12486: 12485: 12467: 12461: 12460: 12458: 12456: 12441:Lums Law Journal 12432: 12426: 12425: 12423: 12421: 12406:IIUM Law Journal 12397: 12391: 12390: 12357: 12351: 12344: 12338: 12332: 12326: 12320: 12314: 12303: 12297: 12286: 12280: 12279: 12235: 12226: 12225: 12223: 12221: 12215: 12208: 12200: 12191: 12184: 12178: 12167: 12161: 12150: 12141: 12138: 12132: 12119: 12113: 12112: 12110: 12108: 12093: 12087: 12086: 12058: 12049: 12048: 12032: 12026: 12020: 12014: 12013: 12011: 12009: 11990: 11984: 11983: 11981: 11979: 11959: 11953: 11947: 11941: 11940: 11938: 11936: 11916: 11910: 11904: 11898: 11892: 11886: 11880: 11874: 11869: 11863: 11860: 11854: 11853: 11851: 11849: 11833: 11827: 11812: 11806: 11803: 11797: 11791: 11780: 11774: 11765: 11759: 11740: 11734: 11728: 11722: 11709: 11703: 11686: 11680: 11671: 11665: 11659: 11653: 11644: 11638: 11625: 11619: 11606: 11600: 11594: 11588: 11582: 11576: 11570: 11564: 11558: 11552: 11541: 11535: 11526: 11525: 11497: 11486: 11485: 11477: 11471: 11465: 11459: 11453: 11447: 11441: 11435: 11429: 11423: 11417: 11411: 11405: 11399: 11393: 11387: 11381: 11372: 11366: 11355: 11352:Jones-Pauly 2009 11349: 11334: 11328: 11322: 11316: 11310: 11304: 11293: 11287: 11281: 11275: 11269: 11263: 11250: 11244: 11235: 11229: 11223: 11217: 11208: 11202: 11193: 11187: 11178: 11172: 11153: 11147: 11130: 11124: 11118: 11112: 11106: 11105:, pp. 9–10. 11100: 11091: 11085: 11079: 11073: 11044: 11043: 11041: 11039: 11033: 11018: 11009: 11003: 11002: 10994: 10988: 10987: 10969: 10963: 10957: 10946: 10940: 10925: 10919: 10904: 10903: 10883: 10877: 10870: 10864: 10863:1 (2012), p. 123 10857: 10851: 10848: 10842: 10831: 10825: 10824: 10822: 10820: 10805: 10799: 10798: 10796: 10794: 10785:. Archived from 10778: 10772: 10771: 10751: 10745: 10744: 10742: 10740: 10726: 10720: 10709: 10703: 10702: 10700: 10698: 10689:. Archived from 10679: 10673: 10666: 10660: 10654: 10648: 10642: 10633: 10628: 10622: 10616: 10610: 10605: 10599: 10593: 10587: 10586: 10568: 10562: 10561: 10543: 10537: 10536: 10524: 10518: 10515: 10509: 10508: 10468: 10462: 10461: 10421: 10415: 10411:sometimes spelt 10409: 10403: 10402: 10386: 10378: 10372: 10371: 10351: 10343: 10332: 10326: 10303: 10298: 10292: 10289: 10283: 10278: 10272: 10266: 10260: 10254: 10248: 10242: 10236: 10229: 10223: 10220: 10214: 10211:Internet Archive 10197: 10191: 10185: 10176: 10170: 10161: 10155: 10138: 10123: 10117: 10116: 10096: 10090: 10089: 10067: 10061: 10060: 10058: 10056: 10025: 10019: 10013: 10007: 10001: 9995: 9989: 9974: 9968: 9962: 9961: 9953: 9947: 9946: 9944: 9942: 9932: 9923: 9917: 9916: 9910: 9902: 9900: 9898: 9889:. Archived from 9883: 9877: 9867: 9861: 9855: 9849: 9843: 9822: 9816: 9810: 9807: 9801: 9800: 9792: 9786: 9785: 9783: 9781: 9772:. Archived from 9762: 9753: 9752: 9744: 9733: 9723: 9717: 9716: 9714: 9712: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9672: 9666: 9660: 9654: 9648: 9639: 9636: 9630: 9629: 9621: 9615: 9614: 9607: 9601: 9598: 9592: 9591: 9579: 9573: 9566: 9560: 9554: 9548: 9541: 9535: 9530: 9524: 9518: 9512: 9506: 9495: 9489: 9480: 9474: 9447: 9441: 9420: 9419: 9411: 9405: 9404: 9402: 9400: 9370: 9364: 9363: 9355: 9349: 9348: 9340: 9334: 9331: 9325: 9324: 9316: 9310: 9309: 9307: 9305: 9278:Brown, Daniel W. 9274: 9268: 9262: 9251: 9250: 9248: 9246: 9240: 9225: 9216: 9210: 9209: 9177: 9171: 9170: 9144: 9138: 9137: 9129: 9123: 9122: 9102: 9096: 9095: 9083: 9077: 9076: 9064: 9058: 9041: 9035: 9027: 9025: 9023: 8995: 8989: 8978: 8956: 8950: 8944: 8938: 8937: 8931: 8923: 8920: 8919: 8914: 8913: 8900: 8894: 8889: 8883: 8878: 8872: 8853: 8844: 8843: 8818: 8812: 8797: 8791: 8785: 8776: 8770: 8764: 8763:, pp. 9–10. 8758: 8752: 8751: 8725: 8716: 8710: 8704: 8685: 8679: 8648: 8642: 8631: 8617: 8611: 8610: 8566: 8560: 8559: 8537: 8531: 8525: 8519: 8514: 8508: 8505: 8499: 8496: 8490: 8489: 8482: 8476: 8469: 8463: 8457: 8451: 8445: 8436: 8430: 8421: 8412:of the Prophet, 8373:John L. Esposito 8370: 8364: 8358: 8343: 8337: 8324: 8323: 8321: 8319: 8296: 8290: 8284: 8275: 8272: 8266: 8263: 8257: 8251: 8188: 8182: 8051: 8050: 8048: 8046: 8041:on 31 March 2019 8026: 8011: 8005: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7991: 7976: 7967: 7966: 7964: 7962: 7911:Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh 7893: 7873: 7872: 7867: 7863: 7853: 7851: 7843: 7842: 7839: 7838: 7835: 7832: 7829: 7826: 7823: 7814: 7802: 7798: 7792: 7789: 7783: 7780: 7774: 7759: 7753: 7749: 7743: 7740: 7734: 7724: 7676:Islamic republic 7588:licentia docendi 7483:and the Islamic 7475:and the Islamic 7467:and the Islamic 7299:Rachel Ehrenfeld 7073:before a court. 6983: 6977: 6968: 6962: 6953: 6907:and conscience. 6905:freedom of faith 6895:). According to 6864:Alfred Dehodencq 6739:Islamic prophets 6727: 6721: 6715: 6709: 6673:H. Patrick Glenn 6538:. In this view, 6436:John L. Esposito 6312:specializing in 6310:Emory University 6231:Nawal El Saadawi 6202:Wilayatul Hisbah 6160:religious police 5855:process, and no 5821: 5814: 5810: 5807: 5801: 5798:inline citations 5774: 5773: 5766: 5762:Court procedures 5624: 5618: 5612: 5606: 5588:Cairo conference 5458: 5451: 5444: 5430: 5429: 5421:Islam portal 5419: 5418: 5417: 5323:in North America 5273:Hassan Al-Turabi 5223:Abul Hasan Nadwi 4831:Anti-imperialism 4729:Islamic republic 4724:Islamic monarchy 4709:Islamic feminism 4568: 4562: 4561: 4551: 4550: 4413:Swiss Civil Code 3771: 3764: 3757: 3734:Prisoners of war 3729: 3687: 3682:Comparison with 3566: 3565: 3431: 3430: 3358: 3347: 3336: 3319: 3309: 3300: 3290: 3279: 3268: 3257: 3233: 3232: 3145: 3144: 3022: 3021: 2981:Wilayat al-faqih 2967:Majlis-ash-Shura 2766: 2765: 2753: 2724: 2723: 2680:, religious and 2318:Grand Ayatollahs 2290:and emphasis on 2199: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2177: 2110:source of sharia 2002:Ahmad ibn Hanbal 1824:Islamic scholar 1814:Sanaa manuscript 1681:rhetorical tools 1537:Ahmad ibn Hanbal 1412: 1399: 1384: 1376: 1370: 1367: 1364: 1360: 1359: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1343: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1323: 1309: 1303: 1297: 1292:and its cognate 1291: 1233: 1232: 1231: 1230:القانون الإسلامي 1224: 1195:Classical sharia 1169:, from there to 1032:some researchers 1008:Islamic scholars 931: 929: 885: 873: 838:recognizes four 813:illegal opinions 805:Islamic scholars 797: 795: 740: 738: 701: 694: 687: 673:Islam portal 671: 670: 669: 79: 56: 55: 21: 19417: 19416: 19412: 19411: 19410: 19408: 19407: 19406: 19367: 19366: 19365: 19353: 19345: 19333:Wayback Machine 19261: 19248:Schacht, Joseph 19201: 19199: 19192: 19177: 19175:Further reading 19172: 19132: 19107:on 4 June 2014. 19079: 19004: 18951: 18924: 18880: 18861: 18850: 18828: 18666: 18647: 18633:Lapidus, Ira M. 18599:Law and Society 18570: 18525: 18498: 18468: 18439: 18437: 18435: 18365:Hallaq, Wael B. 18353:Hallaq, Wael B. 18345: 18331:Hallaq, Wael B. 18247: 18210: 18208: 18160: 18158: 18099: 18093: 18078: 18036: 18031: 18030: 18020: 18018: 18011:The Independent 18003: 17999: 17970: 17966: 17943: 17939: 17895: 17891: 17881: 17879: 17872: 17854: 17850: 17819: 17810: 17783: 17779: 17748: 17744: 17734: 17732: 17709:10.2307/3312162 17687: 17683: 17676: 17658: 17654: 17633: 17629: 17619: 17617: 17602: 17595: 17578: 17569: 17561: 17554: 17546: 17542: 17533: 17529: 17519: 17517: 17506: 17502: 17496:Wayback Machine 17487: 17483: 17473: 17471: 17464: 17448: 17441: 17436: 17432: 17427: 17423: 17385: 17381: 17371: 17369: 17358: 17354: 17335: 17331: 17321: 17319: 17312: 17286: 17282: 17253: 17249: 17239: 17237: 17222: 17218: 17208: 17206: 17195: 17191: 17176: 17172: 17164: 17160: 17152: 17148: 17142:Wayback Machine 17132: 17121: 17111: 17109: 17094: 17090: 17080: 17066: 17062: 17051: 17031: 17027: 17016: 17002: 16998: 16985: 16981: 16968: 16964: 16937:Foreign Affairs 16933: 16929: 16923:Wayback Machine 16914: 16910: 16892: 16888: 16865: 16861: 16846: 16842: 16832: 16830: 16815: 16811: 16801: 16799: 16786: 16785: 16781: 16771: 16769: 16756: 16755: 16751: 16741: 16739: 16726: 16725: 16721: 16714: 16700: 16696: 16686: 16684: 16671: 16670: 16666: 16656: 16654: 16641: 16640: 16636: 16613:10.2307/1051612 16597: 16593: 16583: 16581: 16566: 16565: 16561: 16522: 16518: 16511: 16487: 16483: 16464: 16460: 16453: 16435: 16431: 16424: 16406: 16402: 16389: 16388: 16384: 16374: 16372: 16363: 16362: 16358: 16345: 16341: 16310: 16306: 16298: 16294: 16279: 16275: 16270: 16263: 16253: 16251: 16231: 16227: 16212: 16208: 16195: 16191: 16180: 16176: 16166: 16164: 16149: 16145: 16135: 16133: 16124: 16123: 16119: 16109: 16107: 16102:. 