522:. Other attempts include a 1977 paper by Terazawa, Chikashige, and Akama, similar, but independent, 1979 papers by Ne'eman, Harari, and Shupe, a 1981 paper by Fritzsch and Mandelbaum, and a 1992 book by D'Souza and Kalman. None of these have gained wide acceptance in the physics world. However, in a recent work de Souza has shown that his model describes well all weak decays of hadrons according to selection rules dictated by a quantum number derived from his compositeness model. In his model leptons are elementary particles and each quark is composed of two
391:, fundamental building blocks of nature are indivisible bits of matter that are ungenerated and indestructible. Neither leptons nor quarks are truly indestructible, since some leptons can decay into other leptons, some quarks into other quarks. Thus, on fundamental grounds, quarks are not themselves fundamental building blocks, but must be composed of other, fundamental quantities—preons. Although the mass of each successive particle follows certain patterns, predictions of the
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fermions: quarks and leptons. More recent preon models also account for spin-1 bosons, and are still called "preons". Each of the preon models postulates a set of fewer fundamental particles than those of the
Standard Model, together with the rules governing how those fundamental particles combine
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postulated a series of 'subelectrons of the first and second type' with the latter being fundamental particles that were associated with the gravitation force. While this may not have been an element of the original novel (the scientific basis of some of the other novels in the series was revised
609:
or rule it out, and propose that electro-weak symmetry is broken not by a scalar Higgs field but by composite preons. For example, Fredriksson preon theory does not need the Higgs boson, and explains the electro-weak breaking as the rearrangement of preons, rather than a Higgs-mediated field. In
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So the preon model represents a mass paradox: How could quarks or electrons be made of smaller particles that would have many orders of magnitude greater mass-energies arising from their enormous momenta? One way of resolving this paradox is to postulate a large binding force between preons that
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derives) in an effort to justify theoretically the many parts of the
Standard Model that are known only through experimental data. Other names which have been used for these proposed fundamental particles (or particles intermediate between the most fundamental particles and those observed in the
449:
However, the particular preon model discussed below has attracted comparatively little interest among the particle physics community to date, in part because no evidence has been obtained so far in collider experiments to show that the fermions of the
Standard Model are composite.
1061:, two of Dr. Carol Marcus' Genesis project team, Vance Madison and Delwyn March, have studied sub-elementary particles they've named "boojums" and "snarks", in a field they jokingly call "kindergarten physics" because it is lower than "elementary" (analogy to school levels).
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illustrates some of the typical efforts in the field. Many of the preon models theorize that the apparent imbalance of matter and antimatter in the universe is in fact illusory, with large quantities of preon-level antimatter confined within more complex structures.
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are nearly identical except for charge, and a slight mass difference; preon research is motivated by explaining that quarks are composed of similar preons, with incremental differences accounting for charge. The hope is to reproduce the
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and interact. Based on these rules, the preon models try to explain the
Standard Model, often predicting small discrepancies with this model and generating new particles and certain phenomena which do not belong to the Standard Model.
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which are combinations of three quarks, plus a handful of other particles. The particles being seen in the ever-more-powerful accelerators were, according to the theory, typically nothing more than combinations of these quarks.
62:
of particle physics continues to describe physics mostly successfully, and no direct experimental evidence for lepton and quark compositeness has been found. Preons come in four varieties: plus, anti-plus, zero, and anti-zero.
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extensively due to the additional eighteen years of scientific development), even the edited publication may be the first, or one of the first, mentions of the possibility that electrons are not fundamental particles.
402:
in the universe. A number of attempts have been made to "fix" this through a variety of mechanisms, but to date none have won widespread support. Likewise, basic adaptations of the Model suggest the presence of
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Preon models propose additional unobserved forces or dynamics to account for the observed properties of elementary particles, which may have implications in conflict with observation. For example, now that the
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would have a momentum uncertainty proportionally greater. Thus, the preon model proposed particles smaller than the elementary particles they make up, since the momentum uncertainty
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to correct the theoretical problems involved with the Higgs field; (further, the supersymmetric theories proposed so far have theoretical and observational problems of their own).
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based on a particle theory has yet been proposed. Although the Model assumes the existence of a graviton, all attempts to produce a consistent theory based on them have failed.
