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4113:), also called the Sharia court. Qadis were trained in Islamic law, though not necessarily to a level required to issue fatwas. Court personnel also included a number of assistants performing various roles. Judges were theoretically independent in their decisions, though they were appointed by the ruler and often experienced pressure from members of the ruling elite where their interests were at play. The role of qadis was to evaluate the evidence, establish the facts of the case, and issue a verdict based on the applicable rulings of Islamic jurisprudence. The qadi was supposed to solicit a fatwa from a mufti if it was unclear how the law should be applied to the case. Since Islamic legal theory does not recognize the distinction between private and public law, court procedures were identical for civil and criminal cases, and required a private plaintiff to produce evidence against the defendant. The main type of evidence was oral witness testimony. The standards of evidence for criminal cases were so strict that a conviction was often difficult to obtain even for apparently clear-cut cases. Most historians believe that because of these stringent procedural norms, qadi's courts at an early date lost their jurisdiction over criminal cases, which were instead handled in other types of courts.
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4182:(religious scholars) were involved in management of communal affairs and acted as representatives of the Muslim population vis-à-vis the ruling dynasties, who before the modern era had limited capacity for direct governance. Military elites relied on the ulema for religious legitimation, with financial support for religious institutions being one of the principal means through which these elites established their legitimacy. In turn, the ulema depended on the support of the ruling elites for the continuing operation of religious institutions. Although the relationship between secular rulers and religious scholars underwent a number of shifts and transformations in different times and places, this mutual dependence characterized Islamic history until the start of the modern era. Additionally, since Sharia contained few provisions in several areas of public law, Muslim rulers were able to legislate various collections of economic, criminal and administrative laws outside the jurisdiction of Islamic jurists, the most famous of which is the
6607:. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy". In an analysis, Maurits S. Berger found the ruling to be "nebulous" and surprising from a legal point of view, since the Court neglected to define what it meant by "Sharia" and would not, for example, be expected to regard Sharia rules for Islamic rituals as contravening European human rights values. Kevin Boyle also criticized the decision for not distinguishing between extremist and mainstream interpretations of Islam and implying that peaceful advocacy of Islamic doctrines ("an attitude which fails to respect ") is not protected by the European Convention provisions for freedom of religion.
5529:. Several countries, including Iran, Pakistan, Sudan, and some Nigerian states have incorporated hudud rules into their criminal justice systems, which, however, retained fundamental influences of earlier Westernizing reforms. In practice, these changes were largely symbolic, and aside from some cases brought to trial to demonstrate that the new rules were being enforced, hudud punishments tended to fall into disuse, sometimes to be revived depending on the local political climate. The supreme courts of Sudan and Iran have rarely approved verdicts of stoning or amputation, and the supreme courts of Pakistan and Nigeria have never done so. Nonetheless, Islamization campaigns have also had repercussions in several other areas of law, leading to curtailment of rights of women and religious minorities, and in the case of Sudan contributing to the breakout of a civil war.
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contracts drafted with reference to such laws, as long as they do not violate secular law or the U.S. constitution. After failing to gather support for a federal law making observing Sharia a felony punishable by up to 20 years in prison, anti-Sharia activists have focused on state legislatures. By 2014, bills aimed against use of Sharia have been introduced in 34 states and passed in 11. A notable example of this would be 2010 Oklahoma State
Question 755, which sought to permanently ban the use of Sharia law in courts. While approved by voters, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals placed an injunction on the law. Citing the unconstitutionality of the law's impartial focus on a specific religion, the law was struck down and never took effect. These bills have generally referred to banning foreign or religious law in order to thwart legal challenges.
1968:: it is the consensus that could in principle elevate a ruling based on probable evidence to absolute certainty. This classical doctrine drew its authority from a series of hadiths stating that the Islamic community could never agree on an error. This form of consensus was technically defined as agreement of all competent jurists in any particular generation, acting as representatives of the community. However, the practical difficulty of obtaining and ascertaining such an agreement meant that it had little impact on legal development. A more pragmatic form of consensus, which could be determined by consulting works of prominent jurists, was used to confirm a ruling so that it could not be reopened for further discussion. The cases for which there was a consensus account form less than 1 percent of the body of classical jurisprudence.
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cases or at all. This legal framework was implemented with varying degree of rigor. In some periods or towns, all inhabitants apparently used the same court without regard for their religious affiliation. The Mughal emperor
Aurangzeb imposed Islamic law on all his subjects, including provisions traditionally applicable only to Muslims, while some of his predecessors and successors are said to have abolished jizya. According to Ottoman records, non-Muslim women took their cases to a Sharia court when they expected a more favorable outcome on marital, divorce and property questions than in Christian and Jewish courts. Over time, non Muslims in the Ottoman Empire could be more or less likely to use Islamic courts. For example, in 1729 at the Islamic court in
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7321:, "t no time did the classical jurists offer any approval or legitimacy to what we nowadays call terrorism" and the terrorist practice of suicide bombing "has no justification in terms of Islamic theology, law or tradition". In the modern era the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to an ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some radicals have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. For al-Qaeda ideologues, in jihad all means are legitimate, including targeting Muslim non-combatants and the mass killing of non-Muslim civilians.
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6271:, including Afghanistan (99%), Iraq (91%), Niger (86%), Malaysia (86%), Pakistan (84%), Morocco (83%), Bangladesh (82%), Egypt (74%), Indonesia (72%), Jordan (71%), Uganda (66%), Ethiopia (65%), Mali (63%), Ghana (58%), and Tunisia (56%). In Muslim regions of Southern-Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the support is less than 50%: Russia (42%), Kyrgyzstan (35%), Tajikistan (27%), Kosovo (20%), Albania (12%), Turkey (12%), Kazakhstan (10%), Azerbaijan (8%). Regional averages of support were 84% in South Asia, 77% in Southeast Asia, 74% in the Middle-East/North Africa, 64%, in Sub-Saharan Africa, 18% in Southern-Eastern Europe, and 12% in Central Asia .
4166:). In court disputes, qadis were generally less concerned with legal theory than with achieving an outcome that enabled the disputants to resume their previous social relationships. This could be accomplished by avoiding a total loss for the losing side or simply giving them a chance to articulate their position in public and obtain a measure of psychological vindication. Islamic law required judges to be familiar with local customs, and they exercised a number of other public functions in the community, including mediation and arbitration, supervision of public works, auditing waqf finances, and looking after the interests of orphans.
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religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which
Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.
4353:, was treated by the British as a model for legal reforms in their other colonies. Like the British in India, colonial administrations typically sought to obtain precise and authoritative information about indigenous laws, which prompted them to prefer classical Islamic legal texts over local judicial practice. This, together with their conception of Islamic law as a collection of inflexible rules, led to an emphasis on traditionalist forms of Sharia that were not rigorously applied in the pre-colonial period and served as a formative influence on the modern identity politics of the Muslim world.
2590:
4494:
4018:(legal opinions), generally free of charge, in response to questions from laypersons or requests for consultation coming from judges, which would be stated in general terms. Fatwas were regularly upheld in courts, and when they were not, it was usually because the fatwa was contradicted by a more authoritative legal opinion. The stature of jurists was determined by their scholarly reputation. The majority of classical legal works, written by author-jurists, were based in large part on fatwas of distinguished muftis. These fatwas functioned as a form of legal
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maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the
Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by a judge and the legal guardian of the adolescent. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age.
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4508:(1849–1905). Abduh viewed only Sharia rules pertaining to religious rituals as inflexible, and argued that the other Islamic laws should be adapted based on changing circumstances in consideration of social well-being. Following precedents of earlier Islamic thinkers, he advocated restoring Islam to its original purity by returning to the Quran and the sunna instead of following the medieval schools of jurisprudence. He championed a creative approach to ijtihad that involved direct interpretation of scriptures as well as the methods of
8274:"Another key principle that the early Islamic jurists developed was the concept of urf, or customary law. Urf is the customary practices of a particular community. The early jurists recognized that urf could be used to supplement or complement Islamic law. For example, if there was no clear ruling on a particular issue in the Quran or hadith, the jurists could look to urf for guidance." The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law; Emon, Anver M., and Rumee Ahmed, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law. Oxford University Press, 2018. p. 25.
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6346:, Sharia has been called a source of "hysteria", "more controversial than ever", the one aspect of Islam that inspires "particular dread". On the Internet, "dozens of self-styled counter-jihadis" emerged to campaign against Sharia law, describing it in strict interpretations resembling those of Salafi Muslims. Also, fear of Sharia law and of the ideology of extremism among Muslims as well as certain congregations donating money to terrorist organizations within the Muslim community reportedly spread to mainstream conservative
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of Sharia, particularly questions regarding religious rituals and everyday life. Modern fatwas deal with topics as diverse as insurance, sex-change operations, moon exploration and beer drinking. Most Muslim-majority states have established national organizations devoted to issuing fatwas, and these organizations to a considerable extent replaced independent muftis as religious guides for the general population. State-employed muftis generally promote a vision of Islam that is compatible with state law of their country.
7742:"...the essential features of old Muhammadan jurisprudence, such as the idea of the 'living tradition' of the ancient schools of law ; a body of common doctrine expressing the earliest effort to systematize; legal maxims which often reflect a slightly later stage, and an important nucleus of legal traditions... it is safe to say that Muhammadan legal science started in the later part of the Umaiyad period, taking the legal practice of the time as its raw material and endorsing, modifying, or rejecting it"
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constitutions usually also refer to universal principles such as democracy and human rights, leaving it up to legislators and the judiciary to work out how these norms are to be reconciled in practice. Conversely, some countries (e.g., Algeria), whose constitution does not mention Sharia, possess Sharia-based family laws. Nisrine Abiad identifies
Bahrain, Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia as states with "strong constitutional consequences of Sharia "on the organization and functioning of power".
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swearing their innocence, refusal thereof can result in a verdict for the plaintiff. Taking an oath for
Muslims can be a grave act; one study of courts in Morocco found that lying litigants would often "maintain their testimony right up to the moment of oath-taking and then to stop, refuse the oath, and surrender the case." Accordingly, defendants are not routinely required to swear before testifying, which would risk casually profaning the Quran should the defendant commit perjury.
4447:(qadi's/Sharia court) were preserved, they generally came to mean judge and court in the Western sense. While in the traditional Sharia court all parties represented themselves, in modern courts they are represented by professional lawyers educated in Western-style law schools, and the verdicts are subject to review in an appeals court. In the 20th century, most countries abolished a parallel system of Sharia courts and brought all cases under a national civil court system.
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accounting. Such factors, according to Timur Kuran, have played a significant role in retarding economic development in the Middle East. However, the rise of monopoly wealth and corporations have proven to also be detrimental to the economic equality of a society. Ziauddin Sardar also suggests that the promotion of equitable wealth distribution and suppression of monopoly capital are a part of Islam's message that emphasises genuine equity and justice.
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across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world. For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and
Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in Lower Egypt, East Africa, and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia. The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs. The
1480:. The basis of this resolution was that a member from the tribe to which the murderer belonged was handed over to the victim's family for execution, equivalent to the social status of the murdered person. The "condition of social equivalence" meant the execution of a member of the murderer's tribe who was equivalent to the murdered person. For example, only a slave could be killed for a slave, and a woman for a woman. In other cases,
8530:: "Muslim fundamentalists claim that Shari’a and its sources constitute a divine law that regulates all aspects of Muslim life, as well as Muslim societies and Muslim states . Muslim modernists, on the other hand, criticize the old approaches to Shari’a by traditional Muslim jurists as obsolete and instead advocate innovative approaches to Shari’a that accommodate more pluralist and relativist views within a democratic framework."
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6394:, "nthropological research shows that people in local communities often do not distinguish clearly whether and to what extent their norms and practices are based on local tradition, tribal custom, or religion. Those who adhere to a confrontational view of Sharia tend to ascribe many undesirable practices to Sharia and religion overlooking custom and culture, even if high-ranking religious authorities have stated the opposite."
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Sharia-based laws are an authentic representation of the pre-modern legal tradition. In reality, they generally represent the result of extensive legal reforms made in the modern era. As traditional
Islamic jurists lost their role as authoritative interpreters of the laws applied in courts, these laws were codified by legislators and administered by state systems which employed a number of devices to effect changes, including:
4527:. He drafted the civil codes of Egypt (1949) and Iraq (1951) based on a variety of sources, including classical fiqh, European laws, existing Arab and Turkish codes, and the history of local court decisions. Sanhuri's Egyptian code incorporated few classical Sharia rules, but he drew on traditional jurisprudence more frequently for the Iraqi code. Sanhuri's codes were subsequently adopted in some form by most Arab countries.
3803:(social relations). Many jurists further divided the body of substantive jurisprudence into "the four quarters", called rituals, sales, marriage and injuries. Each of these terms figuratively stood for a variety of subjects. For example, the quarter of sales would encompass partnerships, guaranty, gifts, and bequests, among other topics. Juristic works were arranged as a sequence of such smaller topics, each called a "book" (
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1959:; however, the vast majority of hadiths were handed down by only one or a few transmitters and were therefore seen to yield only probable knowledge. The uncertainty was further compounded by ambiguity of the language contained in some hadiths and Quranic passages. Disagreements on the relative merits and interpretation of the textual sources allowed legal scholars considerable leeway in formulating alternative rulings.
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9809:"short reports (sometimes just a line or two) recording what an early figure, such as a companion of the prophet or Muhammad himself, said or did on a particular occasion, preceded by a chain of transmitters". However, she adds that "nowadays, hadith almost always means hadith from Muhammad himself." Crone, Patricia (10 June 2008). "What do we actually know about Muhammad?". Open Democracy. Retrieved 16 April 2018.
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11818:(Applications nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98), Judgment, Strasbourg, 13 February 2003, No. 123 (siehe S. 39): "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy, since principles such as pluralism in the political sphere and the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it and a regime based on sharia clearly diverges from Convention values"; see Alastair Mowbray,
4393:, was produced for use in both Sharia and secular courts. It adopted the Turkish language for the benefit of the new legal class who no longer possessed competence in the Arabic idiom of traditional jurisprudence. The code was based on Hanafi law, and its authors selected minority opinions over authoritative ones when they were felt to better "suit the present conditions". The Mecelle was promulgated as a
1699:. It was an important area of debate among traditional fiqh scholars how much space should be given to rational methods in creating provisions such as extracting provisions from religious texts, as well as expanding, restricting, abolishing or postponing these provisions according to new situations, considering the purpose and benefit, together with new sociologies, in the face of changing conditions.
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laws, which impeded colonial administration and were soon replaced by
European regulations. Islamic commercial laws were also replaced by European (mostly French) laws in Muslim states which retained formal independence, because these states increasingly came to rely on Western capital and could not afford to lose the business of foreign merchants who refused to submit to Islamic regulations.
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1683:" to derive judgments for new situations by taking into account certain purposes and mesalih. Textual phrases usually dealt with under simple antithetical headings: general and particular, command and prohibition, obscure and clear, truth and metaphor. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is
77:
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2438:, there was a hierarchy and power ranking among the sources of Sharia; for example, a subcategory or an auxiliary source will not be able to eliminate a provision clearly stated in the main source or prohibit a practice that was not prohibited though it was known and practiced during the prophetic period. If we look at an example such as the abolition of the validity of
5944:) payable from a Muslim man to a Muslim woman. The brideprice is considered by a Sharia court as a form of debt. Written contracts were traditionally considered paramount in Sharia courts in the matters of dispute that are debt-related, which includes marriage contracts. Written contracts in debt-related cases, when notarized by a judge, is deemed more reliable.
8265:"Customary law has also been an important part of Islamic law. It was used to resolve disputes that were not covered by sharia, and it also helped to adapt sharia to the needs of men in different societies and cultures." Islamic Law: An Introduction by John Esposito (2019) Esposito, John. Islamic Law: An Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. Page 31
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objections from religious conservatives. Various procedural changes have been made in a number of countries to restrict polygamy, give women greater rights in divorce, and eliminate child marriage. Inheritance has been the legal domain least susceptible to reform, as legislators have been generally reluctant to tamper with the highly technical system of
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the
Islamic legal system in India were supplanted by British law, with the exception of Sharia rules retained in family laws and some property transactions. Among other changes, these reforms brought about abolition of slavery, prohibition of child marriage, and a much more frequent use of capital punishment. The resulting legal system, known as
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before the 11th century, but later jurists lowered the bar for applying the death penalty, allowing judges to interpret the apostasy law in different ways, which they did sometimes leniently and sometimes strictly. In the late 19th century, the use of criminal penalties for apostasy fell into disuse, although civil penalties were still applied.
9725:"well into the second century A.H. scholarly opinion on the birth date of the Prophet displayed a range of variance of 85 years. On the assumption that chronology is crucial to the stabilization of any tradition of historical narrative, whether transmitted orally or in writing, one can see in this state of affairs a clear indication that
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where peasants "almost always" won cases against oppressive landowners, and non-Muslims often prevailed in disputes against Muslims, including such powerful figures as the governor of their province. In family matters the Sharia court was seen as a place where the rights of women could be asserted against their husband's transgressions.
4543:, which sought to reconcile universal human rights norms and the country's Islamic heritage, was drafted by a commission that included parliamentarians, religious scholars and feminist activists, and the result has been praised by international rights groups as an example of progressive legislation achieved within an Islamic framework.
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human rights agenda would be to rectify the legal inequality of women, the suppression of political dissent, the curtailment of free expression, the persecution of ethnic minorities and religious dissenters—in short, protecting their citizens from egregious human rights violations. Instead, they are worrying about protecting Islam."
6093:, but its legal opinions are not binding. The vast amount of fatwas produced in the modern world attests to the importance of Islamic authenticity to many Muslims. However, there is little research available to indicate to what extent Muslims acknowledge the authority of different muftis or heed their rulings in real life.
7000:) forms and in part to prevailing social tolerance toward same-sex relationships. Historical instances of prosecution for homosexual acts are rare, and those which followed Sharia rules are even rarer. Public attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world turned more negative starting from the 19th century through the
3844:, where the goal of punishment is correction or rehabilitation of the culprit and its form is largely left to the judge's discretion. In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures which were only loosely related to Sharia.
7132:, the pillar of late medieval Sunni Hadith scholarship, concludes that, contrary to what seems to be an explicit command in the Qur'an, the Hadiths of the Prophet leave no doubt that striking one's wife to discipline her actually falls under the Shariah ruling of 'strongly disliked' or 'disliked verging on prohibited'.
2567:) 2.The expression of the text referring to the subject must be clear and precise enough not to allow other interpretations. The term wajib is used for situations that do not meet the second of these conditions. However, this understanding may not be sufficient to explain every situation. For example, Hanafis accept
4051:, which spread during the 10th and 11th centuries. Madrasas were institutions of higher learning devoted principally to study of law, but also offering other subjects such as theology, medicine, and mathematics. The madrasa complex usually consisted of a mosque, boarding house, and a library. It was maintained by a
4063:) certifying a student's competence in its subject matter. Students specializing in law would complete a curriculum consisting of preparatory studies, the doctrines of a particular madhhab, and training in legal disputation, and finally write a dissertation, which earned them a license to teach and issue fatwas.
6885:. This view is dominant in conservative societies like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. A number of liberal and progressive Islamic scholars have argued that apostasy should not be viewed as a crime. Others argue that the death penalty is an inappropriate punishment, inconsistent with the Qur'anic verses such as
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who support making Sharia the law of the land, most do not believe that it should be applied to non-Muslims. In the Muslim-majority countries surveyed this proportion varied between 74% (of 74% in Egypt) and 19% (of 10% in Kazakhstan), as percentage of those who favored making Sharia the law of the land.
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The religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world. (...) In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious
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is currently a legal punishment in Brunei, Iran, Mauritania, some northern states in Nigeria, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, parts of Somalia, and Yemen, all of which have Sharia-based criminal laws. It is unclear whether the laws of Afghanistan and United Arab Emirates provide for the death penalty
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subjects free speech to unspecified Sharia restrictions: Article 22(a) of the Declaration states that "Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shariah." Others, in contrast, consider blasphemy laws to violate freedom
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states that Sharia is structured around the concept of mutual obligations of a collective, and it considers individual human rights as potentially disruptive and unnecessary to its revealed code of mutual obligations. In giving priority to this religious collective rather than individual liberty, the
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In the internet age, a large number of websites provide fatwas in response to queries from around the world, in addition to radio shows and satellite television programs offering call-in fatwas. Erroneous and sometimes bizarre fatwas issued by unqualified or eccentric individuals in recent times have
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for Muslims in 2004, though according to a 2006 US State Department report, the penal code still discriminates against other religious minorities and women. According to Human Rights Watch and the US State Department, in Saudi Arabia Jewish or Christian male plaintiffs are entitled to half the amount
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cases in favor of eyewitnesses in some modern interpretations. In the case of regulations that were part of local Malaysian legislation that did not go into effect, this could cause severe difficulties for women plaintiffs in rape cases. In Pakistan, DNA evidence is rejected in paternity cases on the
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According to classical jurisprudence, testimony must be from at least two free Muslim male witnesses, or one Muslim male and two Muslim females, who are not related parties and who are of sound mind and reliable character. Testimony to establish the crime of adultery, fornication or rape must be from
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Countries in the Muslim world generally have criminal codes influenced by civil law or common law, and in some cases a combination of Western legal traditions. Saudi Arabia has never adopted a criminal code and Saudi judges still follow traditional Hanbali jurisprudence. In the course of Islamization
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punishments are at the core of the divine Sharia because they are specified by the letter of scripture rather than by human interpreters. Modern Islamists have often rejected, at least in theory, the stringent procedural constraints developed by classical jurists to restrict their application. To the
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Formal legal disabilities for some groups coexisted with a legal culture that viewed Sharia as a reflection of universal principles of justice, which involved protection of the weak against injustices committed by the strong. This conception was reinforced by the historical practice of Sharia courts,
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Classical fiqh acknowledges and regulates slavery as a legitimate institution. It granted slaves certain rights and protections, improving their status relative to Greek and Roman law, and restricted the scenarios under which people could be enslaved. However, slaves could not inherit or enter into a
1954:
The body of hadith provides more detailed and practical legal guidance, but it was recognized early on that not all of them were authentic. Early Islamic scholars developed personal criteria for evaluating their authenticity by assessing trustworthiness of the individuals listed in their transmission
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that regarding apostasy as a wrongdoing is not a sign of intolerance of other religions, and is not aimed at one's freedom to choose a religion or to leave Islam and embrace another faith, but that on the contrary, it is more correct to say that the punishment is enforced as a safety precaution when
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writes that " a culture whose lynchpin is religion, religious principles and religious morality, apostasy is in some way equivalent to high treason in the modern nation-state". Early Islamic jurists set the standard for apostasy from Islam so high that practically no apostasy verdict could be passed
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tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. Islamic scholars and Islamist political parties consider 'universal human rights' arguments as imposition of a non-Muslim culture on Muslim people, a disrespect of customary cultural practices and of Islam. In
6425:
It has been argued that the extent to which Sharia is compatible with democracy depends on how it is culturally interpreted, with a cultural position that Sharia represents the human attempt to interpret God's message associated with a greater preference for democracy than an Islamist interpretation
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The legal systems of most Muslim-majority countries can be classified as either secular or mixed. Sharia plays no role in secular legal systems. In mixed legal systems, Sharia rules are allowed to influence some national laws, which are codified and may be based on European or Indian models, and the
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drew on leftist anticolonialist rhetoric by framing their call for Sharia as a resistance struggle. They accused secular leaders of corruption and predatory behavior, and claimed that a return to Sharia would replace despotic rulers with pious leaders striving for social and economic justice. In the
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British administrators felt that Sharia rules too often allowed criminals to escape punishment, as exemplified by Hastings' complaint that Islamic law was "founded on the most lenient principles and on an abhorrence of bloodshed". In the course of the 19th century, criminal laws and other aspects of
4177:
Unlike pre-modern cultures where the ruling dynasty promulgated the law, Islamic law was formulated by religious scholars without involvement of the rulers. The law derived its authority not from political control, but rather from the collective doctrinal positions of the legal schools (madhhabs) in
2579:, who do not doubt that the Quran existing today is a religious source, infer from the same verses that it is clearly ordered to pray 2 or 3 times, not 5 times. In addition, in religious literature, wajib is widely used for all kinds of religious requirements, without expressing any fiqh definition.
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by new jurisprudences. In Muslim majority countries, traditional laws have been widely used with or changed by European models. Judicial procedures and legal education have been brought in line with European practice likewise. While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references
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Some are derived from the science of Aristotelian logic which the philosopher-theologian writers mutakallimun had become accustomed to discussing in the introductions to their works. ........... Some are derived from Ilm al Kalam Scholastic Theology, and include discussions of such questions as the
8471:
Islam has classified the values vis-a-vis the ahkams into two categories: an action or thing is considered to be bad (qabih) if it falls within the categories of makruh or haram. Those actions and things falling within the remaining three categories of mubah, mustahabb and halal are said to be good
7240:("that which your right hand owns") to refer to women slaves, seized as captives of war. Under Islamic law, Muslim men could have sexual relations with female captives and slaves. Sharia, in Islam's history, provided a religious foundation for enslaving non-Muslim women and men, but allowed for the
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as well as a leading early scholar in Iran, collected all the Hadiths showing Muhammad's disapproval of beating in a chapter entitled 'The Prohibition on Striking Women'. A thirteenth-century scholar from Granada, Ibn Faras, notes that one camp of ulama had staked out a stance forbidding striking a
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that wishes to prohibit any criticism of religion and would thus protect Islam's limited view of human rights. In view of the conditions inside the Islamic Republic of Iran, Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, Syria, Bangladesh, Iraq, and Afghanistan, we should expect that at the top of their
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has argued that there is no single, shared understanding of the notions "Sharia" and "Islamic law" among the respondents. In particular, in countries where Muslim citizens have little experience with rigid application of Sharia-based state laws, these notions tend to be more associated with Islamic
6034:
The spread of codified state laws and Western-style legal education in the modern Muslim world has displaced traditional muftis from their historical role of clarifying and elaborating the laws applied in courts. Instead, fatwas have increasingly served to advise the general public on other aspects
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Saudi Arabia and some other Persian Gulf states possess what may be called classical Sharia systems, where national law is largely uncodified and formally equated with Sharia, with ulema playing a decisive role in its interpretation. Iran has adopted some features of classical Sharia systems, while
4248:
Traditional Islamic law assumes a patriarchal society with a man at the head of the household. Different legal schools formulated a variety of legal norms which could be manipulated to the advantage of men or women, but women were generally at a disadvantage with respect to the rules of inheritance
1592:
According to this theory, most canonical hadiths did not originate with Muhammad but were actually created at a later date, despite the efforts of hadith scholars to weed out fabrications. After it became accepted that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources, proponents of rules
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points to notable absences from the Cairo Declaration: provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Article 24 of the Cairo declaration states that "all the
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However, while most of those who support implementation of Sharia favor using it in family and property disputes, fewer supported application of severe punishments such as whippings and cutting off hands, and interpretations of some aspects differed widely. According to the Pew poll, among Muslims
6220:
In Egypt, a law based on the doctrine of hisba had for a time allowed a Muslim to sue another Muslim over beliefs that may harm society, though because of abuses it has been amended so that only the state prosecutor may bring suit based on private requests. Before the amendment was passed, a hisba
3964:
The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice
2103:
as important legal principles, they held different views regarding the role they should play in Islamic law. Some jurists viewed them as auxiliary rationales constrained by scriptural sources and analogical reasoning. Others regarded them as an "independent" source of law, whose general principles
7186:
have been used by traditional jurists when discussing sexual assault and its punishment. Imam Al-Shāfi‘ī defined rape as: "Forcing a woman to commit zinā against her will". To the Ḥanafis, illegal intercourse is considered rape when there is no consent and no deliberate action from the victim. In
7089:
Islamic law granted Muslim women certain legal rights, such as property rights which women in the West did not possess until "comparatively recent times". Starting with the 20th century, Western legal systems evolved to expand women's rights, but women's rights in the Muslim world have to varying
5661:
Except for secular systems, Muslim-majority countries possess Sharia-based laws dealing with family matters (marriage, inheritance, etc.). These laws generally reflect influence of various modern-era reforms and tend to be characterized by ambiguity, with traditional and modernist interpretations
4438:
Westernization of legal institutions and expansion of state control in all areas of law, which began during the colonial era, continued in nation-states of the Muslim world. Sharia courts at first continued to exist alongside state courts as in earlier times, but the doctrine that sultanic courts
4301:
Starting from the 17th century, European powers began to extend political influence over lands ruled by Muslim dynasties, and by the end of the 19th century, much of the Muslim world came under colonial domination. The first areas of Islamic law to be impacted were usually commercial and criminal
4265:
tax. Dhimmi communities had legal autonomy to adjudicate their internal affairs. Cases involving litigants from two different religious groups fell under jurisdiction of Sharia courts, where (unlike in secular courts) testimony of non-Muslim witnesses against a Muslim was inadmissible in criminal
3939:
madhhabs. They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab. These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries. Rulings of these schools are followed
1615:
and modified other aspects, aiming to meet the practical need of establishing Islamic norms of behavior and adjudicating disputes arising in the early Muslim communities. Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss
1610:
While the origin of hadith remains a subject of scholarly controversy, this theory (of Goldziher and Schacht) has given rise to objections, and modern historians generally adopt more cautious, intermediate positions, and it is generally accepted that early Islamic jurisprudence developed out of a
1577:
in the mid-20th century. Schacht and other scholars argued that having conquered much more populous agricultural and urban societies with already existing laws and legal needs, the initial Muslim efforts to formulate legal norms regarded the Quran and Muhammad's hadiths as just one source of law,
7751:
Islamic "law did not derive directly from the Koran but developed... out of popular and administrative practices under the Umayyads, and this practice often diverged from the intentions and even the explicit wording of the Koran... Norms derived from the Koran were introduced into Muhammadan law
6745:
or refusing to accept a religious commandment. Jurists of different schools prescribed different punishment for blasphemy against Islam, by Muslims and non-Muslims, ranging from imprisonment or fines to the death penalty. In some cases, sharia allows non-Muslims to escape death by converting and
5947:
In commercial and civil contracts, such as those relating to exchange of merchandise, agreement to supply or purchase goods or property, and others, oral contracts and the testimony of Muslim witnesses historically triumphed over written contracts. Islamic jurists traditionally held that written
4530:
Aside from the radical reforms of Islamic family law carried out in Tunisia (1956) and Iran (1967), governments often preferred to make changes that made a clear break from traditional Sharia rules by imposing administrative hurdles rather than changing the rules themselves, in order to minimize
3977:
as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has
17416:
In classical Muslim doctrine on war, likewise, genuine non-combatants are not to be harmed. These include women, minors, servants and slaves who do not take part in the fighting, the blind, monks, hermits, the aged, those physically unable to fight, the insane, the delirious, farmers who do not
6304:, stated that there was "no reason why sharia principles should not be the basis for mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution." A 2008 YouGov poll in the United Kingdom found 40% of Muslim students interviewed supported the introduction of sharia into British law for Muslims.
5487:, including the failure of authoritarian secular regimes to meet the expectations of their citizens, and a desire of Muslim populations to return to more culturally authentic forms of socio-political organization in the face of a perceived cultural invasion from the West. Shiite leaders such as
4161:
The social fabric of pre-modern Islamic societies was largely defined by close-knit communities organized around kinship groups and local neighborhoods. Conflicts between individuals had the potential to escalate into a conflict between their supporting groups and disrupt the life of the entire
2127:
While the latter view was held by a minority of classical jurists, in modern times it came to be championed in different forms by prominent scholars who sought to adapt Islamic law to changing social conditions by drawing on the intellectual heritage of traditional jurisprudence. These scholars
2065:
used maslaha and madasıd as equivalent terms. Synonyms for the term maqāṣid aš-šarīʿa are the expressions maqāṣid aš-šāriʿ (“intentions of the legislature”), maqāṣid at-tašrīʿ (“intentions of the legislature ”), ruḥ aš -šarīʿa (“Spirit of Sharia”), ḥikmat at-tašrīʿ (“Wisdom of Legislation”) and
6080:
and his associates issued a fatwa in 1998 proclaiming "jihad against Jews and Crusaders", many Islamic jurists, in addition to denouncing its content, stressed that bin Laden was not qualified to either issue a fatwa or proclaim a jihad. New forms of ijtihad have also given rise to fatwas that
4324:. Hastings' plan of legal reform envisioned a multi-tiered court system for the Muslim population, with a middle tier of British judges advised by local Islamic jurists, and a lower tier of courts operated by qadis. Hastings also commissioned a translation of the classic manual of Hanafi fiqh,
3873:
and could stretch to dozens of large volumes, recorded alternative rulings with their justifications, often accompanied by a proliferation of cases and conceptual distinctions. The terminology of juristic literature was conservative and tended to preserve notions which had lost their practical
7617:
of its managers, shareholders, and employees; exists beyond the lifetimes of its founders; and that can own assets, sign contracts, and appear in court through representatives. Interest prohibitions imposed secondary costs by discouraging record keeping and delaying the introduction of modern
7080:
distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi limits of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual
6926:
rights. In the years 1985–2006, four individuals were legally executed for apostasy from Islam: "one in Sudan in 1985; two in Iran, in 1989 and 1998; and one in Saudi Arabia in 1992." While modern states have rarely prosecuted apostasy, the issue has a "deep cultural resonance" in some Muslim
6386:
allows family law disputes to be arbitrated only under Ontario law. In the U.S., opponents of Sharia have sought to ban it from being considered in courts, where it has been routinely used alongside traditional Jewish and Catholic laws to decide legal, business, and family disputes subject to
5956:
In lieu of written evidence, oaths are traditionally accorded much greater weight; rather than being used simply to guarantee the truth of ensuing testimony, they are themselves used as evidence. Plaintiffs lacking other evidence to support their claims may demand that defendants take an oath
5652:
Constitutions of many Muslim-majority countries refer to Sharia as a source or the main source of law, though these references are not in themselves indicative of how much the legal system is influenced by Sharia, and whether the influence has a traditionalist or modernist character. The same
4378:
under state control. This reform, passed in 1826, enriched the public treasury at the expense of the waqfs, thereby depleting the financial support for traditional Islamic legal education. Over the second half of the 19th century, a new hierarchical system of secular courts was established to
2528:
It is a sin or a crime to perform a forbidden action or not to perform a mandatory action. Reprehensible acts should be avoided, but they are not considered to be sinful or punishable in court. Avoiding reprehensible acts and performing recommended acts is held to be subject of reward in the
1860:
undertaken by competent jurists" The textual integrity and divinity of the Quran, which are considered primary sources in traditional Islam, cannot be questioned, taken lightly, or made a subject of criticism and comedy. The authenticity of hadiths can only be questioned through the chain of
6295:
courts should be integrated into the British legal system alongside ecclesiastical courts to handle marriage and divorce, subject to agreement of all parties and strict requirements for protection of equal rights for women. His reference to the sharia sparked a controversy. Later that year,
4450:
In most Muslim-majority countries, traditional rules of classical fiqh have been largely preserved only in family law. In some countries religious minorities such as Christians or Shia Muslims have been subject to separate systems of family laws. Many Muslims today believe that contemporary
1976:: it is the Analogical reasoning that is used to derive a ruling for a situation not addressed in the scripture by analogy with a scripturally based rule. In a classic example, the Quranic prohibition of drinking wine is extended to all intoxicating substances, on the basis of the "cause" (
6769:
Blasphemy laws were rarely enforced in pre-modern Islamic societies, but in the modern era some states and radical groups have used charges of blasphemy in an effort to burnish their religious credentials and gain popular support at the expense of liberal Muslim intellectuals and religious
5952:
states that the treatment of written evidence in religious courts in Islamic regions created an incentive for opaque transactions, and the avoidance of written contracts in economic relations. This led to a continuation of a "largely oral contracting culture" in Muslim-majority nations and
1941:
legislation today, according to some research, the opposite was true in the early Islamic society. Sunnah originally meant a tradition that did not contain the definition of good and bad. Later, “good traditions” began to be referred to as sunnah and the concept of "Muhammad's sunnah" was
5478:
of the late 20th century brought the topic of Sharia to international attention in the form of numerous political campaigns in the Muslim world calling for full implementation of Sharia. A number of factors have contributed to the rise of these movements, classified under the rubric of
6989:
Homosexual intercourse is illegal in classical Sharia, with different penalties, including capital punishment, stipulated depending on the situation and legal school. In pre-modern Islam, the penalties prescribed for homosexual acts were "to a large extent theoretical" according to the
7800:
Khomeini himself did not call this proclamation a fatwa, and in Islamic legal theory only a court can decide whether an accused is guilty. However, after the proclamation was presented as a fatwa in Western press, this characterization was widely accepted by both its critics and its
4044:
Islamic law was initially taught in study circles that gathered in mosques and private homes. The teacher, assisted by advanced students, provided commentary on concise treatises of law and examined the students' understanding of the text. This tradition continued to be practiced in
6216:
during their 1996–2001 and 2021– rule of Afghanistan. Religious police organizations tend to have support from conservative currents of public opinion, but their activities are often disliked by other segments of the population, especially liberals, urban women, and younger people.