6 June 2018. 16094: 16093: 16086: 16076: 16074: 16055: 16051: 16041: 16039: 16023: 16022: 16018: 16009: 16005: 15998: 15984: 15980: 15941: 15937: 15927: 15925: 15918: 15896: 15892: 15861: 15857: 15847: 15845: 15830: 15826: 15807: 15803: 15780: 15776: 15770:Wayback Machine 15761: 15757: 15751:Wayback Machine 15742: 15738: 15727: 15723: 15712: 15698: 15697: 15693: 15683: 15681: 15668: 15667: 15663: 15653: 15651: 15646:. 16 May 2014. 15638: 15637: 15633: 15626: 15609: 15605: 15585: 15581: 15571: 15569: 15562: 15543: 15539: 15516: 15512: 15505: 15491: 15484: 15471:. 15 May 2014. 15463: 15462: 15458: 15448: 15446: 15431: 15427: 15417: 15415: 15400: 15389: 15381: 15377: 15370: 15352: 15345: 15338: 15330:. p. 319. 15320:Wael, B. Hallaq 15317: 15313: 15303: 15301: 15294: 15278: 15274: 15264: 15262: 15255: 15239: 15235: 15224: 15206: 15199: 15189: 15187: 15180: 15164: 15160: 15145:10.2307/1570336 15129: 15118: 15112:Wayback Machine 15103: 15099: 15089: 15087: 15080: 15064: 15057: 15047: 15045: 15032: 15031: 15022: 15016:Wayback Machine 15007: 15003: 14997:Wayback Machine 14988: 14984: 14971: 14967: 14957: 14955: 14946: 14945: 14941: 14935:Wayback Machine 14926: 14922: 14912:Wayback Machine 14902: 14898: 14887: 14883: 14862: 14858: 14846: 14842: 14837: 14833: 14815: 14811: 14801: 14800: 14796: 14779: 14775: 14768: 14754: 14750: 14726: 14722: 14709: 14705: 14692: 14685: 14654: 14650: 14629:(115): 91–119. 14619: 14615: 14610: 14606: 14591: 14587: 14580: 14566: 14562: 14550: 14546: 14507: 14503: 14493: 14491: 14484: 14466: 14462: 14447: 14429: 14425: 14416: 14412: 14402: 14400: 14396: 14381: 14375: 14371: 14332: 14328: 14315: 14311: 14301: 14299: 14290: 14289: 14285: 14279:Wayback Machine 14270: 14266: 14256: 14254: 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women 7055: 7050: 7042:Main articles: 7040: 6985: 6981: 6979: 6975: 6973: 6966: 6964: 6960: 6958: 6951: 6943: 6937: 6862:), painting by 6836: 6830: 6752:vary by country 6729: 6725: 6723: 6719: 6717: 6713: 6711: 6707: 6696: 6690: 6629:Judeo-Christian 6613: 6589: 6571:Mohammed Arkoun 6567:Tariq al-Bishri 6544:Hasan al-Turabi 6530:(justice), and 6496: 6487:Muslim-majority 6432: 6423: 6405: 6400: 6332: 6326: 6293:Orthodox Jewish 6269:law of the land 6261: 6256: 6239: 6184:1979 Revolution 6114: 6108: 6102: 6078:Osama bin Laden 6024: 6018: 5969: 5963: 5931: 5891: 5822: 5811: 5805: 5802: 5787: 5775: 5771: 5764: 5727: 5668: 5659: 5650: 5633: 5626: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5608: 5604: 5602: 5556: 5550: 5542:Islamic finance 5485:political Islam 5476:Islamic revival 5472: 5462: 5424: 5415: 5413: 5407: 5406: 5380: 5370: 5369: 5296: 5288: 5287: 5183:Hassan al-Banna 5153: 5145: 5144: 5095:Muammar Gaddafi 5080: 5072: 5071: 5058: 5001: 4993: 4992: 4936:Jamaat-e-Islami 4859: 4851: 4850: 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2012:, etc rejected 1870:Lawrence Conrad 1806: 1800: 1673: 1667: 1632: 1626: 1613:early conquests 1571:Ignác Goldziher 1555:legal schools ( 1454:Safaitic-Arabic 1419: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1355:in Hebrew) and 1352: 1349: 1346: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1284: 1256:lexicographical 1240: 1229: 1218:A related term 1173:and finally to 1118: 1113: 1084:Islamic revival 1067:minority rights 1055:fundamentalists 961:five categories 945:social dealings 705: 667: 665: 658: 657: 602:Other religions 597:Arabic language 559: 549: 548: 477:Moral teachings 368: 354: 353: 344:Spread of Islam 289: 279: 278: 266:(jurisprudence) 248:Qisas al-Anbiya 197: 196: 176: 175: 144: 134: 133: 89: 54: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 19415: 19405: 19404: 19399: 19394: 19389: 19384: 19379: 19364: 19363: 19343: 19342: 19336: 19322: 19310: 19304: 19298: 19288: 19278: 19272: 19260: 19259:External links 19257: 19256: 19255: 19245: 19224: 19217: 19208: 19176: 19173: 19171: 19170: 19158:"Criminal Law" 19153: 19136: 19130: 19109: 19092: 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17590:(5): 1635–1739 17567: 17552: 17550:, p. 496. 17540: 17527: 17500: 17481: 17463:978-1107394124 17462: 17439: 17430: 17421: 17379: 17352: 17329: 17311:978-0199739356 17310: 17280: 17247: 17216: 17189: 17170: 17168:, p. 100. 17158: 17146: 17119: 17098:"Umm al-Walad" 17088: 17079:978-0230100169 17078: 17060: 17050:978-0521784306 17049: 17025: 17015:978-9004162914 17014: 16996: 16979: 16962: 16927: 16908: 16906: 16905: 16886: 16875:(4): 417–438. 16859: 16840: 16809: 16779: 16749: 16719: 16713:978-0415969680 16712: 16694: 16664: 16634: 16591: 16559: 16516: 16510:978-9812302830 16509: 16481: 16458: 16452:978-0754675471 16451: 16429: 16423:978-0791491553 16422: 16400: 16382: 16356: 16339: 16304: 16292: 16273: 16261: 16238:"Why Shariah?" 16225: 16206: 16189: 16174: 16143: 16117: 16084: 16069:(3): 557–558. 16049: 16016: 16003: 15996: 15978: 15935: 15917:978-1304399694 15916: 15890: 15855: 15824: 15801: 15774: 15755: 15736: 15721: 15710: 15691: 15661: 15644:UN News Centre 15631: 15625:978-0061189036 15624: 15603: 15579: 15561:978-0199794133 15560: 15537: 15510: 15503: 15482: 15456: 15425: 15387: 15385:, p. 291. 15375: 15369:978-0691134840 15368: 15362:. p. 40. 15343: 15336: 15311: 15293:978-0195125597 15292: 15272: 15254:978-0415396387 15253: 15233: 15222: 15197: 15179:978-0684807126 15178: 15158: 15116: 15097: 15079:978-0691134840 15078: 15055: 15020: 15001: 14982: 14978:978-1137388599 14965: 14939: 14920: 14896: 14881: 14879: 14878: 14856: 14840: 14831: 14809: 14794: 14790:978-1107039575 14773: 14767:978-0754630838 14766: 14748: 14720: 14716:978-1621570257 14703: 14699:978-1610691772 14683: 14648: 14613: 14604: 14585: 14579:978-1315502557 14578: 14560: 14557:978-0199641444 14544: 14501: 14483:978-1780740454 14482: 14460: 14446:978-0520360051 14445: 14423: 14410: 14369: 14326: 14322:978-1409434443 14309: 14283: 14264: 14238: 14197: 14185: 14154: 14124: 14122:, p. 145. 14112: 14100: 14038: 14026: 13996: 13978:978-1440831003 13977: 13950: 13919: 13893: 13867: 13841: 13814: 13784: 13766:978-0099523277 13765: 13742: 13711: 13684: 13654: 13635: 13605: 13584:"Why Shariah?" 13571: 13562: 13532: 13502: 13490: 13450: 13415: 13413:(7 April 2013) 13392: 13380: 13354: 13322: 13318:978-0415683166 13301: 13274: 13199: 13195:978-9004128187 13179: 13147: 13104: 13069: 13039: 13021:978-8132117513 13020: 13000: 12979: 12967: 12955: 12951:Thielmann 2017 12934: 12913: 12911:, p. 142. 12901: 12886: 12867: 12852: 12835: 12816: 12797: 12778: 12751: 12745:978-0199673599 12744: 12718: 12700:978-9004172258 12699: 12679: 12675:978-0199661633 12655: 12651:978-9004128187 12638: 12597: 12579: 12575:978-0275930097 12554: 12535: 12531:978-0691156415 12515: 12511:978-9774166174 12487: 12481:978-9004145924 12480: 12462: 12427: 12392: 12352: 12339: 12327: 12325:, p. 663. 12315: 12311:978-1452240350 12298: 12294:978-0892591428 12281: 12246:(2): 185–204. 12227: 12192: 12179: 12175:978-9004172258 12162: 12158:978-1610271288 12142: 12133: 12114: 12088: 12050: 12027: 12015: 11998:Deutsche Welle 11985: 11968:New York Times 11954: 11942: 11911: 11899: 11887: 11875: 11864: 11855: 11842:Süddeutsche.de 11828: 11807: 11798: 11781: 11779:, p. 835. 11766: 11741: 11729: 11727:, p. 155. 11710: 11687: 11672: 11670:, p. 378. 11660: 11658:, p. 503. 11645: 11626: 11607: 11605:, p. 174. 11595: 11593:, p. 167. 11583: 11571: 11559: 11542: 11527: 11487: 11472: 11470:, p. 360. 11460: 11458:, p. 566. 11448: 11446:, p. 351. 11436: 11424: 11412: 11400: 11398:, p. 213. 11388: 11386:, p. 212. 11373: 11371:, p. 502. 11356: 11335: 11323: 11311: 11294: 11282: 11270: 11251: 11236: 11234:, p. 158. 11224: 11209: 11207:, p. 217. 11194: 11179: 11154: 11152:, p. 501. 11131: 11129:, p. 180. 11119: 11117:, p. 499. 