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Several models have been proposed in an attempt to provide a more fundamental explanation of the results in experimental and theoretical particle physics, using names such as "
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The
Standard Model, which is now the prevailing model of particle physics, dramatically simplified this picture by showing that most of the observed particles were
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398:
The
Standard Model also has problems predicting the large scale structure of the universe. For instance, the SM generally predicts equal amounts of matter and
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in
Chemistry, which reduced 94 naturally occurring elements to combinations of just three building-blocks (proton, neutron, electron). Likewise, the
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of a preon (of whatever mass) confined to a box of this size is about 200 GeV/c, which is 50,000 times larger than the (model dependent)
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of most particles cannot be made precisely, except for the masses of almost all baryons which have been modeled well by de Souza (2010).
256:. These were organized into relationships on their physical properties in a largely ad-hoc system of hierarchies, not entirely unlike the way
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Reduce the large number of particles, many that differ only in charge, to a smaller number of more fundamental particles. For example, the
530:. Therefore, there is no need for the Standard Model Higgs boson and each quark mass is derived from the interaction between each pair of
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173:; in effect, reduce the number of model-required experimental input parameters from the number required by the Standard Model.
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Terazawa, H.; Chikashige, Y.; Akama, K. (1977). "Unified model of the Nambu-Jona-Lasinio type for all elementary particles".
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380:
The
Standard Model also has a number of problems which have not been entirely solved. In particular, no successful theory of
782:(CDF) around 1994. The paper was written after an unexpected and inexplicable excess of jets with energies above 200
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grouped animals based on their physical features. Not surprisingly, the huge number of particles was referred to as the "
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these observed particles (since the prediction of non-observed particles is a problem with many current models, such as
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1724:
Fritzsch, H.; Mandelbaum, G. (1981). "Weak interactions as manifestations of the substructure of leptons and quarks".
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438:, consequently reducing the huge number of arbitrary constants in mid-twentieth-century particle physics prior to the
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fact, the
Fredriksson preon model and the de Souza model predict that the Standard Model Higgs boson does not exist.
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742:
223:
Explain why there exists only the observed variety of particle species, and give a model with reasons for producing
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experiments have shown that quarks and leptons are "point like" down to distance scales of less than 10 m (or
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Provide reasons for the very large range of mass-energy observed in supposedly fundamental particles, from the
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by reducing several dozen particles to combinations at a more fundamental level of (at first) just three
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630:(RM) is the earliest effort (1979) to develop a preon model to explain the phenomenon appearing in the
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and
Michael A. Shupe (independently of each other), and later expanded by Harari and his then-student
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Efforts to develop a substructure date at least as far back as 1974 with a paper by Pati and Salam in
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Before the Standard Model was developed in the 1970s (the key elements of the Standard Model known as
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416:
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723:
871:{\displaystyle \operatorname {\Delta } x\cdot \operatorname {\Delta } p\geq {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }
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comprise the other three leptons, and each neutrino pairs with one of the three charged leptons.
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is confirmed, the observation contradicts the predictions of many preon models that excluded it.
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described a most fundamental elementary particle, with definable properties, which he called the
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A number of physicists have attempted to develop a theory of "pre-quarks" (from which the name
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Preon theory is motivated by a desire to replicate in particle physics the achievements of the
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1802:
Dugne, J.-J.; Fredriksson, S.; Hansson, J.; Predazzi, E. (1997). "Higgs pain? Take a preon!".
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551:, as the likely result of a long but finite chain of increasingly more elementary particles.
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sector, some effects are considered anomalies within the Standard Model. For example, the
8:
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1953:
1902:
1086:, an item in the game is called the 'preon accumulator', though only a reference in name.
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Preon theories require quarks and leptons to have a finite size. It is possible that the
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
210:
2913:
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542:
358:. Almost all of these particles come in "left-handed" and "right-handed" versions (see
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Calculate parameters that are currently unexplained by the Standard Model, such as the
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When the term "preon" was coined, it was primarily to explain the two families of spin-
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24:
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2014:
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de Souza, M.E. (2008). "Weak decays of hadrons reveal compositeness of quarks".
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of an up-quark, and 400,000 times larger than the rest mass of an electron.