6134:(market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud, disturbance of public order and infractions against public morality. This office disappeared in the modern era everywhere in the Muslim world, but it was revived in Arabia by the first Saudi state, and later instituted as a
4338:
would be used as a basis for classroom commentary by a professor, and the doctrines thus learned would be mediated in court by judicial discretion, consideration of local customs and availability of different legal opinions that could fit the facts of the case. The British use of
1755:, and rational argumentation must draw its content from the body of transcendental knowledge revealed in the Quran and through the sunnah of Muhammad. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus (
1767:). It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of
17020:
Islam imposed upon the Muslim master an obligation to convert non-Muslim slaves and become members of the greater Muslim society. Indeed, the daily observation of well defined Islamic religious rituals was the outward manifestation of conversion without which emancipation was
6489:
countries; most Muslims see no contradiction between democratic values and religious principles, desiring neither a theocracy, nor a secular democracy, but rather a political model where democratic institutions and values can coexist with the values and principles of Sharia.
5503:
Full implementation of Sharia theoretically refers to expanding its scope to all fields of law and all areas of public life. In practice, Islamization campaigns have focused on a few highly visible issues associated with the conservative Muslim identity, particularly women's
4139:), which took initiative in preventing and investigating crime, operated its own courts. Like the mazalim courts, police courts were not bound by the rules of Sharia and had the powers to inflict discretionary punishments. Another office for maintaining public order was the
12127:. "The Saudi law system differs in critically important respects from the system of legal thought employed by the common law countries, including the United States. Perhaps most significant is that Islamic law does not embrace the common law system of binding precedent and
9731:
studies in the second century were still in a state of flux" Conrad (June 1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: Some Observations Apropos of Chronology and Literary topoi in the Early Arabic Historical Tradition". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 50 (2): 239.
7020:
enacted under colonial rule. In recent decades, prejudice against LGBT individuals in the Muslim world has been exacerbated by increasingly conservative attitudes and the rise of Islamist movements, resulting in Sharia-based penalties enacted in several countries. The
6676:
Islamic law justifies the formal inequality of individuals (women, non-Islamic people). Bassam Tibi states that Sharia framework and human rights are incompatible. Abdel al-Hakeem Carney, in contrast, states that Sharia is misunderstood from a failure to distinguish
1208:: This includes the entire body of all principles, rules, cases and interpretations developed and transmitted throughout a history of more than one thousand years across the entire Muslim world, since the closing of the gate of free interpretation up to the present.
15477:
There is a long-running debate in Islam over whether apostasy is a crime. Some liberal scholars hold the view that it is not (...), Others say apostasy is (...). The latter is the dominant view in conservative Muslim states such as Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan
7761:"In the time of Shafi’i, traditions from the Prophet were already recognized as one of the material bases of Muhammadan law. Their position in the ancient schools of law was, as we have seen, much less certain." Another example is that an early major works of fiqh—
7110:
The vast majority of the ulama across the Sunni schools of law inherited the Prophet's unease over domestic violence and placed further restrictions on the evident meaning of the 'Wife Beating Verse'. A leading Meccan scholar from the second generation of Muslims,
4126:(lit. wrongs, grievances) courts was to address the wrongs that Sharia courts were unable to address, including complaints against government officials. Islamic jurists were commonly in attendance and a judge often presided over the court as a deputy of the ruler.
1214:: This contains the full spectrum of principles, rules, cases and interpretations developed and applied at present. Migration, modernisation and new technologies of information and communication have decreased the dominance of the legal schools of classical sharia.
6515:(consultation between ruler and ruled). This perspective, which stresses comprehensive implementation of Sharia, was widespread in the 1970s and 1980s among various movements seeking to establish an Islamic state, but its popularity has diminished in recent years.
6056:
is credited with bringing the notion of fatwa to world's attention, although some scholars have argued that it did not qualify as one. Together with later militant fatwas, it has contributed to the popular misconception of the fatwa as a religious death warrant.
5893:
A confession, an oath, or the oral testimony of Muslim witnesses are the main evidence admissible in traditional sharia courts for hudud crimes, i.e., the religious crimes of adultery, fornication, rape, accusing someone of illicit sex but failing to prove it,
7187:
Mālik's view, rape refers to any kind of unlawful sexual intercourse by usurpation and without consent. This includes instances when the condition of the victims prevents them from expressing their resistance, such as insanity, sleep or being under age. The
1493:
178: "Believers! Retaliation is ordained for you regarding the people who were killed. Free versus free, slave versus slave, woman versus woman. Whoever is forgiven by the brother of the slain for a price, let him abide by the custom and pay the price well."
4379:
supplement and eventually replace most religious courts. Students hoping to pursue legal careers in the new court system increasingly preferred attending secular schools over the traditional path of legal education with its dimming financial prospects. The
1955:
chains. These studies narrowed down the vast corpus of prophetic traditions to several thousand "sound (seeming to collectors)" hadiths, which were collected in several canonical compilations. The hadiths which enjoyed concurrent transmission were deemed
7161:
Others believe that wife-beating is not consistent with a more modernist perspective of the Quran. Many Imams and scholars who learned Shariah in traditional Islamic seminaries object to the misuse of this verse to justify domestic violence. Muslims for
4276:
As it was illegal for non-Muslims to own Muslims and for non-Muslim men to marry Muslim women in the Ottoman empire, conversion to Islam would have been an option for non-Muslim women to free themselves of a spouse or master they did not want to subject
17137:
4022:, unlike court verdicts, which were valid only for the given case. Although independent muftis never disappeared, from the 12th century onward Muslim rulers began to appoint salaried muftis to answer questions from the public. Over the centuries,
2472:
Fiqh is concerned with ethical standards as much as with legal norms, seeking to establish not only what is and is not legal, but also what is morally right and wrong. Sharia rulings fall into one of five categories known as "the five decisions"
16368:
5544:, who have advocated both free-market and socialist economic models. The notion of "Sharia-compliant" finance has become an active area of doctrinal innovation and its development has had a major impact on business operations around the world.
6914:. As of 2014, apostasy from Islam was a capital offense in Afghanistan, Brunei, Mauritania, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. In other countries, Sharia courts could use family laws to void the Muslim apostate's
6783:
of speech, stating that freedom of expression is essential to empowering both Muslims and non-Muslims, and point to the abuse of blasphemy laws in prosecuting members of religious minorities, political opponents, and settling personal scores.
7782:"...a great many traditions in the classical and other collections were put into circulation only after Shafi'i's time; the first considerable body of legal traditions from the Prophet originated towards the middle of the second century..."
6581:
has argued for a "religious democracy" based on religious thought that is democratic, tolerant, and just. Islamic liberals argue for the necessity of constant reexamination of religious understanding, which can only be done in a democratic
6807:
which made it a "crime to disturb a religious assembly, trespass on burial grounds, insult religious beliefs or intentionally destroy or defile a place or an object of worship", with these laws being modified between 1980 and 1986 by the
6150:
as an individual obligation to police religious observance has become more widespread, which led to the appearance of activists around the world who urge fellow Muslims to observe Islamic rituals, dress code, and other aspects of Sharia.
7446:
in classical Sunni legal theory is both more explicitly permissive than Talmudic law with respect to authorizing individual reason as a source of law, and more implicitly restrictive, in excluding other, unauthorized forms of reasoning.
14728:
Wiederhold, Lutz (1997). "Blasphemy against the Prophet Muhammad and his companions (sabb al-rasul, sabb al-sahabah): The introduction of the topic into shafi'i legal literature and its relevance for legal practice under Mamluk rule".
7150:(disobedience, disloyalty, rebellion, ill conduct) in his wife only after admonishing and staying away from the bed does not work. These interpretations have been criticized as inconsistent with women's rights in domestic abuse cases.
4523:(1895–1971), who possessed expertise in both Islamic and Western law. Sanhuri argued that reviving Islamic legal heritage in a way that served the needs of contemporary society required its analysis in light of the modern science of
3986:
movements. Other currents, such as networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law without focusing on traditions of a particular madhhab.
13257:
6498:
Muslih and Browers identify three major perspectives on democracy among prominent Muslims thinkers who have sought to develop modern, distinctly Islamic theories of socio-political organization conforming to Islamic values and law:
1909:
verses. Therefore, deciding which verses of the Quran will be used, in addition to other knowledge and skills, may be the job of lawyers who know these issues in detail. Whether the Sunnah could limit the Quran remained a matter of
1144:
refers to religious regulations governing the lives of Muslims. For many Muslims, the word means simply "justice," and they will consider any law that promotes justice and social welfare to conform to Sharia. Sharia is the first of
6889:; or that it was a man-made rule enacted in the early Islamic community to prevent and punish the equivalent of desertion or treason, and should be enforced only if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder (
2313:
1611:
combination of administrative and popular practices shaped by the religious and ethical precepts of Islam. It continued some aspects of pre-Islamic laws and customs of the lands that fell under Muslim rule in the aftermath of the
1488:
could be paid to the family of the murdered. On top of this pre-Islamic understanding added a debate about whether a Muslim can be executed for a non-Muslim during the Islamic period. The main verse for implementation in Islam is
16390:
17056:
instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation.
10028:
4253:
and commonly gave the wife financial leverage in divorce proceedings. Women were active in Sharia courts as both plaintiffs and defendants in a wide variety of cases, though some opted to be represented by a male relative.
7598:(issuing of fatwas) omitted. He also argued that these systems shared fundamental freedoms: the freedom of a professor to profess his personal opinion and the freedom of a student to pass judgement on what he is learning.
7536:
Elements of Islamic law also have other parallels in Western legal systems. For example, the influence of Islam on the development of an international law of the sea can be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.
3944:
school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought. The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the
5737:
refers to personal rights of the individual and the right to generate and accumulate wealth. The various ways in which property can be acquired under Sharia are purchase, inheritance, bequest, physical or mental effort,
2648:
A special religious decision, which is "specific to" a person, group, institution, event, situation, belief and practice in different areas of life, and usually includes the approval/disapproval of a judgment, is called
18014:
14829:(or, A ready sword against those who insult the Messenger), Published in 1297 AD in Arabic, Reprinted in 1975 and 2003 by Dar-ibn Hazm (Beirut), the book is on blasphemy/insulting Muhammad and the punishment per sharia
4481:
Changes in administrative law that grant the courts discretionary powers to restrict certain practices which are not forbidden by substantive law (e.g., polygamy), in some cases imposing penal sanctions as additional
5981:
for the death of a free Muslim man is twice as high as for Jewish and Christian victims according to the Maliki and Hanbali madhhabs and three times as high according to Shafi'i rules. Several legal schools assessed
5880:
in Sharia courts traditionally prioritize oral testimony, and witnesses must be Muslim. In criminal cases, women witnesses are unacceptable in stricter, traditional interpretations of Sharia, such as those found in
1918:, though other passages have been used as a source for general principles whose legal ramifications were elaborated by other means. Islamic literature calls the laws that can be associated with the Quran in Sharia "
16247:
14274:
16160:
6454:
Support for democratic procedures such as elections, combined with religious or moral objections toward some aspects of Western democracy seen as incompatible with sharia, as exemplified by Islamic scholars like
4369:
During the colonial era, Muslim rulers concluded that they could not resist European pressure unless they modernized their armies and built centrally administered states along the lines of Western models. In the
3874:
relevance. At the same time, the cycle of abridgement and commentary allowed jurists of each generation to articulate a modified body of law to meet changing social conditions. Other juristic genres include the
7094:
from other family members, and these rights are detailed in the Quran. A woman's inheritance can be unequal is she inherits from her father as a daughter's inheritance is usually half of that of her brother's.
6241:
Sharia also plays a role beyond religious rituals and personal ethics in some countries with Muslim minorities. For example, in Israel Sharia-based family laws are administered for the Muslim population by the
1980:) shared by these situations, which in this case is identified to be intoxication. Since the cause of a rule may not be apparent, its selection commonly occasioned controversy and extensive debate. Majority of
7336:
declared that suicide attacks in Chechnya were justified as a "sacrifice". Many prominent Islamic scholars, including al-Qaradawi himself, have issued condemnations of terrorism in general terms. For example,
6446:
Advocacy of democratic ideas, often accompanied by a belief that they are compatible with Islam, which can play a public role within a democratic system, as exemplified by many protestors who took part in the
6209:
6159:
6135:
4330:, from Arabic into Persian and then English, later complemented by other texts. These translations enabled British judges to pass verdicts in the name of Islamic law based on a combination of Sharia rules and
1750:
In this context, the formulation of the Sunni view can be summarized as follows; Human reason is a gift from God which should be exercised to its fullest capacity. However, use of reason alone is insufficient
1746:
example. Although the rationalists initially seemed to gain the upper hand in this conflict, with the rise of literalism, the Mutazila sank into history and literalism continued to live by gaining supporters.
5662:
often manifesting themselves in the same country, both in legislation and court decisions. In some countries (e.g., parts of Nigeria), people can choose whether to pursue a case in a Sharia or secular court.
1690:
The sources of judgment in classical fiqh are roughly divided into two: Manqūlāt (Quran and hadith) and Aqliyyāt (ijma, qiyas, ijtihad and others). Some of them (Aqliyyāt) are considered to be the product of
1564:
Modern historians have presented alternative theories of the formation of fiqh. At first Western scholars accepted the general outlines of the traditionalist account. In the late 19th century, an influential
6278:
In all of the countries surveyed, respondents were more likely to define Sharia as "the revealed word of God" rather than as "a body of law developed by men based on the word of God". In analyzing the poll,
5671:
campaigns, several countries (Libya, Pakistan, Iran, Sudan, Mauritania, and Yemen) inserted Islamic criminal laws into their penal codes, which were otherwise based on Western models. In some countries only
5520:
A number of legal reforms have been made under the influence of these movements, starting from the 1970s when Egypt and Syria amended their constitutions to specify Sharia as the basis of legislation. The
17134:
7316:
refers to armed struggle against oppressors. Classical jurists developed an elaborate set of rules pertaining to jihad, including prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat. According to
7191:, similar to the Mālikites, consider the use of any kind of force as a denial of consent from the victim. The threat of starvation or suffering the cold of winter are also regarded as against one's will.
5562:, some of the classical sharia practices involve serious violations of basic human rights, gender equality and freedom of expression, and the practices of countries governed by sharia are criticized. The
2708:, and in trials, the judge is not expected to observe equality among those on trial, but is expected to act fairly or balanced. Traditional fiqh states that legal and religious responsibility begins with
9568:
So, it was in this way that the Ummah, those who had not become involved with either the Shi'ah or the Khawarij, was divided into two groups, Ahl al Hadith and Ahl al Ra'i; and the conflict between them
6777:
have petitioned the United Nations to condemn "defamation of religions" because "Unrestricted and disrespectful freedom of opinion creates hatred and is contrary to the spirit of peaceful dialogue". The
6320:, has argued that sharia courts can be integrated into the American religious arbitration system, provided that they adopt appropriate institutional requirements as American rabbinical courts have done.
5850:
represent themselves. In Saudi Arabia and Qatar, which have preserved traditional procedure in Sharia courts, trials are conducted solely by the judge, and there is no jury system. There is no pre-trial
16364:
4249:
and witness testimony, where in some cases a woman's witness testimony is effectively treated as half of that of a man. Various financial obligations imposed on the husband acted as a deterrent against
5925:
basis of legislation that favors the presumption of children's legitimacy, while in sexual assault cases DNA evidence is regarded as equivalent to expert opinion and evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
11862:
Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
11805:
Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
10291:
Gontowska, Luiza Maria, "Human Rights Violations Under the Sharia'a : A Comparative Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic Republic of Iran" (2005). Honors College Theses. Paper 13.
6085:
sometimes given rise to complaints about a "chaos" in the modern practice of issuing fatwas. There exists no international Islamic authority to settle differences in interpretation of Islamic law. An
16182:
Schacht, J.; Layish, A.; Shaham, R.; Ansari, Ghaus; Otto, J.M.; Pompe, S.; Knappert, J.; Boyd, Jean (1995). "Nikāḥ". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
7155:
6603:
determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy". Refah's Sharia-based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the
6246:
through the Sharia Courts. In India, the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act provides for the use of Islamic law for Muslims in several areas, mainly related to family law. In England, the
16795:
9057:) // Cited: p. 39 (PDF p. 41/338) // ""Chéri" may sound ambiguous in French but the term, used in our context for Islamic law (Turkish: şer’(i), is widely used in the legal literature at that time."
5517:
broader Muslim public, the calls for Sharia often represent, even more than any specific demands, a vague vision of their current economic and political situation being replaced by a "just utopia".
4284:
contract, and were subject to their master's will in a number of ways. The labor and property of slaves were owned by the master, who was also entitled to sexual submission of his unmarried slaves.
6284:
ideals like equality and social justice than with prohibitions. Other polls have indicated that for Egyptians, the word "Sharia" is associated with notions of political, social and gender justice.
1262:
and its derivatives refers to watering animals at a permanent water-hole or to the seashore. One another area of use relates to notions of stretched or lengthy. The word is cognate with the Hebrew
17202:
10618:
And you are allowed to seek out wives with your wealth in decorous conduct, but not in fornication, but give them their reward for what you have enjoyed of them in keeping with your promise.(4:24)
7065:
report mentions that Sharia law provisions are different for women in financial matters than from general human rights provisions. In many countries, in legal proceedings relating to Sharia-based
13645:
10809:
10048:
4057:(charitable endowment), which paid salaries of professors, stipends of students, and defrayed the costs of construction and maintenance. At the end of a course, the professor granted a license (
6128:, refers to the duty of Muslims to promote moral rectitude and intervene when another Muslim is acting wrongly. Historically, its legal implementation was entrusted to a public official called
4162:
community. Court litigation was seen as a last resort for cases where informal mediation had failed. This attitude was reflected in the legal maxim "amicable settlement is the best verdict" (
1675:
Classical Islamic jurisprudence refers how to elaborate and interpret religious sources that are considered reliable within the framework of "procedural principles" within its context such as
6138:
responsible for supervising markets and public order. It has been aided by volunteers enforcing attendance of daily prayers, gender segregation in public places, and a conservative notion of
2092:
was God's general purpose in revealing the divine law, and that its specific aim was preservation of five essentials of human well-being: religion, life, intellect, offspring, and property.
4439:
should implement the ideals of Sharia was gradually replaced by legal norms imported from Europe. Court procedures were also brought in line with European practice. Though the Islamic terms
4234:
In both the rules of civil disputes and application of penal law, classical Sharia distinguishes between men and women, between Muslims and non-Muslims, and between free persons and slaves.
19227:
14140:
13208:
12131:. In Saudi Arabia, judicial decisions are not in themselves a source of law, and with minor exceptions, court decisions in Saudi Arabia are not published or even open to public inspection."
5695:
contain a general provision that certain crimes are to be punished according to Islamic law, without specifying the penalties. Some Nigerian states have also enacted Islamic criminal laws.
13800:
2458:, "according to his own opinion" and reliying on power. The Shiite sect did not accept the jurisprudence of Omar, whose political and religious authority they rejected from the beginning.
9886:
4089:
3816:. Jurists developed various restrictions which in many cases made them virtually impossible to apply. Other crimes involving intentional bodily harm are judged according to a version of
7158:, KAFA and other organizations have proposed ways to modify Sharia-inspired laws to improve women's rights in Muslim-majority nations, including women's rights in domestic abuse cases.
6003:
rules into their legal system treat them in different ways. The Pakistan Penal Code modernized the Hanafi doctrine by eliminating distinctions between Muslims and non-Muslims. In Iran,
16394:
16650:
14992:
9821:
quotes Schacht's maxim: `the more perfect the isnad, the later the tradition`, which he (Aslan) calls "whimsical but accurate" Future of Islam by Reza Aslan, (Random House, 2005) p.16
17315:
9297:
6931:, public support for capital punishment for apostasy among Muslims ranged from 78% in Afghanistan to less than 1% in Kazakhstan, reaching over 50% in 6 of the 20 countries surveyed.
1809:
17417:
fight, traders, merchants, and contractors. The main criterion distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is that the latter do not fight and do not contribute to the war effort.
13770:
6186:
as a "universal and reciprocal duty", incumbent upon both the government and the people. Its implementation has been carried out by official committees as well as volunteer forces (
4343:, which amounted to an inadvertent codification of Sharia, and its interpretation by judges trained in Western legal traditions anticipated later legal reforms in the Muslim world.
16103:
15183:
15107:
5532:
Advocates of Islamization have often been more concerned with ideology than traditional jurisprudence and there is no agreement among them as to what form a modern Sharia-based "
6233:. Hisba has also been invoked in several Muslim-majority countries as rationale for blocking pornographic content on the internet and for other forms of faith-based censorship.
3810:
Some historians distinguish a field of Islamic criminal law, which combines several traditional categories. Several crimes with scripturally prescribed punishments are known as
18006:
13548:
9392:
1278:), or "path to the water hole" and argue that its adoption as a metaphor for a divinely ordained way of life arises from the importance of water in an arid desert environment.
2629:
and is accepted in traditional Sunnis and Shi'ism. However, this understanding, along with expressions of respect and visits to the graves of saints, are seen as unacceptable
2586:
when in public; Muslim scholars have differed as how to understand these verses, with some stating that a Hijab is a command (fard) to be fulfilled and others say simply not.
14171:
13402:
1523:. These reports led first to informal discussion and then systematic legal thought, articulated with greatest success in the eighth and ninth centuries by the master jurists
12035:
Birnhack, Michael; Khoury, Amir (10 May 2017). "The Emergence and Development of Intellectual Property Law in the Middle East". In Dreyfuss, Rochelle; Pila, Justine (eds.).
4911:
4650:
1421:
16237:
13464:
7541:
has argued that the madrasa system of attestation paralleled the legal scholastic system in the West, which gave rise to the modern university system. The triple status of
7390:
which does not possess a body of revealed law, and where theology rather than law is considered to be the principal field of religious study. Both Islamic and Jewish law (
19328:
14271:
12545:
9556:
Legal acts are valid when they fulfill all the essential requirements (arkān), causes, conditions and hindrances. They are void when any of these is lacking or deficient.
1601:(died 820 CE/204 AH), who formulated this idea (that legal norms must be formally grounded in scriptural sources) and other elements of classical legal theory in his work
16826:
14012:
12001:
1234:, Islamic law), which was borrowed from European usage in the late 19th century, is used in the Muslim world to refer to a legal system in the context of a modern state.
1049:
Approaches to sharia in the 21st century vary widely, and the role and mutability of sharia in a changing world has become an increasingly debated topic in Islam. Beyond
16152:
13518:
9015:
13055:
4539:
through presidential decree, provoked an outcry and was annulled in 1985 by the supreme court on procedural grounds, to be later replaced by a compromise version. The
14980:, p. 74, Quote: "(In the case of blasphemy and Salman Rushdie) the death sentence it pronounced was grounded in a jurisprudential gloss on the Surah al-Ahzab (33:57)"
14930:
2446:, and not prohibited (Sunnis translate the words used in the relevant verse with terms used to describe the ordinary marriage event) according to Sunnis is banned by
2120:), which is often criticized in terms of today's values and seen as problematic, in terms of the purposes of sharia and social benefits will be replaced by new ones.
13905:
6072:), and some of them are issued by individuals who do not possess the qualifications traditionally required of a mufti. The most notorious examples are the fatwas of
16070:
13697:
9610:
9638:
Mirzaee, A. (2012). 'Decline of Mu'tazilite Thought: The Heritage of Conflict between Ahl Al-Hadith and Mu'tazilites', Journal of Seven Heavens, 14(54), pp. 7-26
9600:
Mirzaee, A. (2012). 'Decline of Mu'tazilite Thought: The Heritage of Conflict between Ahl Al-Hadith and Mu'tazilites', Journal of Seven Heavens, 14(54), pp. 7-26
4399:(sultanic code), which represented an unprecedented assertion of the state's authority over Islamic civil law, traditionally the preserve of the ulema. The 1917
17084:
The slave who bore her master's child became known in Arabic as an "umm walad"; she could not be sold, and she was automatically freed upon her master's death.
6599:
over its announced intention to introduce Sharia-based laws, ruling that it would change Turkey's secular order and undermine democracy. On appeal by Refah the
16599:
Brandt, Michele; Kaplan, Jeffrey A. (1995). "The Tension between Women's Rights and Religious Rights: Reservations to Cedaw by Egypt, Bangladesh and Tunisia".
13670:
13472:. Research: Alan Cooperman, Neha Sahgal, Jessica Hamar Martinez, et al. The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. pp. 15–19, 46, 147–48. Archived from
6357:
won ovations calling for a federal ban on Sharia law. The issue of "liberty versus Sharia" was called a "momentous civilisational debate" by right-wing pundit
16129:
1901:" to be beyond doubt on account of it having been handed down by many people in each generation, which is known as "recurrence" or "concurrent transmission" (
6899:, moderate Muslims do not believe that apostasy requires punishment. The death penalty or other punishment for apostasy in Islam is a violation of universal
6542:
provides the basis for representative government institutions that are similar to Western democracy, but reflect Islamic rather than Western liberal values.
6351:
6167:
4130:
verdicts were supposed to conform to the spirit of Sharia, but they were not bound by the letter of the law or the procedural restrictions of qadi's courts.
3881:
Classical jurisprudence has been described as "one of the major intellectual achievements of Islam" and its importance in Islam has been compared to that of
14316:
Christian Moe (2012), Refah Revisited: Strasbourg's Construction of Islam, in Islam, Europe and emerging legal issues (editors: W. Cole Durham Jr. et al.),
5977:
or blood money) is assessed differently for different classes of victims. For example, for Muslim women the amount was half that assessed for a Muslim man.
18845:
16787:
12448:
7030:. Criminalization of consensual homosexual acts and especially making them liable to capital punishment has been condemned by international rights groups.
6297:
15677:
14509:
Bielefeldt, Heiner (2000). "'Western' versus 'Islamic' Human Rights Conceptions?: A Critique of Cultural Essentialism in the Discussion on Human Rights".
12210:
8459:
In addition to encouraging religious violent behavior, textualism and Islamism also correlate positively with general violent behavior and state violence
17198:
14621:
Tibi, Bassam (2008). "The Return of the Sacred to Politics as a Constitutional Law The Case of the Shari'atization of Politics in Islamic Civilization".
11028:
10032:
9235:
7001:
6846:
as of 2020. Some Muslim-majority countries impose the death penalty or a prison sentence for apostasy from Islam, or ban non-Muslims from proselytizing .
6263:
A 2013 survey based on interviews of 38,000 Muslims, randomly selected from urban and rural parts in 39 countries using area probability designs, by the
4906:
4645:
4334:
doctrines, and eliminated the need to rely on consultation by local ulema, whom they mistrusted. In the traditional Islamic context, a concise text like
2413:
The classical process of ijtihad combined these generally recognized principles with other methods, which were not adopted by all legal schools, such as
1702:
In this context, in the Classical period, the ulema were divided into groups (among other divisions such as political divisions) regarding the place of "
18151:
13642:
16735:
6561:'s emphasis on the role of reason in understanding religion. It stresses democratic principles based on pluralism and freedom of thought. Authors like
16577:
14838:
Jerusha Lamptey (2014), Never Wholly Other: A Muslima Theology of Religious Pluralism, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 with footnotes 28, 29 p. 258
7034:, the level of social acceptance for homosexuality ranges from 52% among Muslims in the U.S. to less than 10% in a number of Muslim-majority nations.
11971:
11928:
11500:
Baer, Marc (August 2004). "Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul".
7170:
campaigns were held in many parts of the world to speak out against domestic violence and encourage Muslim congregants to eradicate domestic abuse.
16918:
5018:
4985:
2665:
laws, have not been codified, and their discretion and implementation are under the initiative and authority of the judge or political authority.
18201:
14291:
14132:
13936:
13189:
Nancy Gallagher (2005), Apostasy, Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Suad Joseph and Afsāna Naǧmābād,
2124:
goes further with an approach that prioritizes purpose and benefit among the sources of sharia and declares it to be the heart of "usul-al fiqh".
1197:: This is the body of Islamic rules, principles and cases compiled by religious scholars during the first two centuries after Muhammad, including
18735:
13879:
13796:
13728:
13340:
9046:
5030:
3973:(combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional
16765:
15411:
15011:
14086:
9890:
7128:
wife altogether, declaring it contrary to the Prophet's example and denying the authenticity of any Hadiths that seemed to permit beating. Even
6569:
have constructed Islamic justifications for full citizenship of non-Muslims in an Islamic state by drawing on early Islamic texts. Others, like
1184:
Jan Michiel Otto summarizes the evolutionary stages of understanding by distinguishing four meanings conveyed by the term sharia in discourses.
16680:
14907:
11837:
9037:
8933:
5322:
1578:
with jurist personal opinions, the legal practice of conquered peoples, and the decrees and decisions of the caliphs also being valid sources.
17233:
9544:
nature of the Sovereign Hakim, in the sense of whether it is the Shari'ah itself or reason which decides what is right and what is wrong;....
7178:
Rape is considered a serious crime in the Sharia law since the Islamic prophet Muhammad ordered rapists to be punished by stoning. The terms
2535:
covers the first three or the first four categories. The legal and moral verdict depends on whether the action is committed out of necessity (
1888:
books written in the early period of Islam, changes in sunnah and hadith terminologies and the chains of narration of hadith, respectively.
17728:
6267:
found that a majority—in some cases "overwhelming" majority—of Muslims in a number of countries support making "Sharia" or "Islamic law" the
5717:
has been implementing a "Sharia Penal Code", which includes provisions for stoning and amputation, in stages since 2014. The countries where
4970:
3681:
16642:
14989:
6007:
for non-Muslim victims professing one of the faiths protected under the constitution (Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians) was made equal to
19306:
19280:
19096:
19055:
16818:
14693:
Siraj Khan, Blasphemy against the Prophet, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture (Editors: Coeli Fitzpatrick and Adam Hani Walker),
14568:
Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2016). "Islamic Law and Human Rights: Conundrums and Equivocations". In Gustafson, Carrie; Juviler, Peter H. (eds.).
12826:
12789:
9281:
7691:
7248:) could not be sold, becoming legally free upon her master's death, and the child was considered free and a legitimate heir of the father.
5055:
4980:
2601:
are considered as possessions in Sharia; Masters may sell, bequeath, give away, pledge, share, hire out or compel them to earn Money. See:
17513:
15358:. associate editors Patricia Crone, Wadid Kadi, Devin J. Stewart and Muhammad Qasim Zaman; assistant editor Mahan Mirza. Princeton, N.J.:
13754:
13591:
10348:
7979:
6737:
refers to any form of cursing, questioning or annoying God, Muhammad or anything considered sacred in Islam, including denying one of the
1258:
studies records two major areas of the word can appear without religious connotation. In texts evoking a pastoral or nomadic environment,
17875:
17467:
15921:
14487:
14250:
13510:
13025:
5006:
4403:
adopted an innovative approach of drawing rules from minority and majority opinions of all Sunni madhhabs with a modernizing intent. The
4317:
2053:(welfare or public interest) are two related classical doctrines which have come to play an increasingly prominent role in modern times.
19290:
19157:
19140:
18959:
18888:
18700:
Masud, Muhammad Khalid (2009). "Anglo-Muhammadan Law". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
18184:
18134:
18108:
17787:
Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"
17097:
15565:
15104:
15083:
13982:
12704:
10782:
10656:"According to the Bishair the fardh, is like the wajib but the wajib expresses occur and the fard, expresses a definitive assessment.
10595:
Subsequently, the sources of Islamic Law are clarified, showing their legal basis, binding force and position on the hierarchical chart
7954:
4116:
If an accusation did not result in a verdict in a qadi's court, the plaintiff could often pursue it in another type of court called the
19300:
16095:
16024:
15765:
15297:
15258:
15227:
15167:
14825:
9912:
9557:
9532:
8384:
6779:
6637:
6086:
5587:
5455:
2617:
As can be seen above and in many other examples, classification is subjective. For example, believing in the existence and miracles of
2610:
19264:
18804:
18786:
18769:
18718:
18254:
15715:
12764:
10383:
8030:
6066:, i.e. deriving legal rulings based on an independent analysis rather than conformity with the opinions of earlier legal authorities (
4485:
Modernist interpretation of Islamic scriptures without adherence to the rules or methodologies of traditional jurisprudence, known as
1742:) groups and sects regarding the Quran and hadith or the place of reason in understanding the Quran and hadith, as can be seen in the
18534:
13853:
13540:
12808:
12621:
10886:
Heinrichs, Wolfhart; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri Johannes; Bianquis, Thierry, eds. (2012). "Encyclopedia of Islam".
9374:
5312:
15841:
14951:
13827:
11480:
Gocek, Fatma Muge (2005). "The Legal Recourse of Minorities in History: Eighteenth-Century Appeals to the Islamic Court of Galata".
6378:
Some countries and jurisdictions have explicit bans on sharia law. In Canada, for example, sharia law has been explicitly banned in
5940:
Marriage is solemnized as a written financial contract, in the presence of two Muslim male witnesses, and it includes a brideprice (
18975:
Schacht, Joseph; Layish, Aharon (2000). "Ṭalāḳ". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
14163:
13399:
10099:
Lucas, Scott C. (2006). "The Legal Principles of Muhammad B. Ismāʿīl Al-Bukhārī and Their Relationship to Classical Salafi Islam".
6882:
4975:
18075:
16391:"Salhi and Grami (2011), Gender and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa, Florence (Italy), European University Institute"
15731:
13473:
7357:
of Egypt has stated that "attacking innocent people is not courageous; it is stupid and will be punished on the Day of Judgment".
7016:, and under the influence of sexual notions prevalent in Europe at that time. A number of Muslim-majority countries have retained
959:, in a wide range of topics. Its rulings are concerned with ethical standards as much as legal norms, assigning actions to one of
19036:
Thielmann, Jörn (2017). "Ḥisba (modern times)". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
13165:
9765:
7070:
6301:
5317:
4257:
Sharia was intended to regulate affairs of the Muslim community. Non-Muslims residing under Islamic rule had the legal status of
3965:
depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of
3572:
451:
19324:
15647:
15041:
12542:
4145:(market inspector), who was charged with preventing fraud in economic transactions and infractions against public morality. The
4014:. During the first few centuries of Islam, muftis were private legal specialists who normally also held other jobs. They issued
17365:
17135:
The Challenge of Fragmentation of International Humanitarian Law Regarding the Protection of Civilians – An Islamic Perspective
15746:
15442:
14847:
Carl Ernst (2005), "Blasphemy: Islamic Concept", Encyclopedia of Religion (Editor: Lindsay Jones), Vol 2, Macmillan Reference,
12833:
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US State Department, 2011 Report on International Religious Freedom Report (2011)
12645:
M Kar (2005), Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics (Ed: Suad Joseph, Afsāna Naǧmābādī), Brill,
11993:
8569:
Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis".
7144:. According to some interpretations, Sharia condones certain forms of domestic violence against women, when a husband suspects
4229:
3957:
madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools. The
1905:). According to classical mainstream jurists, the verses of the Quran that were "revealed later" in Islamic language may have
7297:, to justify acts of war and terror against Muslim as well as non-Muslim individuals and governments. The expert on terrorism
5937:
recommends written financial contracts with reliable witnesses, although there is dispute about equality of female testimony.