11107: 11092: 11080: 11045: 11004: 10989: 10983:978-0684832807 10982: 10964: 10947: 10926: 10905: 10898: 10878: 10865: 10852: 10843: 10839:978-9004116283 10826: 10800: 10773: 10766: 10746: 10721: 10704: 10674: 10672:. 1967, S. 49. 10661: 10649: 10634: 10623: 10611: 10600: 10588: 10581: 10563: 10556: 10538: 10519: 10510: 10463: 10416: 10404: 10397: 10373: 10366: 10333: 10304: 10293: 10284: 10273: 10261: 10249: 10237: 10224: 10215: 10192: 10177: 10162: 10139: 10118: 10091: 10084: 10062: 10043: 10020: 10008: 10006:, p. 146. 9996: 9975: 9963: 9948: 9918: 9878: 9862: 9850: 9823: 9811: 9802: 9787: 9754: 9734: 9718: 9692: 9685: 9667: 9655: 9640: 9631: 9616: 9602: 9593: 9574: 9561: 9549: 9536: 9525: 9523:, p. 130. 9513: 9496: 9494:, p. 125. 9481: 9448: 9421: 9406: 9387: 9365: 9350: 9335: 9326: 9311: 9293:978-0521570770 9292: 9269: 9252: 9211: 9172: 9165: 9139: 9124: 9117: 9097: 9078: 9067:Al-Jallad 2022 9059: 8990: 8951: 8949:, p. 322. 8939: 8895: 8884: 8873: 8869:978-0820319773 8845: 8839:978-1851685653 8838: 8813: 8809:AltaMira Press 8792: 8790:, p. 326. 8777: 8775:, p. 323. 8765: 8753: 8711: 8709:, p. 321. 8686: 8649: 8632: 8629:978-0253209399 8612: 8561: 8555:978-9041101792 8554: 8532: 8520: 8509: 8500: 8491: 8477: 8464: 8452: 8450:, p. 145. 8437: 8422: 8402:978-0815629085 8365: 8361:Schneider 2014 8344: 8325: 8311: 8291: 8289:, p. 500. 8276: 8267: 8258: 8189: 8052: 8012: 7997: 7968: 7941: 7884: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7875: 7874: 7808: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7793: 7784: 7775: 7754: 7744: 7735: 7718: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7559:legal opinions 7539:George Makdisi 7495:also parallel 7452: 7449: 7426:rabbinical law 7370:Main article: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7253: 7250: 7196: 7193: 7175: 7172: 7100: 7097: 7086: 7083: 7078:Ottoman empire 7054: 7051: 7044:Women in Islam 7039: 7036: 7002:gradual spread 6980: 6974: 6971:life in prison 6965: 6959: 6950: 6939:Main article: 6936: 6933: 6832:Main article: 6829: 6826: 6801:Salmaan Taseer 6797:Shahbaz Bhatti 6724: 6718: 6712: 6706: 6703:Blasphemy laws 6692:Main article: 6689: 6686: 6666:United Nations 6612: 6609: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6583: 6559:Muhammad Abduh 6555: 6516: 6495: 6492: 6475: 6474: 6471: 6460: 6452: 6431: 6428: 6409:Islamic ethics 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6325: 6322: 6306:Michael Broyde 6289:Rowan Williams 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6238: 6235: 6225:on charges of 6104:Main article: 6101: 6095: 6048:Salman Rushdie 6020:Main article: 6017: 6016:Role of fatwas 6014: 5965:Main article: 5962: 5959: 5930: 5927: 5890: 5889:Criminal cases 5887: 5824: 5823: 5778: 5776: 5769: 5763: 5760: 5726: 5723: 5667: 5664: 5658: 5655: 5649: 5646: 5632: 5629: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5552:Main article: 5549: 5546: 5468:Main article: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5460: 5453: 5446: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5409: 5408: 5405: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5381: 5378:Related topics 5376: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5345:Maryam Namazie 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5310: 5309: 5308: 5297: 5294: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5248:Ata Abu Rashta 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5198:Muhammad Iqbal 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5158:Muhammad Abduh 5154: 5152:Key ideologues 5151: 5150: 5147: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5137: 5135:House of Thani 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5090:Omar al-Bashir 5087: 5081: 5079:Heads of state 5078: 5077: 5074: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5052: 5045:("Milestones") 5039: 5027: 5015: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4990: 4989: 4988: 4983: 4981:Southeast Asia 4978: 4973: 4959: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4926:Hizb ut-Tahrir 4917: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4899: 4897:Sahwa movement 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4872:Dawat-e-Islami 4869: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4849: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4826:Anti-communism 4822: 4819: 4818: 4815: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4803: 4798: 4791: 4784: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4767: 4762: 4761: 4760: 4755: 4743: 4733: 4732: 4731: 4726: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4669: 4668: 4662: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4653: 4648: 4638: 4637: 4636: 4626: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4577: 4574: 4573: 4570: 4569: 4548: 4545: 4533:Quranic shares 4498:Muhammad Abduh 4491: 4490: 4483: 4479: 4464: 4420: 4417: 4372:Ottoman Empire 4358: 4357:Ottoman Empire 4355: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4218:Women in Islam 4213: 4210: 4158: 4155: 4068: 4065: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3897:Main article: 3894: 3893:Schools of law 3891: 3791:The domain of 3777: 3776: 3774: 3773: 3766: 3759: 3751: 3748: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3721: 3714: 3706: 3701: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3691: 3690: 3689: 3688: 3676: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3657: 3654: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3643: 3636: 3629: 3622: 3615: 3608: 3601: 3594: 3587: 3580: 3575: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3549: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3538: 3531: 3524: 3517: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3497: 3496: 3487: 3486: 3472: 3465: 3458: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3438: 3437: 3429: 3424: 3423: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3397: 3387: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3372: 3369: 3368: 3363: 3362: 3361: 3360: 3357:(compensation) 3349: 3338: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3321: 3310: 3301: 3292: 3281: 3270: 3259: 3248: 3243: 3231: 3226: 3225: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3215: 3213: 3212: 3205: 3198: 3191: 3184: 3177: 3170: 3163: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3141: 3140: 3139: 3138: 3133: 3126: 3125: 3118: 3111: 3110: 3109: 3102: 3090: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3070: 3063: 3056: 3048: 3046: 3045: 3038: 3032: 3029: 3028: 3020: 3015: 3014: 3011: 3010: 3006: 3005: 2998: 2991: 2984: 2977: 2970: 2963: 2957: 2956: 2955: 2949: 2944: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2934: 2933: 2931: 2930: 2915: 2908: 2900: 2888: 2885: 2884: 2876: 2875: 2867: 2866: 2858: 2857: 2856: 2855: 2848: 2841: 2838: 2837: 2829: 2820: 2814: 2810: 2809: 2802: 2795: 2787: 2784: 2783: 2775: 2774: 2764: 2759: 2758: 2755: 2754: 2746: 2745: 2733: 2732: 2721: 2714: 2466:Main article: 2463: 2460: 2440:Mut'a marriage 2164:Main article: 2161: 2158: 2134:women's rights 2033: 2030: 2029: 2028: 1969: 1952: 1951: 1912: 1911: 1878:Joseph Schacht 1874:Patricia Crone 1812:Page from the 1802:Main article: 1799: 1796: 1776:The theory of 1669:Main article: 1666: 1659: 1628:Main article: 1625: 1618: 1575:Joseph Schacht 1529:Malik ibn Anas 1470:women in Islam 1418: 1415: 1402:Ottoman Empire 1358:νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ 1321:Sharīʿat Allāh 1286:In the Quran, 1283: 1280: 1239: 1236: 1216: 1215: 1209: 1203: 1192: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1075:women's rights 947:; subsections 884:إجماع الائـمـة 876:ijma al-aimmah 707: 706: 704: 703: 696: 689: 681: 678: 677: 676: 675: 660: 659: 656: 655: 649: 648: 647: 646: 641: 631: 626: 625: 624: 619: 609: 604: 599: 593: 592: 591: 590: 585: 580: 572: 571: 566: 560: 557:Related topics 555: 554: 551: 550: 547: 546: 541: 539:Social welfare 536: 531: 530: 529: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 434: 433: 432: 427: 417: 416: 415: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 369: 360: 359: 356: 355: 