675:("Vanishes", since it is electrically neutral, or Vohu which means "void"). All
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2901:
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2382:
2155:
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1994:
1347:
1175:
Hofstadter, Robert (1 July 1956). "Electron Scattering and Nuclear Structure".
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58:, in 1974. Interest in preon models peaked in the 1980s but has slowed, as the
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in 1964), physicists observed hundreds of different kinds of particles in
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1999:
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One preon model started as an internal paper at the Collider Detector at
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with opposite electric charge (or in the case of the neutrinos, opposite
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55:
51:
1393:
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Yershov, V.N. (2005). "Equilibrium configurations of tripolar charges".
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1989:
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Preons: Models of Leptons, Quarks and Gauge Bosons as Composite Objects
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are three-rishon ordered triplets. These groups of three rishons have
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2019:
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296:, has six types, of which there are three varieties in each (dubbed "
181:
1099: – Hypothetical model through which W and Z bosons acquire mass
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1979:
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Kalman, C.S. (2005). "Why quarks cannot be fundamental particles".
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1962:
1588:"Irreducible gauge theory of a consolidated Weinberg-Salam model"
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Additionally, there are six different types of what are known as
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Shupe, M.A. (1979). "A composite model of leptons and quarks".
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419:" or "preon" for the hypothetical basic particle constituents.
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Hofstadter, R.; Bumiller, F.; Yearian, M.R. (1 April 1958).
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will observe this after it is upgraded to higher energies.
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de Souza, M.E. (2005). "The ultimate division of matter".
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have six preons, and quarks and leptons have only three.
1784:"Experiments with an isolated subatomic particle at rest"
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were detected in the 1992–1993 running period. However,
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The model has two kinds of fundamental particles called
216:
Make new, non-repetitive predictions, such as providing
1548:
1116:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1107:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1105: – Hypothetical compact star made of exotic matter
854:
1212:"Electromagnetic Structure of the Proton and Neutron"
912:
884:
824:
1314:"Calculation of almost all energy levels of baryons"
1125:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1051:
In the novelized version of the 1982 motion picture
1123: – preonic model of sub-quark particle physics
1077:), the physics of which became central to the plot.
661:("Third" since it has an electric charge of ⅓
82:, the distributions of electric charges inside the
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934:should be greater than the particles themselves.
878:and thus anything confined to a box smaller than
387:Kalman asserts that, according to the concept of
150:Explain the reason for there being exactly three
2999:
605:Many preon models either do not account for the
1508:"Erratum: Lepton number as the fourth "color""
1352:"China pursues major role in particle physics"
1114: – Type of dense exotic matter in physics
513:is the leading name in the physics community.
410:
122:Preon research is motivated by the desire to:
1930:
1822:
1141:
1139:
526:, and thus, all quarks are described by four
364:). The quarks, leptons, and W boson all have
1585:
1037:In the 1948 reprint/edit of his 1930 novel
1004:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
741:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
376:Unresolved problems with the Standard Model
1937:
1923:
1261:Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements
1174:
1136:
284:Comparisons of quarks, leptons, and bosons
1807:
1637:"A schematic model of quarks and leptons"
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1505:
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1024:Learn how and when to remove this message
927:{\displaystyle \operatorname {\Delta } p}
899:{\displaystyle \operatorname {\Delta } x}
761:Learn how and when to remove this message
187:Provide alternative explanations for the
1944:
1900:
1882:Ball, P. (2007). "Splitting the quark".
1838:(1). North-Holland Publishing: 141–167.
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311:. Of these six leptons, there are three
300:", red, green, and blue, giving rise to
117:
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3000:
2408:
1823:Harari, Haim; Seiberg, Nathan (1982).
1634:
1312:de Souza, Mario Everaldo (2010).
1258:
430:later organized the "particle zoo" of
334:In the Standard Model, there are also
1918:
1686:
1455:"Lepton number as the fourth "color""
965:
534:by means of three Higgs-like bosons.
288:Within the Standard Model, there are
1881:
1146:D'Souza, I.A.; Kalman, C.S. (1992).
1002:adding citations to reliable sources
969:
739:adding citations to reliable sources
706:
568:
165:of S.M. fundamental fermions, their
42:, conceived of as sub-components of
773:
407:, which has not yet been observed.