4535:. Some reforms have faced strong conservative opposition. For example, the 1979 reform of Egyptian family law, promulgated by
18663:
18432:
18297:
Gleave, R.M. (2012). "Maḳāṣid al-Sharīʿa". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
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17613:
15995:
15709:
15502:
15335:
15221:
14393:
14221:
10897:
10580:
10532:
10396:
10365:
10083:
9747:
Juynboll, G. H. A. (1997). "Sunna". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.).
9587:
9091:
9072:
8999:
8310:
7455:
Early Islamic law developed a number of legal concepts that anticipated similar such concepts that later appeared in English
7338:
7090:
degree remained tied to the Quran, hadiths and their traditional interpretations by Islamic jurists. Sharia grants women the
6881:
According to Abdul Rashied Omar, the majority of modern Islamic jurists continue to regard apostasy as a crime deserving the
6661:
6616:
6229:
led to the annulment of his marriage. The law was also invoked in an unsuccessful blasphemy suit against the feminist author
1031:
338:
18751:
Messick, Brinkley (2017). "Fatwā, modern". In Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Everett Rowson (eds.).
17491:
13047:
12100:
10682:
5525:
of 1979 represented a watershed for Shiism advocates, demonstrating that it was possible to replace a secular regime with a
3878:(succinct formulas meant to aid the student remember general principles) and collections of fatwas by a particular scholar.
1191:: In this sense, sharia is a rather abstract concept which leaves ample room for various concrete interpretations by humans.
16524:
Bakht, Natasha (2007). "Family Arbitration Using Sharia Law: Examining Ontario's Arbitration Act and its Impact on Women".
15472:
14927:
14551:
Anver M. Emon, Mark Ellis, Benjamin Glahn (2012), Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press,
14004:
12591:
12589:
Frank, Michael J. (April 2006). "Trying Times – The Prosecution of Terrorists in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq".
6817:
18422:
18391:
Hardy, P. (1991). "Djizya. iii. India". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
13901:
13366:
10657:
6142:. Committee officers were authorized to detain violators before a 2016 reform. With the rising international influence of
4383:
reforms of the 19th century saw reorganization of both Islamic civil law and sultanic criminal law after the model of the
18171:
17758:(2 – Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, 24–25 February 1977): 187–98 .
16058:
13693:
10596:
7648:
7166:
was launched in 2010 with Imams and Muslim leaders committing to join with others to work to end violence against women.
6774:
6633:
6604:
6124:
6090:
5591:
2435:
2216:
1752:
1670:
1641:
1015:
988:
835:
11871:
3560:
1914:
Only several verses of the Quran have direct legal relevance, and they are concentrated in a few specific areas such as
19030:
18877:
18858:
18644:
18465:
18384:
18342:
18324:
17869:
17673:
17461:
17428:
Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 151
17309:
17077:
17048:
17013:
16711:
16508:
16450:
16421:
15915:
15623:
15559:
15367:
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15252:
15177:
15077:
14977:
14789:
14765:
14715:
14698:
14577:
14556:
14481:
14444:
14321:
13976:
13764:
13621:
13436:
13317:
13194:
13133:
13019:
12743:
12698:
12674:
12650:
12574:
12530:
12510:
12479:
12310:
12293:
12174:
12157:
10981:
10838:
9291:
8868:
8837:
8628:
8553:
8401:
7345:
has stated that "terrorizing innocent people constitute a form of injustice that cannot be tolerated by Islam", while
2980:
1730:
in theology (syncretists). In the classical age of Islam, there were violent conflicts between rationalists (aqliyyun;
17437:
Bernard Lewis (with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 'Islam: The Religion and the People' (2008). Pearson Prentice Hall p. 153
7115:, counseled a husband not to beat his wife even if she ignored him but rather to express his anger in some other way.
6038:
Modern public and political fatwas have addressed and sometimes sparked controversies in the Muslim world and beyond.
4208:. This early attempt to turn Islamic law into semi-codified state legislation sparked rebellions against Mughal rule.
19129:
19076:
19001:
18948:
18921:
18825:
18567:
18522:
18495:
18244:
18090:
16969:
Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan. University of Texas Press.
12204:"MENA Gender Equality Profile – Status of Girls and Women in the Middle East and North Africa, UNICEF (October 2011)"
10765:
10555:
10042:
9684:
9386:
9164:
9116:
7940:
7057:
Shari'a is the basis for personal status laws in most Islamic-majority nations. These personal status laws determine
5815:
5162:
4955:
4532:
4408:
3545:
516:
16441:. In Grillo, Ralpho; Ballard, Roger; Ferrari, Alessandro; Hoekema, André J.; Maussen, Marcel; Shah, Prakash (eds.).
16125:
14470:"Progressive Muslims and Islamic jurisprudence: the necessity for critical engagement with marriage and divorce law"
13929:"Religious Arbitration in Ontario – Making the Case Based on the British Example of the Muslim Arbitration Tribunal"
13662:
9927:
6660:
summarized the criticism of the Cairo Declaration in an editorial: "We are deeply concerned with the changes to the
5797:
19401:
12987:
10833:
Jonathan E. Brockopp (2000), Early Mālikī Law: Ibn ʻAbd Al-Ḥakam and His Major Compendium of Jurisprudence, Brill,
7017:
6945:
6869:
According to the classical doctrine, apostasy from Islam is a crime as well as a sin, and can be punished with the
6511:, condemns imitation of foreign ideas, drawing a distinction between Western democracy and the Islamic doctrine of
6347:
5553:
3130:
116:
6365:) declared his opposition to "any expansion of Sharia law in the UK." In Germany, in 2014, the Interior Minister (
6081:
support such notions as gender equality and banking interest, which are at variance with classical jurisprudence.
5906:
allowing substitution of up to three male with six female witnesses; however, at least one must be a Muslim male.
4270:
only two percent of cases involved non-Muslims whereas in 1789 non-Muslims were a part of thirty percent of cases.
4261:, which entailed a number of protections, restrictions, freedoms and legal inequalities, including payment of the
3865:
were short specialized treatises or general overviews that could be used in a classroom or consulted by judges. A
1864:
Some researchers however, suggests that primary sources may have also evolved, contrary to traditional knowledge;
17691:"The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College"
17641:
11963:
9701:
7601:
There are differences between Islamic and Western legal systems. For example, Sharia classically recognizes only
7022:
6803:, have been assassinated over their criticism of the blasphemy laws. The Pakistani blasphemy laws are based upon
2058:
1002:
Over time with the necessities brought by sociological changes, on the basis of mentioned interpretative studies
698:
12525:
Timur Kuran (2012), The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, Princeton University Press,
12436:
7306:
5721:
penalties are legal do not use stoning and amputation routinely, and generally apply other punishments instead.
3187:
1388:
In older English-language law-related works in the late 19th/early 20th centuries, the word used for Sharia was
19381:
18870:
Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present
17337:
Tyan, E. (2012). "D̲j̲ihād". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
16991:
16974:
16898:
16201:
15669:
14852:
12203:
7433:
7141:
6600:
6592:
6313:
5782:
5563:
5448:
4415:, but Ottoman civil laws remained in force for several decades in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Iraq.
3768:
3702:
3227:
2728:
2393:
1603:
1437:
1304:
was widely used by Arabic-speaking Jews during the Middle Ages, being the most common translation for the word
956:
819:
and sharia has never been the sole valid legal system in Islam historically; it has always been used alongside
643:
16986:
Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press.
12140:
Tetley (1999), Mixed Jurisdictions: Common Law v. Civil Law (Codified and Uncodified), La. Law Review, 60, 677
11013:
9220:
8404:. Quote: "... by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the
7565:("teacher"), conferred by the classical Islamic legal degree, had its equivalents in the medieval Latin terms
6192:). Elsewhere, policing of various interpretations of Sharia-based public morality has been carried out by the
4478:) of Sharia, which played a limited role in classical fiqh, but were now given wider utilitarian applications.
1266:שָׂרַע and is likely to be the origin of the meaning "way" or "path". Some scholars describe it as an archaic
13209:"Apostasy and Public Policy in Contemporary Egypt: An Evaluation of Recent Cases from Egypt's Highest Courts"
7653:
5566:
in Strasbourg (ECtHR) ruled in several cases that sharia is "incompatible with the fundamental principles of
5172:
2228:) are considered unambiguous with regard to the question, or where there is an existing scholarly consensus (
937:'physical or mental effort'). Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,
387:
18505:
Jokisch, Benjamin (2015). "Origins of and Influences on Islamic law". In Anver M. Emon; Rumee Ahmed (eds.).
16727:
13308:
Helmi Noman (2013), "In the name of God – Faith based internet censorship in majority Muslim countries", in
12238:
Fadel, Mohammad (2009). "Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought".
9570:
9545:
6473:
Belief that democracy requires restricting religion to private life, held by a minority in the Muslim world.
6250:
makes use of Sharia family law to settle disputes, though this limited adoption of Sharia is controversial.
5212:
4504:
The most powerful influence on liberal reformist thought came from the work of the Egyptian Islamic scholar
3807:). The special significance of ritual was marked by always placing its discussion at the start of the work.
1057:
advocate the complete and uncompromising implementation of "exact/pure sharia" without modifications, while
19386:
16567:
12413:
7332:, have supported attacks against Israeli army reservists and hence should be considered as soldiers, while
7309:". However, sharia-complaint financing actually requires a person to stay away from weapons manufacturing.
7204:
6243:
5696:
5512:
criminal punishments (whipping, stoning and amputation) prescribed for certain crimes. For many Islamists,
4037:
3434:
3389:
3016:
2606:
1465:
1050:
948:
419:
31:
18839:. Vol. Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context (Kindle ed.). Stanford University Press.
11920:
10810:"Opinion: As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the hijab in the name of interfaith solidarity"
8460:
6636:, a group representing all Muslim-majority nations, met in Cairo to respond to the UDHR, then adopted the
4204:
fatwas as well as decisions of Islamic courts, and made it applicable to all religious communities on the
1597:
of the hadith back to Muhammad's companions. In his view, the real architect of Islamic jurisprudence was
17:
19312:
18071:
16915:
10134:
8860:
7773:
and others, in contrast to later works by al-Bukhari, Muslim, etc. that contain only ahadith by Muhammad.
7342:
7302:
7047:
6247:
4657:
3502:
466:
293:
18272:
Contemporary Muslim Reformist Thought and Maqāṣid cum Maṣlaḥa Approaches to Islamic Law: An Introduction
12305:
Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese (2013), Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, Sage publications,
8485:
4387:. In the 1870s, a codification of civil law and procedure (excepting marriage and divorce), called the
19346:
18847:
Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries: Tensions and Opportunities for Dutch and EU Foreign Policy
17974:"Why the Middle East is Economically Underdeveloped: Historical Mechanisms of Institutional Stagnation"
17665:
15359:
15327:
14295:
13928:
13335:
10075:
8507:
Patricia Crone / Martin Hinds: God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (1986)
7924:
6534:. Islamic leaders are considered to uphold justice if they promote public interest, as defined through
5282:
4950:
4774:
4600:
3667:
2945:
2214:
requires expertise in the Arabic language, theology, religious texts, and principles of jurisprudence (
1727:
952:
506:
50:
18743:
17180:
Pirates, Terrorists, and Warlords: The History, Influence, and Future of Armed Groups Around the World
15403:
14870:
N Swazo (2014). "The Case of Hamza Kashgari: Examining Apostasy, Heresy, and Blasphemy Under Sharia".
13875:
13720:
13330:
10607:
9043:
17582:
16757:
15008:
8393:
7670:
7472:
7333:
6850:
6784:
6462:
Rejection of democracy as a Western import and advocacy of traditional Islamic institutions, such as
5441:
5396:
4739:
4033:
3733:
3035:
1897:: in Islam, the Quran is considered to be the most sacred source of law. Classical jurists held its "
1881:
1512:
601:
313:
46:
16672:
14972:
Brian Winston (2014), The Rushdie Fatwa and After: A Lesson to the Circumspect, Palgrave Macmillan,
14904:
12121:
9558:
https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/ISL431%20Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Jurisprudence%20100713.pdf
9533:
https://nou.edu.ng/coursewarecontent/ISL431%20Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Jurisprudence%20100713.pdf
6928:
6577:, have justified pluralism and freedom through non-literalist approaches to textual interpretation.
6334:
5687:(monetary compensation). Iran subsequently issued a new "Islamic Penal Code". The criminal codes of
1780:
jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (
1773:, which refers to a jurist's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question.
19181:
18274:. Vol. Maqasid al-Shari’a and Contemporary Reformist Muslim Thought: An Examination. Springer.
17387:
17225:
17070:
Slavery and Sexual Ethics in Islam, in Beyond Slavery: Overcoming Its Religious and Sexual Legacies
15809:
Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). "Liwāṭ".
9054:
8720:
7200:
7066:
6111:
6012:
a Muslim male would receive, while for all other non-Muslim males the proportion is one-sixteenth.
4520:
4459:), potentially among multiple madhhabs or denominations, and combining parts of different rulings (
4225:
4030:
jurists in Iran progressively asserted an autonomous authority starting from the early modern era.
3577:
3411:
2677:
2602:
2529:
afterlife, while neutral actions entail no judgment from God. Jurists disagree on whether the term
2360:
1011:
533:
333:
19068:
18993:
18487:
18379:. Frankfurt; New York City: Campus Verlag and Chicago: University of Chicago Press (distributor).
17301:
10730:"10. How Can we Observe the Sala Prayers by Following the Quran Alone? - Edip-Layth - quranix.org"
10473:"Ijtihād against Madhhab: Legal Hybridity and the Meanings of Modernity in Early Modern Daghestan"
4169:
2267:
prompted leading Sunni jurists to state that the main legal questions had been addressed and then
19104:
17690:
16853:
12502:
8498:
Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015)
7346:
7278:
6193:
5917:
5909:
5793:
5359:
3159:
2626:
2204:, or exertion of a jurist's mentality in finding a solution to a legal question in contrast with
128:
17821:
Makdisi, George (1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West".
16500:
16494:
12823:
12786:
6910:
Twenty-three Muslim-majority countries, as of 2013, penalized apostasy from Islam through their
6873:, typically after a waiting period to allow the apostate time to repent and to return to Islam.
6619:(UDHR) for its perceived failure to take into account the cultural and religious context of non-
5099:
3672:
916:— developed methodologies for deriving rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as
19396:
19020:
Tellenbach, Silvia (2015). "Islamic Criminal Law". In Markus D. Dubber; Tatjana Hornle (eds.).
18837:
Islamic Law and Legal Change: The Concept of Maslaha in Classical and Contemporary Legal Theory
18594:
17509:
17040:
17034:
13583:
12543:"Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilizations – Musings on the Systemic Approach"
12360:
10888:
8985:
8821:
7983:
7854:
7696:
7680:
7350:
7293:
have used their interpretation of Islamic scriptures and Sharia, in particular the doctrine of
7005:
6992:
6809:
5227:
4663:
3908:
3583:
3208:
3135:
2621:
is presented as a "condition" for orthodox Islam by many prominent Sunni creed writers such as
1612:
1566:
1503:) Muslim view, the major precepts of Sharia were passed down directly from the Islamic prophet
1054:
582:
348:
42:
38:
18514:
17857:
17451:
16553:
16490:
16409:
15899:
14469:
14246:
13129:
13009:
12735:
12726:
Silvia Tellenbach (2014). "Islamic Criminal Law". In Markus D. Dubber; Tatjana Hörnle (eds.).
12275:
11823:
10755:
9106:
8974:
8970:
8541:
6470:(consensus), as exemplified by supporters of absolute monarchy and radical Islamist movements;
5869:, and unlike civil law, Sharia is left to the interpretation in each case and has no formally
2244:
1436:
Some articles that may be considered precursors of sharia law and rituals can be found in the
19189:
19165:
19148:
18967:
18896:
18192:
18142:
18116:
17289:
17105:
16867:
Noor, Azman Mohd (1 January 2010). "Rape: A Problem of Crime Classification in Islamic Law".
16438:
16351:
15549:
15281:
15242:
15067:
13966:
12688:
10786:
8829:
7900:
7633:
7163:
7129:
6442:
distinguish four attitudes toward Sharia and democracy prominent among contemporary Muslims:
5300:
5139:
4940:
2112:- rather than an auxiliary one - will pave the way for the re-critique and reorganization of
1006:
have emerged, reflecting the preferences of particular societies and governments, as well as
811:, in a sense the practical application side of sharia, was manipulated over the centuries by
577:
402:
186:
141:
19287:, via Bridging Cultures, National Endowment for the Humanities & George Mason University
18043:
Sharia, Muslim States and International Human Rights Treaty Obligations: A Comparative Study
16702:
Kusha, Hamid R. (2007). "Qur'anic Perspectives on Wife Abuse". In Jackson, Nicky Ali (ed.).
15762:
15209:
12044:
10859:
Jonathan A. C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters: Sunni Skepticism about the Miracles of Saints",
9773:
8516:
8381:
8300:
6366:
2668:
Jurisdiction that concerns individuals is personal and, for example, in an Islamic Qisas or
2589:
1607:, but who was preceded by a body of Islamic law not based on primacy of Muhammad's hadiths.
1456:
inscriptions, and continuity can be observed in many details, especially in todays hajj and
19391:
19121:
18940:
18913:
18817:
18794:
18777:
18726:
18549:
18262:
15699:
13077:
Olaniyi, Rasheed Oyewole (2011). "Hisbah and Sharia Law Enforcement in Metropolitan Kano".
12760:
9611:"The Mihna. Deconstruction and reconsideration of the Mu'tazilite role in the "Inquisition"
9156:
8961:
8623:(Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6;
8376:
8038:
7124:
7031:
6508:
6439:
5692:
5217:
5011:
4605:
4519:
One of the most influential figures in modern legal reforms was the Egyptian legal scholar
4349:
4149:
took an active role in pursuing these types of offenses and meted out punishments based on
3782:
3650:
2062:
1483:
14863:
P Smith (2003). "Speak No Evil: Apostasy, Blasphemy and Heresy in Malaysian Syariah Law".
13849:
12805:
12606:
12186:
Etannibi E. O. Alemika (2005), "Human Rights and Shariah Penal Code in Northern Nigeria",
8621:
Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East
8473:
6390:
According to Jan Michiel Otto, Professor of Law and Governance in Developing Countries at
5119:
4273:
Ottoman court records also reflect the use of Islamic courts by formerly non-Muslim women.
1140:
can mean "our religion" in reference to any monotheistic faith. Within Islamic discourse,
8:
17183:
15833:
15611:
14947:
13823:
12363:(1998). "Punishment in Islamic Law: A Critique of the Hudud Bill of Kelantan, Malaysia".
12169:
Tahir Wasti (2009), The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan, Brill Academic,
7896:
7103:
6896:
6734:
6693:
6643:
6574:
6547:
6482:
6412:
5384:
5354:
4585:
4205:
4106:
4072:
3245:
3194:
2141:
2121:
1885:
1817:
1692:
1100:
932:
798:
741:
691:
587:
221:
121:
16496:
Islam in Southeast Asia: Political, Social and Strategic Challenges for the 21st Century
16312:
Powers, David S. (1993). "The Islamic Inheritance System: a Socio-Historical Approach".
7140:, in the Quran, has been debated for domestic violence and also has been the subject to
5644:
also maintaining characteristics of mixed systems, like codified laws and a parliament.
18096:
17927:
17900:(Fall 2005). "The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence".
17838:
17767:
17720:
17712:
16952:
16788:"Muslim Council of Britain urges Imams to speak out against domestic abuse this Friday"
16676:
16624:
16616:
16541:
16329:
16242:
15968:
15880:
15148:
14673:
14638:
14534:
14526:
14078:
13249:
13241:
13094:
12566:
12382:
12365:
12263:
12255:
11517:
10658:
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047400851/B9789047400851_s012.xml?language=en
10500:
10492:
10453:
10445:
9201:
9031:
8927:
8602:
8594:
8582:
7762:
7628:
7583:, respectively, although they all came to be used synonymously in both East and West.
7425:
7377:
6955:
6870:
6816:
to make them more severe. A number of clauses were added by the government in order to
6763:
6578:
6183:
6154:
6052:
6039:
5870:
5559:
5522:
5488:
5329:
5305:
5167:
4945:
4930:
4840:
4693:
4493:
4404:
4400:
4374:, the first such changes in the legal sphere involved placing the formerly independent
3761:
3406:
3148:
2952:
1777:
1696:
1477:
1070:
1035:
755:
611:
568:
538:
521:
496:
441:
397:
109:
17750:
Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring 1978). "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems".
16059:"Islam and Homosexuality: Religious Dogma, Colonial Rule, and the Quest for Belonging"
15639:
13511:"The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society. Chapter 1: Beliefs About Sharia"
13155:
10597:
https://www.elevenjournals.com/tijdschrift/ejlr/2014/2/EJLR_1387-2370_2014_016_002_003
1570:
987:, which is frequently repeated in the Quran regarding the attributes of believers as "
19185:
19125:
19072:
19026:
18997:
18944:
18917:
18873:
18854:
18821:
18659:
18640:
18611:
18582:
18563:
18518:
18491:
18461:
18428:
18380:
18338:
18320:
18306:
18240:
18086:
17865:
17724:
17669:
17457:
17407:
17403:
17361:
17346:
17305:
17073:
17044:
17009:
16987:
16970:
16894:
16707:
16628:
16549:
16545:
16504:
16446:
16417:
16197:
16032:
15991:
15960:
15911:
15884:
15818:
15791:
15743:
15705:
15619:
15555:
15527:
15498:
15363:
15331:
15287:
15248:
15217:
15173:
15073:
15033:
14973:
14848:
14785:
14761:
14711:
14694:
14677:
14573:
14552:
14538:
14477:
14450:
14440:
14317:
14082:
14070:
13972:
13760:
13313:
13295:
13253:
13190:
13125:
13098:
13015:
12739:
12694:
12670:
12646:
12570:
12526:
12506:
12475:
12306:
12289:
12271:
12267:
12170:
12153:
12078:
11872:
https://rwi.lu.se/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2020-OIC-Declaration-of-Human-Rights.pdf
11521:
11513:
10977:
10893:
10834:
10761:
10576:
10551:
10504:
10457:
10392:
10361:
10205:
10079:
10038:
9906:
9680:
9382:
9287:
9193:
9160:
9112:
8864:
8833:
8743:
8624:
8606:
8586:
8549:
8397:
8306:
7946:
7936:
7643:
7614:
7567:
7329:
7325:
7290:
7261:
7257:
7112:
7091:
7058:
6915:
6859:
6843:
6833:
6804:
6738:
6551:
6456:
6391:
6329:
6226:
6073:
5895:
5877:
5856:
5636:
central legislative role is played by politicians and modern jurists rather than the
5537:
5389:
5339:
5267:
5232:
5207:
5187:
5104:
5065:
5041:
4800:
4752:
4713:
4703:
4679:
4595:
4557:
4197:
3425:
3166:
3087:
3025:
2923:
2902:
2642:
2439:
2329:
2299:
2153:
2133:
2109:
1898:
1803:
1548:
1318:. A similar use of the term can be found in Christian writers. The Arabic expression
1074:
1058:
839:
652:
616:
563:
476:
436:
298:
19315:– anthropologist John R. Bowen explains the working of Britain's sharia courts in a
19045:
18760:
18709:
18174:. In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.).
15434:
7209:
5594:
declared that human rights can only be respected if they are compatible with Islam.
3915:. One of the oldest literary manuscripts of the Islamic world, dated October 879 AD.
3838:
is imposed for non-intentional harm. Other criminal cases belong to the category of
2306:
movements. Among contemporary Muslims in the West there have emerged new visions of
2271:
was gradually restricted. In the modern era, this gave rise to a perception amongst
909:
19117:
19064:
19041:
18989:
18936:
18909:
18813:
18756:
18705:
18553:
18545:
18510:
18483:
18409:
18302:
17985:
17954:
17917:
17909:
17830:
17798:
17759:
17704:
17399:
17342:
17297:
17268:
16944:
16876:
16608:
16533:
16348:
Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy
16321:
16153:"Analysis – Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death"
15972:
15952:
15872:
15814:
15140:
14738:
14665:
14630:
14518:
14357:
14347:
14062:
13291:
13231:
13223:
13086:
12731:
12374:
12247:
12070:
12040:
11509:
10757:
Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women
10484:
10437:
10300:
10280:
10210:
10108:
9152:
8735:
8578:
7928:
7818:
7675:
7298:
6904:
6863:
6672:
6478:
6309:
6292:
6230:
5597:
5272:
5222:
4830:
4728:
4723:
4708:
4412:
3912:
3092:
2966:
2310:
which emphasize substantive moral values over traditional juridical undertandings.
2252:
2001:
1813:
1536:
1405:
853:
461:
456:
407:
392:
377:
286:
165:
18601:. Vol. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition).
18532:
Jones-Pauly, Cristina (2009). "Codes and Codification". In Stanley N. Katz (ed.).
17605:
16365:"Surah 4:34 (An-Nisaa), Alim – Translated by Mohammad Asad, Gibraltar (1980)"
15728:
14378:
14206:
14066:
12288:
Mohamed S. El-Awa (1993), Punishment In Islamic Law, American Trust Publications,
7513:) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems, as are the English
2016:
amongst the Sunnis. Twelver Shia jurisprudence also does not recognize the use of
19376:
19332:
18400:
Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2013). "Fatwa". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).
18234:
17945:
Kuran, Timur (2005). "The logic of financial westernization in the Middle East".
17536:
The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson
17495:
17488:
17141:
16922:
15769:
15750:
15640:"UN rights office deeply concerned over Sudanese woman facing death for apostasy"
15464:
15111:
15015:
14996:
14934:
14911:
14278:
13756:
Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia
13649:
13541:"Conference Call Transcript: The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society"
13406:
13160:
12830:
12812:
12793:
12549:
12096:
10690:
10630:
9277:
9050:
8388:
7932:
7869:
7845:
7602:
7285:
ideologues have used their interpretation of Sharia to justify terrorist attacks.
7273:
7009:
6773:
Blasphemy, as interpreted under Sharia, is controversial. Representatives of the
6742:
6628:
6570:
6566:
6543:
6486:
6268:
6077:
5852:
5541:
5484:
5475:
5431:
5182:
5094:
4935:
4845:
4769:
4640:
4590:
4524:
4384:
4321:
4309:
4280:
However, this would likely lead to them being shunned by their former community.
3744:
3294:
3073:
3052:
2551:
fiqh does not consider both terms as synonymous and makes a distinction between "
2337:
2283:
2235:
2054:
1869:
1429:
1271:
1255:
1083:
1066:
923:
879:
867:
789:
732:
596:
412:
372:
361:
343:
246:
191:
104:
19011:
Stewart, Devin J. (2013). "Shari'a". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.).
18007:"The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East, By Timur Kuran"
14522:
14431:
Sajoo, Amyn B (Spring 1990). "Islam and Human Rights: Congruence or Dichotomy".
14050:
13090:
10517:
Sociology of religions: perspectives of Ali Shariati (2008) Mir Mohammed Ibrahim
9625:
5789:
2324:, Iran; Religious leaders who have the authority to interpret sharia sources in
1942:
established. Muhammad's sunnah gave way to the "hadiths of Muhammad" which were
1657:), which is devoted to elaboration of rulings on the basis of these principles.
1519:) and transmitted this information to the succeeding generations in the form of
1022:
applications of laws and regulations. Although sharia is presented as a form of
19247:
18632:
17958:
17538:. Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 297–98 see Bibliography for Conclusion.
15591:
warranted if apostasy becomes a mechanism of public disobedience and disorder (
14782:
Religious Offence and Human Rights: The Implications of Defamation of Religions
13362:
12378:
10112:
8808:
7579:
7548:
7538:
7222:
7077:
7043:
6970:
6800:
6796:
6665:
6605:
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
6558:
6408:
6305:
6288:
6047:
6043:
5377:
5344:
5247:
5197:
5157:
5134:
5089:
5023:
4925:
4896:
4871:
4825:
4505:
4497:
4371:
4217:
3066:
2897:
2673:
1947:
1943:
1906:
1877:
1873:
1828:(1865–1935 CE) lists the four basic sources of Islamic law, agreed upon by all
1731:
1723:
1684:
1594:
1574:
1552:
1528:
1469:
1401:
827:, integrated with various economic, criminal and administrative laws issued by
684:
556:
543:
501:
446:
60:
19341:– manuscript in Arabic, from the late 19th or early 20th century about Sharia.
18236:
Islamic Law, Epistemology and Modernity. Legal Philosophy in Contemporary Iran
17273:
17256:
16904:
Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, Brill, 2nd Edition, Vol 1, pp. 13–40.
16271:
Ali, K. (2010). Marriage and slavery in early Islam. Harvard University Press.
15956:
14352:
14335:
13387:
Taher, Abul (14 September 2008). Revealed: UK’s first official sharia courts.
12990:. Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA). Archived from
12607:"An Unjust Doctrine of Civil Arbitration: Sharia Courts in Canada and England"
12251:
12152:
Antoinette Vlieger (2012), Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates,
12074:
10573:
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution and the Clerical Leadership of Khurasani
10488:
10441:
8721:"Path to the Universal Self in Haji Baktash Walî: Four Doors - Forty Stations"
7729:
Shia jurisprudence does not recognize the use of qiyas, but relies on reason (
6754:, and some countries prescribe punishments consisting of fines, imprisonment,
6647:
rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic
5496:
these positions are often encapsulated in the slogan "Islam is the solution" (
4361:
2069:
1472:, also coincides with similar distinctions seen in pre-Islamic civilizations.
19370:
19317:
18615:
18586:
17990:
17973:
17802:
17411:
16880:
16036:
15795:
15545:
15531:
14816:
14133:"Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life"
14074:
12082:
9197:
8747:
8739:
8590:
8372:
7492:
7318:
6940:
6919:
6886:
6751:
6702:
6620:
6596:
6562:
6435:
6362:
6354:
6343:
6222:
5865:
5830:
5533:
5349:
5257:
5242:
5192:
5177:
5129:
5109:
5035:
4781:
4718:
4189:
4094:
3961:
legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.
3754:
2816:
2681:
2105:
1981:
1739:
1726:) and those who tried to find a middle way between the two attitudes such as
1711:
1598:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1507:
without "historical development" and the emergence of Islamic jurisprudence (
984:
747:
621:
526:
486:
19237:
19211:
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2001). "Concubines". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.).
17913:
16325:
16181:
14742:
14634:
14454:
13613:
13424:
13114:"Religious Freedom Implications of Sharia Implementation in Aceh, Indonesia"
13113:
12667:
Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law
19180:
18457:
18449:
18221:
18152:"Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the Shariah in Islam"
16537:
16233:
15964:
15593:
14669:
14598:
14593:
13797:"The War On Sharia Started Long Before You Ever Heard 'Ground Zero Mosque'"
13282:
Olsson, Susanne (2008). "Apostasy in Egypt: Contemporary Cases of Ḥisbah".
11820:
Cases, Materials, and Commentary on the European Convention on Human Rights
8905:
Wörterbuch der griechisch-arabischen Übersetzungen des neunten Jahrhunderts
7791:"What theology is for the Christian, law is for the Muslim." referenced in
7606:
7518:
7387:
6911:
6900:
6891:
6747:
6698:
6656:
6280:
5973:
5966:
5683:
5579:
5574:" have been categorically excluded by the governments of countries such as
5571:
5469:
5420:
5401:
5277:
5262:
5202:
5084:
4891:
4876:
4835:
4764:
4735:
4250:
4101:
go to settle their quarrel before a judge (16th century Persian miniature).
3886:
3830:
3818:
3383:
3374:
3351:
3303:
3180:
3059:
3001:
2693:
2669:
2560:
2559:"; In Hanafi fiqh, two conditions are required to impose the fard rule. 1.
2145:
1865:
1791:
1719:
1150:
1062:
775:
672:
628:
365:
97:
86:
18367:(2010). "Islamic Law: History and Transformation". In Robert Irwin (ed.).
15876:
15863:
Falaky, Fayçal (2018). "Radical Islam, Tolerance, and the Enlightenment".
13227:
6838:
6787:
have been used to convict more than a thousand people, about half of them
6615:
Governments of several predominantly Muslim countries have criticized the
6060:
Modern fatwas have been marked by an increased reliance on the process of
4244:
child slave sentenced to transport logs by Arab master in Sultanate, 1890s
3978:
inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the
2377:
1220:
1042:
by most Muslims, not as a period when sharia was dominant, but a kind of "
18691:
Masters, Bruce (2009). "Dhimmi". In Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Masters (eds.).
18364:
18352:
18330:
17897:
16491:"Law-Making in the Name of Islam: Implications for Democratic Governance"
15319:
15214:
Peace-Building by, between, and beyond Muslims and Evangelical Christians
15210:"The Right to religious conversion: Between apostasy and proselytization"
15065:
14806:. Vol. 2. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. 2005. pp. 974–76.
12401:
10619:
10127:
Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse
9571:
https://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/USUL-FIQH.pdf
9546:
https://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/USUL-FIQH.pdf
7770:
7610:
7354:
7241:
7137:
6923:
6874:
6855:
6504:
6448:
6382:
by a 2005 unanimous vote of the National Assembly, while the province of
5949:
5688:
5364:
5252:
5237:
5124:
5048:
4536:
4423:
4395:
4184:
3492:
2851:
2272:
2259:
continued to practise amongst Sunni Muslims. The controversy surrounding
2201:
2137:
1915:
1861:
narration. Acts to the contrary may be punished as denial and apostasy.
1829:
1825:
1315:
1125:
1043:
897:
424:
382:
306:
18558:
18062:
Amanat, Abbas (2009). "Preface". In Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (eds.).
17931:
16956:
14642:
13245:
12991:
10496:
10472:
9205:
9181:
9011:
8880:
7386:. In both religions, revealed law holds a central place, in contrast to
6996:, owing in part to stringent procedural requirements for their harsher (
6026:
5934:
5426:
2340:, which directly connect their identities to Allah or Islam, and gained
2263:
started with the beginning of the twelfth century. By the 14th century,
19360:
18478:(2014). "Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
18475:
18126:
The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600-1800
17716:
17580:
Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law",
16620:
16333:
15152:
14656:
Carney, ABD Al-Hakeem (2003). "The Desacralisation of Power in Islam".
12561:
Lippman, Matthew Ross; McConville, Seán; Yerushalmi, Mordechai (1988).
12386:
10222:
Abdeljelil: „Die Maximen der islamischen Jurisprudenz“. 2014, S. 68–70.
9818:
8891:
8598:
8461:
https://www.jurnalhunafa.org/index.php/hunafa/article/download/618/518/
7661:
7488:
7456:
7397:
6813:
6792:
6624:
6358:
6317:
6197:
5860:
5847:
5843:
5493:
5334:
5114:
4886:
4633:
4411:, abolished its Sharia courts and replaced Ottoman civil laws with the
4331:
4326:
3969:(selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and
3932:
3121:
2672:
decisions, jurist must take into account "personal labels" such as the
2598:
2443:
2363:
2275:
scholars and sections of the Muslim public that the so-called "gate of
2081:
2009:
2005:
1676:
1524:
1170:
1146:
1023:
779:
429:
18414:
The Venture of Islam, Volume 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times
17922:
17842:
17771:
16643:"Lebanon – IRIN, United Nations Office of Humanitarian Affairs (2009)"
14530:
14362:
13236:
12259:
10449:
6927:
societies and Islamists have tended to exploit it for political gain.
5742:
and donations. Certain concepts relating to property under Sharia are
3828:), but the victims or their heirs may accept a monetary compensation (
1476:
was a practice used as a resolution tool in inter-tribal conflicts in
1199:
19112:
Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009). "Uṣūl al-fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18377:
Democratization and Islamic Law – The Sharia Conflict in Nigeria
18050:
16948:
14249:. The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law. 13 February 2003.