352: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 325: 324: 317: 310: 302: 301: 296: 290: 285: 284: 281: 280: 277: 276: 268: 259: 258: 252: 244: 236: 227: 226: 206: 198: 195: 194: 189: 183: 182: 181: 178: 177: 174: 173: 168: 163: 157: 156: 151: 145: 140: 139: 136: 135: 132: 131: 129:Predestination 125: 124: 119: 113: 112: 110:Revealed Books 107: 101: 100: 90: 85: 84: 81: 80: 72: 71: 65: 64: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19414: 19403: 19400: 19398: 19397:Religious law 19395: 19393: 19390: 19388: 19385: 19383: 19380: 19378: 19375: 19374: 19372: 19362: 19357: 19352: 19351: 19348: 19340: 19337: 19334: 19330: 19326: 19323: 19320: 19319: 19318:Boston Review 19314: 19311: 19308: 19305: 19302: 19299: 19296: 19292: 19289: 19286: 19282: 19279: 19276: 19273: 19270: 19266: 19265:"Islamic law" 19263: 19262: 19253: 19249: 19246: 19243: 19239: 19235: 19231: 19230: 19225: 19222: 19218: 19214: 19209: 19198: 19191: 19187: 19183: 19179: 19178: 19167: 19163: 19159: 19154: 19150: 19146: 19142: 19137: 19133: 19131:9780195305135 19127: 19123: 19119: 19115: 19110: 19106: 19102: 19098: 19093: 19089: 19084: 19080: 19078:9780199739356 19074: 19070: 19066: 19062: 19057: 19051: 19047: 19043: 19039: 19034: 19032: 19028: 19023: 19018: 19014: 19009: 19005: 19003:9780199739356 18999: 18995: 18991: 18987: 18982: 18978: 18973: 18969: 18965: 18961: 18956: 18952: 18950:9780195305135 18946: 18942: 18938: 18934: 18929: 18925: 18923:9780195305135 18919: 18915: 18911: 18907: 18902: 18898: 18894: 18890: 18889:"Law. Courts" 18885: 18881: 18875: 18871: 18866: 18862: 18856: 18849: 18848: 18842: 18838: 18833: 18829: 18827:9780195305135 18823: 18819: 18815: 18811: 18806: 18800: 18796: 18792: 18788: 18783: 18779: 18775: 18771: 18766: 18762: 18758: 18754: 18749: 18745: 18741: 18737: 18732: 18728: 18724: 18720: 18715: 18711: 18707: 18703: 18698: 18694: 18689: 18685: 18680: 18676: 18671: 18667: 18661: 18657: 18652: 18648: 18642: 18638: 18634: 18630: 18626: 18621: 18617: 18613: 18609: 18604: 18600: 18596: 18592: 18588: 18584: 18580: 18575: 18571: 18569:9780195134056 18565: 18560: 18555: 18551: 18547: 18543: 18538: 18537: 18530: 18526: 18524:9780199679010 18520: 18516: 18512: 18508: 18503: 18499: 18497:9780199739356 18493: 18489: 18485: 18481: 18477: 18473: 18469: 18463: 18459: 18455: 18451: 18450:Horrie, Chris 18447: 18436: 18430: 18426: 18425: 18419: 18415: 18411: 18407: 18403: 18398: 18394: 18389: 18386: 18382: 18378: 18374: 18370: 18366: 18362: 18358: 18354: 18350: 18346: 18340: 18336: 18332: 18328: 18326: 18322: 18317: 18312: 18308: 18304: 18300: 18295: 18291: 18286: 18282: 18277: 18273: 18268: 18264: 18260: 18256: 18251: 18248: 18246:9780415945295 18242: 18238: 18237: 18231: 18227: 18223: 18218: 18207: 18203: 18198: 18194: 18190: 18186: 18181: 18177: 18173: 18168: 18157: 18153: 18148: 18144: 18140: 18136: 18131: 18127: 18122: 18118: 18114: 18110: 18105: 18098: 18094: 18092:9789041101761 18088: 18084: 18077: 18073: 18069: 18065: 18060: 18056: 18052: 18048: 18044: 18039: 18038: 18016: 18012: 18008: 18001: 17992: 17987: 17983: 17979: 17975: 17968: 17960: 17956: 17952: 17948: 17941: 17933: 17929: 17924: 17919: 17915: 17911: 17907: 17903: 17899: 17893: 17877: 17873: 17867: 17863: 17859: 17852: 17844: 17840: 17836: 17832: 17829:(2): 175–82. 17828: 17824: 17817: 17815: 17813: 17804: 17800: 17797:(3): 608–12. 17796: 17792: 17788: 17781: 17773: 17769: 17765: 17761: 17757: 17753: 17746: 17730: 17726: 17722: 17718: 17714: 17710: 17706: 17702: 17698: 17697: 17692: 17685: 17677: 17671: 17667: 17663: 17656: 17648: 17644: 17643: 17638: 17631: 17615: 17611: 17607: 17600: 17598: 17589: 17585: 17584: 17576: 17574: 17572: 17564: 17559: 17557: 17549: 17544: 17537: 17534:Ira Lapidus, 17531: 17515: 17511: 17504: 17497: 17493: 17490: 17485: 17469: 17465: 17459: 17455: 17454: 17446: 17444: 17434: 17425: 17418: 17413: 17409: 17405: 17401: 17397: 17393: 17389: 17383: 17367: 17363: 17356: 17348: 17344: 17340: 17333: 17317: 17313: 17307: 17303: 17299: 17295: 17291: 17284: 17275: 17270: 17266: 17262: 17258: 17251: 17235: 17231: 17227: 17224:Chen, James. 17220: 17204: 17200: 17193: 17185: 17181: 17174: 17167: 17162: 17155: 17150: 17143: 17139: 17136: 17130: 17128: 17126: 17124: 17107: 17103: 17099: 17092: 17085: 17081: 17075: 17071: 17064: 17057: 17052: 17046: 17042: 17038: 17037: 17029: 17022: 17017: 17011: 17007: 17000: 16993: 16989: 16983: 16976: 16972: 16966: 16958: 16954: 16950: 16946: 16943:(5): 118–32. 16942: 16938: 16931: 16924: 16920: 16917: 16912: 16903: 16902: 16901:, pp. 82–83; 16900: 16896: 16890: 16882: 16878: 16874: 16870: 16863: 16856:. p. 67. 16855: 16851: 16844: 16828: 16824: 16820: 16813: 16797: 16793: 16789: 16783: 16767: 16763: 16759: 16753: 16737: 16733: 16729: 16723: 16715: 16709: 16705: 16698: 16682: 16678: 16674: 16668: 16652: 16648: 16644: 16638: 16630: 16626: 16622: 16618: 16614: 16610: 16607:(1): 105–42. 16606: 16602: 16595: 16579: 16575: 16571: 16570: 16563: 16555: 16551: 16547: 16543: 16539: 16535: 16531: 16527: 16520: 16512: 16506: 16502: 16498: 16497: 16492: 16485: 16477: 16473: 16469: 16462: 16454: 16448: 16444: 16440: 16433: 16425: 16419: 16415: 16411: 16404: 16396: 16392: 16386: 16370: 16366: 16360: 16353: 16349: 16343: 16335: 16331: 16327: 16323: 16319: 16315: 16308: 16302:, p. 49. 16301: 16296: 16288: 16284: 16277: 16268: 16266: 16249: 16245: 16244: 16239: 16235: 16234:Feldman, Noah 16229: 16221: 16217: 16210: 16203: 16199: 16193: 16185: 16178: 16162: 16158: 16154: 16147: 16131: 16127: 16121: 16105: 16101: 16100:The Economist 16097: 16091: 16089: 16072: 16068: 16064: 16060: 16053: 16038: 16034: 16030: 16029:The Economist 16026: 16020: 16013: 16007: 15999: 15993: 15989: 15982: 15974: 15970: 15966: 15962: 15958: 15954: 15951:(3): 160–68. 15950: 15946: 15939: 15923: 15919: 15913: 15910:(1): 109–10. 15909: 15905: 15901: 15894: 15886: 15882: 15878: 15874: 15870: 15866: 15859: 15843: 15839: 15835: 15828: 15820: 15816: 15812: 15805: 15797: 15793: 15789: 15785: 15778: 15771: 15767: 15764: 15759: 15752: 15748: 15745: 15740: 15733: 15730: 15725: 15717: 15713: 15707: 15703: 15702: 15695: 15679: 15675: 15671: 15665: 15649: 15645: 15641: 15635: 15627: 15621: 15617: 15613: 15607: 15601:, pp. 526–27. 15600: 15596: 15595: 15589: 15583: 15567: 15563: 15557: 15553: 15552: 15547: 15546:John Esposito 15541: 15533: 15529: 15525: 15521: 15514: 15506: 15500: 15496: 15489: 15487: 15479: 15474: 15470: 15466: 15460: 15444: 15440: 15436: 15429: 15413: 15409: 15405: 15398: 15396: 15394: 15392: 15384: 15379: 15371: 15365: 15361: 15357: 15350: 15348: 15339: 15333: 15329: 15325: 15321: 15315: 15299: 15295: 15289: 15285: 15284: 15276: 15260: 15256: 15250: 15246: 15245: 15237: 15229: 15225: 15219: 15215: 15211: 15204: 15202: 15185: 15181: 15175: 15171: 15170: 15162: 15154: 15150: 15146: 15142: 15139:(1/4): 1–25. 15138: 15134: 15127: 15125: 15123: 15121: 15113: 15109: 15106: 15101: 15085: 15081: 15075: 15071: 15070: 15062: 15060: 15043: 15039: 15035: 15029: 15027: 15025: 15017: 15013: 15010: 15005: 14998: 14994: 14991: 14986: 14979: 14975: 14969: 14953: 14949: 14943: 14936: 14932: 14929: 14924: 14917: 14916:TheSharia.com 14913: 14909: 14906: 14900: 14892: 14885: 14876: 14873: 14869: 14868: 14866: 14860: 14854: 14850: 14844: 14835: 14828: 14827: 14822: 14818: 14817:Ibn Taymiyyah 14813: 14805: 14798: 14791: 14787: 14783: 14777: 14769: 14763: 14759: 14752: 14744: 14740: 14736: 14732: 14724: 14717: 14713: 14707: 14700: 14696: 14690: 14688: 14679: 14675: 14671: 14667: 14664:(2): 203–19. 14663: 14659: 14652: 14644: 14640: 14636: 14632: 14628: 14624: 14617: 14608: 14601: 14600: 14595: 14589: 14581: 14575: 14572:. Routledge. 14571: 14564: 14558: 14554: 14548: 14540: 14536: 14532: 14528: 14524: 14520: 14517:(1): 90–121. 14516: 14512: 14505: 14489: 14485: 14479: 14475: 14471: 14464: 14456: 14452: 14448: 14442: 14438: 14434: 14427: 14420: 14414: 14395: 14391: 14387: 14380: 14373: 14364: 14359: 14354: 14349: 14345: 14341: 14337: 14330: 14323: 14319: 14313: 14297: 14293: 14287: 14280: 14276: 14273: 14268: 14252: 14248: 14242: 14223: 14219: 14215: 14208: 14201: 14194: 14189: 14173: 14169: 14165: 14158: 14142: 14138: 14134: 14128: 14121: 14116: 14109: 14104: 14088: 14084: 14080: 14076: 14072: 14068: 14064: 14061:(2): 309–26. 