23:. For the chemical pollutants, see
13:
1875:
914:
886:
840:
826:
554:
14:
3019:
3008:Hypothetical elementary particles
1291:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2005.01.042
865:
354:; and an open space left for the
139:strategy that has worked for the
19:For the infectious proteins, see
2981:
2874:Timeline of particle discoveries
1248:from the original on 2018-02-23.
974:
711:
573:
271:, which are combinations of two
198:, which itself possibly needs a
1901:Piccioni, Robert (2013-01-07).
1795:
1775:
1754:
1717:
1680:
1628:
1579:
1542:
1054:Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan
942:Conflicts with observed physics
613:
16:Hypothetical subatomic particle
1506:Pati, J.C.; Salam, A. (1975).
1453:Pati, J.C.; Salam, A. (1974).
1446:
1425:
1370:
1340:
1305:
1252:
1203:
1168:
1:
1130:
938:cancels their mass-energies.
702:
667:, or Tohu (תוהו) which means
235:
2890:History of subatomic physics
1852:10.1016/0550-3213(82)90426-6
1792:See also references therein.
1748:10.1016/0370-2693(81)90626-2
1711:10.1016/0370-2693(79)90627-0
1666:10.1016/0370-2693(79)90626-9
1614:10.1016/0370-2693(79)90521-5
638:. It was first developed by
290:several classes of particles
7:
1911:— an editorial about preons
1090:
800:of a proton diameter). The
453:
411:Motivation for preon models
10:
3024:
617:
558:
141:periodic table of elements
18:
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2763:
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2222:
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2186:
2164:
2136:
2127:
2043:
1970:
1961:
1952:
1903:"Have we hit bottom yet?"
1535:10.1103/PhysRevD.11.703.2
1411:10.1007/s00601-004-0070-2
1239:10.1103/RevModPhys.30.482
1219:Reviews of Modern Physics
1197:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.214
1177:Reviews of Modern Physics
1073:discussed preons (called
582:This article needs to be
50:. The word was coined by
2907:mathematical formulation
2502:Eta and eta prime mesons
653:(which means "First" in
463:Standard Model) include
90:in 1956, and the ad hoc
2569:Double-charm tetraquark
1573:10.1103/PhysRevD.15.480
1484:10.1103/PhysRevD.10.275
1112:Preon-degenerate matter
1080:In the 2020 video game
565:Two-Higgs-doublet model
1782:Dehmelt, H.G. (1989).
1070:Voyage from Yesteryear
928:
900:
872:
561:Composite Higgs models
444:quantum chromodynamics
302:quantum chromodynamics
147:of mesons and baryons.
2966:Wave–particle duality
2956:Relativistic particle
2093:Electron antineutrino
1894:10.1038/news.2007.292
1097:Technicolor (physics)
960:Large Hadron Collider
929:
901:
873:
816:uncertainty principle
254:particle accelerators
211:unique mass mechanism
118:Goals of preon models
2196:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
1946:Particles in physics
1907:guidetothecosmos.com
1788:The Nobel Foundation
1586:Ne'eman, Y. (1979).
998:improve this section
951:'s observation of a
910:
882:
822:
735:improve this section
541:acceptance lecture,
292:. One of these, the
207:neutrino oscillation
2971:Particle chauvinism
2914:Subatomic particles
1844:1982NuPhB.204..141H
1740:1981PhLB..102..319F
1703:1979PhLB...86...87S
1658:1979PhLB...86...83H
1635:Harari, H. (1979).
1606:1979PhLB...81..190N
1565:1977PhRvD..15..480T
1526:1975PhRvD..11..703P
1476:1974PhRvD..10..275P
1403:2005FBS....37...79Y
1350:(5 December 2006).
1283:2005NuPhS.142..235K
1231:1958RvMP...30..482H
1189:1956RvMP...28..214H
194:without invoking a
1825:"The Rishon model"
1357:The New York Times
1333:10.4279/PIP.030003
966:In popular culture
924:
896:
868:
863:
348:W, W, and Z bosons
76:proton spin puzzle
25:Chlorofluorocarbon
2995:
2994:
2951:Massless particle
2759:
2758:
2755:
2754:
2720:
2719:
2583:
2582:
2395:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2343:Magnetic monopole
2291:
2290:
2182:
2181:
2123:
2122:
2103:Muon antineutrino
2088:Electron neutrino
1832:Nuclear Physics B
1786:. Nobel lecture.