14101:
10729:
10425:
7920:
7765:(edited by Shaibani)—contains 429 ahadith by Muhammad but 750 by the
7686:
7573:
7514:
7500:
7225:
7116:
7013:
6264:
6205:
6143:
5859:
of witnesses. Unlike common law, judges' verdicts do not set binding
5705:) punishments for violation of Islamic norms, but explicitly exclude
5701:
5567:
5526:
4901:
4698:
4455:
Selection of alternative opinions from traditional legal literature (
4193:
4019:
3950:
3853:
3723:
2987:
2960:
2685:
2638:
2622:
2572:
2490:
2333:
2317:
2221:
2074:
1956:
1490:
1158:
1039:
968:
328:
19355:
18083:
Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives
17708:
16612:
15945:
The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care
15144:
12761:"International Religious Freedom Report 2006, U.S. State Department"
12123:
Saudi Arabia Basic Industries Corp. v. Mobil Yanbu Petrochemical Co.
8546:
Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives
6795:. While none have been legally executed, two Pakistani politicians,
6221:
suit brought by a group of Islamists against the liberal theologian
5800:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
4188:
promulgated by Ottoman sultans beginning from the 15th century. The
17834:
17763:
16214:
Badawi, Jamal A. (September 1971). "The Status of Women in Islam".
15131:
Peters, Rudolph; Vries, Gert J. J. De (1976). "Apostasy in Islam".
10885:
10608:
https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AUFPPlatypus/2006/46.pdf
7706:
7496:
7460:
7400:) as well as less formal, orally transmitted prophetic traditions (
7282:
7269:
7120:
6755:
6130:
5480:
4881:
4757:
4623:
4565:
4540:
4380:
4241:
4141:
4084:
4026:
muftis were gradually incorporated into state bureaucracies, while
3882:
3661:
3618:
3520:
2832:
2701:
2634:
2563:, (only verses of the Qur'an can be accepted as evidence here, not
2447:
2427:
2421:
2415:
1808:
1790:
and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the
1707:
1680:
1581:
1504:
1499:
1453:
1425:
1377:
designates the laws or message of a prophet or God, in contrast to
1162:
1091:
1027:
996:
992:
944:
638:
606:
320:
254:
19338:
19241:
15900:"Oppression and Subalternity: Homosexual and Transgender in Islam"
14113:
14005:"Oklahoma International and Sharia Law, State Question 755 (2010)"
13968:
Scapegoating Islam: Intolerance, Security, and the American Muslim
11379:
11377:
10550:. Oxford, England: One World Publications Oxford. pp. 63–64.
9182:"Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the pre-Islamic Arab Society"
7950:
7558:
6210:
Committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice
5971:
In classical jurisprudence monetary compensation for bodily harm (
5536:" should take. This is particularly the case for the theorists of
4320:
were initiated in the late 18th century by the governor of Bengal
4305:
2294:, which they saw as a return to Islamic origins. The advocacy of
1649:), which studies the theoretical principles of jurisprudence, and
1449:
1445:
1428:
script with a figure of a camel on a red sandstone fragment, from
1082:
to sharia, its rules are largely retained only in family law. The
18316:
Legal Traditions of the World – Sustainable Diversity in Law
17159:
16573:
15990:(Kindle ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 361–362.
15808:
12892:
12890:
11413:
11170:
11168:
11166:
11164:
11162:
11160:
11158:
10130:
7917:
The Shari'a and Islamic Criminal Justice in Time of War and Peace
7766:
7726:
7701:
7504:
7392:
7383:
7371:
7188:
7167:
7151:
6759:
6520:
6383:
6213:
6062:
5987:
5882:
5835:
5583:
4866:
4628:
4389:
4237:
4118:
4098:
4076:
4047:
4005:
3983:
3954:
3946:
3936:
3898:
3639:
3527:
3475:
3272:
2973:
2825:
2770:
2576:
2451:
2397:
2341:
2165:
2149:
2041:
2037:
2023:
1992:
1856:
1782:
1769:
1703:
1557:
1275:
1178:
1104:
1026:
in addition to its other aspects (especially by the contemporary
1003:
918:
913:
893:
828:
803:'jurisprudence'), which refers to its interpretations by
471:
148:
18931:
Rabb, Intisar A. (2009c). "Ijtihād". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
16293:
12472:
Intent in Islamic Law: Motive and Meaning in Medieval Sunnī Fiqh
11720:
11718:
11716:
11714:
10866:
10853:
9863:
9727:
7244:
of slaves. A slave woman who bore a child to her Muslim master (
2704:, etc. Islamic preachers constantly emphasize the importance of
1511:) also goes back to the lifetime of Muhammad. In this view, his
1157:
and in branches of Islam that are influenced by Sufism, such as
1128:
to designate a prophetic religion in its totality. For example,
17147:
14820:
14570:
Religion and Human Rights: Competing Claims?: Competing Claims?
13643:
Killing for religion is justified, say third of Muslim students
12858:
12856:
12787:
Saudi Arabia 2012, International Religious Freedom Report, p. 4
11461:
11389:
11374:
9000:"A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the
8801:
Understanding Islamic Law – From Classical to Contemporary
8428:
8426:
7529:
7429:
7408:
7402:
7216:
7146:
7062:
6821:
6788:
6379:
6291:, the Archbishop of Canterbury, has suggested that Islamic and
6118:
6105:
6068:
5916:, fingerprints, ballistics, blood samples, DNA etc.) and other
5714:
5675:
penalties were added, while others also enacted provisions for
4685:
4267:
4258:
4221:
4201:
4135:
4080:
3979:
3941:
3928:
3924:
3625:
3400:
3393:
3250:
3173:
2994:
2805:
2760:
2709:
2697:
2630:
2594:
2564:
2548:
2510:
2325:
2303:
2225:
2206:
1997:
1933:
1927:
1840:
1520:
1516:
1267:
1243:
1174:
1166:
1154:
976:
939:
905:
901:
848:
767:
763:
491:
481:
238:
230:
215:
209:
93:
18984:
Schneider, Irene (2014). "Fiqh". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
18085:. Vol. 1. The Hague / Boston / London: Martinus Nijhoff.
17785:
Tai, Emily Sohmer (2007). "Book Reviews: Hassan S. Khalilieh,
17199:"Seven Prohibited Industries in Islamic Financial Investments"
16010:
Tilo Beckers, "Islam and the Acceptance of Homosexuality", in
14990:
Bad-mouthing: Pakistan’s blasphemy laws legitimise intolerance
12887:
11155:
10548:
REVIVAL AND REFORM IN ISLAM: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism
9060:
8783:
8781:
8702:
8700:
8698:
8696:
8694:
8692:
8690:
7833:
7638:
7232:
Sharia authorized the institution of slavery, using the words
4122:
court, administered by the ruler's council. The rationale for
2461:
1298:
occur once each, with the meaning "way" or "path". The word
18904:
Rabb, Intisar A. (2009b). "Fiqh". In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18835:
Opwis, Felicitas (2007). Abbas Amanat; Frank Griffel (eds.).
17390:(2011). "Parity of Muslim and Western Concepts of Just War".
15772:
Oxford Islamic Studies Online, Oxford University Press (2012)
14760:. Burlington VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. pp. 38–39.
13048:"Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security"
11994:"Brunei Shariah law applies death sentence for homosexuality"
11964:"Brunei to Punish Adultery and Gay Sex With Death by Stoning"
11943:
11757:
11755:
11753:
11751:
11749:
11747:
11745:
11711:
8910:
8335:
8333:
8331:
8329:
7553:
7543:
7509:
7294:
7265:
6623:
countries. Iran declared in the UN assembly that UDHR was "a
6463:
6416:
6188:
6171:
6163:
6139:
6021:
5992:
5921:
5885:
jurisprudence, which forms the basis of law in Saudi Arabia.
5677:
5637:
5505:
4806:
4794:
4746:
4580:
4262:
4179:
4059:
4023:
4015:
4011:
4001:
3974:
3958:
3840:
3824:
3812:
3786:
3717:
3710:
3632:
3611:
3604:
3590:
3534:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3442:
3340:
3329:
3283:
3239:
3114:
3105:
3098:
2918:
2911:
2892:
2871:
2798:
2791:
2779:
2689:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2583:
2568:
2556:
2545:), as expressed in the legal maxim "acts are to intention."
2541:
2531:
2518:
2502:
2467:
2402:("traditionalists") who emphasized on reports or traditions (
2387:
2372:
2356:
2117:
2113:
1986:
1972:
1938:
1919:
1893:
1850:
1834:
1816:. Possibly the oldest, best preserved and most comprehensive
1763:
1743:
1735:
1715:
1660:
1586:
1473:
1461:
1457:
1356:
1311:
1133:
1096:
1087:
1019:
1007:
980:
972:
960:
888:
843:
823:
from the beginning, and applied in courts by ruler-appointed
816:
812:
804:
759:
751:
633:
511:
202:
160:
153:
76:
68:
15066:
Gerhard Böwering; Patricia Crone; Mahan Mirza, eds. (2013).
14379:"Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case"
14207:"Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: The Refah Party Case"
12853:
11701:
11699:
11697:
11695:
11693:
11691:
11678:
11676:
11617:
11615:
11613:
11611:
11302:
11300:
11298:
10715:. 2002, Bd. 26, S. 429.; Yüksel; al-Shaiban; Schulte-Nafeh:
10575:. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 6.
8983:, of which the ultimate source is the Koran," – A review of
8423:
8003:
8001:
7594:, of which it is a word-for-word translation, with the term
4500:
exercised a powerful influence on liberal reformist thought.
3903:
17558:
17556:
16850:
Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: A Fresh Interpretation
15985:
14161:
12843:
12841:
12839:
11347:
11345:
11343:
11341:
11339:
11215:
11213:
11185:
11183:
11081:
11021:
Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
10955:
10953:
10951:
10938:
10936:
10934:
10932:
10930:
10153:
10151:
10149:
10147:
10145:
10143:
9228:
Loyola Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review
8940:
8778:
8766:
8687:
7836:
7824:
7523:
7480:
7464:
6467:
6420:
6371:
5941:
5903:
5575:
4431:
4375:
4053:
4027:
3597:
3513:
3481:
3312:
3261:
3201:
3041:
2880:
2862:
2844:
2736:
2618:
2552:
2478:
2455:
2382:
2348:
2264:
2230:
1964:
1845:
1757:
1635:
1629:
1515:
and followers took what he did and approved of as a model (
1441:
1380:
1078:
964:
858:
824:
784:
262:
170:
18675:
Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry
18279:
El Achi, Soha (2018). "Slavery". In Jonathan Brown (ed.).
17068:
Kecia Ali (15 October 2010). Bernadette J. Brooten (ed.).
17036:
Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa
14186:
13011:
In Custody: Law, Impunity and Prisoner Abuse in South Asia
11772:
11770:
11742:
11651:
11649:
11364:
11362:
11360:
11324:
11283:
11200:
11198:
11145:
11143:
11141:
11139:
11137:
11135:
11098:
11096:
9987:
9985:
9983:
9981:
9979:
9851:
9841:
9839:
9837:
9835:
9833:
9831:
9829:
9827:
9504:
9502:
9500:
8734:(2). Association for Spiritual Psychology and Counseling.
8326:
7821:
7061:
in matters of marriage, divorce and child custody. A 2011
5619: Sharia influences personal status and criminal laws.
2220:), and is not employed where authentic and trusted texts (
1593:
of jurisprudence supported by the hadith would extend the
19233:
18682:
Mack, Gregory (2018). "Ḥisbah". In Jonathan Brown (ed.).
18081:. In Witte, John Jr.; Van der Vyver, Johan David (eds.).
18045:. British Institute of International and Comparative Law.
15943:
Dialmy, Abdessamad (13 May 2010). "Sexuality and Islam".
12946:
12944:
12942:
12940:
12938:
12563:
Islamic Criminal Law and Procedure – An Introduction
11688:
11673:
11608:
11312:
11295:
10564:
10034:
Understanding Islamic Law: From Classical to Contemporary
9487:
9485:
8805:
Islamic Law – An Overview of its Origin and Elements
8517:
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1699430
8282:
8280:
7998:
7396:) are derived from formal textual revelations (Quran and
7305:) is a new weapon in the arsenal of what might be termed
6526:
6397:
4150:
2750:
2705:
2321:
1270:
word denoting "pathway to be followed" (analogous to the
820:
18202:"Saudi Arabia Moves to Curb Its Feared Religious Police"
17553:
16569:
CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground
16414:
What Men Owe to Women: Men's Voices from World Religions
15904:
Journal of the International Relations and Affairs Group
14247:"Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey"
12836:
11336:
11271:
11210:
11180:
10948:
10927:
10640:
10638:
10520:
10140:
9679:. Alexandria, VA: Al-Saadawi Publications. p. 127.
9656:
9108:
Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women
8443:
8441:
8356:
8354:
8352:
8350:
8348:
7586:
Makdisi suggested that the medieval European doctorate,
2633:
by puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements such as
2210:(conformity to precedent ijtihad). According to theory,
19313:"Private Arrangements: 'Recognizing Sharia' in Britain"
19274:
19013:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
18402:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
17541:
16281:
Hafez, Mohammed (September 2006). "Why Muslims Rebel".
15495:
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
15356:
The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought
15169:
The Middle East, a Brief History of the Last 2000 Years
15069:
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought
12877:
12875:
12873:
12871:
12039:. Oxford Handbooks (online ed.). Oxford Academic.
11900:
11767:
11661:
11646:
11584:
11550:
11548:
11546:
11437:
11357:
11261:
11259:
11257:
11255:
11195:
11132:
11108:
11093:
11071:
11069:
10974:
The Middle East, a brief history of the last 2000 years
10917:
10915:
10913:
10911:
10909:
10262:
10250:
10009:
9976:
9824:
9646:
9644:
9497:
8474:
https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/10064
7683:– a court in the United Kingdom with no legal authority
7382:
Islamic legal tradition has a number of parallels with
5625: Regional variations in the application of sharia.
2715:
2116:
in the context of maqasid and maslaha, thus (including
1371:
in Greek in the New Testament ). In Muslim literature,
1177:. In each of these gates, there are 10 levels that the
18717:
Masud, Muhammad Khalid; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
18542:
The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History
16728:"Canadian Muslims Launch Annual White Ribbon Campaign"
16410:"Islam and Gender Justice: Beyond Simplistic Apologia"
15734:
31 December 2017 at Wikiwix Library of Congress (2014)
15349:
15347:
15240:
14474:
Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism
12935:
12925:
12923:
12921:
12919:
12917:
11921:"Greece Scraps Compulsory Shariah for Muslim Minority"
11888:
11816:
Refah Partİsİ (The Welfare Party) And Others V. Turkey
11789:
11787:
11785:
11596:
11533:
11531:
11225:
11120:
11067:
11065:
11063:
11061:
11059:
11057:
11055:
11053:
11051:
11049:
10183:
10181:
9751:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 878–879.
9514:
9482:
9260:
9258:
9256:
9146:
8277:
7360:
5613: Sharia influences personal status (family) laws.
4312:
initiated far-reaching legal reforms in British India.
4178:
their capacity as interpreters of the scriptures. The
3795:(lit. branches of fiqh) is traditionally divided into
1937::Although hadiths have largely replaced the sunnah in
1832:: "the sources of legislation in Islam are four: the
1385:, which refers to a scholar's interpretation thereof.
19344:
18178:. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 321–26.
16935:
Mazrui, Ali A. (1997). "Islamic and Western Values".
16096:"How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East"
16025:"How homosexuality became a crime in the Middle East"
15493:
Ibrahim, Hassan (2006). Abu-Rabi', Ibrahim M. (ed.).
15397:
15395:
15393:
15391:
15376:
14164:"Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible"
13491:
12902:
12758:
12061:"Outlines of Muhammadan Law. By Asaf A. A. Fyzee. ".
11636:
11634:
11632:
11630:
11572:
11449:
10635:
10324:
10322:
10320:
10318:
10316:
10314:
10312:
10310:
10308:
10168:
10166:
9997:
9472:
9439:
9437:
9435:
9433:
9431:
9429:
9427:
9425:
9312:
8677:
8675:
8673:
8640:
8638:
8636:
8438:
8345:
8249:
8247:
8245:
8243:
8241:
8239:
8237:
8235:
8233:
8231:
8229:
8227:
8225:
8223:
8221:
8219:
8217:
8215:
8213:
7052:
4316:
The first significant changes to the legal system of
3822:
that prescribes a punishment analogous to the crime (
2031:
19088:
Between God and the Sultan: A History of Islamic Law
18606:
Khadduri, Majid; Liebesny, Herbert J., eds. (1955).
17144:
School of Law, University of Bedfordshire, pp. 18–25
15616:
The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists
15105:
Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?
12868:
12434:
12350:. Karachi: International Islamic Publishers. p. 133.
12316:
12056:
12054:
11876:
11543:
11425:
11401:
11252:
11242:
11240:
10906:
10531:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNewman_in_Meri2006 (
10238:
10203:
Ed. Aḥmad Zakī Ḥammād. SIDRA, Riad, 2009?. S. 328. (
9641:
9470:
9468:
9466:
9464:
9462:
9460:
9458:
9456:
9454:
9452:
9351:
9336:
8754:
8671:
8669:
8667:
8665:
8663:
8661:
8659:
8657:
8655:
8653:
8211:
8209:
8207:
8205:
8203:
8201:
8199:
8197:
8195:
8193:
8180:
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8176:
8174:
8172:
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8168:
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8164:
8162:
8160:
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8156:
8154:
8152:
8150:
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8146:
8144:
8142:
8140:
8138:
8136:
8134:
8132:
8130:
8128:
8126:
8124:
8122:
8120:
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8116:
8114:
8112:
8110:
8108:
8106:
8104:
8102:
8100:
8098:
8096:
8094:
8092:
8090:
8088:
8086:
8084:
8082:
8080:
8078:
8076:
7859:
7830:
6746:
becoming a devout follower of Islam. In the modern
5996:) at one-fifteenth the value of a free Muslim male.
5842:
Sharia courts traditionally do not rely on lawyers;
4196:(r. 1658–1707) issued a hybrid body of law known as
1948:
systematized and purified within following centuries
1378:
1372:
1319:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
17257:"Shariah-compliant FinTech in the banking industry"
17003:
15344:
14027:
13466:
The World's Muslims: Religion, Politics and Society
12914:
12690:
The Application of Islamic Criminal Law in Pakistan
12328:
12125:, Supreme Court of Delaware, January 14, 2005 p. 52
11782:
11528:
11482:
Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies
11046:
10178:
9407:
9253:
9104:
8366:
8074:
8072:
8070:
8068:
8066:
8064:
8062:
8060:
8058:
8056:
7827:
7076:The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the
6518:The moderate Islamic view stresses the concepts of
6338:
Protest against Sharia in the United Kingdom (2014)
2376:) until the Shiite embrace of various doctrines of
1619:
1061:argue that it can/should be brought into line with
19054:
18803:
18533:
18287:
16847:
16493:. In Nathan, K S; Kamali, Mohammad Hashim (eds.).
15388:
15212:. In Mohammed Abu-Nimer; David Augsburger (eds.).
14888:
14119:
14107:
14051:"Sharīʻa, Islamism and Arab support for democracy"
13007:
12016:
11730:
11627:
11560:
11419:
10753:
10382:
10347:
10305:
10209:is available for free viewing and download at the
10163:
9964:
9586:harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBlankinship2008 (
9422:
8633:
8544:. In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. (eds.).
8521:
7664:school – each used to illustrate a fundamental of
6610:
5607: Sharia plays no role in the judicial system.
3990:
2450:towards the end of his lifetime, and according to
2066:falsafat at-tašrīʿ (“Philosophy of Legislation”).
30:"Islamic law" redirects here. For other uses, see
19277:– information and misconceptions about sharia law
19164:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
19147:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18966:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18895:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18793:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18776:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18768:Messick, Brinkley; Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2009).
18767:
18742:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18725:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18448:
18318:(5th edition) ed.). Oxford University Press.
18288:Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2018).
18261:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18252:
18191:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
18141:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
17165:
17153:
17104:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
16819:"Imams rally against domestic violence in the UK"
16499:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp.
16412:. In Raines, John C.; Maguire, Daniel C. (eds.).
16299:
15580:
15488:
15486:
15126:
15124:
15122:
15120:
15028:
15026:
15024:
14905:"The Invented Islam – 'Punishment for Blasphemy'"
14755:
14333:
13920:
13790:
13788:
13569:Jonathan A.C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, p. 131.
12968:
12956:
12896:
12725:
12051:
11237:
11174:
10808:Nomani, Asra Q.; Arafa, Hala (21 December 2015).
10670:Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857–1964
10570:
10417:
10027:
9449:
9004:and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages"
8650:
8190:
8037:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
7982:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from
6586:
6375:), "Sharia law is not tolerated on German soil."
6361:. In 2008 in Britain, the future Prime Minister (
2108:. Taking maqasid and maslaha as an "independent"
1065:and other contemporary issues such as democracy,
19368:
18605:
18219:
18064:Shari'a: Islamic Law in the Contemporary Context
17171:
17095:
16186:. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 29.
16063:Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development
15353:
15279:
14433:Temple International and Comparative Law Journal
14162:Magali Rheault; Dalia Mogahed (3 October 2017).
12785:State Department of the U.S. Government (2012),
12399:
12037:The Oxford Handbook of Intellectual Property Law
11918:
10380:
10345:
10301:https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1128456.pdf
10281:https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1128456.pdf
9366:
9151:. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World.
9079:
8432:
8053:
8028:
4466:Appeal to the classical doctrines of necessity (
2571:as fard. However, some religious groups such as
2279:" was closed at the start of the classical era.
2200:refers to independent reasoning by an expert in
18716:
18658:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
18653:
18639:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
18416:. University of Chicago Press (Kindle edition).
18253:Dallal, Ahmad S.; Hendrickson, Jocelyn (2009).
18076:"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights"
18004:
17947:Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
17603:
16758:"Call to Action to Eradicate Domestic Violence"
16280:
15426:
15159:
14872:The Review of Faith & International Affairs
13748:
13746:
13312:(Editors: Monroe E. Price, et al.), Routledge,
12862:
12437:"DNA Evidence in Pakistani Courts: An Analysis"
12400:Mohd Noor, Azman; Ibrahim, Ahmad Basri (2008).
11467:
11395:
11383:
10341:
10339:
10337:
9136:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15.
8542:"Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights"
8298:
7459:. Similarities exist between the royal English
6402:
2095:Although most classical-era jurists recognized
1706:" vis-à-vis naql: those who rely on narration (
886:) – a consensus by religious authorities), and
18359:. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition).
18220:Coulson, Noel James; El Shamsy, Ahmed (2019).
18170:Calder, Norman; Hooker, Michael Barry (2007).
17862:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia
17449:
16056:
15483:
15117:
15021:
14948:"University of Minnesota Human Rights Library"
13842:
13785:
13691:
12198:
12196:
12034:
10990:
10683:"Ek 15 – Dini Görevler: Tanrı'dan Bir Armağan"
10631:https://sunnah.com/search?q=temporary+marriage
10526:
9286:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–24.
9283:Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought
8803:(edited by Aminah Beverly McCloud). Chapter 1
7420:both mean literally "the path to follow". The
2355:until the 12th century. With the exception of
1738:) and traditionalist (naqliyyun, literalists,
1310:in the 10th-century Arabic translation of the
19339:Explanation of "The Reward of the Omnipotent"
19285:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
19101:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
19061:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
18986:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
18974:
18785:Muslih, Muhammad; Browers, Michaelle (2009).
18784:
18480:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
18113:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
18066:. Stanford University Press (Kindle Edition).
17816:
17814:
17812:
17662:Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice
17599:
17597:
17498:BBC article, by Agdi Abdelhadi on 7 July 2004
17445:
17443:
17359:
17294:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics
17129:
17127:
17125:
17123:
16472:Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems
16150:
16090:
16088:
15544:
15324:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations
15273:
15114:Pew Research Center, United States (May 2014)
14889:Juan Eduardo Campo, ed. (2009). "Blasphemy".
14421:: Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, pp. 239–45
14272:Hearing of the European Court of Human Rights
14192:
13425:"How could English courts recognize Shariah?"
13185:
13183:
11838:"EuGH - Gegen Scheidungen nach Scharia-Recht"
11724:
11005:
10965:
9125:
9006:. In Herzog, Christoph; Malek Sharif (eds.).
8820:
6503:The rejectionist Islamic view, elaborated by
6493:
5999:Modern countries which incorporate classical
5449:
4211:
4173:Manuscript copy of al-Fatawa al-'Alamgiriyyah
3762:
2132:to include such aims of Sharia as reform and
1408:
1094:for full implementation of sharia, including
692:
19307:Sharia Law in the International Legal Sphere
19295:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19229:Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law
19162:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19145:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
19114:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18964:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18933:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18906:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18893:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18810:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18791:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18774:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18740:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18723:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18270:Duderija, Adis (2014). Adis Duderija (ed.).
18259:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18189:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18169:
18139:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World
18070:
16598:
16305:
16151:Bearak, Max; Cameron, Darla (16 June 2016).
15831:
15825:
15610:
15061:
15059:
13743:
13458:
13456:
13454:
12499:Sharia and the Making of the Modern Egyptian
12402:"The rights of a rape victim in Islamic Law"
12240:International Journal of Middle East Studies
11961:
10760:. Georgetown University Press. p. 118.
10668:Zum Beispiel Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Vgl. Ahmad:
10430:International Journal of Middle East Studies
10334:
9212:
9071:sfn error: no target: CITEREFAl-Jallad2022 (
8946:
8916:
8851:
8849:
8787:
8772:
8706:
8539:
7692:Principle of legality in French criminal law
6963: Death penalty on books but not applied
6664:by a coalition of Islamic states within the
6554:have advocated different forms of this view.
6426:that Sharia law is the literal word of God.
6236:
6182:was enshrined in the constitution after the
6122:, associated with the Quranic injunction of
6030:Turkish mufti (17th-century Spanish drawing)
5630:
5547:
5019:Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
1639:is traditionally divided into the fields of
1395:
1340:
1325:
1227:
874:) – a whole Islamic community consensus, or
19325:Division of Inheritance According to Qur'an
18531:
18454:What Is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction
18399:
17575:
17573:
17571:
17507:
17456:. Cambridge University Press. p. 335.
17386:
15670:"Saudi Arabia: Writer Faces Apostasy Trial"
15312:
15130:
14376:
14204:
13577:
13575:
12847:
12686:
12614:Stanford Journal of International Relations
12474:. Brill Academic. pp. 97–110, 125–41.
12469:
12193:
11351:
11014:"Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht"
10879:
10807:
9742:
9740:
9738:
9693:
9674:
9581:
9327:
9221:"Islamic Law; the impact of Joseph Schacht"
9111:. Oneworld Publications. pp. 525–526.
8979:, Number LXXXIV "The religious law of the
8292:
7974:
7972:
7891:
7889:
3869:, which usually provided a commentary on a
2462:Ahkam al-shar'iyya (Decision types; labels)
2342:tutelage over people and the administration
2175:
2106:inferences based on the letter of scripture
19019:
18371:. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press.
18357:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations
17809:
17594:
17453:Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations
17440:
17287:
17217:
17190:
17120:
17006:Uncovering the History of Africans in Asia
16893:* Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?,
16706:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 595–602.
16085:
16014:, ed. Samar Habib, 64–65 (Praeger, 2009).
15203:
15201:
15072:. Princeton University Press. p. 72.
14937:Nina Shea, National Review (31 March 2011)
14727:
14596:, and Tom Flynn. "Defaming Human Rights".
14508:
13960:
13958:
13956:
13954:
13696:. Volokh Conspiracy, via Washington Post.
13180:
12521:
12519:
12493:
12491:
11949:
10801:
10477:Comparative Studies in Society and History
9375:"Origins of and influences on Islamic Law"
9036:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
8932:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
8562:
7071:woman's testimony is worth half of a man's
6780:Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
6638:Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
6557:The liberal Islamic view is influenced by
5699:provide for application of discretionary (
5582:under sharia, claiming that it belongs to
5456:
5442:
4156:
4109:(qadi) was in charge of the qadi's court (
3834:) or pardon the perpetrator instead; only
3769:
3755:
2611:History of concubinage in the Muslim world
1165:. It is necessary to reach from Sharia to
1124:is used by Arabic-speaking peoples of the
989:those who command ma’ruf and forbid munkar
983:. Some have argued that the definition of
699:
685:
19103:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
19069:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
19035:
18994:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
18983:
18557:
18488:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
18115:. Oxford University Press. Archived from
17989:
17921:
17489:Controversial preacher with 'star status'
17302:10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001
17272:
17067:
17004:Jean Pierre Angenot; et al. (2008).
16175:
15782:Zwemer, Samuel M. "The Law of Apostasy".
15518:Zwemer, Samuel M. "The Law of Apostasy".
15497:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 167–69.
15457:
15432:
15056:
14361:
14351:
14292:"ECHR press release Refah Partisi (2001)"
13902:"Quebec gives thumbs down to Shariah law"
13451:
13235:
12950:
12759:U.S. State Department (17 October 2008).
12585:
12583:
12233:
12231:
10713:Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi
10423:
10069:
9623:
9140:
9066:
9008:The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy
8846:
8360:
7895:
7412:). According to some scholars, the words
6253:
5816:Learn how and when to remove this message
5313:Liberal and reform movements within Islam
2410:would become a mainstream Shia practice.
1281:
19210:
18684:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law
18654:Lapidus, Ira M.; Salaymeh, Lena (2014).
18576:
18281:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Law
18269:
17823:Journal of the American Oriental Society
17688:
17659:
17568:
17336:
17072:. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 107–119.
16267:
16265:
16226:
16196:Bernard Lewis (2002), What Went Wrong?,
16004:
15979:
14689:
14687:
13876:"Germany won't tolerate 'Sharia police'"
13572:
12661:
12659:
12435:Shahbaz Ahmad Cheema (30 January 2017).
12097:"Qatar: The Duality of the Legal System"
10157:
10072:The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law
10021:
9746:
9735:
9381:. Oxford University Press. p. 393.
9377:. In Anver M. Emon; Rumee Ahmed (eds.).
9147:El Guindi, Fadwa; Sherifa Zahur (2009).
7969:
7886:
7450:
7277:
7228:, painting by Gustav Richter (1823–1884)
7208:
6944:
6849:
6837:
6697:
6333:
6153:
6025:
5829:
5596:
4492:
4422:
4360:
4304:
4236:
4168:
4088:
4032:
4010:Sharia was traditionally interpreted by
3902:
2588:
2328:used assertive names and titles such as
2312:
2068:
1807:
1580:
1539:, who are viewed as the founders of the
1432:, currently housed in the British Museum
1420:
746:'path (to water)') is a body of
19155:
19138:
19052:
19010:
18801:
18750:
18690:
18631:
18622:
18515:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199679010.001.0001
18504:
18408:
18351:
18278:
17902:The American Journal of Comparative Law
17855:
17820:
17752:The American Journal of Comparative Law
17634:
17606:"Is English law related to Muslim law?"
17579:
17547:
17254:
17177:
17039:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
17032:
16232:
16050:
15936:
15737:
15604:
15554:. Oxford University Press. p. 74.
15551:What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam
15492:
15401:
15286:. Oxford University Press. p. 22.
15198:
14865:UC Davis Journal Int'l Law & Policy
14826:al-Sārim al-Maslūl ‘ala Shātim al-Rasūl
14758:Freedom of Religion, Apostasy and Islam
14424:
13951:
13581:
13076:
12881:
12736:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199673599.001.0001
12604:
12516:
12488:
12148:
12146:
11836:Janisch, Wolfgang (14 September 2017).
11835:
11776:
11761:
11667:
11655:
11590:
11554:
11443:
11431:
11407:
11368:
11330:
11289:
11265:
11204:
11149:
11114:
10976:. NY: Simon and Schuster. p. 223.
10921:
10774:
9958:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9955:
9928:"A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic"
9797:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9794:
9760:
9758:
9520:
9491:
9416:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9413:
9372:
9360:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9357:
9345:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9342:
9323:. Oxford University Press. p. 190.
9321:The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence
9318:
9264:
9179:
9090:sfn error: no target: CITEREFDost2023 (
8997:
8902:
8814:
8286:
7752:almost invariably at a secondary stage"
7605:, and never developed the concept of a
7487:in classical Maliki jurisprudence. The
6929:In a 2008–2012 Pew Research Center poll
6429:
6302:Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales
5697:Laws in the Indonesian province of Aceh
4291:
2425:(consideration of public interest) and
2080:They were first clearly articulated by
1880:reached these conclusions by examining
1687:by a passage revealed at a later date.
862:(lit. consensus) (may be understood as
14:
19369:
19111:
18625:A Bibliography of Islamic Criminal Law
18593:
18474:
18363:
18329:
18296:
18232:
18185:"Law. Legal Thought and Jurisprudence"
18182:
18123:
18106:
18061:
17635:Hussain, Jamila (2001). "Book Review:
17616:from the original on 27 September 2008
17510:"Islamic Statements Against Terrorism"
16934:
16470:: The Clitoris, Culture and the Law".
16465:
16371:from the original on 27 September 2013
16311:
16213:
16132:from the original on 14 September 2017
15986:Ira M. Lapidus; Lena Salaymeh (2014).
15942:
15862:
15704:. Psychology Press. 1997. p. 64.
15465:"Sudan woman faces death for apostasy"
15435:"What Islam says on religious freedom"
14928:An Anti-Blasphemy Measure Laid to Rest
14756:Saeed, Abdullah; Hassan Saeed (2004).
14655:
14602:. February/March 2009, Vol. 29, No. 2.
14561:
14048:
14044:
14042:
13964:
13926:
13882:from the original on 22 September 2015
13799:. Talking Points Memo. TPM Muckraker.
13794:
13624:from the original on 21 September 2008
13497:
13462:
13281:
13206:
13040:
13014:. Sage Publishing India. p. 437.
12929:
12580:
12359:
12228:
11705:
11682:
11621:
11602:
11578:
11495:
11493:
11491:
11318:
11306:
11277:
11231:
11219:
11189:
11126:
11102:
11087:
11075:
10959:
10942:
10827:
10780:
10747:
10644:
10620:https://www.britannica.com/topic/mutah
10545:
10187:
10051:from the original on 20 September 2021
10015:
10003:
9991:
9960:. Oxford University Press. p. 58.
9911:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
9857:
9845:
9799:. Oxford University Press. p. 58.
9699:
9662:
9650:
9617:
9508:
9443:
9362:. Oxford University Press. p. 22.
9347:. Oxford University Press. p. 40.
9105:Khaled Abou El Fadl (1 October 2014).
8568:
8533:
8527:
8447:
8339:
8253:
8007:
7018:criminal penalties for homosexual acts
6984: Prison on books but not enforced
6398:Contemporary debates and controversies
5902:four Muslim male witnesses, with some
4365:An Ottoman courtroom (1879 AD drawing)
4296:
4230:History of slavery in the Muslim world
2298:has been particularly associated with
1922:" (meaning the limits set by Allah).
1110:
19094:
19085:
18979:. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Brill.
18957:
18930:
18903:
18834:
18733:
18699:
18672:
18390:
18313:
18149:
18132:
18040:
17971:
17944:
17896:
17878:from the original on 12 December 2016
17696:University of Pennsylvania Law Review
17604:Mukul Devichand (24 September 2008).
17562:
17470:from the original on 12 December 2016
17288:Peters, Rudolph; Cook, David (2014).
17281:
17236:from the original on 27 December 2020
17205:from the original on 27 December 2020
17196:
16887:
16860:
16829:from the original on 27 December 2020
16798:from the original on 27 December 2020
16768:from the original on 27 December 2020
16738:from the original on 27 December 2020
16701:
16683:from the original on 26 February 2017
16523:
16488:
16443:Legal Practice and Cultural Diversity
16407:
16283:Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies
16262:
16250:from the original on 16 November 2012
16216:Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies
16163:from the original on 11 November 2016
15897:
15865:Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture
15718:from the original on 11 January 2016.
15445:from the original on 11 February 2017
15382:
15300:from the original on 12 December 2013
15261:from the original on 12 December 2013
15230:from the original on 11 January 2016.