14060: 14056: 14052: 14045: 14043: 14036:, p. 30. 14035: 14030: 14014: 14010: 14006: 14000: 13984: 13980: 13974: 13970: 13969: 13961: 13959: 13957: 13955: 13938: 13934: 13933:law.upenn.edu 13930: 13923: 13907: 13903: 13897: 13881: 13877: 13871: 13855: 13851: 13845: 13829: 13825: 13818: 13802: 13798: 13791: 13789: 13772: 13768: 13762: 13758: 13757: 13749: 13747: 13730: 13726: 13722: 13715: 13699: 13695: 13688: 13672: 13668: 13664: 13658: 13651: 13647: 13644: 13639: 13623: 13619: 13615: 13609: 13593: 13589: 13585: 13578: 13576: 13566: 13550: 13546: 13542: 13536: 13520: 13516: 13512: 13506: 13500:, p. 48. 13499: 13494: 13475: 13468: 13467: 13459: 13457: 13455: 13438: 13435:(3): 411–35. 13434: 13430: 13426: 13419: 13412: 13411:The Telegraph 13409:Jane Corbin, 13408: 13404: 13401: 13396: 13390: 13384: 13368: 13364: 13358: 13342: 13338: 13337: 13332: 13326: 13319: 13315: 13311: 13305: 13297: 13293: 13290:(1): 95–115. 13289: 13285: 13278: 13259: 13255: 13251: 13247: 13243: 13238: 13233: 13229: 13225: 13222:(3): 720–40. 13221: 13217: 13210: 13203: 13196: 13192: 13186: 13184: 13167: 13163: 13162: 13157: 13151: 13135: 13131: 13127: 13124:(3): 603–48. 13123: 13119: 13115: 13108: 13100: 13096: 13092: 13088: 13084: 13080: 13073: 13057: 13053: 13049: 13043: 13027: 13023: 13017: 13013: 13012: 13004: 12993: 12989: 12983: 12976: 12971: 12964: 12959: 12952: 12947: 12945: 12943: 12941: 12939: 12931: 12926: 12924: 12922: 12920: 12918: 12910: 12905: 12898: 12893: 12891: 12883: 12878: 12876: 12874: 12872: 12864: 12859: 12857: 12849: 12844: 12842: 12840: 12832: 12828: 12825: 12820: 12814: 12810: 12807: 12801: 12795: 12791: 12788: 12782: 12766: 12762: 12755: 12747: 12741: 12737: 12733: 12729: 12722: 12706: 12702: 12696: 12692: 12691: 12683: 12676: 12672: 12668: 12662: 12660: 12652: 12648: 12642: 12623: 12619: 12615: 12608: 12601: 12594: 12593: 12586: 12584: 12576: 12572: 12568: 12564: 12558: 12551: 12547: 12544: 12539: 12532: 12528: 12522: 12520: 12512: 12508: 12504: 12500: 12494: 12492: 12483: 12477: 12473: 12466: 12450: 12446: 12442: 12438: 12431: 12415: 12411: 12407: 12403: 12396: 12388: 12384: 12380: 12376: 12373:(3): 203–34. 12372: 12368: 12367: 12362: 12356: 12349: 12343: 12337:, p. 31. 12336: 12331: 12324: 12319: 12312: 12308: 12302: 12295: 12291: 12285: 12277: 12273: 12269: 12265: 12261: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12245: 12241: 12234: 12232: 12212: 12205: 12199: 12197: 12189: 12183: 12176: 12172: 12166: 12159: 12155: 12149: 12147: 12137: 12130: 12129:stare decisis 12126: 12124: 12118: 12102: 12098: 12092: 12084: 12080: 12076: 12072: 12068: 12064: 12057: 12055: 12046: 12042: 12038: 12031: 12024: 12019: 12003: 11999: 11995: 11989: 11973: 11969: 11965: 11958: 11951: 11946: 11930: 11926: 11922: 11915: 11908: 11903: 11896: 11891: 11884: 11879: 11873: 11868: 11859: 11843: 11839: 11832: 11825: 11821: 11817: 11811: 11802: 11796:, p. 20. 11795: 11790: 11788: 11786: 11778: 11773: 11771: 11763: 11758: 11756: 11754: 11752: 11750: 11748: 11746: 11738: 11733: 11726: 11721: 11719: 11717: 11715: 11707: 11702: 11700: 11698: 11696: 11694: 11692: 11684: 11679: 11677: 11669: 11664: 11657: 11652: 11650: 11642: 11637: 11635: 11633: 11631: 11623: 11618: 11616: 11614: 11612: 11604: 11599: 11592: 11587: 11581:, p. 61. 11580: 11575: 11569:, p. 39. 11568: 11563: 11556: 11551: 11549: 11547: 11539: 11534: 11532: 11523: 11519: 11515: 11511: 11507: 11503: 11496: 11494: 11492: 11483: 11476: 11469: 11464: 11457: 11452: 11445: 11440: 11433: 11428: 11422:, p. 85. 11421: 11416: 11409: 11404: 11397: 11392: 11385: 11380: 11378: 11370: 11365: 11363: 11361: 11353: 11348: 11346: 11344: 11342: 11340: 11332: 11327: 11320: 11315: 11308: 11303: 11301: 11299: 11291: 11286: 11279: 11274: 11267: 11262: 11260: 11258: 11256: 11248: 11243: 11241: 11233: 11228: 11221: 11216: 11214: 11206: 11201: 11199: 11191: 11186: 11184: 11176: 11171: 11169: 11167: 11165: 11163: 11161: 11159: 11151: 11146: 11144: 11142: 11140: 11138: 11136: 11128: 11123: 11116: 11111: 11104: 11099: 11097: 11089: 11084: 11077: 11072: 11070: 11068: 11066: 11064: 11062: 11060: 11058: 11056: 11054: 11052: 11050: 11030: 11026: 11022: 11015: 11008: 11001:. p. 57. 11000: 10993: 10985: 10979: 10975: 10968: 10961: 10956: 10954: 10952: 10944: 10939: 10937: 10935: 10933: 10931: 10923: 10918: 10916: 10914: 10912: 10910: 10901: 10895: 10891: 10890: 10882: 10875: 10869: 10862: 10856: 10847: 10840: 10836: 10830: 10815: 10811: 10804: 10788: 10784: 10777: 10769: 10767:9781589017528 10763: 10759: 10758: 10750: 10735: 10731: 10725: 10718: 10714: 10708: 10692: 10688: 10687:Teslimolanlar 10684: 10678: 10671: 10665: 10659: 10653: 10647:, p. 20. 10646: 10641: 10639: 10632: 10627: 10621: 10615: 10609: 10604: 10598: 10592: 10584: 10578: 10574: 10567: 10559: 10557:1-85168-204-X 10553: 10549: 10542: 10534: 10529:, p. 734 10528: 10523: 10514: 10506: 10502: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10486: 10482: 10478: 10474: 10467: 10459: 10455: 10451: 10447: 10443: 10439: 10436:(1): 20, 33. 10435: 10431: 10427: 10420: 10414: 10408: 10400: 10394: 10390: 10385: 10377: 10369: 10363: 10359: 10355: 10350: 10342: 10340: 10338: 10330: 10325: 10323: 10321: 10319: 10317: 10315: 10313: 10311: 10309: 10302: 10297: 10288: 10282: 10277: 10270: 10265: 10258: 10253: 10247:, p. 65. 10246: 10241: 10234: 10228: 10219: 10212: 10208: 10207: 10202: 10196: 10189: 10184: 10182: 10174: 10169: 10167: 10159: 10158:Duderija 2014 10154: 10152: 10150: 10148: 10146: 10144: 10136: 10132: 10128: 10122: 10114: 10110: 10106: 10102: 10095: 10087: 10081: 10077: 10073: 10066: 10050: 10046: 10044:9780759109919 10040: 10036: 10035: 10030: 10024: 10017: 10012: 10005: 10000: 9993: 9988: 9986: 9984: 9982: 9980: 9972: 9967: 9959: 9952: 9937:. p. 369 9936: 9929: 9922: 9914: 9908: 9892: 9888: 9882: 9875: 9873: 9866: 9859: 9854: 9847: 9842: 9840: 9838: 9836: 9834: 9832: 9830: 9828: 9820: 9815: 9806: 9798: 9791: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9761: 9759: 9750: 9743: 9741: 9739: 9730: 9729: 9722: 9707: 9703: 9696: 9688: 9686:1-881963-55-1 9682: 9678: 9671: 9664: 9659: 9653:, p. 15. 9652: 9647: 9645: 9635: 9627: 9620: 9612: 9606: 9597: 9589: 9584:, p. 53) 9583: 9578: 9572: 9565: 9559: 9553: 9547: 9540: 9534: 9529: 9522: 9517: 9510: 9505: 9503: 9501: 9493: 9488: 9486: 9478: 9473: 9471: 9469: 9467: 9465: 9463: 9461: 9459: 9457: 9455: 9453: 9445: 9440: 9438: 9436: 9434: 9432: 9430: 9428: 9426: 9417: 9410: 9394: 9390: 9388:9780191668265 9384: 9380: 9376: 9369: 9361: 9354: 9346: 9339: 9330: 9322: 9315: 9299: 9295: 9289: 9285: 9284: 9279: 9273: 9266: 9261: 9259: 9257: 9237: 9233: 9229: 9222: 9215: 9207: 9203: 9199: 9195: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9176: 9168: 9166:9780195305135 9162: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9143: 9135: 9128: 9120: 9118:9781780744681 9114: 9110: 9109: 9101: 9093: 9087: 9082: 9074: 9068: 9063: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9045: 9039: 9033: 9017: 9013: 9009: 9005: 9003: 9002:Kanun-ı Esasi 8994: 8988: 8987: 8982: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8963: 8955: 8948: 8943: 8935: 8929: 8922: 8909:Rom. 7: 22: ' 8906: 8899: 8893: 8888: 8882: 8877: 8870: 8866: 8862: 8858: 8852: 8850: 8841: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8817: 8810: 8806: 8802: 8796: 8789: 8784: 8782: 8774: 8769: 8762: 8757: 8749: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8722: 8715: 8708: 8703: 8701: 8699: 8697: 8695: 8693: 8691: 8683: 8678: 8676: 8674: 8672: 8670: 8668: 8666: 8664: 8662: 8660: 8658: 8656: 8654: 8647:, p. 19. 8646: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8630: 8626: 8622: 8616: 8608: 8604: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8572: 8565: 8557: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8536: 8529: 8524: 8518: 8513: 8504: 8495: 8487: 8481: 8475: 8468: 8462: 8456: 8449: 8444: 8442: 8434: 8429: 8427: 8420:(consensus)." 