1727:Physics Letters B
1690:Physics Letters B
1645:Physics Letters B
1593:Physics Letters B
1552:Physical Review D
1513:Physical Review D
1463:Physical Review D
1319:Papers in Physics
1161:978-981-02-1019-9
1034:
1033:
1026:
862:
771:
770:
763:
651:rishons (ראשונים)
603:
602:
313:charged particles
244:were proposed by
192:symmetry breaking
178:electron neutrino
88:Robert Hofstadter
38:are hypothetical
3015:
2985:
2961:Virtual particle
2732:Mesonic molecule
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2507:Bottom eta meson
2415:
2414:
2406:
2405:
2378:W′ and Z′ bosons
2368:Sterile neutrino
2353:Majorana fermion
2220:
2219:
2211:
2210:
2134:
2133:
2113:Tau antineutrino
1968:
1967:
1959:
1958:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1897:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1860:
1854:. Archived from
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1539:
1537:
1502:
1500:
1494:. Archived from
1459:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1396:
1380:Few-Body Systems
1374:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1276:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1216:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1152:World Scientific
1143:
1126:
1117:
1108:
1029:
1022:
1018:
1015:
1009:
978:
970:
933:
931:
930:
925:
917:
905:
903:
902:
897:
889:
877:
875:
874:
869:
864:
855:
843:
829:
799:
798:
794:
774:The mass paradox
766:
759:
755:
752:
746:
715:
707:
636:particle physics
598:
595:
589:
577:
576:
569:
338:, including the
246:Murray Gell-Mann
218:cold dark matter
167:electric charges
112:
110:
109:
106:
103:
32:particle physics
3023:
3022:
3018:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3012:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2991:
2975:
2929:Nuclear physics
2878:
2842:
2778:Davydov soliton
2751:
2716:
2690:
2651:
2579:
2551:
2478:
2387:
2287:
2246:
2200:
2178:
2160:
2119:
2039:
1948:
1943:
1878:
1876:Further reading
1873:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1827:
1821:
1817:
1800:
1796:
1780:
1776:
1759:
1755:
1722:
1718:
1685:
1681:
1639:
1633:
1629:
1584:
1580:
1547:
1543:
1503:
1498:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1430:
1426:
1394:physics/0609185
1387:(1–2): 79–106.
1375:
1371:
1362:
1360:
1345:
1341:
1310:
1306:
1257:
1253:
1245:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1144:
1137:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1106:
1093:
1030:
1019:
1013:
1010:
995:
979:
968:
944:
913:
911:
908:
907:
885:
883:
880:
879:
853:
839:
825:
823:
820:
819:
796:
792:
791:
776:
767:
756:
750:
747:
732:
716:
705:
622:
616:
599:
593:
590:
587:
578:
574:
567:
557:
555:Composite Higgs
519:Physical Review
456:
413:
378:
286:
238:
209:and apparently
120:
107:
104:
101:
100:
98:
40:point particles
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3021:
3011:
3010:
2993:
2992:
2988:Physics portal
2980:
2977:
2976:
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2973:
2968:
2963:
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2953:
2948:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2902:Standard Model
2899:
2898:
2897:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2869:Quasiparticles
2866:
2861:
2856:
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2848:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
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2815:
2810:
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2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2769:
2767:
2765:Quasiparticles
2761:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2728:
2726:
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2718:
2717:
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2714:
2709:
2704:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2691:
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2678:
2672:
2670:
2659:
2653:
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2649:
2644:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2602:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2561:
2559:
2557:Exotic hadrons
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
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2450:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2423:
2421:
2412:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2383:X and Y bosons
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2297:
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2285:
2275:
2270:
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2260:
2254:
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2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2228:
2226:
2217:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2198:
2192:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2176:
2170:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2156:W and Z bosons
2153:
2148:
2142:
2140:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2010:Strange (quark
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1976:
1974:
1965:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1942:
1941:
1934:
1927:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1898:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1871:
1815:
1809:hep-ph/9709227
1794:
1774:
1771:(6): 064801–1.