15186:from the original on 27 December 2020
15165:
15034:"What are Pakistan's blasphemy laws?"
14857:
14684:
14611:Glenn, H. Patrick (2014), pp. 199–205
14567:
14490:from the original on 12 December 2016
14430:
14253:from the original on 29 November 2014
14089:from the original on 27 December 2020
13985:from the original on 13 December 2016
13830:from the original on 10 December 2015
13803:from the original on 10 December 2015
13773:from the original on 27 December 2020
13752:
13731:from the original on 10 December 2015
13422:
13111:
13028:from the original on 27 December 2020
12908:
12656:
12416:from the original on 27 December 2020
12237:
12045:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198758457.013.19
12022:
11974:from the original on 25 February 2021
11906:
11736:
11640:
11537:
11479:
11455:
11011:
10996:
10971:
10470:
10328:
10268:
10256:
10244:
10172:
10098:
9970:
9476:
9418:. Oxford University Press. p. 4.
9395:from the original on 27 December 2020
9218:
9131:
8718:
8712:
8681:
8184:
8024:
8022:
8020:
8018:
8016:
7980:"British & World English: sharia"
7868:
7339:Abdul-Aziz ibn Abdullah Al ash-Sheikh
6820:and deny the Muslim character of the
6662:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6617:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
6265:Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life
5647:
1416:
1115:
19122:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18941:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18914:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18886:
18867:
18843:
18818:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
18681:
18550:10.1093/acref/9780195134056.001.0001
18395:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Brill.
18290:Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know
18199:
17778:
17749:
17318:from the original on 23 January 2017
17026:
16866:
16526:Muslim World Journal of Human Rights
16436:
15802:
15511:
15414:from the original on 11 January 2016
15318:
15234:
15216:. Lexington Books. pp. 179–94.
15207:
14954:from the original on 3 November 2018
14620:
14033:
13821:
13795:Slajda, Rachel (23 September 2010).
13718:
13429:University of St. Thomas Law Journal
13369:from the original on 16 January 2013
13156:"Who are Islamic 'morality police'?"
13118:University of St. Thomas Law Journal
13058:from the original on 10 January 2012
12974:
12962:
12707:from the original on 11 October 2017
12592:Florida Journal of International Law
12334:
12322:
12143:
11919:Niki Kitsantonis (10 January 2018).
11894:
11882:
11793:
11499:
11246:
9755:
9575:
9157:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001
9098:
9085:
9018:from the original on 11 October 2019
8793:
8760:
8644:
7957:from the original on 17 October 2021
7098:
5948:commercial contracts may be forged.
5765:
1797:
1394:. It, along with the French variant
1149:and the lowest level on the path to
19271:, via Oxford Islamic Studies Online
19116:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
19022:The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law
18935:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18908:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18544:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18536:Codes and Codification. Islamic Law
18509:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
18055:Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam
18049:
18005:Ziauddin Sardar (28 January 2011).
17784:
17368:from the original on 16 August 2016
17360:Bernard Lewis (27 September 2001).
17296:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
16816:
16653:from the original on 12 August 2013
16144:
14710:R Ibrahim (2013), Crucified Again,
14467:
14039:
13908:from the original on 9 October 2017
13868:
13856:from the original on 2 October 2015
13850:"Cameron steps into Sharia law row"
13439:from the original on 21 August 2016
12806:Migrant Communities in Saudi Arabia
12728:The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law
12627:from the original on 18 August 2016
11566:
11488:
10391:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10360:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10233:Der Diskurs über maqāṣid aš-šarīʿa.
8917:
8728:Spiritual Psychology and Counseling
7849:
7649:Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists
7361:Comparison with other legal systems
7028:as they have never been carried out
6858:) on the grounds of leaving Islam (
6775:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
6750:, the laws pertaining to blasphemy
6634:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
6125:enjoining good and forbidding wrong
6091:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
5761:
5592:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
2539:) and on the underlying intention (
1907:restricted or abolished the earlier
1671:Principles of Islamic jurisprudence
1341:
1326:
999:is hidden in this classification.
927:
883:
871:
793:
736:
24:
19174:
18693:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire
18507:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law
18369:The New Cambridge History of Islam
17731:from the original on 29 March 2018
17689:Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988).
17516:from the original on 10 April 2019
16673:"UAE: Spousal Abuse never a Right"
16126:"The Death Penalty in Afghanistan"
15781:
15680:from the original on 17 April 2017
15650:from the original on 17 April 2017
15517:
15475:from the original on 19 May 2014.
15433:Abdelhadi, Magdi (27 March 2006).
14399:from the original on 21 April 2018
14340:Journal of Law, Religion and State
14336:"Understanding Sharia in the West"
14227:from the original on 21 April 2018
14174:from the original on 17 April 2019
14143:from the original on 17 April 2019
13927:Choski, Bilal M. (14 March 2012).
13594:from the original on 27 April 2019
13551:from the original on 18 April 2019
13521:from the original on 23 March 2019
13343:from the original on 25 March 2019
13263:from the original on 18 April 2019
13168:from the original on 13 April 2019
12451:from the original on 25 March 2019
12004:from the original on 31 March 2019
11931:from the original on 16 April 2019
11034:from the original on 20 April 2018
10783:"Is Hijab a Qur'anic Commandment?"
10031:(2006). Ramadan, Hisham M. (ed.).
9379:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law
9300:from the original on 21 March 2019
9241:from the original on 20 April 2018
8583:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x
8299:Corinna Standke (30 August 2008).
8013:
7590:was modeled on the Islamic degree
7301:wrote that the "Sharia's finance (
7084:
7053:Personal status and child marriage
6166:on 26 August 2001, as reported by
6087:International Islamic Fiqh Academy
5898:, drinking intoxicants and theft.
5031:Principles of State and Government
5007:The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate
4541:2003 reform of Moroccan family law
2593:13th century slave market, Yemen.
2032:Aims of Sharia and public interest
1400:, was used during the time of the
25:
19413:
19258:
18579:War and Peace in the Law of Islam
18420:
16704:Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence
16580:from the original on 24 June 2016
16106:from the original on 7 April 2019
16073:from the original on 4 April 2019
16012:Islam and Homosexuality, Volume 1
15844:from the original on 9 April 2019
15568:from the original on 11 June 2020
15402:Elliott, Andrea (26 March 2006).
15241:Kecia Ali; Oliver Leaman (2008).
15172:. Touchstone Books. p. 229.
15086:from the original on 6 April 2019
15044:from the original on 5 April 2019
14049:Berger, Lars (17 February 2019).
13939:from the original on 4 March 2016
13673:from the original on 15 July 2017
13614:"Sharia law 'could have UK role'"
10781:Hameed, Shahul (9 October 2003).
10571:Mohammad Farzaneh, Mateo (2015).
10426:"Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?"
9869:
9276:
7915:. In Bassiouni, M. Cherif (ed.).
7432:, with fatwas being analogous to
7023:death penalty for homosexual acts
6015:
5888:
5729:Sharia recognizes the concept of
4956:List of Islamic political parties
4409:dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
4356:
3892:
3857:(concise summary of law) and the
3799:(rituals or acts of worship) and
2286:began calling for abandonment of
2049:(aims or purposes) of Sharia and
1786:) as a source of law in place of
1497:According to the traditionalist (
19354:
19215:. Vol. 1. pp. 396–397.
18375:Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008).
18307:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_8809
18124:Berkey, Jonathan Porter (2003).
17998:
17978:Journal of Economic Perspectives
17965:
17938:
17890:
17849:
17743:
17682:
17653:
17628:
17528:
17501:
17482:
17431:
17422:
17404:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2011.01384.x
17380:
17353:
17347:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0189
17330:
17255:Todorof, Maria (1 August 2018).
17248:
17223:
17089:
17061:
16997:
16980:
16963:
16928:
16909:
16841:
16810:
16780:
16750:
16720:
16695:
16665:
16635:
16592:
16560:
16517:
16482:
16459:
16430:
16401:
16383:
16357:
16340:
16274:
16207:
16190:
16118:
16017:
15924:from the original on 14 May 2021
15891:
15856:
15819:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4677
15775:
15756:
15722:
15692:
15662:
15632:
15538:
15098:
15002:
14999:The Economist (29 November 2014)
14983:
14966:
14940:
14921:
14897:
14882:
14841:
14832:
14810:
14795:
14774:
14749:
14721:
14704:
14649:
14614:
14605:
14586:
14545:
14502:
14461:
14411:
14370:
14327:
14310:
14284:
14265:
14239:
14198:
14155:
14125:
14015:from the original on 18 May 2021
13997:
13894:
13822:West, Diana (23 February 2008).
13815:
13712:
13700:from the original on 1 July 2017
13685:
13655:
13636:
13606:
13563:
13533:
13503:
13416:
13393:
13381:
13355:
13323:
13302:
13296:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2008.00212.x
13275:
13200:
13148:
13136:from the original on 28 May 2016
13105:
13070:
13001:
12980:
12817:
12798:
12779:
12767:from the original on 25 May 2019
12752:
12719:
12680:
12639:
12598:
12555:
12536:
12463:
12428:
12393:
12353:
12340:
12299:
12282:
12216:from the original on 5 June 2012
12180:
12163:
12134:
12115:
12103:from the original on 8 July 2010
12089:
12028:
11986:
11955:
11912:
11865:
11856:
11829:
11808:
11799:
11514:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x
11473:
10874:In the Vicinity of the Righteous
10844:
10722:
10705:
10675:
10662:
10650:
10624:
10612:
10601:
10589:
10539:
10511:
10464:
10405:
10374:
10294:
10285:
10274:
10225:
10216:
10193:
10119:
9925:
7817:
7794:
7785:
7006:Islamic fundamentalist movements
6477:According to Polls conducted by
6096:
5770:
5640:(traditional Islamic scholars).
5554:Application of Sharia by country
5425:
5414:
4418:
2749:
2282:Starting from the 18th century,
1946:, then recorded in corpuses and
666:
75:
19099:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
19059:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
19046:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30485
18868:Otto, Jan Michiel, ed. (2010).
18761:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27049
18710:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_22716
18111:. In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.).
18017:from the original on 2 May 2021
17642:Melbourne University Law Review
16792:Muslim Council of Britain (MCB)
16439:"Shari'a in a European Context"
13824:"Don't Ignore Sharia's Advance"
13692:Michael Broyde (30 June 2017).
13582:Feldman, Noah (16 March 2008).
13310:Routledge Handbook of Media Law
12605:William, Arsani (Spring 2010).
10711:Vgl. Birışık: "Kurʾâniyyûn" in
10471:Gould, Rebecca (January 2015).
10092:
10063:
9949:
9919:
9879:
9812:
9803:
9788:
9719:
9668:
9632:
9603:
9594:
9562:
9550:
9537:
9526:
9270:
9173:
8991:
8952:
8896:
8885:
8874:
8719:Sevim, Erdem (1 October 2016).
8613:
8510:
8501:
8492:
8478:
8465:
8453:
7776:
7755:
7745:
7736:
7720:
6854:Execution of a Moroccan woman (
6611:Compatibility with human rights
5724:
5665:
4546:
3991:Pre-modern Islamic legal system
3919:The main Sunni schools of law (
3278:(unlawful warfare and banditry)
1818:Islamic archaeological document
1753:to distinguish right from wrong
836:theory of Islamic jurisprudence
19269:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
19252:An Introduction to Islamic Law
18853:. Amsterdam University Press.
18656:A History of Islamic Societies
18637:A History of Islamic Societies
18337:. Cambridge University Press.
18335:An Introduction to Islamic Law
18150:Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2017).
18133:Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2009).
17102:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
17096:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
17008:. Brill Academic. p. 60.
15988:A History of Islamic Societies
15834:"Homosexuality in Islamic Law"
15404:"In Kabul, a Test for Shariah"
15354:Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2013).
15283:The Oxford dictionary of Islam
15018:The Economist (7 January 2015)
14823:, related to Hanbali school),
14802:"Blasphemy: Islamic Concept".
14294:. Echr.coe.int. Archived from
14120:Esposito & DeLong-Bas 2018
14108:Esposito & DeLong-Bas 2018
13759:. Macmillan. pp. 267–68.
13667:Emory University School of Law
13400:Inside Britain's Sharia courts
11962:Austin Ramzy (28 March 2019).
11420:Esposito & DeLong-Bas 2018
10876:(Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 5–6
10717:Quran: A Reformist Translation
10424:B. Hallaq, Wael (March 1984).
10389:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
10381:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
10358:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
10346:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
10201:al-Mustaṣfā min ʿilm al-ʾuṣūl.
9872:Islamic Theories of Abrogation
9675:Rashīd Riḍā, Muhammad (1996).
8912:συνήδομαι γὰρ τῷ νόμῳ τοῦ θεοῦ
8540:An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996).
8268:
8259:
8035:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
8029:John L. Esposito, ed. (2014).
7810:
7656:– a brief collection of forty
7307:fifth-generation warfare (5GW)
6949:Same-sex intercourse illegal:
6934:
6710: Subnational restrictions
6601:European Court of Human Rights
6595:banned and dissolved Turkey's
6593:Constitutional Court of Turkey
6587:European Court of Human Rights
6314:alternative dispute resolution
6212:in the Gaza Strip, and by the
5928:
5586:and western values, while the
5564:European Court of Human Rights
1464:, which distinguishes between
1339:) is a common translation for
13:
1:
19291:"Law" by Norman Calder et al.
19238:Institute of European History
19234:EGO – European History Online
19160:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
19143:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
19015:. Princeton University Press.
18962:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18891:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18808:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18789:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18772:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18770:"Fatwā. Process and Function"
18738:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18734:Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2009).
18721:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18597:(1999). John Esposito (ed.).
18452:; Chippindale, Peter (1991).
18404:. Princeton University Press.
18257:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18187:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18137:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).
18128:. Cambridge University Press.
17660:El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006).
17166:Horrie & Chippindale 1991
17154:Horrie & Chippindale 1991
16300:Horrie & Chippindale 1991
14476:. Oneworld. pp. 163–87.
14067:10.1080/13510347.2018.1527316
12897:Messick & Kéchichian 2009
12346:Ajijola, Alhaji A.D. (1989).
11175:Dallal & Hendrickson 2009
9770:Oxford Islamic Studies Online
9732:doi:10.1017/S0041977X00049016
9700:Lester, Toby (January 1999).
8826:Shari'ah Law: An Introduction
8486:"The System of Rule in Islam"
8305:. GRIN Verlag. pp. 4–5.
7365:
6350:in the United States. Former
6323:
5656:
5173:Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani
2431:(presumption of continuity).
2392:who based law on principles (
2351:jurists did not use the term
1714:), those who rely on reason (
1661:Principles of jurisprudence (
1452:could be seen in pre-Islamic
951:, relationships (commercial,
19301:Brunei implements sharia law
19297:, via Oxford Islamic Studies
19240:, retrieved: 25 March 2021 (
18581:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.
17972:Kuran, Timur (Summer 2004).
17178:Norwitz, Jeffrey H. (2009).
16445:. Ashgate. pp. 93–114.
15208:Omar, Abdul Rashied (2009).
14784:Cambridge University Press.
14419:Encyclopedia of Human Rights
13971:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 83–86.
13652:The Telegraph (26 July 2008)
13463:Stence, Sandra, ed. (2013).
13052:RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty
8433:Coulson & El Shamsy 2019
8416:(analogical reasoning), and
7933:10.1017/CBO9781139629249.003
7879:
7613:, i.e., a legal entity that
7533:institutions, respectively.
7521:institutions to the Islamic
7312:In classical fiqh, the term
7251:
7205:Islamic views on concubinage
6741:or scriptures, insulting an
6716: Fines and restrictions
6687:
6403:Compatibility with democracy
4401:Ottoman Law of Family Rights
4038:Ulugh Beg Madrasa, Samarkand
2607:Islamic views on concubinage
2584:the way a woman should dress
2366:were unanimous in censuring
2059:Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam
1761:) and analogical reasoning (
1438:pre-Islamic Arabic Religions
1242:The primary meanings of the
1237:
782:and this is contrasted with
32:Islamic law (disambiguation)
7:
19223:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.
19190:"Reliance of the Traveller"
19156:Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009c).
19141:"Law. Sunnī Schools of Law"
19139:Ziadeh, Farhat J. (2009b).
19063:. Oxford University Press.
18988:. Oxford University Press.
18872:. Leiden University Press.
18802:Nettler, Ronald L. (2009).
18482:. Oxford University Press.
18107:Berger, Maurits S. (2014).
18057:. Harvard University Press.
16601:Journal of Law and Religion
16128:. Death Penalty Worldwide.
15744:Laws Criminalizing Apostasy
15729:Laws Criminalizing Apostasy
15599:The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia
15588:The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia
14658:Religion, State and Society
14523:10.1177/0090591700028001005
13965:Thomas, Jeffrey L. (2015).
13719:Awad, Abed (14 June 2012).
13091:10.2979/africatoday.57.4.71
13008:Nitya Ramakrishnan (2013).
12863:Masud & Kéchichian 2009
12804:Human Rights Watch (2004),
12669:, Oxford University Press,
12533:, pp. 246–49 and Chapter 12
12348:Introduction to Islamic Law
11822:, OUP Oxford, 2012, p 744,
11468:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014
11396:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014
11384:Lapidus & Salaymeh 2014
10754:Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011).
10135:University of Chicago Press
9876:: pp. 43-44, 56-59, 122-124
8861:University of Georgia Press
8799:Abdal-Haqq, Irshad (2006).
7860:
7621:
7592:ijazat al-tadris wa-l-ifta’
7499:. The methodology of legal
7463:protected by the action of
7343:Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia
7324:Some modern ulema, such as
7048:Islam and domestic violence
6887:"no compulsion in religion"
6842:Countries that criminalize
6827:
6785:In Pakistan, blasphemy laws
6248:Muslim Arbitration Tribunal
5796:the claims made and adding
4967:Militant Islamism based in
2386:. After the victory of the
2084:(d. 1111), who argued that
2073:Mausoleum of al-Ghazali in
1620:Traditional jurisprudence (
1569:hypothesis was advanced by
1379:
1373:
1320:
1306:
1300:
1294:
1288:
1221:
250:("Stories of the Prophets")
10:
19418:
19213:Encyclopaedia of the Quran
19090:. Oxford University Press.
19024:. Oxford University Press.
18958:Rabb, Intisar A. (2009d).
18844:Otto, Jan Michiel (2008).
18736:"Law. Modern Legal Reform"
18719:"Fatwā. Concepts of Fatwā"
18686:. Oxford University Press.
18677:. Oxford University Press.
18424:In the Shadow of the Sword
18314:Glenn, H. Patrick (2014).
18292:. Oxford University Press.
18283:. Oxford University Press.
18033:
17959:10.1016/j.jebo.2004.04.002
17864:. Routledge. p. 203.
17860:. In Josef W. Meri (ed.).
17856:Stewart, Devin J. (2005).
17666:Cambridge University Press
16416:. SUNY. pp. 187–210.
15753:Library of Congress (2014)
15618:. HarperOne. p. 158.
15360:Princeton University Press
15328:Cambridge University Press
15009:Blasphemy: Dangerous words
14731:Journal of Semitic Studies
14417:David P. Forsythe (2009),
14334:Maurits S. Berger (2018).
13336:Israel Ministry of Justice
12513:, pp. 96–101 and Chapter 4
12379:10.1163/026805598125826102
12069:(1): 139–140. March 1951.
10113:10.1163/156851906778946341
10076:Cambridge University Press
9373:Jokisch, Benjamin (2018).
8959:"Corps de Droit Ottoman".
8911:
8907:. Wiesbaden. p. 437.
8855:Weiss, Bernard G. (1998).
8548:. BRILL. pp. 337–59.
8382:Women in Muslim family law
7925:Cambridge University Press
7654:Imam Nawawi's Forty Hadith
7479:, and between the English
7375:
7369:
7255:
7198:
7194:
7041:
6938:
6831:
6691:
6494:Islamic political theories
6406:
6327:
6258:
6116:The classical doctrine of
6109:
6103:
6019:
5964:
5551:
5467:
5283:Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
4951:Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan
4407:, which emerged after the
4215:
4212:Women, non-Muslims, slaves
4070:
3999:
3995:
3907:Juristic exchange between
3896:
3780:
2465:
2251:Throughout the first five
2163:
2159:
2128:expanded the inventory of
2035:
1882:early Quranic manuscriptss
1801:
1668:
1627:
1561:) of Sunni jurisprudence.
1357:
995::104) and is also used in
953:political / administrative
36:
29:
19281:"Sharia" by Knut S. Vikør
19219:Coulson, Noel J. (1964).
19053:Tillier, Mathieu (2014).
18887:Rabb, Intisar A. (2009).
18610:. Middle East Institute.
18072:An-Na'im, Abdullahi Ahmed
17583:North Carolina Law Review
17388:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya
17274:10.1007/s12027-018-0505-8
17226:"Shariah-Compliant Funds"
17133:Anisseh Engeland-Nourai,
15957:10.3109/13625181003793339
15586:Ahmet Albayrak writes in
15280:John L. Esposito (2004).
15247:. Routledge. p. 10.
14995:10 September 2017 at the
14386:Essex Human Rights Review
14353:10.1163/22124810-00602005
14214:Essex Human Rights Review
14193:Muslih & Browers 2009
13852:. BBC. 26 February 2008.
12252:10.1017/S0020743800064461
12075:10.1017/s0008197300015518
12063:The Cambridge Law Journal
11725:Schacht & Layish 2000
10489:10.1017/S0010417514000590
10442:10.1017/S0020743800027598
9956:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9795:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9677:The Muhammadan Revelation
9414:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9358:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9343:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9319:Schacht, Joseph (1959) .
9134:Women and Gender in Islam
9049:20 September 2019 at the
8857:The Spirit of Islamic Law
8394:Syracuse University Press
7671:Islamic advice literature
7473:assize of novel disseisin
7442:However, the emphasis on
7334:Hamid bin Abdallah al-Ali
7092:right to inherit property
6237:Muslim-minority countries
6196:in the Nigerian state of
5920:may likewise rejected in
5681:(law of retaliation) and
5631:Muslim-majority countries
5601:Use of sharia by country:
5548:Contemporary applications
5397:Islam and other religions
4907:International propagation
4646:International propagation
4066:
3861:(extensive commentary).
2582:About six verses address
2442:, is touched upon in the
1228:
1086:of the late 20th century
750:that forms a part of the
19331:20 February 2015 at the
19221:A History of Islamic Law
19182:Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri
18577:Khadduri, Majid (1955).
17991:10.1257/0895330042162421
17803:10.1163/157006707X222812
17699:(Submitted manuscript).
17494:29 December 2016 at the
16881:10.1163/157302510X526724
16848:Mohammad Hashim Kamali.
16468:De Minimis Non Curat Lex
15768:4 September 2014 at the
14910:22 December 2015 at the
14804:Encyclopedia of Religion
13878:. DW. 6 September 2014.
13648:11 February 2018 at the
13207:Berger, Maurits (2003).
12829:27 December 2020 at the
11012:Forte, David F. (1978).
10070:B. Hallaq, Wael (2005).
9935:Hans Wehr Searchable PDF
9333:Schacht, Origins, p. 224
9219:Forte, David F. (1978).
9055:Martin Luther University
8998:Strauss, Johann (2010).
8947:Calder & Hooker 2007
8788:Calder & Hooker 2007
8773:Calder & Hooker 2007
8740:10.12738/spc.2016.2.0014
8707:Calder & Hooker 2007
8571:Law & Social Inquiry
8302:Sharia - The Islamic Law
7713:
7201:Islamic views on slavery
7037:
6805:colonial-era legislation
6204:in the Aceh province of
6112:Islamic religious police
5059:Governance of the Jurist
4521:Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri
4226:Islamic views on slavery
3847:The two major genres of
3299:("spreading corruption")
2657:, which are outside the
2603:Islamic views on slavery
2140:); justice and freedom (
2104:could override specific
2020:, but relies on reason (
1478:pre-Islamic Arab society
1250:, derived from the root
1044:secular Arabic expansion
339:Medieval Islamic science
37:Not to be confused with
19402:Religious legal systems
19303:– UNAA (United Nations)
19095:Vikør, Knut S. (2014).
19086:Vikør, Knut S. (2005).
19040:(3rd ed.). Brill.
18755:(3rd ed.). Brill.
18704:(3rd ed.). Brill.
18673:Lewis, Bernard (1992).
18595:Kamali, Mohammad Hashim
18410:Hodgson, Marshall G. S.
18301:(2nd ed.). Brill.
18239:, New York: Routledge,
18226:Encyclopædia Britannica
18183:Calder, Norman (2009).
18041:Abiad, Nisrine (2008).
17450:Wael B. Hallaq (2009).
17341:(2nd ed.). Brill.
17140:22 January 2015 at the
16854:Oxford University Press
16326:10.1163/157302593X00285
16057:Shafiqa Ahmadi (2012).
15813:(2nd ed.). Brill.
15790:(4): 41–43, Chapter 2.
15749:11 October 2017 at the
15526:(4): 36–37, chapter 2.
15244:Islam: the key concepts
15166:Lewis, Bernard (1995).
14933:19 January 2015 at the
14635:10.3167/th.2008.5511506
14472:. In Safi, Omid (ed.).
14281:, 22 January 2004 (PDF)
13753:Kadri, Sadakat (2012).
13588:New York Times Magazine
13423:Bowen, John R. (2010).
12811:10 October 2017 at the
12548:20 October 2014 at the
12503:Oxford University Press
12361:Kamali, Mohammad Hashim
12188:UN Human Rights Monitor
10999:Islam in Modern History
10972:Lewis, Bernard (1995).
10861:Journal of Sufi Studies
10546:Rahman, Fazlur (2000).
10101:Islamic Law and Society
9180:KIRAZLI, SADIK (2011).
8822:Hashim Kamali, Mohammad
8619:Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995).
8387:19 October 2017 at the
7347:Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy
7236:(slave) and the phrase
7173:
7069:, in financial cases a
6194:Kano State Hisbah Corps
6050:to death for his novel
5960:
5918:circumstantial evidence
5863:under the principle of
5163:Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī
4474:), and the objectives (
4164:al-sulh sayyid al-ahkam
4157:Socio-political context
2419:(juristic preference),
2406:) by the 19th century,
1990:as a central Pillar of
1728:Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari
1189:Divine, abstract sharia
997:Islamist indoctrination
19226:Potz, Richard (2011),
19038:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18977:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18753:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18702:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18695:. Infobase Publishing.
18623:Köndgen, Olaf (2022).
18608:Law in the Middle East
18393:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18299:Encyclopaedia of Islam
18176:Encyclopaedia of Islam
17364:. Opinionjournal.com.
17339:Encyclopaedia of Islam
17033:Lovejoy, Paul (2000).
16925:BBC Religions Archives
16921:6 October 2018 at the
16538:10.2202/1554-4419.1022
16489:Anwar, Zainah (2005).
16466:Funder, Anna (1993). "
16437:Rohe, Mathias (2009).
16184:Encyclopaedia of Islam
15898:Evans, Daniel (2013).
15811:Encyclopaedia of Islam
15701:Human Rights Diplomacy
14893:. Infobase Publishing.
14780:Lorenz Langer (2014).
14670:10.1080/09637490308281
14346:(2–3). Brill: 236–73.
13216:Human Rights Quarterly
12665:Anver M. Emon (2012),
10889:Encyclopaedia of Islam
9749:Encyclopaedia of Islam
9626:"Coran créé ou incréé"
8986:Corps de Droit Ottoman
7909:), and Legal Methods (
7697:Sources of Islamic law
7681:Islamic Sharia Council
7660:by the founder of the
7615:limits the liabilities
7471:, between the English
7351:Grand Imam of al-Azhar
7286:
7229:
7142:varied interpretations
7134:
6993:Encyclopaedia of Islam
6986:
6866:
6847:
6730:
6722: Prison sentences
6339:
6308:, professor of law at
6254:Support and opposition
6175:
6031:
5839:
5627:
5228:Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani
4664:Islamic fundamentalism
4501:
4435:
4366:
4313:
4245:
4174:
4102:
4041:
3916:
2716:Branches and details (
2614:
2380:and classical Sunnite
2345:
2077:
1821:
1653:(lit. the branches of
1595:chains of transmission
1589:
1482:compensatory payment (
1433:
1409:
1396:
1282:Use in religious texts
1212:Contemporary sharia(s)
1036:early history of Islam
1028:Islamist understanding
349:Succession to Muhammad
19382:Islamic jurisprudence
18421:Holland, Tom (2012).
18255:"Fatwā. Modern usage"
18233:Dahlén, Ashk (2003),
18200:Chan, Sewell (2016).
17914:10.1093/ajcl/53.4.785
16817:Stewart, Philippa H.
16649:. 22 September 2009.
16408:Esack, Farid (2014).
16397:on 27 September 2013.
16352:Oneworld Publications
16346:Jonathan A.C. Brown,
15877:10.1353/sec.2018.0026
15832:E. K. Rowson (2012).
14891:Encyclopedia of Islam
14743:10.1093/jss/XLII.1.39
13228:10.1353/hrq.2003.0026
12792:28 March 2017 at the
12693:. Brill. p. 49.
10078:. pp. 124, 127.
9132:Ahmed, Leila (1992).
8830:Oneworld Publications
7905:, Sunni Islamic Law (
7634:Criticism of Islamism
7451:Western legal systems
7424:literature parallels
7281:
7256:Further information:
7212:
7164:White Ribbon Campaign
7108:
6948:
6853:
6841:
6818:"Islamicise" the laws
6728: Death sentences
6701:
6654:In 2009, the journal
6627:understanding of the
6407:Further information:
6337:
6328:Further information:
6157:
6110:Further information:
6029:
5833:
5600:
5498:al-Islam huwa al-hall
5301:Criticism of Islamism
5295:Criticism of Islamism
5213:Necip Fazıl Kısakürek
5140:Hibatullah Akhundzada
4496:
4426:
4364:
4308:
4240:
4172:
4092:
4036:
3906:
3781:Further information:
2737:Islamic jurisprudence
2592:
2370:in the field of law (
2316:
2072:
2063:Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi
1996:. On the other hand;
1811:
1585:Imam Shafi'i tomb in
1584:
1424:
1051:sectarian differences
19151:on 21 November 2008.
18970:on 21 November 2008.
18899:on 21 November 2008.
18780:on 20 November 2015.
18746:on 21 November 2008.
18729:on 20 November 2015.
18265:on 20 November 2015.
18195:on 21 November 2008.
17639:by Lawrence Rosen".
17637:The Justice of Islam
16764:. 16 November 2011.
16734:. 15 November 2013.
15838:Encyclopedia Iranica
15676:. 13 February 2012.
15612:Abou El Fadl, Khaled
15110:25 July 2016 at the
14877:(4). pp. 16–26.
14377:Kevin Boyle (2004).
14205:Kevin Boyle (2004).
13320:, Chapter 14, p. 257
13112:Uddin, Asma (2010).
12687:Tahir Wasti (2009).
12497:Reem Meshal (2014),
12470:Paul Powers (2005).
11824:Google-Books preview
11502:Gender & History
11090:, pp. 9–10, 13.
10872:Christopher Taylor,
9702:"What Is the Koran?"
9069:, p. 41–44, 68.
8969:. Stevens and Sons:
8962:Law Quarterly Review
8918:أني أفرح بشريعة الله
8915:' is translated as '
8903:Ullmann, M. (2002).
8377:Natana J. DeLong-Bas
7897:Bassiouni, M. Cherif
7238:ma malakat aymanukum
7119:, a teacher of both
6430:General Muslim views
6369:) told a newspaper (
6146:, the conception of
6136:government committee
5873:universal statutes.
5693:United Arab Emirates
5572:Human rights concept
5100:Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
5057:Islamic Government:
4470:), public interest (
4350:Anglo-Muhammadan law
4292:Modern legal reforms
3783:Topics in Sharia law
2055:Abū Hāmid al-Ghazālī
1206:Historical sharia(s)
1101:corporal punishments
1040:modelled and exalted
889:analogical reasoning
388:Association football
19387:Islamic terminology
19254:. Oxford: Clarendon
19168:on 1 November 2008.
18145:on 11 October 2017.
18102:on 16 January 2014.
17858:"Degrees, or Ijaza"
17791:Medieval Encounters
17362:"Jihad vs. Crusade"
17197:Jamaldeen, Faleel.
17184:Skyhorse Publishing
16679:. 19 October 2010.
16354:(2014), pp. 275-276
16157:The Washington Post
15133:Die Welt des Islams
15040:. 6 November 2014.
15014:7 July 2017 at the
14468:Ali, Kecia (2003).
14277:28 May 2006 at the
14137:Pew Research Center
13694:"Sharia in America"
13663:"Michael J. Broyde"
13545:Pew Research Center
13515:Pew Research Center
13405:18 May 2018 at the
13331:"The Sharia Courts"
13054:. 15 January 2009.
10527:Newman in Meri 2006
10037:. Rowman Altamira.
8859:. Athens, Georgia:
7733:) in their place.
7104:Jonathan A.C. Brown
7067:personal status law
6897:Khaled Abou El Fadl
6844:apostasy from Islam
6810:military government
6733:In classical fiqh,
6694:Islam and blasphemy
6644:Ann Elizabeth Mayer
6575:Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd
6548:Rashid al-Ghannushi
6524:(public interest),
6466:(consultation) and
6413:Islam and democracy
6244:Ministry of Justice
6162:beating a woman in
6089:was created by the
6074:militant extremists
5560:human rights groups
5432:Politics portal
5385:Islam and modernity
5061:("Velayat-e faqih")
5043:Ma'alim fi al-Tariq
4297:Under colonial rule
4206:Indian subcontinent
4073:Judge (Islamic law)
3851:literature are the
2142:Mohammed al-Ghazali
2122:Abdallah bin Bayyah
1820:of Sharia to date.
1693:scholastic theology
1645:(lit. the roots of
1181:must pass through.
1111:Etymology and usage
758:, particularly the
756:scriptures of Islam
754:tradition based on
149:Profession of Faith
122:Day of Resurrection
19197:Amana Publications
18206:The New York Times
17565:, pp. 183–84.
16869:Arab Law Quarterly
16677:Human Rights Watch
16314:Arab Law Quarterly
16243:The New York Times
15674:Human Rights Watch
15597:). Oliver Leaman,
15410:. New York Times.
15408:The New York Times
14867:. 10, pp. 357–73.
14298:on 24 January 2010
14110:, pp. 142–43.
13479:on 30 October 2014
12567:Praeger Publishers
12366:Arab Law Quarterly
11952:, pp. 249–50.
11925:The New York Times
11764:, pp. 503–04.
11708:, pp. 182–83.
11685:, pp. 174–76.
11624:, pp. 176–81.
11333:, pp. 176–77.
11321:, pp. 225–26.
11309:, pp. 166–67.
11292:, pp. 159–62.
10997:Smith, W. (1957).
10693:on 5 November 2021
10507:– via JSTOR.
10460:– via JSTOR.
9893:on 5 December 2010
9665:, pp. 121–22.
9014:. pp. 21–51.
8832:. pp. 2, 14.
7986:on 8 December 2015
7927:. pp. 18–87.
7870:[ʃaˈriːʕa]
7763:Muwatta Imam Malik
7629:Criticism of Islam
7378:Seven Laws of Noah
7287:
7230:
7113:Ata' bin Abi Rabah
7032:According to polls
6987:
6978: Imprisonment
6922:rights as well as
6903:, and an issue of
6867:
6848:
6731:
6579:Abdolkarim Soroush
6367:Thomas de Maizière
6340:
6176:
6170:, for opening her
6053:The Satanic Verses
6040:Ayatollah Khomeini
6032:
5840:
5781:possibly contains
5648:Constitutional law
5628:
5523:Iranian Revolution
5489:Ayatollah Khomeini
5330:Khaled Abu al-Fadl
5306:Criticism of Islam
5168:Qazi Hussain Ahmad
4986:Sub-Saharan Africa
4946:Muslim Brotherhood
4931:Iranian Revolution
4841:Islamic Golden Age
4694:Islamic governance
4502:
4436:
4430:(Sharia court) in
4405:Republic of Turkey
4367:
4314:
4251:unilateral divorce
4246:
4175:
4103:
4042:
3917:
3390:Gender segregation
2953:Islamic leadership
2615:
2475:al-aḥkām al-khamsa
2434:Considering that,
2346:
2078:
1944:transmitted orally
1822:
1697:Aristotelian logic
1590:
1573:and elaborated by
1434:
1417:Historical origins
1404:, and is from the
1222:al-qānūn al-islāmī
1116:Contemporary usage
1071:freedom of thought
19309:– Yale University
19186:Nuh Ha Mim Keller
18665:978-0-521-51430-9
18434:978-0-385-53135-1
18427:. UK: Doubleday.