8419: 8415: 8411: 8407: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8390: 8386: 8383: 8378: 8374: 8369: 8362: 8357: 8355: 8353: 8351: 8349: 8341: 8336: 8334: 8332: 8330: 8314: 8308: 8304: 8303: 8295: 8288: 8283: 8281: 8271: 8262: 8255: 8250: 8248: 8246: 8244: 8242: 8240: 8238: 8236: 8234: 8232: 8230: 8228: 8226: 8224: 8222: 8220: 8218: 8216: 8214: 8212: 8210: 8208: 8206: 8204: 8202: 8200: 8198: 8196: 8194: 8186: 8181: 8179: 8177: 8175: 8173: 8171: 8169: 8167: 8165: 8163: 8161: 8159: 8157: 8155: 8153: 8151: 8149: 8147: 8145: 8143: 8141: 8139: 8137: 8135: 8133: 8131: 8129: 8127: 8125: 8123: 8121: 8119: 8117: 8115: 8113: 8111: 8109: 8107: 8105: 8103: 8101: 8099: 8097: 8095: 8093: 8091: 8089: 8087: 8085: 8083: 8081: 8079: 8077: 8075: 8073: 8071: 8069: 8067: 8065: 8063: 8061: 8059: 8057: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8031:"Islamic Law" 8025: 8023: 8021: 8019: 8017: 8009: 8004: 8002: 7985: 7981: 7975: 7973: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7942:9781139629249 7938: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7898: 7892: 7890: 7885: 7871: 7862: 7856: 7847: 7841: 7813: 7809: 7797: 7788: 7779: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7758: 7748: 7739: 7732: 7728: 7723: 7719: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7626: 7619: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7599: 7597: 7593: 7589: 7584: 7582: 7581: 7576: 7575: 7570: 7569: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7555: 7550: 7549:master of law 7546: 7545: 7540: 7534: 7532: 7531: 7526: 7525: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7511: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7493:Inns of Court 7490: 7486: 7482: 7478: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7448: 7445: 7440: 7438: 7437: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7410: 7405: 7404: 7399: 7395: 7394: 7389: 7385: 7379: 7373: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7322: 7320: 7319:Bernard Lewis 7315: 7310: 7308: 7304: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7284: 7280: 7275: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7249: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7227: 7224: 7220: 7218: 7211: 7206: 7202: 7192: 7190: 7185: 7181: 7171: 7169: 7165: 7159: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7148: 7143: 7139: 7133: 7131: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7107: 7105: 7096: 7093: 7082: 7079: 7074: 7072: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7049: 7045: 7035: 7033: 7029: 7026:for gay sex, 7024: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6994: 6972: 6957: 6956:Death penalty 6947: 6942: 6941:LGBT in Islam 6932: 6930: 6925: 6921: 6920:child-custody 6917: 6913: 6912:criminal laws 6908: 6906: 6902: 6898: 6894: 6893: 6888: 6884: 6883:death penalty 6879: 6876: 6872: 6871:death penalty 6865: 6861: 6857: 6852: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6825: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6704: 6700: 6695: 6685: 6683: 6679: 6674: 6670: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6658: 6652: 6650: 6645: 6641: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6622: 6618: 6608: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6563:Fahmi Huwaidi 6560: 6556: 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6522: 6517: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6501: 6500: 6491: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6472: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6458: 6453: 6450: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6395: 6393: 6388: 6385: 6381: 6376: 6374: 6373: 6368: 6364: 6363:David Cameron 6360: 6356: 6355:Newt Gingrich 6353: 6352:House Speaker 6349: 6345: 6344:Western world 6336: 6331: 6321: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6299: 6294: 6290: 6285: 6282: 6276: 6272: 6270: 6266: 6251: 6249: 6245: 6234: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6223:Nasr Abu Zayd 6218: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6190: 6185: 6181: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6156: 6152: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6132: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6120: 6113: 6107: 6100: 6094: 6092: 6088: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6070: 6065: 6064: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6036: 6028: 6023: 6013: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5997: 5995: 5994: 5989: 5985: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5968: 5958: 5954: 5953:communities. 5951: 5945: 5943: 5938: 5936: 5926: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5905: 5899: 5897: 5886: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5872: 5868: 5867: 5866:stare decisis 5862: 5858: 5854: 5849: 5845: 5837: 5832: 5828: 5820: 5817: 5809: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5779:This section 5777: 5768: 5767: 5759: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5736: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5703: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5685: 5680: 5679: 5674: 5663: 5654: 5645: 5641: 5639: 5599: 5595: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5558:According to 5555: 5545: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5534:Islamic state 5530: 5528: 5524: 5518: 5515: 5511: 5507: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5477: 5471: 5459: 5454: 5452: 5447: 5445: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5436: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5422: 5411: 5410: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5379: 5374: 5373: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5350:Maajid Nawaaz 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5311: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5258:Navvab Safavi 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5243:Tariq Ramadan 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5193:Safwat Hegazi 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5178:Muhammad Asad 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5130:House of Saud 5128: 5126: 5125:Mohammed Omar 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5110:Mohamed Morsi 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5076: 5075: 5067: 5066:Khomeini 1970 5063: 5062: 5060: 5053: 5050: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5008: 5004: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4923: 4922: 4921: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4863: 4855: 4854: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4809: 4808: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4796: 4792: 4790: 4789: 4785: 4783: 4782:Post-Islamism 4780: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4720: 4719:Islamic state 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4688: 4687: 4683: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4671: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4658:Shia Islamism 4656: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4643: 4642: 4639: 4635: 4632: 4631: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4621: 4615: 4614: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4578: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4544: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4499: 4495: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4453: 4452: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4419:Nation states 4416: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4391: 4386: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4363: 4354: 4352: 4351: 4344: 4342: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4318:British India 4311: 4307: 4303: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4279: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4252: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4186: 4181: 4171: 4167: 4165: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4114: 4112: 4108: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4064: 4062: 4061: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4049: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4007: 