18119:on 17 April 2019.
17508:Charles Kurzman.
17186:. pp. 84–86.
16823:www.aljazeera.com
16794:. 19 March 2014.
16236:(16 March 2008).
15997:978-0-521-51430-9
15711:978-0-415-15390-4
15504:978-1-4051-2174-3
15337:978-0-521-86147-2
15223:978-0-7391-3523-5
13826:. Times – News .
13547:. 30 April 2013.
13517:. 30 April 2013.
13365:. Law.emory.edu.
13164:. 22 April 2016.
12997:on 25 March 2009.
12565:. New York City:
12000:. 27 March 2019.
11909:, pp. 38–42.
11897:, pp. 18–19.
11280:, pp. 57–60.
11222:, pp. 11–12.
11192:, pp. 45–47.
10962:, pp. 10–11.
10945:, pp. 28–30.
10899:978-90-04-16121-4
10850:Levy (1957) p. 77
10582:978-0-8156-3388-4
10398:978-0-19-512558-0
10367:978-0-19-512558-0
10271:, pp. 68–69.
10259:, pp. 66–68.
10125:Mansoor Moaddel,
10085:978-0-521-80332-8
10074:. Cambridge, UK:
10029:Irshad Abdel Haqq
10018:, pp. 23–24.
9994:, pp. 21–22.
9848:, pp. 16–18.
9582:Blankinship (2008
9511:, pp. 31–35.
9044:info page on book
8312:978-3-640-14967-4
7858:
7644:Glossary of Islam
7503:and reasoning by
7428:developed in the
7330:Sulaiman Al-Alwan
7326:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
7262:Islamic extremism
7258:Islamic terrorism
7125:Muslim bin Hajjaj
7099:Domestic violence
6834:Apostasy in Islam
6552:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
6509:Abul A'la Maududi
6457:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
6392:Leiden University
6330:Ban on sharia law
6298:Nicholas Phillips
5910:Forensic evidence
5878:rules of evidence
5857:cross-examination
5834:Shariah court in
5826:
5825:
5818:
5783:original research
5538:Islamic economics
5466:
5465:
5340:Abdelwahab Meddeb
5268:Haji Shariatullah
5233:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
5218:Abul A'la Maududi
5208:Ruhollah Khomeini
5188:Rached Ghannouchi
5120:Alija Izetbegović
5105:Ruhollah Khomeini
5012:Rashīd Rīďha 1922
4912:by country/region
4801:Two-nation theory
4753:Islamic terrorism
4714:Islamic socialism
4704:Islamic democracy
4680:Apostasy in Islam
4651:by country/region
4428:Mahkamah Syariyah
4198:Fatawa-e-Alamgiri
3779:
3778:
3693:
3692:
3551:
3550:
3365:
3364:
3218:
3217:
3143:
3142:
2936:
2935:
2643:Islamic Modernism
2300:Islamic Modernism
2284:Islamic reformers
2253:Islamic centuries
2154:Yusuf al-Qaradawi
1899:textual integrity
1804:Sources of Sharia
1798:Sources of Sharia
1462:The veiling order
1134:religion of Moses
1092:Islamic movements
1038:, which has been
936:
854:authentic ahadith
840:sources of Sharia
817:qualified jurists
802:
745:
709:
708:
16:(Redirected from
19409:
19359:
19358:
19350:
19216:
19207:
19205:
19203:
19194:
19169:
19152:
19135:
19108:
19091:
19082:
19058:
19049:
19025:
19016:
19007:
18980:
18971:
18960:"Law. Civil Law"
18954:
18927:
18900:
18883:
18864:
18852:
18840:
18831:
18807:
18798:
18797:on 11 June 2017.
18781:
18764:
18747:
18730:
18713:
18696:
18687:
18678:
18669:
18650:
18628:
18619:
18602:
18590:
18573:
18561:
18539:
18528:
18501:
18471:
18445:
18443:
18441:
18417:
18405:
18396:
18372:
18360:
18348:
18319:
18310:
18293:
18284:
18275:
18266:
18249:
18229:
18216:
18214:
18212:
18196:
18179:
18166:
18164:
18162:
18156:Yaqeen Institute
18146:
18129:
18120:
18103:
18101:
18095:. Archived from
18080:
18067:
18058:
18046:
18027:
18026:
18024:
18022:
18002:
17996:
17995:
17993:
17969:
17963:
17962:
17942:
17936:
17935:
17925:
17894:
17888:
17887:
17885:
17883:
17853:
17847:
17846:
17818:
17807:
17806:
17782:
17776:
17775:
17747:
17741:
17740:
17738:
17736:
17686:
17680:
17679:
17657:
17651:
17650:
17632:
17626:
17625:
17623:
17621:
17601:
17592:
17591:
17577:
17566:
17560:
17551:
17545:
17539:
17532:
17526:
17525:
17523:
17521:
17505:
17499:
17486:
17480:
17479:
17477:
17475:
17447:
17438:
17435:
17429:
17426:
17420:
17419:
17392:The Muslim World
17384:
17378:
17377:
17375:
17373:
17357:
17351:
17350:
17334:
17328:
17327:
17325:
17323:
17285:
17279:
17278:
17276:
17252:
17246:
17245:
17243:
17241:
17221:
17215:
17214:
17212:
17210:
17194:
17188:
17187:
17175:
17169:
17163:
17157:
17151:
17145:
17131:
17118:
17117:
17115:
17113:
17108:on 1 August 2017
17093:
17087:
17086:
17065:
17059:
17058:
17030:
17024:
17023:
17001:
16995:
16984:
16978:
16967:
16961:
16960:
16949:10.2307/20048203
16932:
16926:
16916:Slavery in Islam
16913:
16907:
16891:
16885:
16884:
16864:
16858:
16857:
16845:
16839:
16838:
16836:
16834:
16814:
16808:
16807:
16805:
16803:
16784:
16778:
16777:
16775:
16773:
16754:
16748:
16747:
16745:
16743:
16724:
16718:
16717:
16699:
16693:
16692:
16690:
16688:
16669:
16663:
16662:
16660:
16658:
16639:
16633:
16632:
16596:
16590:
16589:
16587:
16585:
16564:
16558:
16557:
16521:
16515:
16514:
16486:
16480:
16479:
16463:
16457:
16456:
16434:
16428:
16427:
16405:
16399:
16398:
16393:. Archived from
16387:
16381:
16380:
16378:
16376:
16361:
16355:
16344:
16338:
16337:
16309:
16303:
16297:
16291:
16290:
16278:
16272:
16269:
16260:
16259:
16257:
16255:
16230:
16224:
16223:
16211:
16205:
16194:
16188:
16187:
16179:
16173:
16172:
16170:
16168:
16148:
16142:
16141:
16139:
16137:
16122:
16116:
16115:
16113:
16111:
16092:
16083:
16082:
16080:
16078:
16054:
16048:
16047:
16045:
16043:
16021:
16015:
16008:
16002:
16001:
15983:
15977:
15976:
15940:
15934:
15933:
15931:
15929:
15895:
15889:
15888:
15860:
15854:
15853:
15851:
15849:
15829:
15823:
15822:
15806:
15800:
15799:
15784:The Muslim World
15779:
15773:
15760:
15754:
15741:
15735:
15726:
15720:
15719:
15696:
15690:
15689:
15687:
15685:
15666:
15660:
15659:
15657:
15655:
15636:
15630:
15629:
15608:
15602:
15584:
15578:
15577:
15575:
15573:
15542:
15536:
15535:
15520:The Muslim World
15515:
15509:
15508:
15490:
15481:
15480:
15461:
15455:
15454:
15452:
15450:
15430:
15424:
15423:
15421:
15419:
15399:
15386:
15380:
15374:
15373:
15351:
15342:
15341:
15316:
15310:
15309:
15307:
15305:
15277:
15271:
15270:
15268:
15266:
15238:
15232:
15231:
15205:
15196:
15195:
15193:
15191:
15163:
15157:
15156:
15128:
15115:
15102:
15096:
15095:
15093:
15091:
15063:
15054:
15053:
15051:
15049:
15030:
15019:
15006:
15000:
14987:
14981:
14970:
14964:
14963:
14961:
14959:
14944:
14938:
14925:
14919:
14901:
14895:
14894:
14886:
14880:
14861:
14855:
14845:
14839:
14836:
14830:
14814:
14808:
14807:
14799:
14793:
14778:
14772:
14771:
14753:
14747:
14746:
14725:
14719:
14708:
14702:
14691:
14682:
14681:
14653:
14647:
14646:
14618:
14612:
14609:
14603:
14590:
14584:
14583:
14565:
14559:
14549:
14543:
14542:
14511:Political Theory
14506:
14500:
14499:
14497:
14495:
14465:
14459:
14458:
14428:
14422:
14415:
14409:
14408:
14406:
14404:
14398:
14383:
14374:
14368:
14367:
14365:
14355:
14331:
14325:
14314:
14308:
14307:
14305:
14303:
14288:
14282:
14269:
14263:
14262:
14260:
14258:
14243:
14237:
14236:
14234:
14232:
14226:
14211:
14202:
14196:
14190:
14184:
14183:
14181:
14179:
14159:
14153:
14152:
14150:
14148:
14139:. 10 July 2012.
14129:
14123:
14117:
14111:
14105:
14099:
14098:
14096:
14094:
14046:
14037:
14031:
14025:
14024:
14022:
14020:
14001:
13995:
13994:
13992:
13990:
13962:
13949:
13948:
13946:
13944:
13924:
13918:
13917:
13915:
13913:
13898:
13892:
13891:
13889:
13887:
13872:
13866:
13865:
13863:
13861:
13846:
13840:
13839:
13837:
13835:
13819:
13813:
13812:
13810:
13808:
13792:
13783:
13782:
13780:
13778:
13750:
13741:
13740:
13738:
13736:
13716:
13710:
13709:
13707:
13705:
13689:
13683:
13682:
13680:
13678:
13659:
13653:
13640:
13634:
13633:
13631:
13629:
13610:
13604:
13603:
13601:
13599:
13579:
13570:
13567:
13561:
13560:
13558:
13556:
13537:
13531:
13530:
13528:
13526:
13507:
13501:
13495:
13489:
13488:
13486:
13484:
13478:
13471:
13460:
13449:
13448:
13446:
13444:
13420:
13414:
13397:
13391:
13389:The Sunday Times
13385:
13379:
13378:
13376:
13374:
13359:
13353:
13352:
13350:
13348:
13327:
13321:
13306:
13300:
13299:
13284:The Muslim World
13279:
13273:
13272:
13270:
13268:
13262:
13239:
13213:
13204:
13198:
13187:
13178:
13177:
13175:
13173:
13152:
13146:
13145:
13143:
13141:
13109:
13103:
13102:
13074:
13068:
13067:
13065:
13063:
13044:
13038:
13037:
13035:
13033:
13005:
12999:
12998:
12996:
12984:
12978:
12972:
12966:
12960:
12954:
12948:
12933:
12927:
12912:
12906:
12900:
12894:
12885:
12879:
12866:
12860:
12851:
12848:Hendrickson 2013
12845:
12834:
12821:
12815:
12802:
12796:
12783:
12777:
12776:
12774:
12772:
12756:
12750:
12749:
12723:
12717:
12716:
12714:
12712:
12684:
12678:
12663:
12654:
12643:
12637:
12636:
12634:
12632:
12626:
12611:
12602:
12596:
12587:
12578:
12559:
12553:
12540:
12534:
12523:
12514:
12495:
12486:
12485:
12467:
12461:
12460:
12458:
12456:
12441:Lums Law Journal
12432:
12426:
12425:
12423:
12421:
12406:IIUM Law Journal
12397:
12391:
12390:
12357:
12351:
12344:
12338:
12332:
12326:
12320:
12314:
12303:
12297:
12286:
12280:
12279:
12235:
12226:
12225:
12223:
12221:
12215:
12208:
12200:
12191:
12184:
12178:
12167:
12161:
12150:
12141:
12138:
12132:
12119:
12113:
12112:
12110:
12108:
12093:
12087:
12086:
12058:
12049:
12048:
12032:
12026:
12020:
12014:
12013:
12011:
12009:
11990:
11984:
11983:
11981:
11979:
11959:
11953:
11947:
11941:
11940:
11938:
11936:
11916:
11910:
11904:
11898:
11892:
11886:
11880:
11874:
11869:
11863:
11860:
11854:
11853:
11851:
11849:
11833:
11827:
11812:
11806:
11803:
11797:
11791:
11780:
11774:
11765:
11759:
11740:
11734:
11728:
11722:
11709:
11703:
11686:
11680:
11671:
11665:
11659:
11653:
11644:
11638:
11625:
11619:
11606:
11600:
11594:
11588:
11582:
11576:
11570:
11564:
11558:
11552:
11541:
11535:
11526:
11525:
11497:
11486:
11485:
11477:
11471:
11465:
11459:
11453:
11447:
11441:
11435:
11429:
11423:
11417:
11411:
11405:
11399:
11393:
11387:
11381:
11372:
11366:
11355:
11352:Jones-Pauly 2009
11349:
11334:
11328:
11322:
11316:
11310:
11304:
11293:
11287:
11281:
11275:
11269:
11263:
11250:
11244:
11235:
11229:
11223:
11217:
11208:
11202:
11193:
11187:
11178:
11172:
11153:
11147:
11130:
11124:
11118:
11112:
11106:
11105:, pp. 9–10.
11100:
11091:
11085:
11079:
11073:
11044:
11043:
11041:
11039:
11033:
11018:
11009:
11003:
11002:
10994:
10988:
10987:
10969:
10963:
10957:
10946:
10940:
10925:
10919:
10904:
10903:
10883:
10877:
10870:
10864:
10863:1 (2012), p. 123
10857:
10851:
10848:
10842:
10831:
10825:
10824:
10822:
10820:
10805:
10799:
10798:
10796:
10794:
10785:. Archived from
10778:
10772:
10771:
10751:
10745:
10744:
10742:
10740:
10726:
10720:
10709:
10703:
10702:
10700:
10698:
10689:. Archived from
10679:
10673:
10666:
10660:
10654:
10648:
10642:
10633:
10628:
10622:
10616:
10610:
10605:
10599:
10593:
10587:
10586:
10568:
10562:
10561:
10543:
10537:
10536:
10524:
10518:
10515:
10509:
10508:
10468:
10462:
10461:
10421:
10415:
10411:sometimes spelt
10409:
10403:
10402:
10386:
10378:
10372:
10371:
10351:
10343:
10332:
10326:
10303:
10298:
10292:
10289:
10283:
10278:
10272:
10266:
10260:
10254:
10248:
10242:
10236:
10229:
10223:
10220:
10214:
10211:Internet Archive
10197:
10191:
10185:
10176:
10170:
10161:
10155:
10138:
10123:
10117:
10116:
10096:
10090:
10089:
10067:
10061:
10060:
10058:
10056:
10025:
10019:
10013:
10007:
10001:
9995:
9989:
9974:
9968:
9962:
9961:
9953:
9947:
9946:
9944:
9942:
9932:
9923:
9917:
9916:
9910:
9902:
9900:
9898:
9889:. Archived from
9883:
9877:
9867:
9861:
9855:
9849:
9843:
9822:
9816:
9810:
9807:
9801:
9800:
9792:
9786:
9785:
9783:
9781:
9772:. Archived from
9762:
9753:
9752:
9744:
9733:
9723:
9717:
9716:
9714:
9712:
9697:
9691:
9690:
9672:
9666:
9660:
9654:
9648:
9639:
9636:
9630:
9629:
9621:
9615:
9614:
9607:
9601:
9598:
9592:
9591:
9579:
9573:
9566:
9560:
9554:
9548:
9541:
9535:
9530:
9524:
9518:
9512:
9506:
9495:
9489:
9480:
9474:
9447:
9441:
9420:
9419:
9411:
9405:
9404:
9402:
9400:
9370:
9364:
9363:
9355:
9349:
9348:
9340:
9334:
9331:
9325:
9324:
9316:
9310:
9309:
9307:
9305:
9278:Brown, Daniel W.
9274:
9268:
9262:
9251:
9250:
9248:
9246:
9240:
9225:
9216:
9210:
9209:
9177:
9171:
9170:
9144:
9138:
9137:
9129:
9123:
9122:
9102:
9096:
9095:
9083:
9077:
9076:
9064:
9058:
9041:
9035:
9027:
9025:
9023:
8995:
8989:
8978:
8956:
8950:
8944:
8938:
8937:
8931:
8923:
8920:
8919:
8914:
8913:
8900:
8894:
8889:
8883:
8878:
8872:
8853:
8844:
8843:
8818:
8812:
8797:
8791:
8785:
8776:
8770:
8764:
8763:, pp. 9–10.
8758:
8752:
8751:
8725:
8716:
8710:
8704:
8685:
8679:
8648:
8642:
8631:
8617:
8611:
8610:
8566:
8560:
8559:
8537:
8531:
8525:
8519:
8514:
8508:
8505:
8499:
8496:
8490:
8489:
8482:
8476:
8469:
8463:
8457:
8451:
8445:
8436:
8430:
8421:
8412:of the Prophet,
8373:John L. Esposito
8370:
8364:
8358:
8343:
8337:
8324:
8323:
8321:
8319:
8296:
8290:
8284:
8275:
8272:
8266:
8263:
8257:
8251:
8188:
8182:
8051:
8050:
8048:
8046:
8041:on 31 March 2019
8026:
8011:
8005:
7996:
7995:
7993:
7991:
7976:
7967:
7966:
7964:
7962:
7911:Ilm Uṣūl al-Fiqh
7893:
7873:
7872:
7867:
7863:
7853:
7851:
7843:
7842:
7839:
7838:
7835:
7832:
7829:
7826:
7823:
7814:
7802:
7798:
7792:
7789:
7783:
7780:
7774:
7759:
7753:
7749:
7743:
7740:
7734:
7724:
7676:Islamic republic
7588:licentia docendi
7483:and the Islamic
7475:and the Islamic
7467:and the Islamic
7299:Rachel Ehrenfeld
7073:before a court.
6983:
6977:
6968:
6962:
6953:
6907:and conscience.
6905:freedom of faith
6895:). According to
6864:Alfred Dehodencq
6739:Islamic prophets
6727:
6721:
6715:
6709:
6673:H. Patrick Glenn
6538:. In this view,
6436:John L. Esposito
6312:specializing in
6310:Emory University
6231:Nawal El Saadawi
6202:Wilayatul Hisbah
6160:religious police
5855:process, and no
5821:
5814:
5810:
5807:
5801:
5798:inline citations
5774:
5773:
5766:
5762:Court procedures
5624:
5618:
5612:
5606:
5588:Cairo conference
5458:
5451:
5444:
5430:
5429:
5421:Islam portal
5419:
5418:
5417:
5323:in North America
5273:Hassan Al-Turabi
5223:Abul Hasan Nadwi
4831:Anti-imperialism
4729:Islamic republic
4724:Islamic monarchy
4709:Islamic feminism
4568:
4562:
4561:
4551:
4550:
4413:Swiss Civil Code
3771:
3764:
3757:
3734:Prisoners of war
3729:
3687:
3682:Comparison with
3566:
3565:
3431:
3430:
3358:
3347:
3336:
3319:
3309:
3300:
3290:
3279:
3268:
3257:
3233:
3232:
3145:
3144:
3022:
3021:
2981:Wilayat al-faqih
2967:Majlis-ash-Shura
2766:
2765:
2753:
2724:
2723:
2680:, religious and
2318:Grand Ayatollahs
2290:and emphasis on
2199:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2110:source of sharia
2002:Ahmad ibn Hanbal
1824:Islamic scholar
1814:Sanaa manuscript
1681:rhetorical tools
1537:Ahmad ibn Hanbal
1412:
1399:
1384:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1292:and its cognate
1291:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1230:القانون الإسلامي
1224:
1195:Classical sharia
1169:, from there to
1032:some researchers
1008:Islamic scholars
931:
929:
885:
873:
838:recognizes four
813:illegal opinions
805:Islamic scholars
797:
795:
740:
738:
701:
694:
687:
673:Islam portal
671:
670:
669:
79:
56:
55:
21:
19417:
19416:
19412:
19411:
19410:
19408:
19407:
19406:
19367:
19366:
19365:
19353:
19345:
19333:Wayback Machine
19261:
19248:Schacht, Joseph
19201:
19199:
19192:
19177:
19175:Further reading
19172:
19132:
19107:on 4 June 2014.
19079:
19004:
18951:
18924:
18880:
18861:
18850:
18828:
18666:
18647:
18633:Lapidus, Ira M.
18599:Law and Society
18570:
18525:
18498:
18468:
18439:
18437:
18435:
18365:Hallaq, Wael B.
18353:Hallaq, Wael B.
18345:
18331:Hallaq, Wael B.
18247:
18210:
18208:
18160:
18158:
18099:
18093:
18078:
18036:
18031:
18030:
18020:
18018:
18011:The Independent
18003:
17999:
17970:
17966:
17943:
17939:
17895:
17891:
17881:
17879:
17872:
17854:
17850:
17819:
17810:
17783:
17779:
17748:
17744:
17734:
17732:
17709:10.2307/3312162
17687:
17683:
17676:
17658:
17654:
17633:
17629:
17619:
17617:
17602:
17595:
17578:
17569:
17561:
17554:
17546:
17542:
17533:
17529:
17519:
17517:
17506:
17502:
17496:Wayback Machine
17487:
17483:
17473:
17471:
17464:
17448:
17441:
17436:
17432:
17427:
17423:
17385:
17381:
17371:
17369:
17358:
17354:
17335:
17331:
17321:
17319:
17312:
17286:
17282:
17253:
17249:
17239:
17237:
17222:
17218:
17208:
17206:
17195:
17191:
17176:
17172:
17164:
17160:
17152:
17148:
17142:Wayback Machine
17132:
17121:
17111:
17109:
17094:
17090:
17080:
17066:
17062:
17051:
17031:
17027:
17016:
17002:
16998:
16985:
16981:
16968:
16964:
16937:Foreign Affairs
16933:
16929:
16923:Wayback Machine
16914:
16910:
16892:
16888:
16865:
16861:
16846:
16842:
16832:
16830:
16815:
16811:
16801:
16799:
16786:
16785:
16781:
16771:
16769:
16756:
16755:
16751:
16741:
16739:
16726:
16725:
16721:
16714:
16700:
16696:
16686:
16684:
16671:
16670:
16666:
16656:
16654:
16641:
16640:
16636:
16613:10.2307/1051612
16597:
16593:
16583:
16581:
16566:
16565:
16561:
16522:
16518:
16511:
16487:
16483:
16464:
16460:
16453:
16435:
16431:
16424:
16406:
16402:
16389:
16388:
16384:
16374:
16372:
16363:
16362:
16358:
16345:
16341:
16310:
16306:
16298:
16294:
16279:
16275:
16270:
16263:
16253:
16251:
16231:
16227:
16212:
16208:
16195:
16191:
16180:
16176:
16166:
16164:
16149:
16145:
16135:
16133:
16124:
16123:
16119:
16109:
16107:
16102:. 6 June 2018.
16094:
16093:
16086:
16076:
16074:
16055:
16051:
16041:
16039:
16023:
16022:
16018:
16009:
16005:
15998:
15984:
15980:
15941:
15937:
15927:
15925:
15918:
15896:
15892:
15861:
15857:
15847:
15845:
15830:
15826:
15807:
15803:
15780:
15776:
15770:Wayback Machine
15761:
15757:
15751:Wayback Machine
15742:
15738:
15727:
15723:
15712:
15698:
15697:
15693:
15683:
15681:
15668:
15667:
15663:
15653:
15651:
15646:. 16 May 2014.
15638:
15637:
15633:
15626:
15609:
15605:
15585:
15581:
15571:
15569:
15562:
15543:
15539:
15516:
15512:
15505:
15491:
15484:
15471:. 15 May 2014.
15463:
15462:
15458:
15448:
15446:
15431:
15427:
15417:
15415:
15400:
15389:
15381:
15377:
15370:
15352:
15345:
15338:
15330:. p. 319.
15320:Wael, B. Hallaq
15317:
15313:
15303:
15301:
15294:
15278:
15274:
15264:
15262:
15255:
15239:
15235:
15224:
15206:
15199:
15189:
15187:
15180:
15164:
15160:
15145:10.2307/1570336
15129:
15118:
15112:Wayback Machine
15103:
15099:
15089:
15087:
15080:
15064:
15057:
15047:
15045:
15032:
15031:
15022:
15016:Wayback Machine
15007:
15003:
14997:Wayback Machine
14988:
14984:
14971:
14967:
14957:
14955:
14946:
14945:
14941:
14935:Wayback Machine
14926:
14922:
14912:Wayback Machine
14902:
14898:
14887:
14883:
14862:
14858:
14846:
14842:
14837:
14833:
14815:
14811:
14801:
14800:
14796:
14779:
14775:
14768:
14754:
14750:
14726:
14722:
14709:
14705:
14692:
14685:
14654:
14650:
14629:(115): 91–119.
14619:
14615:
14610:
14606:
14591:
14587:
14580:
14566:
14562:
14550:
14546:
14507:
14503:
14493:
14491:
14484:
14466:
14462:
14447:
14429:
14425:
14416:
14412:
14402:
14400:
14396:
14381:
14375:
14371:
14332:
14328:
14315:
14311:
14301:
14299:
14290:
14289:
14285:
14279:Wayback Machine
14270:
14266:
14256:
14254:
14245:
14244:
14240:
14230:
14228:
14224:
14209:
14203:
14199:
14191:
14187:
14177:
14175:
14160:
14156:
14146:
14144:
14131:
14130:
14126:
14118:
14114:
14106:
14102:
14092:
14090:
14055:Democratization
14047:
14040:
14032:
14028:
14018:
14016:
14003:
14002:
13998:
13988:
13986:
13979:
13963:
13952:
13942:
13940:
13925:
13921:
13911:
13909:
13900:
13899:
13895:
13885:
13883:
13874:
13873:
13869:
13859:
13857:
13848:
13847:
13843:
13833:
13831:
13820:
13816:
13806:
13804:
13793:
13786:
13776:
13774:
13767:
13751:
13744:
13734:
13732:
13717:
13713:
13703:
13701:
13690:
13686:
13676:
13674:
13661:
13660:
13656:
13650:Wayback Machine
13641:
13637:
13627:
13625:
13620:. 4 July 2008.
13612:
13611:
13607:
13597:
13595:
13580:
13573:
13568:
13564:
13554:
13552:
13539:
13538:
13534:
13524:
13522:
13509:
13508:
13504:
13496:
13492:
13482:
13480:
13476:
13469:
13461:
13452:
13442:
13440:
13421:
13417:
13407:Wayback Machine
13398:
13394:
13386:
13382:
13372:
13370:
13361:
13360:
13356:
13346:
13344:
13329:
13328:
13324:
13307:
13303:
13280:
13276:
13266:
13264:
13260:
13211:
13205:
13201:
13188:
13181:
13171:
13169:
13161:BBC News Online
13154:
13153:
13149:
13139:
13137:
13110:
13106:
13075:
13071:
13061:
13059:
13046:
13045:
13041:
13031:
13029:
13022:
13006:
13002:
12994:
12986:
12985:
12981:
12973:
12969:
12961:
12957:
12949:
12936:
12928:
12915:
12907:
12903:
12895:
12888:
12880:
12869:
12861:
12854:
12846:
12837:
12831:Wayback Machine
12822:
12818:
12813:Wayback Machine
12803:
12799:
12794:Wayback Machine
12784:
12780:
12770:
12768:
12757:
12753:
12746:
12730:. p. 261.
12724:
12720:
12710:
12708:
12701:
12685:
12681:
12664:
12657:
12644:
12640:
12630:
12628:
12624:
12609:
12603:
12599:
12588:
12581:
12560:
12556:
12550:Wayback Machine
12541:
12537:
12524:
12517:
12496:
12489:
12482:
12468:
12464:
12454:
12452:
12433:
12429:
12419:
12417:
12398:
12394:
12358:
12354:
12345:
12341:
12333:
12329:
12321:
12317:
12304:
12300:
12287:
12283:
12236:
12229:
12219:
12217:
12213:
12206:
12202:
12201:
12194:
12185:
12181:
12168:
12164:
12151:
12144:
12139:
12135:
12120:
12116:
12106:
12104:
12095:
12094:
12090:
12060:
12059:
12052:
12033:
12029:
12021:
12017:
12007:
12005:
11992:
11991:
11987:
11977:
11975:
11960:
11956:
11950:Tellenbach 2015
11948:
11944:
11934:
11932:
11917:
11913:
11905:
11901:
11893:
11889:
11885:, pp. 8–9.
11881:
11877:
11870:
11866:
11861:
11857:
11847:
11845:
11834:
11830:
11813:
11809:
11804:
11800:
11792:
11783:
11775:
11768:
11760:
11743:
11735:
11731:
11723:
11712:
11704:
11689:
11681:
11674:
11666:
11662:
11654:
11647:
11639:
11628:
11620:
11609:
11601:
11597:
11589:
11585:
11577:
11573:
11565:
11561:
11553:
11544:
11536:
11529:
11508:(2): 426, 427.
11498:
11489:
11478:
11474:
11466:
11462:
11454:
11450:
11442:
11438:
11430:
11426:
11418:
11414:
11406:
11402:
11394:
11390:
11382:
11375:
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11358:
11350:
11337:
11329:
11325:
11317:
11313:
11305:
11296:
11288:
11284:
11276:
11272:
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11226:
11218:
11211:
11203:
11196:
11188:
11181:
11173:
11156:
11148:
11133:
11125:
11121:
11113:
11109:
11101:
11094:
11086:
11082:
11074:
11047:
11037:
11035:
11031:
11016:
11010:
11006:
10995:
10991:
10984:
10970:
10966:
10958:
10949:
10941:
10928:
10920:
10907:
10900:
10884:
10880:
10871:
10867:
10858:
10854:
10849:
10845:
10832:
10828:
10818:
10816:
10814:Washington Post
10806:
10802:
10792:
10790:
10789:on 4 April 2023
10779:
10775:
10768:
10752:
10748:
10738:
10736:
10728:
10727:
10723:
10719:. 2007, S. 507.
10710:
10706:
10696:
10694:
10681:
10680:
10676:
10667:
10663:
10655:
10651:
10643:
10636:
10629:
10625:
10617:
10613:
10606:
10602:
10594:
10590:
10583:
10569:
10565:
10558:
10544:
10540:
10530:
10525:
10521:
10516:
10512:
10469:
10465:
10422:
10418:
10410:
10406:
10399:
10379:
10375:
10368:
10344:
10335:
10327:
10306:
10299:
10295:
10290:
10286:
10279:
10275:
10267:
10263:
10255:
10251:
10243:
10239:
10230:
10226:
10221:
10217:
10198:
10194:
10186:
10179:
10171:
10164:
10160:, pp. 2–6.
10156:
10141:
10124:
10120:
10097:
10093:
10086:
10068:
10064:
10054:
10052:
10045:
10026:
10022:
10014:
10010:
10002:
9998:
9990:
9977:
9969:
9965:
9954:
9950:
9940:
9938:
9930:
9924:
9920:
9904:
9903:
9896:
9894:
9887:"Archived copy"
9885:
9884:
9880:
9868:
9864:
9856:
9852:
9844:
9825:
9817:
9813:
9808:
9804:
9793:
9789:
9779:
9777:
9776:on 16 June 2013
9764:
9763:
9756:
9745:
9736:
9724:
9720:
9710:
9708:
9698:
9694:
9687:
9673:
9669:
9661:
9657:
9649:
9642:
9637:
9633:
9624:Taareq Oubrou.
9622:
9618:
9609:
9608:
9604:
9599:
9595:
9585:
9580:
9576:
9567:
9563:
9555:
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9542:
9538:
9531:
9527:
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9515:
9507:
9498:
9490:
9483:
9475:
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9442:
9423:
9412:
9408:
9398:
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9389:
9371:
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9356:
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9341:
9337:
9332:
9328:
9317:
9313:
9303:
9301:
9294:
9275:
9271:
9263:
9254:
9244:
9242:
9238:
9223:
9217:
9213:
9186:Islamic Studies
9178:
9174:
9167:
9145:
9141:
9130:
9126:
9119:
9103:
9099:
9089:
9084:
9080:
9070:
9065:
9061:
9051:Wayback Machine
9029:
9028:
9021:
9019:
8996:
8992:
8977:. October 1905.
8958:
8957:
8953:
8945:
8941:
8925:
8924:
8901:
8897:
8890:
8886:
8879:
8875:
8854:
8847:
8840:
8819:
8815:
8798:
8794:
8786:
8779:
8771:
8767:
8759:
8755:
8723:
8717:
8713:
8705:
8688:
8680:
8651:
8643:
8634:
8618:
8614:
8567:
8563:
8556:
8538:
8534:
8526:
8522:
8515:
8511:
8506:
8502:
8497:
8493:
8488:. 20 June 2010.
8484:
8483:
8479:
8470:
8466:
8458:
8454:
8446:
8439:
8431:
8424:
8389:Wayback Machine
8371:
8367:
8359:
8346:
8338:
8327:
8317:
8315:
8313:
8297:
8293:
8285:
8278:
8273:
8269:
8264:
8260:
8252:
8191:
8183:
8054:
8044:
8042:
8027:
8014:
8006:
7999:
7989:
7987:
7978:
7977:
7970:
7960:
7958:
7943:
7894:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7876:
7865:
7820:
7816:
7815:
7811:
7806:
7805:
7799:
7795:
7790:
7786:
7781:
7777:
7760:
7756:
7750:
7746:
7741:
7737:
7725:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7624:
7603:natural persons
7557:("professor of
7453:
7380:
7374:
7368:
7363:
7303:Islamic banking
7276:
7274:Salafi jihadism
7254:
7207:
7197:
7176:
7101:
7087:
7085:Property rights
7059:rights of women
7055:
7050:
7042:Main articles:
7040:
6985:
6981:
6979:
6975:
6973:
6966:
6964:
6960:
6958:
6951:
6943:
6937:
6862:), painting by
6836:
6830:
6752:vary by country
6729:
6725:
6723:
6719:
6717:
6713:
6711:
6707:
6696:
6690:
6629:Judeo-Christian
6613:
6589:
6571:Mohammed Arkoun
6567:Tariq al-Bishri
6544:Hasan al-Turabi
6530:(justice), and
6496:
6487:Muslim-majority
6432:
6423:
6405:
6400:
6332:
6326:
6293:Orthodox Jewish
6269:law of the land
6261:
6256:
6239:
6184:1979 Revolution
6114:
6108:
6102:
6078:Osama bin Laden
6024:
6018:
5969:
5963:
5931:
5891:
5822:
5811:
5805:
5802:
5787:
5775:
5771:
5764:
5727:
5668:
5659:
5650:
5633:
5626:
5622:
5620:
5616:
5614:
5610:
5608:
5604:
5602:
5556:
5550:
5542:Islamic finance
5485:political Islam
5476:Islamic revival
5472:
5462:
5424:
5415:
5413:
5407:
5406:
5380:
5370:
5369:
5296:
5288:
5287:
5183:Hassan al-Banna
5153:
5145:
5144:
5095:Muammar Gaddafi
5080:
5072:
5071:
5058:
5001:
4993:
4992:
4936:Jamaat-e-Islami
4859:
4851:
4850:
4846:Islamic revival
4821:
4813:
4812:
4770:Political Islam
4675:
4667:
4666:
4660:
4641:Salafi movement
4619:
4611:
4610:
4576:
4564:
4563:
4555:
4554:
4549:
4525:comparative law
4506:Muhammad ʿAbduh
4421:
4385:Napoleonic Code
4359:
4322:Warren Hastings
4310:Warren Hastings
4299:
4294:
4232:
4216:Main articles:
4214:
4159:
4087:
4071:Main articles:
4069:
4008:
4000:Main articles:
3998:
3993:
3901:
3895:
3789:
3775:
3745:Islamic studies
3739:
3738:
3727:
3705:
3695:
3694:
3680:
3677:
3645:
3563:
3553:
3552:
3540:
3488:
3428:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3377:
3367:
3366:
3356:
3345:
3335:(discretionary)
3334:
3317:
3307:
3298:
3295:Mofsed-e-filarz
3288:
3277:
3266:
3255:
3230:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3127:
3079:
3047:
3019:
3009:
3008:
3007:
2948:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2840:
2839:
2811:
2763:
2738:
2722:
2655:Tazir penalties
2569:5 daily prayers
2470:
2464:
2338:Hujjat al-Islam
2236:Islamic scholar
2197:
2194:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2168:
2162:
2044:
2036:Main articles:
2034:
2027:) in its place.