4003: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3890: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3843: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3832: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3820: 3815: 3814: 3808: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3793:furūʿ al-fiqh 3788: 3784: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3760: 3758: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3749: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3707: 3704: 3699: 3698: 3686: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3663: 3659: 3658: 3656: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3648: 3642: 3641: 3637: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3628: 3627: 3623: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3556: 3547: 3544: 3543: 3537: 3536: 3532: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3510: 3508: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3500: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3489: 3484: 3483: 3478: 3477: 3473: 3471: 3470: 3466: 3464: 3463: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3451: 3449: 3448: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3432: 3427: 3422: 3421: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3402: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3385: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3370: 3359: 3354: 3350: 3348: 3346:(retaliation) 3343: 3339: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3327: 3326: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3305: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3291: 3286: 3282: 3280: 3275: 3271: 3269: 3267:(illicit sex) 3264: 3260: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3236: 3235: 3234: 3229: 3224: 3223: 3211: 3210: 3206: 3204: 3203: 3199: 3197: 3196: 3192: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3183: 3182: 3178: 3176: 3175: 3171: 3169: 3168: 3164: 3162: 3161: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3153: 3150: 3147: 3146: 3137: 3136:Breastfeeding 3134: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3123: 3119: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3095: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3085: 3083: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3068: 3064: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3055: 3054: 3050: 3049: 3044: 3043: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3033: 3031: 3030: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3004: 3003: 2999: 2997: 2996: 2992: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2983: 2982: 2978: 2976: 2975: 2971: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2947: 2942: 2941: 2928: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2886: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2868: 2865: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2854: 2853: 2849: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2835: 2834: 2830: 2828: 2827: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2818: 2817:Sunnah prayer 2813: 2812: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2794: 2793: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2785: 2782: 2781: 2777: 2776: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2725: 2719: 2718:furūʿ al-fiqh 2713: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2682:social status 2679: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2585: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2544: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2533: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2511:reprehensible 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2469: 2459: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2432: 2430: 2429: 2424: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2384: 2379: 2375: 2374: 2369: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2247: 2246: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2232: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2218: 2213: 2209: 2208: 2203: 2195:mental effort 2174: 2173: 2167: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2043: 2039: 2026: 2025: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1988: 1983: 1982:Sunni Muslims 1979: 1975: 1974: 1970: 1967: 1966: 1962: 1961: 1960: 1958: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1936: 1935: 1930: 1929: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1895: 1891: 1890: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1862: 1859: 1858: 1853: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1836: 1831: 1830:Sunni Muslims 1827: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1784: 1779: 1774: 1772: 1771: 1766: 1765: 1760: 1759: 1754: 1748: 1745: 1741: 1740:Ahl al-Hadith 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1712:Ahl al-Hadith 1709: 1705: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1672: 1664: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1651:furūʿ al-fiqh 1648: 1644: 1643: 1638: 1637: 1631: 1623: 1617: 1614: 1608: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1596: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1562: 1560: 1559: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1501: 1495: 1492: 1487: 1485: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1414: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1392: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1375: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1302: 1296: 1290: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1235: 1225: 1223: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1201: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1132:means law or 1131: 1130:sharīʿat Mūsā 1127: 1123: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1089: 1088:brought calls 1085: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1004:legal schools 1000: 998: 994: 990: 986: 985:good and evil 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 943: 941: 934: 925: 921: 920: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 894:legal schools 891: 890: 881: 877: 869: 865: 864:ijma al-ummah 861: 860: 855: 851: 850: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 826: 822: 821:customary law 818: 814: 810: 806: 800: 791: 787: 786: 781: 778:'s immutable 777: 773: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 748:religious law 743: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 715: 711: 702: 697: 695: 690: 688: 683: 682: 680: 679: 674: 664: 663: 662: 661: 654: 651: 650: 645: 642: 640: 637: 636: 635: 632: 630: 627: 623: 620: 618: 615: 614: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 594: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 575: 574: 573: 570: 567: 565: 562: 561: 558: 553: 552: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 528: 525: 524: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 512:Proselytizing 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 431: 428: 426: 423: 422: 421: 420:Denominations 418: 414: 411: 410: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 370: 367: 363: 358: 357: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 330: 327: 326: 323: 322: 318: 316: 315: 311: 309: 308: 304: 303: 300: 297: 295: 292: 291: 288: 283: 282: 275: 273: 269: 267: 265: 261: 260: 256: 253: 251: 249: 245: 243: 241: 237: 235: 233: 229: 228: 224: 223: 218: 217: 212: 211: 207: 205: 204: 200: 199: 193: 190: 188: 185: 184: 180: 179: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 158: 155: 152: 150: 147: 146: 143: 138: 137: 130: 127: 126: 123: 120: 118: 115: 114: 111: 108: 106: 103: 102: 99: 95: 92: 91: 88: 83: 82: 78: 74: 73: 70: 67: 66: 62: 58: 57: 52: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 18:Sharia'h 19316: 19294: 19284: 19268: 19251: 19228: 19220: 19212: 19200:. Retrieved 19196: 19166:the original 19161: 19149:the original 19144: 19113: 19105:the original 19100: 19087: 19060: 19037: 19021: 19012: 18985: 18976: 18968:the original 18963: 18932: 18905: 18897:the original 18892: 18869: 18846: 18836: 18809: 18795:the original 18790: 18778:the original 18773: 18752: 18744:the original 18739: 18727:the original 18722: 18701: 18692: 18683: 18674: 18655: 18636: 18624: 18607: 18598: 18578: 18559:10261/117259 18541: 18535: 18506: 18479: 18458:Virgin Books 18453: 18438:. Retrieved 18423: 18413: 18401: 18392: 18376: 18368: 18356: 18334: 18315: 18298: 18289: 18280: 18271: 18263:the original 18258: 18235: 18225: 18209:. Retrieved 18205: 18193:the original 18188: 18175: 18159:. Retrieved 18155: 18143:the original 18138: 18125: 18117:the original 18112: 18097:the original 18082: 18063: 18054: 18042: 18019:. Retrieved 18010: 18000: 17984:(3): 71–90. 