2012:, etc rejected
1870:Lawrence Conrad
1806:
1800:
1673:
1667:
1632:
1626:
1613:early conquests
1571:Ignác Goldziher
1555:legal schools (
1454:Safaitic-Arabic
1419:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1355:in Hebrew) and
1352:
1349:
1346:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1284:
1256:lexicographical
1240:
1229:
1218:A related term
1173:and finally to
1118:
1113:
1084:Islamic revival
1067:minority rights
1055:fundamentalists
961:five categories
945:social dealings
705:
667:
665:
658:
657:
602:Other religions
597:Arabic language
559:
549:
548:
477:Moral teachings
368:
354:
353:
344:Spread of Islam
289:
279:
278:
266:(jurisprudence)
248:Qisas al-Anbiya
197:
196:
176:
175:
144:
134:
133:
89:
54:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19415:
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19399:
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19389:
19384:
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19343:
19342:
19336:
19322:
19310:
19304:
19298:
19288:
19278:
19272:
19260:
19259:External links
19257:
19256:
19255:
19245:
19224:
19217:
19208:
19176:
19173:
19171:
19170:
19158:"Criminal Law"
19153:
19136:
19130:
19109:
19092:
19083:
19077:
19050:
19033:
19031:978-0199673599
19017:
19008:
19002:
18981:
18972:
18955:
18949:
18928:
18922:
18901:
18884:
18879:978-9400600171
18878:
18865:
18860:978-9087280482
18859:
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18782:
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18697:
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18646:978-0521514309
18645:
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18472:
18467:978-0753508275
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18385:978-3593382562
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18029:
18028:
17997:
17964:
17953:(4): 593–615.
17937:
17908:(4): 785–834.
17889:
17871:978-0415966917
17870:
17848:
17835:10.2307/604423
17808:
17777:
17764:10.2307/839667
17742:
17703:(4): 1231–61.
17681:
17675:978-0521864145
17674:
17668:. p. 16.
17652:
17627:
17593:
17590:(5): 1635–1739
17567:
17552:
17550:, p. 496.
17540:
17527:
17500:
17481:
17463:978-1107394124
17462:
17439:
17430:
17421:
17379:
17352:
17329:
17311:978-0199739356
17310:
17280:
17247:
17216:
17189:
17170:
17168:, p. 100.
17158:
17146:
17119:
17098:"Umm al-Walad"
17088:
17079:978-0230100169
17078:
17060:
17050:978-0521784306
17049:
17025:
17015:978-9004162914
17014:
16996:
16979:
16962:
16927:
16908:
16906:
16905:
16886:
16875:(4): 417–438.
16859:
16840:
16809:
16779:
16749:
16719:
16713:978-0415969680
16712:
16694:
16664:
16634:
16591:
16559:
16516:
16510:978-9812302830
16509:
16481:
16458:
16452:978-0754675471
16451:
16429:
16423:978-0791491553
16422:
16400:
16382:
16356:
16339:
16304:
16292:
16273:
16261:
16238:"Why Shariah?"
16225:
16206:
16189:
16174:
16143:
16117:
16084:
16069:(3): 557–558.
16049:
16016:
16003:
15996:
15978:
15935:
15917:978-1304399694
15916:
15890:
15855:
15824:
15801:
15774:
15755:
15736:
15721:
15710:
15691:
15661:
15644:UN News Centre
15631:
15625:978-0061189036
15624:
15603:
15579:
15561:978-0199794133
15560:
15537:
15510:
15503:
15482:
15456:
15425:
15387:
15385:, p. 291.
15375:
15369:978-0691134840
15368:
15362:. p. 40.
15343:
15336:
15311:
15293:978-0195125597
15292:
15272:
15254:978-0415396387
15253:
15233:
15222:
15197:
15179:978-0684807126
15178:
15158:
15116:
15097:
15079:978-0691134840
15078:
15055:
15020:
15001:
14982:
14978:978-1137388599
14965:
14939:
14920:
14896:
14881:
14879:
14878:
14856:
14840:
14831:
14809:
14794:
14790:978-1107039575
14773:
14767:978-0754630838
14766:
14748:
14720:
14716:978-1621570257
14703:
14699:978-1610691772
14683:
14648:
14613:
14604:
14585:
14579:978-1315502557
14578:
14560:
14557:978-0199641444
14544:
14501:
14483:978-1780740454
14482:
14460:
14446:978-0520360051
14445:
14423:
14410:
14369:
14326:
14322:978-1409434443
14309:
14283:
14264:
14238:
14197:
14185:
14154:
14124:
14122:, p. 145.
14112:
14100:
14038:
14026:
13996:
13978:978-1440831003
13977:
13950:
13919:
13893:
13867:
13841:
13814:
13784:
13766:978-0099523277
13765:
13742:
13711:
13684:
13654:
13635:
13605:
13584:"Why Shariah?"
13571:
13562:
13532:
13502:
13490:
13450:
13415:
13413:(7 April 2013)
13392:
13380:
13354:
13322:
13318:978-0415683166
13301:
13274:
13199:
13195:978-9004128187
13179:
13147:
13104:
13069:
13039:
13021:978-8132117513
13020:
13000:
12979:
12967:
12955:
12951:Thielmann 2017
12934:
12913:
12911:, p. 142.
12901:
12886:
12867:
12852:
12835:
12816:
12797:
12778:
12751:
12745:978-0199673599
12744:
12718:
12700:978-9004172258
12699:
12679:
12675:978-0199661633
12655:
12651:978-9004128187
12638:
12597:
12579:
12575:978-0275930097
12554:
12535:
12531:978-0691156415
12515:
12511:978-9774166174
12487:
12481:978-9004145924
12480:
12462:
12427:
12392:
12352:
12339:
12327:
12325:, p. 663.
12315:
12311:978-1452240350
12298:
12294:978-0892591428
12281:
12246:(2): 185–204.
12227:
12192:
12179:
12175:978-9004172258
12162:
12158:978-1610271288
12142:
12133:
12114:
12088:
12050:
12027:
12015:
11998:Deutsche Welle
11985:
11968:New York Times
11954:
11942:
11911:
11899:
11887:
11875:
11864:
11855:
11842:Süddeutsche.de
11828:
11807:
11798:
11781:
11779:, p. 835.
11766:
11741:
11729:
11727:, p. 155.
11710:
11687:
11672:
11670:, p. 378.
11660:
11658:, p. 503.
11645:
11626:
11607:
11605:, p. 174.
11595:
11593:, p. 167.
11583:
11571:
11559:
11542:
11527:
11487:
11472:
11470:, p. 360.
11460:
11458:, p. 566.
11448:
11446:, p. 351.
11436:
11424:
11412:
11400:
11398:, p. 213.
11388:
11386:, p. 212.
11373:
11371:, p. 502.
11356:
11335:
11323:
11311:
11294:
11282:
11270:
11251:
11236:
11234:, p. 158.
11224:
11209:
11207:, p. 217.
11194:
11179:
11154:
11152:, p. 501.
11131:
11129:, p. 180.
11119:
11117:, p. 499.
11107:
11092:
11080:
11045:
11004:
10989:
10983:978-0684832807
10982:
10964:
10947:
10926:
10905:
10898:
10878:
10865:
10852:
10843:
10839:978-9004116283
10826:
10800:
10773:
10766:
10746:
10721:
10704:
10674:
10672:. 1967, S. 49.
10661:
10649:
10634:
10623:
10611:
10600:
10588:
10581:
10563:
10556:
10538:
10519:
10510:
10463:
10416:
10404:
10397:
10373:
10366:
10333:
10304:
10293:
10284:
10273:
10261:
10249:
10237:
10224:
10215:
10192:
10177:
10162:
10139:
10118:
10091:
10084:
10062:
10043:
10020:
10008:
10006:, p. 146.
9996:
9975:
9963:
9948:
9918:
9878:
9862:
9850:
9823:
9811:
9802:
9787:
9754:
9734:
9718:
9692:
9685:
9667:
9655:
9640:
9631:
9616:
9602:
9593:
9574:
9561:
9549:
9536:
9525:
9523:, p. 130.
9513:
9496:
9494:, p. 125.
9481:
9448:
9421:
9406:
9387:
9365:
9350:
9335:
9326:
9311:
9293:978-0521570770
9292:
9269:
9252:
9211:
9172:
9165:
9139:
9124:
9117:
9097:
9078:
9067:Al-Jallad 2022
9059:
8990:
8951:
8949:, p. 322.
8939:
8895:
8884:
8873:
8869:978-0820319773
8845:
8839:978-1851685653
8838:
8813:
8809:AltaMira Press
8792:
8790:, p. 326.
8777:
8775:, p. 323.
8765:
8753:
8711:
8709:, p. 321.
8686:
8649:
8632:
8629:978-0253209399
8612:
8561:
8555:978-9041101792
8554:
8532:
8520:
8509:
8500:
8491:
8477:
8464:
8452:
8450:, p. 145.
8437:
8422:
8402:978-0815629085
8365:
8361:Schneider 2014
8344:
8325:
8311:
8291:
8289:, p. 500.
8276:
8267:
8258:
8189:
8052:
8012:
7997:
7968:
7941:
7884:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7875:
7874:
7808:
7807:
7804:
7803:
7793:
7784:
7775:
7754:
7744:
7735:
7718:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7636:
7631:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7559:legal opinions
7539:George Makdisi
7495:also parallel
7452:
7449:
7426:rabbinical law
7370:Main article:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7253:
7250:
7196:
7193:
7175:
7172:
7100:
7097:
7086:
7083:
7078:Ottoman empire
7054:
7051:
7044:Women in Islam
7039:
7036:
7002:gradual spread
6980:
6974:
6971:life in prison
6965:
6959:
6950:
6939:Main article:
6936:
6933:
6832:Main article:
6829:
6826:
6801:Salmaan Taseer
6797:Shahbaz Bhatti
6724:
6718:
6712:
6706:
6703:Blasphemy laws
6692:Main article:
6689:
6686:
6666:United Nations
6612:
6609:
6588:
6585:
6584:
6583:
6559:Muhammad Abduh
6555:
6516:
6495:
6492:
6475:
6474:
6471:
6460:
6452:
6431:
6428:
6409:Islamic ethics
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6325:
6322:
6306:Michael Broyde
6289:Rowan Williams
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6238:
6235:
6225:on charges of
6104:Main article:
6101:
6095:
6048:Salman Rushdie
6020:Main article:
6017:
6016:Role of fatwas
6014:
5965:Main article:
5962:
5959:
5930:
5927:
5890:
5889:Criminal cases
5887:
5824:
5823:
5778:
5776:
5769:
5763:
5760:
5726:
5723:
5667:
5664:
5658:
5655:
5649:
5646:
5632:
5629:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5603:
5552:Main article:
5549:
5546:
5468:Main article:
5464:
5463:
5461:
5460:
5453:
5446:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5409:
5408:
5405:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5393:
5392:
5381:
5378:Related topics
5376:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5368:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5345:Maryam Namazie
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5320:
5310:
5309:
5308:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5290:
5289:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5248:Ata Abu Rashta
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5198:Muhammad Iqbal
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5158:Muhammad Abduh
5154:
5152:Key ideologues
5151:
5150:
5147:
5146:
5143:
5142:
5137:
5135:House of Thani
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5090:Omar al-Bashir
5087:
5081:
5079:Heads of state
5078:
5077:
5074:
5073:
5070:
5069:
5052:
5045:("Milestones")
5039:
5027:
5015:
5002:
4999:
4998:
4995:
4994:
4991:
4990:
4989:
4988:
4983:
4981:Southeast Asia
4978:
4973:
4959:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4926:Hizb ut-Tahrir
4917:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4909:
4899:
4897:Sahwa movement
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4872:Dawat-e-Islami
4869:
4860:
4857:
4856:
4853:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4833:
4828:
4826:Anti-communism
4822:
4819:
4818:
4815:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4803:
4798:
4791:
4784:
4779:
4778:
4777:
4767:
4762:
4761:
4760:
4755:
4743:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4726:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4669:
4668:
4662:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4648:
4638:
4637:
4636:
4626:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4613:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4577:
4574:
4573:
4570:
4569:
4548:
4545:
4533:Quranic shares
4498:Muhammad Abduh
4491:
4490:
4483:
4479:
4464:
4420:
4417:
4372:Ottoman Empire
4358:
4357:Ottoman Empire
4355:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4218:Women in Islam
4213:
4210:
4158:
4155:
4068:
4065:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3897:Main article:
3894:
3893:Schools of law
3891:
3791:The domain of
3777:
3776:
3774:
3773:
3766:
3759:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3731:
3721:
3714:
3706:
3701:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3615:
3608:
3601:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3575:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3517:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3487:
3486:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3450:
3447:
3446:
3438:
3437:
3429:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3415:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3397:
3387:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3372:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3357:(compensation)
3349:
3338:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3310:
3301:
3292:
3281:
3270:
3259:
3248:
3243:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3213:
3212:
3205:
3198:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3126:
3125:
3118:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3102:
3090:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3078:
3077:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3038:
3032:
3029:
3028:
3020:
3015:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2949:
2944:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2934:
2933:
2931:
2930:
2915:
2908:
2900:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2876:
2875:
2867:
2866:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2838:
2837:
2829:
2820:
2814:
2810:
2809:
2802:
2795:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2746:
2745:
2733:
2732:
2721:
2714:
2466:Main article:
2463:
2460:
2440:Mut'a marriage
2164:Main article:
2161:
2158:
2134:women's rights
2033:
2030:
2029:
2028:
1969:
1952:
1951:
1912:
1911:
1878:Joseph Schacht
1874:Patricia Crone
1812:Page from the
1802:Main article:
1799:
1796:
1776:The theory of
1669:Main article:
1666:
1659:
1628:Main article:
1625:
1618:
1575:Joseph Schacht
1529:Malik ibn Anas
1470:women in Islam
1418:
1415:
1402:Ottoman Empire
1358:νόμος τοῦ θεοῦ
1321:Sharīʿat Allāh
1286:In the Quran,
1283:
1280:
1239:
1236:
1216:
1215:
1209:
1203:
1192:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1075:women's rights
947:; subsections
884:إجماع الائـمـة
876:ijma al-aimmah
707:
706:
704:
703:
696:
689:
681:
678:
677:
676:
675:
660:
659:
656:
655:
649:
648:
647:
646:
641:
631:
626:
625:
624:
619:
609:
604:
599:
593:
592:
591:
590:
585:
580:
572:
571:
566:
560:
557:Related topics
555:
554:
551:
550:
547:
546:
541:
539:Social welfare
536:
531:
530:
529:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
433:
432:
427:
417:
416:
415:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
369:
360:
359:
356:
355:
352:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
325:
324:
317:
310:
302:
301:
296:
290:
285:
284:
281:
280:
277:
276:
268:
259:
258:
252:
244:
236:
227:
226:
206:
198:
195:
194:
189:
183:
182:
181:
178:
177:
174:
173:
168:
163:
157:
156:
151:
145:
140:
139:
136:
135:
132:
131:
129:Predestination
125:
124:
119:
113:
112:
110:Revealed Books
107:
101:
100:
90:
85:
84:
81:
80:
72:
71:
65:
64:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19414:
19403:
19400:
19398:
19397:Religious law
19395:
19393:
19390:
19388:
19385:
19383:
19380:
19378:
19375:
19374:
19372:
19362:
19357:
19352:
19351:
19348:
19340:
19337:
19334:
19330:
19326:
19323:
19320:
19319:
19318:Boston Review
19314:
19311:
19308:
19305:
19302:
19299:
19296:
19292:
19289:
19286:
19282:
19279:
19276:
19273:
19270:
19266:
19265:"Islamic law"
19263:
19262:
19253:
19249:
19246:
19243:
19239:
19235:
19231:
19230:
19225:
19222:
19218:
19214:
19209:
19198:
19191:
19187:
19183:
19179:
19178:
19167:
19163:
19159:
19154:
19150:
19146:
19142:
19137:
19133:
19131:9780195305135
19127:
19123:
19119:
19115:
19110:
19106:
19102:
19098:
19093:
19089:
19084:
19080:
19078:9780199739356
19074:
19070:
19066:
19062:
19057:
19051:
19047:
19043:
19039:
19034:
19032:
19028:
19023:
19018:
19014:
19009:
19005:
19003:9780199739356
18999:
18995:
18991:
18987:
18982:
18978:
18973:
18969:
18965:
18961:
18956:
18952:
18950:9780195305135
18946:
18942:
18938:
18934:
18929:
18925:
18923:9780195305135
18919:
18915:
18911:
18907:
18902:
18898:
18894:
18890:
18889:"Law. Courts"
18885:
18881:
18875:
18871:
18866:
18862:
18856:
18849:
18848:
18842:
18838:
18833:
18829:
18827:9780195305135
18823:
18819:
18815:
18811:
18806:
18800:
18796:
18792:
18788:
18783:
18779:
18775:
18771:
18766:
18762:
18758:
18754:
18749:
18745:
18741:
18737:
18732:
18728:
18724:
18720:
18715:
18711:
18707:
18703:
18698:
18694:
18689:
18685:
18680:
18676:
18671:
18667:
18661:
18657:
18652:
18648:
18642:
18638:
18634:
18630:
18626:
18621:
18617:
18613:
18609:
18604:
18600:
18596:
18592:
18588:
18584:
18580:
18575:
18571:
18569:9780195134056
18565:
18560:
18555:
18551:
18547:
18543:
18538:
18537:
18530:
18526:
18524:9780199679010
18520:
18516:
18512:
18508:
18503:
18499:
18497:9780199739356
18493:
18489:
18485:
18481:
18477:
18473:
18469:
18463:
18459:
18455:
18451:
18450:Horrie, Chris
18447:
18436:
18430:
18426:
18425:
18419:
18415:
18411:
18407:
18403:
18398:
18394:
18389:
18386:
18382:
18378:
18374:
18370:
18366:
18362:
18358:
18354:
18350:
18346:
18340:
18336:
18332:
18328:
18326:
18322:
18317:
18312:
18308:
18304:
18300:
18295:
18291:
18286:
18282:
18277:
18273:
18268:
18264:
18260:
18256:
18251:
18248:
18246:9780415945295
18242:
18238:
18237:
18231:
18227:
18223:
18218:
18207:
18203:
18198:
18194:
18190:
18186:
18181:
18177:
18173:
18168:
18157:
18153:
18148:
18144:
18140:
18136:
18131:
18127:
18122:
18118:
18114:
18110:
18105:
18098:
18094:
18092:9789041101761
18088:
18084:
18077:
18073:
18069:
18065:
18060:
18056:
18052:
18048:
18044:
18039:
18038:
18016:
18012:
18008:
18001:
17992:
17987:
17983:
17979:
17975:
17968:
17960:
17956:
17952:
17948:
17941:
17933:
17929:
17924:
17919:
17915:
17911:
17907:
17903:
17899:
17893:
17877:
17873:
17867:
17863:
17859:
17852:
17844:
17840:
17836:
17832:
17829:(2): 175–82.
17828:
17824:
17817:
17815:
17813:
17804:
17800:
17797:(3): 608–12.
17796:
17792:
17788:
17781:
17773:
17769:
17765:
17761:
17757:
17753:
17746:
17730:
17726:
17722:
17718:
17714:
17710:
17706:
17702:
17698:
17697:
17692:
17685:
17677:
17671:
17667:
17663:
17656:
17648:
17644:
17643:
17638:
17631:
17615:
17611:
17607:
17600:
17598:
17589:
17585:
17584:
17576:
17574:
17572:
17564:
17559:
17557:
17549:
17544:
17537:
17534:Ira Lapidus,
17531:
17515:
17511:
17504:
17497:
17493:
17490:
17485:
17469:
17465:
17459:
17455:
17454:
17446:
17444:
17434:
17425:
17418:
17413:
17409:
17405:
17401:
17397:
17393:
17389:
17383:
17367:
17363:
17356:
17348:
17344:
17340:
17333:
17317:
17313:
17307:
17303:
17299:
17295:
17291:
17284:
17275:
17270:
17266:
17262:
17258:
17251:
17235:
17231:
17227:
17224:Chen, James.
17220:
17204:
17200:
17193:
17185:
17181:
17174:
17167:
17162:
17155:
17150:
17143:
17139:
17136:
17130:
17128:
17126:
17124:
17107:
17103:
17099:
17092:
17085:
17081:
17075:
17071:
17064:
17057:
17052:
17046:
17042:
17038:
17037:
17029:
17022:
17017:
17011:
17007:
17000:
16993:
16989:
16983:
16976:
16972:
16966:
16958:
16954:
16950:
16946:
16943:(5): 118–32.
16942:
16938:
16931:
16924:
16920:
16917:
16912:
16903:
16902:
16901:, pp. 82–83;
16900:
16896:
16890:
16882:
16878:
16874:
16870:
16863:
16856:. p. 67.
16855:
16851:
16844:
16828:
16824:
16820:
16813:
16797:
16793:
16789:
16783:
16767:
16763:
16759:
16753:
16737:
16733:
16729:
16723:
16715:
16709:
16705:
16698:
16682:
16678:
16674:
16668:
16652:
16648:
16644:
16638:
16630:
16626:
16622:
16618:
16614:
16610:
16607:(1): 105–42.
16606:
16602:
16595:
16579:
16575:
16571:
16570:
16563:
16555:
16551:
16547:
16543:
16539:
16535:
16531:
16527:
16520:
16512:
16506:
16502:
16498:
16497:
16492:
16485:
16477:
16473:
16469:
16462:
16454:
16448:
16444:
16440:
16433:
16425:
16419:
16415:
16411:
16404:
16396:
16392:
16386:
16370:
16366:
16360:
16353:
16349:
16343:
16335:
16331:
16327:
16323:
16319:
16315:
16308:
16302:, p. 49.
16301:
16296:
16288:
16284:
16277:
16268:
16266:
16249:
16245:
16244:
16239:
16235:
16234:Feldman, Noah
16229:
16221:
16217:
16210:
16203:
16199:
16193:
16185:
16178:
16162:
16158:
16154:
16147:
16131:
16127:
16121:
16105:
16101:
16100:The Economist
16097:
16091:
16089:
16072:
16068:
16064:
16060:
16053:
16038:
16034:
16030:
16029:The Economist
16026:
16020:
16013:
16007:
15999:
15993:
15989:
15982:
15974:
15970:
15966:
15962:
15958:
15954:
15951:(3): 160–68.
15950:
15946:
15939:
15923:
15919:
15913:
15910:(1): 109–10.
15909:
15905:
15901:
15894:
15886:
15882:
15878:
15874:
15870:
15866:
15859:
15843:
15839:
15835:
15828:
15820:
15816:
15812:
15805:
15797:
15793:
15789:
15785:
15778:
15771:
15767:
15764:
15759:
15752:
15748:
15745:
15740:
15733:
15730:
15725:
15717:
15713:
15707:
15703:
15702:
15695:
15679:
15675:
15671:
15665:
15649:
15645:
15641:
15635:
15627:
15621:
15617:
15613:
15607:
15601:, pp. 526–27.
15600:
15596:
15595:
15589:
15583:
15567:
15563:
15557:
15553:
15552:
15547:
15546:John Esposito
15541:
15533:
15529:
15525:
15521:
15514:
15506:
15500:
15496:
15489:
15487:
15479:
15474:
15470:
15466:
15460:
15444:
15440:
15436:
15429:
15413:
15409:
15405:
15398:
15396:
15394:
15392:
15384:
15379:
15371:
15365:
15361:
15357:
15350:
15348:
15339:
15333:
15329:
15325:
15321:
15315:
15299:
15295:
15289:
15285:
15284:
15276:
15260:
15256:
15250:
15246:
15245:
15237:
15229:
15225:
15219:
15215:
15211:
15204:
15202:
15185:
15181:
15175:
15171:
15170:
15162:
15154:
15150:
15146:
15142:
15139:(1/4): 1–25.
15138:
15134:
15127:
15125:
15123:
15121:
15113:
15109:
15106:
15101:
15085:
15081:
15075:
15071:
15070:
15062:
15060:
15043:
15039:
15035:
15029:
15027:
15025:
15017:
15013:
15010:
15005:
14998:
14994:
14991:
14986:
14979:
14975:
14969:
14953:
14949:
14943:
14936:
14932:
14929:
14924:
14917:
14916:TheSharia.com
14913:
14909:
14906:
14900:
14892:
14885:
14876:
14873:
14869:
14868:
14866:
14860:
14854:
14850:
14844:
14835:
14828:
14827:
14822:
14818:
14817:Ibn Taymiyyah
14813:
14805:
14798:
14791:
14787:
14783:
14777:
14769:
14763:
14759:
14752:
14744:
14740:
14736:
14732:
14724:
14717:
14713:
14707:
14700:
14696:
14690:
14688:
14679:
14675:
14671:
14667:
14664:(2): 203–19.
14663:
14659:
14652:
14644:
14640:
14636:
14632:
14628:
14624:
14617:
14608:
14601:
14600:
14595:
14589:
14581:
14575:
14572:. Routledge.
14571:
14564:
14558:
14554:
14548:
14540:
14536:
14532:
14528:
14524:
14520:
14517:(1): 90–121.
14516:
14512:
14505:
14489:
14485:
14479:
14475:
14471:
14464:
14456:
14452:
14448:
14442:
14438:
14434:
14427:
14420:
14414:
14395:
14391:
14387:
14380:
14373:
14364:
14359:
14354:
14349:
14345:
14341:
14337:
14330:
14323:
14319:
14313:
14297:
14293:
14287:
14280:
14276:
14273:
14268:
14252:
14248:
14242:
14223:
14219:
14215:
14208:
14201:
14194:
14189:
14173:
14169:
14165:
14158:
14142:
14138:
14134:
14128:
14121:
14116:
14109:
14104:
14088:
14084:
14080:
14076:
14072:
14068:
14064:
14061:(2): 309–26.
14060:
14056:
14052:
14045:
14043:
14036:, p. 30.
14035:
14030:
14014:
14010:
14006:
14000:
13984:
13980:
13974:
13970:
13969:
13961:
13959:
13957:
13955:
13938:
13934:
13933:law.upenn.edu
13930:
13923:
13907:
13903:
13897:
13881:
13877:
13871:
13855:
13851:
13845:
13829:
13825:
13818:
13802:
13798:
13791:
13789:
13772:
13768:
13762:
13758:
13757:
13749:
13747:
13730:
13726:
13722:
13715:
13699:
13695:
13688:
13672:
13668:
13664:
13658:
13651:
13647:
13644:
13639:
13623:
13619:
13615:
13609:
13593:
13589:
13585:
13578:
13576:
13566:
13550:
13546:
13542:
13536:
13520:
13516:
13512:
13506:
13500:, p. 48.
13499:
13494:
13475:
13468:
13467:
13459:
13457:
13455:
13438:
13435:(3): 411–35.
13434:
13430:
13426:
13419:
13412:
13411:The Telegraph
13409:Jane Corbin,
13408:
13404:
13401:
13396:
13390:
13384:
13368:
13364:
13358:
13342:
13338:
13337:
13332:
13326:
13319:
13315:
13311:
13305:
13297:
13293:
13290:(1): 95–115.
13289:
13285:
13278:
13259:
13255:
13251:
13247:
13243:
13238:
13233:
13229:
13225:
13222:(3): 720–40.
13221:
13217:
13210:
13203:
13196:
13192:
13186:
13184:
13167:
13163:
13162:
13157:
13151:
13135:
13131:
13127:
13124:(3): 603–48.
13123:
13119:
13115:
13108:
13100:
13096:
13092:
13088:
13084:
13080:
13073:
13057:
13053:
13049:
13043:
13027:
13023:
13017:
13013:
13012:
13004:
12993:
12989:
12983:
12976:
12971:
12964:
12959:
12952:
12947:
12945:
12943:
12941:
12939:
12931:
12926:
12924:
12922:
12920:
12918:
12910:
12905:
12898:
12893:
12891:
12883:
12878:
12876:
12874:
12872:
12864:
12859:
12857:
12849:
12844:
12842:
12840:
12832:
12828:
12825:
12820:
12814:
12810:
12807:
12801:
12795:
12791:
12788:
12782:
12766:
12762:
12755:
12747:
12741:
12737:
12733:
12729:
12722:
12706:
12702:
12696:
12692:
12691:
12683:
12676:
12672:
12668:
12662:
12660:
12652:
12648:
12642:
12623:
12619:
12615:
12608:
12601:
12594:
12593:
12586:
12584:
12576:
12572:
12568:
12564:
12558:
12551:
12547:
12544:
12539:
12532:
12528:
12522:
12520:
12512:
12508:
12504:
12500:
12494:
12492:
12483:
12477:
12473:
12466:
12450:
12446:
12442:
12438:
12431:
12415:
12411:
12407:
12403:
12396:
12388:
12384:
12380:
12376:
12373:(3): 203–34.
12372:
12368:
12367:
12362:
12356:
12349:
12343:
12337:, p. 31.
12336:
12331:
12324:
12319:
12312:
12308:
12302:
12295:
12291:
12285:
12277:
12273:
12269:
12265:
12261:
12257:
12253:
12249:
12245:
12241:
12234:
12232:
12212:
12205:
12199:
12197:
12189:
12183:
12176:
12172:
12166:
12159:
12155:
12149:
12147:
12137:
12130:
12129:stare decisis
12126:
12124:
12118:
12102:
12098:
12092:
12084:
12080:
12076:
12072:
12068:
12064:
12057:
12055:
12046:
12042:
12038:
12031:
12024:
12019:
12003:
11999:
11995:
11989:
11973:
11969:
11965:
11958:
11951:
11946:
11930:
11926:
11922:
11915:
11908:
11903:
11896:
11891:
11884:
11879:
11873:
11868:
11859:
11843:
11839:
11832:
11825:
11821:
11817:
11811:
11802:
11796:, p. 20.
11795:
11790:
11788:
11786:
11778:
11773:
11771:
11763:
11758:
11756:
11754:
11752:
11750:
11748:
11746:
11738:
11733:
11726:
11721:
11719:
11717:
11715:
11707:
11702:
11700:
11698:
11696:
11694:
11692:
11684:
11679:
11677:
11669:
11664:
11657:
11652:
11650:
11642:
11637:
11635:
11633:
11631:
11623:
11618:
11616:
11614:
11612:
11604:
11599:
11592:
11587:
11581:, p. 61.
11580:
11575:
11569:, p. 39.
11568:
11563:
11556:
11551:
11549:
11547:
11539:
11534:
11532:
11523:
11519:
11515:
11511:
11507:
11503:
11496:
11494:
11492:
11483:
11476:
11469:
11464:
11457:
11452:
11445:
11440:
11433:
11428:
11422:, p. 85.
11421:
11416:
11409:
11404:
11397:
11392:
11385:
11380:
11378:
11370:
11365:
11363:
11361:
11353:
11348:
11346:
11344:
11342:
11340:
11332:
11327:
11320:
11315:
11308:
11303:
11301:
11299:
11291:
11286:
11279:
11274:
11267:
11262:
11260:
11258:
11256:
11248:
11243:
11241:
11233:
11228:
11221:
11216:
11214:
11206:
11201:
11199:
11191:
11186:
11184:
11176:
11171:
11169:
11167:
11165:
11163:
11161:
11159:
11151:
11146:
11144:
11142:
11140:
11138:
11136:
11128:
11123:
11116:
11111:
11104:
11099:
11097:
11089:
11084:
11077:
11072:
11070:
11068:
11066:
11064:
11062:
11060:
11058:
11056:
11054:
11052:
11050:
11030:
11026:
11022:
11015:
11008:
11001:. p. 57.
11000:
10993:
10985:
10979:
10975:
10968:
10961:
10956:
10954:
10952:
10944:
10939:
10937:
10935:
10933:
10931:
10923:
10918:
10916:
10914:
10912:
10910:
10901:
10895:
10891:
10890:
10882:
10875:
10869:
10862:
10856:
10847:
10840:
10836:
10830:
10815:
10811:
10804:
10788:
10784:
10777:
10769:
10767:9781589017528
10763:
10759:
10758:
10750:
10735:
10731:
10725:
10718:
10714:
10708:
10692:
10688:
10687:Teslimolanlar
10684:
10678:
10671:
10665:
10659:
10653:
10647:, p. 20.
10646:
10641:
10639:
10632:
10627:
10621:
10615:
10609:
10604:
10598:
10592:
10584:
10578:
10574:
10567:
10559:
10557:1-85168-204-X
10553:
10549:
10542:
10534:
10529:, p. 734
10528:
10523:
10514:
10506:
10502:
10498:
10494:
10490:
10486:
10482:
10478:
10474:
10467:
10459:
10455:
10451:
10447:
10443:
10439:
10436:(1): 20, 33.
10435:
10431:
10427:
10420:
10414:
10408:
10400:
10394:
10390:
10385:
10377:
10369:
10363:
10359:
10355:
10350:
10342:
10340:
10338:
10330:
10325:
10323:
10321:
10319:
10317:
10315:
10313:
10311:
10309:
10302:
10297:
10288:
10282:
10277:
10270:
10265:
10258:
10253:
10247:, p. 65.
10246:
10241:
10234:
10228:
10219:
10212:
10208:
10207:
10202:
10196:
10189:
10184:
10182:
10174:
10169:
10167:
10159:
10158:Duderija 2014
10154:
10152:
10150:
10148:
10146:
10144:
10136:
10132:
10128:
10122:
10114:
10110:
10106:
10102:
10095:
10087:
10081:
10077:
10073:
10066:
10050:
10046:
10044:9780759109919
10040:
10036:
10035:
10030:
10024:
10017:
10012:
10005:
10000:
9993:
9988:
9986:
9984:
9982:
9980:
9972:
9967:
9959:
9952:
9937:. p. 369
9936:
9929:
9922:
9914:
9908:
9892:
9888:
9882:
9875:
9873:
9866:
9859:
9854:
9847:
9842:
9840:
9838:
9836:
9834:
9832:
9830:
9828:
9820:
9815:
9806:
9798:
9791:
9775:
9771:
9767:
9761:
9759:
9750:
9743:
9741:
9739:
9730:
9729:
9722:
9707:
9703:
9696:
9688:
9686:1-881963-55-1
9682:
9678:
9671:
9664:
9659:
9653:, p. 15.
9652:
9647:
9645:
9635:
9627:
9620:
9612:
9606:
9597:
9589:
9584:, p. 53)
9583:
9578:
9572:
9565:
9559:
9553:
9547:
9540:
9534:
9529:
9522:
9517:
9510:
9505:
9503:
9501:
9493:
9488:
9486:
9478:
9473:
9471:
9469:
9467:
9465:
9463:
9461:
9459:
9457:
9455:
9453:
9445:
9440:
9438:
9436:
9434:
9432:
9430:
9428:
9426:
9417:
9410:
9394:
9390:
9388:9780191668265
9384:
9380:
9376:
9369:
9361:
9354:
9346:
9339:
9330:
9322:
9315:
9299:
9295:
9289:
9285:
9284:
9279:
9273:
9266:
9261:
9259:
9257:
9237:
9233:
9229:
9222:
9215:
9207:
9203:
9199:
9195:
9191:
9187:
9183:
9176:
9168:
9166:9780195305135
9162:
9158:
9154:
9150:
9143:
9135:
9128:
9120:
9118:9781780744681
9114:
9110:
9109:
9101:
9093:
9087:
9082:
9074:
9068:
9063:
9056:
9052:
9048:
9045:
9039:
9033:
9017:
9013:
9009:
9005:
9003:
9002:Kanun-ı Esasi
8994:
8988:
8987:
8982:
8976:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8963:
8955:
8948:
8943:
8935:
8929:
8922:
8909:Rom. 7: 22: '
8906:
8899:
8893:
8888:
8882:
8877:
8870:
8866:
8862:
8858:
8852:
8850:
8841:
8835:
8831:
8827:
8823:
8817:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8796:
8789:
8784:
8782:
8774:
8769:
8762:
8757:
8749:
8745:
8741:
8737:
8733:
8729:
8722:
8715:
8708:
8703:
8701:
8699:
8697:
8695:
8693:
8691:
8683:
8678:
8676:
8674:
8672:
8670:
8668:
8666:
8664:
8662:
8660:
8658:
8656:
8654:
8647:, p. 19.
8646:
8641:
8639:
8637:
8630:
8626:
8622:
8616:
8608:
8604:
8600:
8596:
8592:
8588:
8584:
8580:
8576:
8572:
8565:
8557:
8551:
8547:
8543:
8536:
8529:
8524:
8518:
8513:
8504:
8495:
8487:
8481:
8475:
8468:
8462:
8456:
8449:
8444:
8442:
8434:
8429:
8427:
8420:(consensus)."
8419:
8415:
8411:
8407:
8403:
8399:
8395:
8391:
8390:
8386:
8383:
8378:
8374:
8369:
8362:
8357:
8355:
8353:
8351:
8349:
8341:
8336:
8334:
8332:
8330:
8314:
8308:
8304:
8303:
8295:
8288:
8283:
8281:
8271:
8262:
8255:
8250:
8248:
8246:
8244:
8242:
8240:
8238:
8236:
8234:
8232:
8230:
8228:
8226:
8224:
8222:
8220:
8218:
8216:
8214:
8212:
8210:
8208:
8206:
8204:
8202:
8200:
8198:
8196:
8194:
8186:
8181:
8179:
8177:
8175:
8173:
8171:
8169:
8167:
8165:
8163:
8161:
8159:
8157:
8155:
8153:
8151:
8149:
8147:
8145:
8143:
8141:
8139:
8137:
8135:
8133:
8131:
8129:
8127:
8125:
8123:
8121:
8119:
8117:
8115:
8113:
8111:
8109:
8107:
8105:
8103:
8101:
8099:
8097:
8095:
8093:
8091:
8089:
8087:
8085:
8083:
8081:
8079:
8077:
8075:
8073:
8071:
8069:
8067:
8065:
8063:
8061:
8059:
8057:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8031:"Islamic Law"
8025:
8023:
8021:
8019:
8017:
8009:
8004:
8002:
7985:
7981:
7975:
7973:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7942:9781139629249
7938:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7922:
7918:
7914:
7912:
7908:
7904:
7898:
7892:
7890:
7885:
7871:
7862:
7856:
7847:
7841:
7813:
7809:
7797:
7788:
7779:
7772:
7768:
7764:
7758:
7748:
7739:
7732:
7728:
7723:
7719:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7674:
7672:
7669:
7667:
7663:
7659:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7635:
7632:
7630:
7627:
7626:
7619:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7599:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7584:
7582:
7581:
7576:
7575:
7570:
7569:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7555:
7550:
7549:master of law
7546:
7545:
7540:
7534:
7532:
7531:
7526:
7525:
7520:
7516:
7512:
7511:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7493:Inns of Court
7490:
7486:
7482:
7478:
7474:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7458:
7448:
7445:
7440:
7438:
7437:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7419:
7415:
7411:
7410:
7405:
7404:
7399:
7395:
7394:
7389:
7385:
7379:
7373:
7358:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7335:
7331:
7327:
7322:
7320:
7319:Bernard Lewis
7315:
7310:
7308:
7304:
7300:
7296:
7292:
7284:
7280:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7249:
7247:
7243:
7239:
7235:
7227:
7224:
7220:
7218:
7211:
7206:
7202:
7192:
7190:
7185:
7181:
7171:
7169:
7165:
7159:
7157:
7153:
7149:
7148:
7143:
7139:
7133:
7131:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7107:
7105:
7096:
7093:
7082:
7079:
7074:
7072:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7049:
7045:
7035:
7033:
7029:
7026:for gay sex,
7024:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6995:
6994:
6972:
6957:
6956:Death penalty
6947:
6942:
6941:LGBT in Islam
6932:
6930:
6925:
6921:
6920:child-custody
6917:
6913:
6912:criminal laws
6908:
6906:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6893:
6888:
6884:
6883:death penalty
6879:
6876:
6872:
6871:death penalty
6865:
6861:
6857:
6852:
6845:
6840:
6835:
6825:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6786:
6781:
6776:
6771:
6767:
6765:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6704:
6700:
6695:
6685:
6683:
6679:
6674:
6670:
6667:
6663:
6659:
6658:
6652:
6650:
6645:
6641:
6639:
6635:
6630:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6608:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6563:Fahmi Huwaidi
6560:
6556:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6528:
6523:
6522:
6517:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6501:
6500:
6491:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6472:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6458:
6453:
6450:
6445:
6444:
6443:
6441:
6437:
6427:
6422:
6418:
6414:
6410:
6395:
6393:
6388:
6385:
6381:
6376:
6374:
6373:
6368:
6364:
6363:David Cameron
6360:
6356:
6355:Newt Gingrich
6353:
6352:House Speaker
6349:
6345:
6344:Western world
6336:
6331:
6321:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6294:
6290:
6285:
6282:
6276:
6272:
6270:
6266:
6251:
6249:
6245:
6234:
6232:
6228:
6224:
6223:Nasr Abu Zayd
6218:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6190:
6185:
6181:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6156:
6152:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6132:
6127:
6126:
6121:
6120:
6113:
6107:
6100:
6094:
6092:
6088:
6082:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6070:
6065:
6064:
6058:
6055:
6054:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6036:
6028:
6023:
6013:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5997:
5995:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5980:
5976:
5975:
5968:
5958:
5954:
5953:communities.
5951:
5945:
5943:
5938:
5936:
5926:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5905:
5899:
5897:
5886:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5867:
5866:stare decisis
5862:
5858:
5854:
5849:
5845:
5837:
5832:
5828:
5820:
5817:
5809:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5785:
5784:
5779:This section
5777:
5768:
5767:
5759:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5736:
5732:
5722:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5703:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5686:
5685:
5680:
5679:
5674:
5663:
5654:
5645:
5641:
5639:
5599:
5595:
5593:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5558:According to
5555:
5545:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5534:Islamic state
5530:
5528:
5524:
5518:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5501:
5499:
5495:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5477:
5471:
5459:
5454:
5452:
5447:
5445:
5440:
5439:
5437:
5436:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5422:
5411:
5410:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5379:
5374:
5373:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5350:Maajid Nawaaz
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5315:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5258:Navvab Safavi
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5243:Tariq Ramadan
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5193:Safwat Hegazi
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5178:Muhammad Asad
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5155:
5149:
5148:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5130:House of Saud
5128:
5126:
5125:Mohammed Omar
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5110:Mohamed Morsi
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5082:
5076:
5075:
5067:
5066:Khomeini 1970
5063:
5062:
5060:
5053:
5050:
5046:
5044:
5040:
5037:
5033:
5032:
5028:
5025:
5021:
5020:
5016:
5013:
5009:
5008:
5004:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4965:
4964:
4963:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4923:
4922:
4921:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4904:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4863:
4855:
4854:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4809:
4808:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4796:
4792:
4790:
4789:
4785:
4783:
4782:Post-Islamism
4780:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4744:
4741:
4737:
4734:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4720:
4719:Islamic state
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4688:
4687:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4678:
4677:
4671:
4670:
4665:
4659:
4658:Shia Islamism
4656:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4639:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4615:
4614:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4572:
4571:
4567:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4528:
4526:
4522:
4517:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4499:
4495:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4448:
4446:
4442:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4419:Nation states
4416:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4391:
4386:
4382:
4377:
4373:
4363:
4354:
4352:
4351:
4344:
4342:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4323:
4319:
4318:British India
4311:
4307:
4303:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4272:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4255:
4252:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4209:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4171:
4167:
4165:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4120:
4114:
4112:
4108:
4100:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4064:
4062:
4061:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4049:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4003:
3988:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3962:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3914:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3832:
3827:
3826:
3821:
3820:
3815:
3814:
3808:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3793:furūʿ al-fiqh
3788:
3784:
3772:
3767:
3765:
3760:
3758:
3753:
3752:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3704:
3699:
3698:
3686:
3685:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3642:
3641:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3630:
3628:
3627:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3588:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3556:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3421:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3381:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3370:
3359:
3354:
3350:
3348:
3346:(retaliation)
3343:
3339:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3311:
3305:
3302:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3280:
3275:
3271:
3269:
3267:(illicit sex)
3264:
3260:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3223:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3164:
3162:
3161:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3137:
3136:Breastfeeding
3134:
3132:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3123:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3107:
3103:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3064:
3062:
3061:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3012:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2971:
2969:
2968:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2947:
2942:
2941:
2928:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2914:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2835:
2834:
2830:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2817:Sunnah prayer
2813:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2801:
2800:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2725:
2719:
2718:furūʿ al-fiqh
2713:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2682:social status
2679:
2675:
2671:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2587:
2585:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2511:reprehensible
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2417:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2195:mental effort
2174:
2173:
2167:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2026:
2025:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1982:Sunni Muslims
1979:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1830:Sunni Muslims
1827:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1759:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1740:Ahl al-Hadith
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1712:Ahl al-Hadith
1709:
1705:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1664:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1651:furūʿ al-fiqh
1648:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1608:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1572:
1568:
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18:Shari'ah
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18458:Virgin Books
18453:
18438:. Retrieved
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17984:(3): 71–90.
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17898:Kuran, Timur
17892:
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17230:Investopedia
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17219:
17207:. Retrieved
17192:
17182:. New York:
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17173:
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17156:, p. 4.
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16478:(2): 417–67.
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16320:(1): 13–29.
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16252:. Retrieved
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14737:(1): 39–70.
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14723:
14718:, pp. 100–01
14706:
14661:
14657:
14651:
14626:
14622:
14616:
14607:
14599:Free Inquiry
14597:
14594:Austin Dacey
14592:Paul Kurtz,
14588:
14569:
14563:
14547:
14514:
14510:
14504:
14492:. Retrieved
14473:
14463:
14439:(1): 23–34.
14436:
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14426:
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14413:
14401:. Retrieved
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14385:
14372:
14343:
14339:
14329:
14324:, pp. 235–71
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14300:. Retrieved
14296:the original
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13858:. Retrieved
13844:
13832:. Retrieved
13817:
13805:. Retrieved
13775:. Retrieved
13755:
13733:. Retrieved
13724:
13721:"The Nation"
13714:
13702:. Retrieved
13687:
13675:. Retrieved
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13638:
13626:. Retrieved
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13587:
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13219:
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13170:. Retrieved
13159:
13150:
13138:. Retrieved
13121:
13117:
13107:
13085:(4): 71–96.
13082:
13079:Africa Today
13078:
13072:
13060:. Retrieved
13051:
13042:
13030:. Retrieved
13010:
13003:
12992:the original
12982:
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12882:Messick 2017
12824:Saudi Arabia
12819:
12800:
12781:
12769:. Retrieved
12754:
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12721:
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12682:
12677:, pp. 234–35
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12641:
12629:. Retrieved
12620:(2): 40–47.
12617:
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12412:(1): 65–83.
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12190:, pp. 110–27
12187:
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12177:, pp. 126–27
12165:
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11777:Lapidus 2014
11762:Stewart 2013
11732:
11668:Hallaq 2009b
11663:
11656:Stewart 2013
11598:
11591:Hallaq 2009b
11586:
11574:
11562:
11555:El Achi 2018
11540:, p. 7.
11505:
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11444:Lapidus 2014
11439:
11432:Masters 2009
11427:
11415:
11408:Nettler 2009
11403:
11391:
11369:Stewart 2013
11331:Hodgson 1974
11326:
11314:
11290:Hallaq 2009b
11285:
11273:
11266:Tillier 2014
11227:
11205:Lapidus 2014
11150:Stewart 2013
11122:
11115:Stewart 2013
11110:
11083:
11036:. Retrieved
11024:
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10922:Ziadeh 2009c
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10483:(1): 50–51.
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10235:2014, S. 92.
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10199:Al-Ghazālī:
10195:
10126:
10121:
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10100:
10094:
10071:
10065:
10053:. Retrieved
10033:
10023:
10011:
9999:
9973:, p. 3.
9966:
9957:
9951:
9939:. Retrieved
9934:
9926:Wehr, Hans.
9921:
9895:. Retrieved
9891:the original
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9711:24 September
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9569:intensified.
9564:
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9521:Lapidus 2014
9516:
9492:Lapidus 2014
9415:
9409:
9397:. Retrieved
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9320:
9314:
9302:. Retrieved
9282:
9272:
9265:Jokisch 2015
9243:. Retrieved
9231:
9227:
9214:
9192:(1): 25–53.
9189:
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8316:. Retrieved
8301:
8294:
8287:Stewart 2013
8270:
8261:
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8039:the original
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7984:the original
7959:. Retrieved
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7381:
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7246:umm al-walad
7245:
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7214:
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6997:
6991:
6988:
6969: Up to
6918:and to deny
6909:
6901:human rights
6890:
6880:
6868:
6772:
6770:minorities.
6768:
6748:Muslim world
6732:
6684:(politics).
6681:
6677:
6671:
6657:Free Inquiry
6655:
6653:
6648:
6642:
6614:
6591:In 1998 the
6590:
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6519:
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6281:Amaney Jamal
6277:
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5666:Criminal law
5660:
5651:
5642:
5634:
5580:Saudi Arabia
5557:
5531:
5519:
5513:
5509:
5502:
5497:
5473:
5470:Islamization
5412:
5402:Islamophobia
5278:Ahmed Yassin
5263:Ali Shariati
5203:Ali Khamenei
5085:Ali Khamenei
5056:
5054:
5042:
5029:
5017:
5005:
4961:
4960:
4919:
4918:
4877:Ahl-i Hadith
4861:
4836:Anti-Zionism
4805:
4793:
4787:
4786:
4765:Pan-Islamism
4745:
4740:of knowledge
4736:Islamization
4684:
4575:Fundamentals
4547:Islamization
4529:
4518:
4513:
4509:
4503:
4486:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4460:
4456:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4437:
4427:
4394:
4388:
4368:
4348:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4325:
4315:
4300:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4271:
4256:
4247:
4233:
4183:
4176:
4163:
4160:
4151:local custom
4146:
4140:
4134:
4133:The police (
4132:
4127:
4123:
4117:
4115:
4110:
4104:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4043:
4009:
3970:
3966:
3963:
3920:
3918:
3887:Christianity
3880:
3875:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3852:
3848:
3846:
3839:
3835:
3829:
3823:
3819:lex talionis
3817:
3811:
3809:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3790:
3724:
3716:
3709:
3683:
3660:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3610:
3603:
3596:
3589:
3582:
3533:
3526:
3519:
3512:
3491:
3480:
3474:
3467:
3460:
3453:
3441:
3399:
3382:
3352:
3341:
3330:
3313:
3308:("sedition")
3289:("mischief")
3284:
3273:
3262:
3251:
3238:
3209:Masturbation
3207:
3200:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3120:
3113:
3104:
3097:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3040:
3000:
2993:
2986:
2979:
2972:
2965:
2925:
2917:
2910:
2903:
2891:
2879:
2870:
2861:
2850:
2843:
2831:
2824:
2815:
2804:
2797:
2790:
2778:
2769:
2740:
2717:
2670:compensation
2667:
2647:
2616:
2581:
2547:
2540:
2536:
2530:
2527:
2522:
2514:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2474:
2471:
2433:
2426:
2420:
2414:
2412:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2388:
2381:
2371:
2367:
2359:, the early
2352:
2347:
2307:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2276:
2268:
2265:Islamic Fiqh
2260:
2256:
2250:
2243:
2242:is called "
2239:
2238:who perform
2229:
2217:usul al-fiqh
2215:
2211:
2205:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2146:human rights
2129:
2126:
2100:
2096:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2079:
2050:
2046:
2045:
2021:
2017:
2013:
1991:
1985:
1977:
1971:
1963:
1953:
1932:
1926:
1913:
1902:
1892:
1866:Gerd R. Puin
1863:
1855:
1849:
1839:
1833:
1823:
1787:
1781:
1778:Twelver Shia
1775:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1749:
1732:al-muʿtazila
1716:Ahl al-Kalām
1701:
1689:
1674:
1663:uṣūl al-fiqh
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:uṣūl al-fiqh
1640:
1634:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1602:
1591:
1563:
1556:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1481:
1435:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1316:Saʿadya Gaon
1285:
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1219:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1183:
1141:
1138:sharīʿatu-nā
1137:
1129:
1121:
1119:
1095:
1063:human rights
1048:
1001:
957:criminal law
938:
917:
887:
875:
863:
857:
847:
834:Traditional
833:
808:
783:
771:
728:
724:
720:
716:
713:
712:
710:
629:Islamophobia
408:Demographics
403:Circumcision
319:
312:
305:
271:
270:
263:
247:
239:
231:
220:
214:
208:
201:
19392:Legal codes
18787:"Democracy"
18476:Hussin, Iza
18172:"S̲h̲arīʿa"
17267:(1): 1–17.
17240:7 September
17209:7 September
17021:impossible.
15928:18 December
15418:28 November
15304:28 November
15265:29 November
15190:27 November
14701:, pp. 59–67
14257:20 November
14009:Ballotpedia
13943:10 December
13886:8 September
13860:10 December
13834:10 December
13807:10 December
13777:21 November
13735:10 December
13628:4 September
13598:23 February
13498:Stence 2013
13373:18 February
12930:Berger 2014
12313:, pp. 36–37
12160:, Chapter 4
11844:(in German)
11706:Hallaq 2010
11683:Hallaq 2010
11622:Hallaq 2010
11603:Hallaq 2010
11579:Hallaq 2009
11319:Berkey 2003
11307:Hallaq 2010
11278:Hallaq 2009
11232:Hallaq 2010
11220:Hallaq 2009
11190:Hallaq 2009
11127:Hallaq 2010
11103:Hallaq 2009
11088:Hallaq 2009
11076:Hussin 2014
10960:Hallaq 2009
10943:Hallaq 2009
10819:22 December
10734:quranix.org
10645:Hallaq 2009
10188:Gleave 2012
10016:Hallaq 2009
10004:Kamali 1999
9992:Hallaq 2009
9860:, chpt. 4b.
9858:Dahlén 2003
9846:Hallaq 2009
9663:Kamali 1999
9651:Hallaq 2009
9509:Hallaq 2009
9444:Ziadeh 2009
9399:11 November
8577:(1): 1–38.
8528:Amanat 2009
8448:Hallaq 2010
8342:, chpt. 4c.
8340:Dahlén 2003
8254:Calder 2009
8010:, chpt. 2a.
8008:Dahlén 2003
7801:supporters.
7611:corporation
7489:law schools
7355:Grand Mufti
7353:and former
7242:manumission
6935:LGBT rights
6924:inheritance
6875:Wael Hallaq
6856:Sol Hachuel
6812:of General
6705:worldwide:
6597:Refah Party
6505:Sayyid Qutb
6449:Arab Spring
6348:Republicans
6046:condemning
5950:Timur Kuran
5929:Civil cases
5689:Afghanistan
5365:Bassam Tibi
5360:Olivier Roy
5253:Rashid Rida
5238:Sayyid Qutb
5024:Iqbal 1930s
4971:MENA region
4941:Millî Görüş
4537:Anwar Sadat
4487:neo-ijtihad
4482:deterrence.
4434:, Indonesia
4200:, based on
4040:(est. 1422)
3546:Inheritance
3493:Bayt al-mal
2852:Nafl prayer
2491:recommended
2396:) over the
2273:Orientalist
2202:Islamic law
2138:Rashid Rida
1916:inheritance
1826:Rashid Rida
1724:Ahl al-Ra'y
1567:revisionist
1342:תורת אלוהים
1126:Middle East
1016:theoretical
969:recommended
898:Sunni Islam
872:إجماع الأمة
770:, the term
644:Laws of war
307:Ahl al-Bayt
192:Foundations
27:Islamic law
19371:Categories
19275:Sharia Law
19097:"Sharīʿah"
18222:"Sharīʿah"
18135:"Maṣlaḥah"
18051:Ali, Kecia
17923:10161/2546
17563:Glenn 2014
17520:13 January
17474:13 January
17398:(3): 416.
16992:0253212642
16975:0292776942
16899:0195144201
16687:13 January
16202:0195144201
15871:: 265–66.
15449:14 October
15383:Vikør 2005
14958:13 January
14853:0028657357
14363:1887/62331
13989:13 January
13725:The Nation
13237:1887/13673
12909:Vikør 2005
12552:pp. 7, 10.
12296:, pp. 1–68
12023:Brown 2017
11907:Abiad 2008
11848:3 February
11737:Rabb 2009d
11641:Masud 2009
11538:Lewis 1992
11456:Hardy 1991
10329:Rabb 2009c
10269:Opwis 2007
10257:Opwis 2007
10245:Opwis 2007
10173:Brown 2009
10129:, pg. 32.
10107:(3): 292.
9971:Brown 2009
9819:Reza Aslan
9477:Rabb 2009b
8682:Mayer 2009
8185:Vikør 2014
8045:29 January
7990:4 December
7961:17 October
7951:2013019592
7771:Successors
7767:Companions
7457:common law
7398:Pentateuch
7376:See also:
7366:Jewish law
7291:extremists
7199:See also:
7189:Hanbalites
7138:Surah 4:34
6824:minority.
6814:Zia-ul Haq
6793:Christians
6632:1990, the
6451:uprisings;
6440:DeLong-Bas
6359:Diana West
6324:Opposition
6318:Jewish law
5861:precedents
5848:defendants
5844:plaintiffs
5838:, Malaysia
5806:March 2019
5790:improve it
5756:Motasarruf
5657:Family law
5494:Arab world
5355:Sam Harris
5335:Farag Foda
5115:Zia ul-Haq
4976:South Asia
4887:Madkhalism
4862:Scholastic
4820:Influences
4634:Khomeinism
4618:Ideologies
4606:Secularism
4341:Al-Hidayah
4336:Al-Hidayah
4332:common law
4327:Al-Hidayah
3923:) are the
3913:Ibn Hanbal
3909:Abu Dawood
3863:Mukhtasars
3407:Honorifics
3256:(gambling)
2599:concubines
2444:Quran 4:24
2326:Shia Islam
2082:al-Ghazali
2010:Hanbalites
2006:Al-Bukhari
1677:linguistic
1599:al-Shafi'i
1533:al-Shafi'i
1525:Abu Hanifa
1513:companions
1327:شريعة الله
1147:Four Doors
1103:, such as
1059:modernists
1024:governance
981:prohibited
949:family law
815:issued by
780:divine law
774:refers to
497:Philosophy
234:(exegesis)
171:Pilgrimage
161:Almsgiving
19236:, Mainz:
18616:578890367
18587:647084498
18440:29 August
18355:(2009b).
17725:153149243
17620:5 October
17412:1478-1913
17261:ERA Forum
16629:154841891
16546:144491368
16136:25 August
16037:0013-0613
15885:149570040
15796:0027-4909
15532:0027-4909
14678:144779047
14539:144825564
14392:(1): 12.
14083:150075053
14075:1351-0347
14034:Otto 2008
13483:31 August
13254:144601396
13099:154801688
12975:Chan 2016
12963:Mack 2018
12569:. p. 71.
12335:Otto 2008
12323:Otto 2008
12268:143083939
12083:0008-1973
11895:Otto 2008
11883:Otto 2008
11794:Otto 2008
11522:145552242
11484:: 53, 54.
11247:Rabb 2009
10841:, pp. 131
10739:14 August
10505:121170987
10458:159897995
10349:"Taqiyah"
10055:17 August
9198:0578-8072
9086:Dost 2023
9032:cite book
8928:cite book
8863:. p. 17.
8761:Otto 2008
8748:2458-9675
8645:Otto 2008
8607:145681085
8591:0897-6546
8472:(hasan).
7921:Cambridge
7899:(2014) .
7880:Citations
7855:romanized
7574:professor
7501:precedent
7497:Madrasahs
7491:known as
7434:rabbinic
7252:Terrorism
7226:concubine
7184:ightasaba
7130:Ibn Hajar
7014:Wahhabism
6764:beheading
6735:blasphemy
6688:Blasphemy
6434:Scholars
6287:In 2008,
6208:, by the
6206:Indonesia
6178:In Iran,
6144:Wahhabism
5853:discovery
5794:verifying
5568:democracy
5527:theocracy
5390:Modernism
5318:in Europe
5049:Qutb 1965
5036:Asad 1961
5000:Key texts
4920:Political
4902:Wahhabism
4858:Movements
4699:Caliphate
4596:Economics
4510:takhayyur
4457:takhayyur
4194:Aurangzeb
4093:The poet
4020:precedent
3967:takhayyur
3871:mukhtasar
3854:mukhtasar
3801:muʿāmalāt
3725:Istijarah
3375:Etiquette
3318:(stoning)
3246:Blasphemy
2961:Caliphate
2946:Political
2694:musta'min
2639:Wahhabism
2623:Al-Tahawi
2573:Quranists
2519:forbidden
2499:mustaḥabb
2479:mandatory
2436:as a rule
2378:Mu'tazila
2334:Ayatollah
2304:Salafiyya
2190: or
1998:Zahirites
1957:mutawatir
1939:orthodoxy
1846:consensus
1736:kalamiyya
1720:Mu'tazila
1708:Atharists
1685:abrogated
1604:al-risala
1491:Al Baqara
1468:and free
1460:rituals.
1366:God's Law
1350:God's Law
1334:God's Law
1238:Etymology
1159:Ismailism
1120:The word
1020:practical
965:mandatory
617:terrorism
569:Criticism
522:Sexuality
492:Mysticism
462:Festivals
442:Education
437:Economics
373:Academics
329:Caliphate
142:Practices
51:Shahriyar
19329:Archived
19250:(1964).
19202:5 August
19188:(1368).
19056:"Courts"
18805:"Dhimmī"
18635:(2014).
18627:. Brill.
18412:(1974).
18333:(2009).
18211:18 April
18161:24 March
18074:(1996).
18053:(2010).
18015:Archived
17932:30038724
17876:Archived
17729:Archived
17614:Archived
17610:BBC News
17514:Archived
17492:Archived
17468:Archived
17372:4 August
17366:Archived
17322:16 April
17316:Archived
17234:Archived
17203:Archived
17138:Archived
17112:18 March
16957:20048203
16919:Archived
16827:Archived
16796:Archived
16766:Archived
16736:Archived
16681:Archived
16651:Archived
16647:IRINnews
16578:Archived
16576:. 2012.
16369:Archived
16248:Archived
16161:Archived
16130:Archived
16104:Archived
16071:Archived
15965:20441406
15922:Archived
15842:Archived
15766:Archived
15763:Apostasy
15747:Archived
15732:Archived
15716:Archived
15684:17 April
15678:Archived
15654:17 April
15648:Archived
15614:(2007).
15572:18 April
15566:Archived
15548:(2011).
15473:Archived
15469:BBC News
15443:Archived
15439:BBC News
15412:Archived
15322:(2009).
15298:Archived
15259:Archived
15228:Archived
15184:Archived
15108:Archived
15090:18 April
15084:Archived
15048:18 April
15042:Archived
15038:BBC News
15012:Archived
14993:Archived
14952:Archived
14931:Archived
14908:Archived
14643:41802396
14488:Archived
14455:81814299
14403:16 April
14394:Archived
14275:Archived
14251:Archived
14231:16 April
14222:Archived
14220:(1): 2.
14178:17 April
14172:Archived
14147:17 April
14141:Archived
14087:Archived
14019:19 March
14013:Archived
13983:Archived
13937:Archived
13906:Archived
13880:Archived
13854:Archived
13828:Archived
13801:Archived
13771:Archived
13729:Archived
13698:Archived
13671:Archived
13646:Archived
13622:Archived
13618:BBC News
13592:Archived
13555:18 April
13549:Archived
13525:18 April
13519:Archived
13437:Archived
13403:Archived
13367:Archived
13347:19 March
13341:Archived
13267:11 April
13258:Archived
13246:20069684
13172:18 April
13166:Archived
13134:Archived
13056:Archived
13026:Archived
12988:"Movies"
12827:Archived
12809:Archived
12790:Archived
12765:Archived
12705:Archived
12622:Archived
12546:Archived
12455:25 March
12449:Archived
12414:Archived
12220:22 March
12211:Archived
12107:28 April
12101:Archived
12008:27 March
12002:Archived
11978:28 March
11972:Archived
11935:16 April
11929:Archived
11567:Ali 2010
11038:19 April
11029:Archived
10497:43908333
10413:mojtahed
10384:"Taqlid"
10231:Kurnaz:
10049:Archived
9907:cite web
9870:Burton,
9766:"Sunnah"
9706:Atlantic
9393:Archived
9298:Archived
9280:(1996).
9245:19 April
9236:Archived
9206:41932575
9047:Archived
9016:Archived
9012:Würzburg
8824:(2008).
8392:, p. 2.
8385:Archived
8379:(2001),
7955:Archived
7861:sharīʿah
7850:شَرِيعَة
7707:Theonomy
7622:See also
7568:magister
7563:mudarris
7477:Istihqaq
7461:contract
7436:responsa
7283:Al-Qaeda
7270:Jihadism
7121:Tirmidhi
7010:Salafism
7008:such as
6916:marriage
6860:apostasy
6828:Apostasy
6756:flogging
6582:context.
6227:apostasy
6158:Taliban
6131:muhtasib
6097:Role of
5896:apostasy
5871:codified
5508:and the
5481:Islamism
4962:Militant
4882:Deobandi
4758:Jihadism
4674:Concepts
4624:Islamism
4601:Politics
4566:Islamism
4558:a series
4556:Part of
4381:Tanzimat
4242:Zanzibar
4192:emperor
4147:muhtasib
4142:muhtasib
4085:Muhtasib
4048:madrasas
3921:madhhabs
3883:theology
3728:(asylum)
3703:Military
3662:Dhabihah
3619:Tayammum
3521:Murabaha
3426:Economic
3228:Criminal
3167:Abortion
3131:Adoption
3088:Polygyny
3036:Contract
3026:Marriage
2898:clothing
2833:Tahajjud
2729:a series
2727:Part of
2702:apostate
2684:such as
2635:Salafism
2448:Muhammad
2428:istishab
2422:istislah
2416:istihsan
2399:Akhbaris
2330:Ruhollah
2245:mujtahid
2185:physical
2008:, early
1558:madhāhib
1505:Muhammad
1426:Safaitic
1276:Halakhah
1163:Alawites
1122:sharīʿah
1034:see the
993:Al Imran
977:abhorred
831:rulers.
772:sharīʿah
717:Sharī'ah
653:Glossary
639:Jihadism
612:Violence
607:Islamism
578:Muhammad
564:Apostasy
507:Politics
457:Feminism
452:Exorcism
413:Diaspora
398:Children
393:Calendar
321:Rashidun
299:Muhammad
294:Timeline
255:Mathnawi
117:Prophets
61:a series
59:Part of
47:Shariyah
19321:article
18109:"Fatwa"
18034:Sources
17882:28 July
17717:3312162
17290:"Jihād"
16762:Iqra.ca
16732:Iqra.ca
16657:31 July
16621:1051612
16584:18 July
16574:Musawah
16554:1121953
16375:29 July
16334:3381490
16204:, p. 83
16167:9 April
16110:9 April
16077:9 April
15973:1099061
15848:9 April
15153:1570336
14623:Theoria
14494:20 July
14302:4 April
14093:4 April
13912:31 July
13443:19 July
13363:"India"
13140:10 June
13130:1885776
13032:16 July
12711:17 June
12631:18 July
12420:19 July
12387:3382008
12276:1113891
10354:Ijtihad
10137:, 2005.
10131:Chicago
9941:15 June
9780:15 June
8811:. p. 4.
8599:4092696
7857::
7727:Twelver
7702:Halakha
7666:shariah
7662:Shāfiʿī
7561:") and
7505:analogy
7418:halakha
7393:Halakha
7384:Judaism
7372:Halakha
7223:Ottoman
7195:Slavery
7180:ghasaba
7168:Khutbah
7152:Musawah
6789:Ahmadis
6760:hanging
6682:siyasah
6649:shari'a
6625:secular
6621:Western
6521:maslaha
6384:Ontario
6342:In the
6300:, then
6259:Support
6214:Taliban
6076:. When
6063:ijtihad
5988:Magians
5883:Hanbali
5836:Malacca
5788:Please
5590:by the
5584:secular
4867:Barelvi
4775:aspects
4738: (
4629:Qutbism
4591:Culture
4586:History
4476:maqasid
4472:maslaha
4445:mahkama
4390:Mecelle
4128:Mazalim
4124:mazalim
4119:mazalim
4111:mahkama
4099:dervish
4077:Mazalim
4006:Madrasa
3996:Jurists
3984:Wahhabi
3955:Ismaili
3947:Twelver
3937:Hanbali
3933:Shafi'i
3899:Madhhab
3876:qawāʿid
3797:ʿibādāt
3684:kashrut
3668:Alcohol
3651:Dietary
3640:Istinja
3584:Taharah
3561:Hygiene
3528:Takaful
3503:Banking
3479: (
3476:Sadaqah
3435:History
3274:Hirabah
3188:Hygiene
3122:Kafa'ah
3093:Divorce
2974:Imamate
2922: (
2896: (
2826:Tarawih
2792:Raka'ah
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2678:freedom
2577:Shiites
2565:hadiths
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2503:neutral
2452:Shiites
2408:Ijtihad
2368:Ijtihad
2353:ijtihad
2308:ijtihad
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2292:ijtihad
2277:ijtihad
2269:ijtihad
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2257:ijtihad
2240:ijtihad
2212:ijtihad
2179:
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2166:Ijtihad
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2150:dignity
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2130:maqasid
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2097:maslaha
2090:maslaha
2086:Maqāṣid
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1993:Ijtihad
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1903:tawātur
1857:ijtihad
1848:of the
1770:ijtihad
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1301:šarīʿah
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1200:Ijtihād
1179:dervish
1171:Ma'rifa
1142:šarīʿah
1105:stoning
1079:banking
973:neutral
940:rituals
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914:Hanbali
910:Shafiʽi
892:. Four
801:
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744:
729:Syariah
725:Shariah
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714:Sharia,
534:Slavery
517:Science
472:Madrasa
467:Finance
378:Animals
366:society
362:Culture
334:Imamate
314:Sahabah
287:History
257:(Poems)
242:(creed)
166:Fasting
94:Oneness
87:Beliefs
19377:Sharia
19347:Portal
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14792:p. 332
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13018:
12771:22 May
12742:
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4222:Dhimmi
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4016:fatwas
4012:muftis
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3867:mabsut
3859:mabsut
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1500:Atharī
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7714:Notes
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2014:Qiyas
1987:Qiyas
1984:view
1978:ʿilla
1973:Qiyas
1920:hudud
1894:Quran
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1246:word
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544:Women
487:Music
425:Sunni
274:(law)
222:Sirah
203:Quran
187:Texts
69:Islam
49:, or
43:Shara
39:Saria
19204:2022
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18660:ISBN
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18612:OCLC
18583:OCLC
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18429:ISBN
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18339:ISBN
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18241:ISBN
18213:2018
18163:2019
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18023:2021
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17737:2018
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17622:2008
17522:2017
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