17981: 17977: 17967: 17950: 17946: 17940: 17905: 17901: 17898:Kuran, Timur 17892: 17880:. 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Puin 1863: 1855: 1849: 1839: 1833: 1823: 1787: 1781: 1778:Twelver Shia 1775: 1768: 1762: 1756: 1749: 1732:al-muʿtazila 1716:Ahl al-Kalām 1701: 1689: 1674: 1663:uṣūl al-fiqh 1662: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642:uṣūl al-fiqh 1640: 1634: 1633: 1621: 1609: 1602: 1591: 1563: 1556: 1508: 1498: 1496: 1481: 1435: 1390: 1389: 1387: 1316:Saʿadya Gaon 1285: 1263: 1259: 1251: 1247: 1241: 1219: 1217: 1211: 1205: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1183: 1141: 1138:sharīʿatu-nā 1137: 1129: 1121: 1119: 1095: 1063:human rights 1048: 1001: 957:criminal law 938: 917: 887: 875: 863: 857: 847: 834:Traditional 833: 808: 783: 771: 728: 724: 720: 716: 713: 712: 710: 629:Islamophobia 408:Demographics 403:Circumcision 319: 312: 305: 271: 270: 263: 247: 239: 231: 220: 214: 208: 201: 19392:Legal codes 18787:"Democracy" 18476:Hussin, Iza 18172:"S̲h̲arīʿa" 17267:(1): 1–17. 17240:7 September 17209:7 September 17021:impossible. 15928:18 December 15418:28 November 15304:28 November 15265:29 November 15190:27 November 14701:, pp. 59–67 14257:20 November 14009:Ballotpedia 13943:10 December 13886:8 September 13860:10 December 13834:10 December 13807:10 December 13777:21 November 13735:10 December 13628:4 September 13598:23 February 13498:Stence 2013 13373:18 February 12930:Berger 2014 12313:, pp. 36–37 12160:, Chapter 4 11844:(in German) 11706:Hallaq 2010 11683:Hallaq 2010 11622:Hallaq 2010 11603:Hallaq 2010 11579:Hallaq 2009 11319:Berkey 2003 11307:Hallaq 2010 11278:Hallaq 2009 11232:Hallaq 2010 11220:Hallaq 2009 11190:Hallaq 2009 11127:Hallaq 2010 11103:Hallaq 2009 11088:Hallaq 2009 11076:Hussin 2014 10960:Hallaq 2009 10943:Hallaq 2009 10819:22 December 10734:quranix.org 10645:Hallaq 2009 10188:Gleave 2012 10016:Hallaq 2009 10004:Kamali 1999 9992:Hallaq 2009 9860:, chpt. 4b. 9858:Dahlén 2003 9846:Hallaq 2009 9663:Kamali 1999 9651:Hallaq 2009 9509:Hallaq 2009 9444:Ziadeh 2009 9399:11 November 8577:(1): 1–38. 8528:Amanat 2009 8448:Hallaq 2010 8342:, chpt. 4c. 8340:Dahlén 2003 8254:Calder 2009 8010:, chpt. 2a. 8008:Dahlén 2003 7801:supporters. 7611:corporation 7489:law schools 7355:Grand Mufti 7353:and former 7242:manumission 6935:LGBT rights 6924:inheritance 6875:Wael Hallaq 6856:Sol Hachuel 6812:of General 6705:worldwide: 6597:Refah Party 6505:Sayyid Qutb 6449:Arab Spring 6348:Republicans 6046:condemning 5950:Timur Kuran 5929:Civil cases 5689:Afghanistan 5365:Bassam Tibi 5360:Olivier Roy 5253:Rashid Rida 5238:Sayyid Qutb 5024:Iqbal 1930s 4971:MENA region 4941:Millî Görüş 4537:Anwar Sadat 4487:neo-ijtihad 4482:deterrence. 4434:, Indonesia 4200:, based on 4040:(est. 1422) 3546:Inheritance 3493:Bayt al-mal 2852:Nafl prayer 2491:recommended 2396:) over the 2273:Orientalist 2202:Islamic law 2138:Rashid Rida 1916:inheritance 1826:Rashid Rida 1724:Ahl al-Ra'y 1567:revisionist 1342:תורת אלוהים 1126:Middle East 1016:theoretical 969:recommended 898:Sunni Islam 872:إجماع الأمة 770:, the term 644:Laws of war 307:Ahl al-Bayt 192:Foundations 27:Islamic law 19371:Categories 19275:Sharia Law 19097:"Sharīʿah" 18222:"Sharīʿah" 18135:"Maṣlaḥah" 18051:Ali, Kecia 17923:10161/2546 17563:Glenn 2014 17520:13 January 17474:13 January 17398:(3): 416. 16992:0253212642 16975:0292776942 16899:0195144201 16687:13 January 16202:0195144201 15871:: 265–66. 15449:14 October 15383:Vikør 2005 14958:13 January 14853:0028657357 14363:1887/62331 13989:13 January 13725:The Nation 13237:1887/13673 12909:Vikør 2005 12552:pp. 7, 10. 12296:, pp. 1–68 12023:Brown 2017 11907:Abiad 2008 11848:3 February 11737:Rabb 2009d 11641:Masud 2009 11538:Lewis 1992 11456:Hardy 1991 10329:Rabb 2009c 10269:Opwis 2007 10257:Opwis 2007 10245:Opwis 2007 10173:Brown 2009 10129:, pg. 32. 10107:(3): 292. 9971:Brown 2009 9819:Reza Aslan 9477:Rabb 2009b 8682:Mayer 2009 8185:Vikør 2014 8045:29 January 7990:4 December 7961:17 October 7951:2013019592 7771:Successors 7767:Companions 7457:common law 7398:Pentateuch 7376:See also: 7366:Jewish law 7291:extremists 7199:See also: 7189:Hanbalites 7138:Surah 4:34 6824:minority. 6814:Zia-ul Haq 6793:Christians 6632:1990, the 6451:uprisings; 6440:DeLong-Bas 6359:Diana West 6324:Opposition 6318:Jewish law 5861:precedents 5848:defendants 5844:plaintiffs 5838:, Malaysia 5806:March 2019 5790:improve it 5756:Motasarruf 5657:Family law 5494:Arab world 5355:Sam Harris 5335:Farag Foda 5115:Zia ul-Haq 4976:South Asia 4887:Madkhalism 4862:Scholastic 4820:Influences 4634:Khomeinism 4618:Ideologies 4606:Secularism 4341:Al-Hidayah 4336:Al-Hidayah 4332:common law 4327:Al-Hidayah 3923:) are the 3913:Ibn Hanbal 3909:Abu Dawood 3863:Mukhtasars 3407:Honorifics 3256:(gambling) 2599:concubines 2444:Quran 4:24 2326:Shia Islam 2082:al-Ghazali 2010:Hanbalites 2006:Al-Bukhari 1677:linguistic 1599:al-Shafi'i 1533:al-Shafi'i 1525:Abu Hanifa 1513:companions 1327:شريعة الله 1147:Four Doors 1103:, such as 1059:modernists 1024:governance 981:prohibited 949:family law 815:issued by 780:divine law 774:refers to 497:Philosophy 234:(exegesis) 171:Pilgrimage 161:Almsgiving 19236:, Mainz: 18616:578890367 18587:647084498 18440:29 August 18355:(2009b). 17725:153149243 17620:5 October 17412:1478-1913 17261:ERA Forum 16629:154841891 16546:144491368 16136:25 August 16037:0013-0613 15885:149570040 15796:0027-4909 15532:0027-4909 14678:144779047 14539:144825564 14392:(1): 12. 14083:150075053 14075:1351-0347 14034:Otto 2008 13483:31 August 13254:144601396 13099:154801688 12975:Chan 2016 12963:Mack 2018 12569:. p. 71. 12335:Otto 2008 12323:Otto 2008 12268:143083939 12083:0008-1973 11895:Otto 2008 11883:Otto 2008 11794:Otto 2008 11522:145552242 11484:: 53, 54. 11247:Rabb 2009 10841:, pp. 131 10739:14 August 10505:121170987 10458:159897995 10349:"Taqiyah" 10055:17 August 9198:0578-8072 9086:Dost 2023 9032:cite book 8928:cite book 8863:. p. 17. 8761:Otto 2008 8748:2458-9675 8645:Otto 2008 8607:145681085 8591:0897-6546 8472:(hasan). 7921:Cambridge 7899:(2014) . 7880:Citations 7855:romanized 7574:professor 7501:precedent 7497:Madrasahs 7491:known as 7434:rabbinic 7252:Terrorism 7226:concubine 7184:ightasaba 7130:Ibn Hajar 7014:Wahhabism 6764:beheading 6735:blasphemy 6688:Blasphemy 6434:Scholars 6287:In 2008, 6208:, by the 6206:Indonesia 6178:In Iran, 6144:Wahhabism 5853:discovery 5794:verifying 5568:democracy 5527:theocracy 5390:Modernism 5318:in Europe 5049:Qutb 1965 5036:Asad 1961 5000:Key texts 4920:Political 4902:Wahhabism 4858:Movements 4699:Caliphate 4596:Economics 4510:takhayyur 4457:takhayyur 4194:Aurangzeb 4093:The poet 4020:precedent 3967:takhayyur 3871:mukhtasar 3854:mukhtasar 3801:muʿāmalāt 3725:Istijarah 3375:Etiquette 3318:(stoning) 3246:Blasphemy 2961:Caliphate 2946:Political 2694:musta'min 2639:Wahhabism 2623:Al-Tahawi 2573:Quranists 2519:forbidden 2499:mustaḥabb 2479:mandatory 2436:as a rule 2378:Mu'tazila 2334:Ayatollah 2304:Salafiyya 2190: or 1998:Zahirites 1957:mutawatir 1939:orthodoxy 1846:consensus 1736:kalamiyya 1720:Mu'tazila 1708:Atharists 1685:abrogated 1604:al-risala 1491:Al Baqara 1468:and free 1460:rituals. 1366:God's Law 1350:God's Law 1334:God's Law 1238:Etymology 1159:Ismailism 1120:The word 1020:practical 965:mandatory 617:terrorism 569:Criticism 522:Sexuality 492:Mysticism 462:Festivals 442:Education 437:Economics 373:Academics 329:Caliphate 142:Practices 51:Shahriyar 19329:Archived 19250:(1964). 19202:5 August 19188:(1368). 19056:"Courts" 18805:"Dhimmī" 18635:(2014). 18627:. 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