1764:Scientia Plena
1753:
1716:
1679:
1627:
1600:(2): 190–194.
1578:
1559:(2): 480–487.
1541:
1501:on 2019-02-20.
1470:(1): 275–289.
1445:
1435:Scientia Plena
1424:
1369:
1339:
1304:
1274:hep-ph/0411313
1251:
1225:(2): 482–497.
1202:
1183:(3): 214–254.
1167:
1160:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1083:Risk of Rain 2
1078:
1067:'s 1982 novel
1065:James P. Hogan
1062:
1059:Vonda McIntyre
1049:
1032:
1031:
982:
980:
973:
967:
964:
943:
940:
923:
920:
916:
895:
892:
888:
867:
861:
858:
852:
849:
846:
842:
838:
835:
832:
828:
775:
772:
769:
768:
719:
717:
710:
704:
701:
644:Nathan Seiberg
632:Standard Model
618:Main article:
615:
612:
601:
600:
581:
579:
572:
556:
553:
455:
452:
440:Standard Model
428:Standard Model
424:periodic table
412:
409:
377:
374:
285:
282:
237:
234:
233:
232:
221:
214:
203:
185:
174:
159:
148:
119:
116:
86:, as found by
60:Standard Model
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3020:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3003:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2946:Exotic matter
2944:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2934:Eightfold way
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2924:Antiparticles
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2762:
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2745:
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2735:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2723:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2595:Atomic nuclei
2593:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:Upsilon meson
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2459:Lambda baryon
2457:
2455:
2452:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2398:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2318:Dual graviton
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2249:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Superpartners
2212:
2209:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2098:Muon neutrino
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:Bottom (quark
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1940:
1935:
1933:
1928:
1926:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1909:. newsletter.
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1861:on 2012-10-07
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1819:
1810:
1805:
1798:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
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1720:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1691:
1683:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1646:
1638:
1631:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1582:
1574:
1570:
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1558:
1554:
1553:
1545:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1523:
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1514:
1509:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1456:
1449:
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1437:
1436:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1381:
1373:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1275:
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1266:
1262:
1255:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1171:
1163:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1140:
1135:
1122:
1119:
1113:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:, written by
1056:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1041:
1040:Skylark Three
1036:
1035:
1028:
1025:
1017:
1014:November 2022
1007:
1003:
999:
993:
992:
988:
983:This section
981:
977:
972:
971:
963:
961:
956:
954:
950:
939:
935:
921:
918:
893:
890:
859:
856:
850:
847:
844:
836:
833:
830:
817:
814:Heisenberg's
812:
810:
806:
803:
789:
785:
781:
765:
762:
754:
744:
740:
736:
730:
729:
725:
720:This section
718:
714:
709:
708:
700:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
665:
660:
656:
652:
647:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
628:
621:
611:
608:
597:
585:
580:
571:
570:
566:
562:
552:
550:
549:
544:
540:
535:
533:
529:
525:
521:
520:
514:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
487:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
461:
451:
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
420:
418:
408:
406:
401:
396:
394:
390:
385:
383:
373:
371:
367:
366:antiparticles
363:
362:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
281:
278:
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
230:
229:supersymmetry
226:
222:
219:
215:
212:
208:
204:
201:
200:supersymmetry
197:
193:
190:
186:
183:
179:
175:
172:
171:color charges
168:
164:
160:
157:
153:
149:
146:
142:
138:
133:
129:
125:
124:
123:
115:
95:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
68:
66:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
26:
22:
2986:
2657:Hypothetical
2605:Exotic atoms
2474:Omega baryon
2464:Sigma baryon
2454:Delta baryon
2362:
2206:Hypothetical
2188:Ghost fields
2174:Higgs boson
2108:Tau neutrino
2000:Charm (quark
1906:
1883:
1863:. Retrieved
1856:the original
1835:
1831:
1818:
1797:
1777:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1697:(1): 87–92.
1694:
1688:
1682:
1652:(1): 83–86.
1649:
1643:
1630:
1597:
1591:
1581:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1517:
1511:
1496:the original
1467:
1461:
1448:
1439:
1433:
1427:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1361:. Retrieved
1355:
1342:
1326:: 030003–1.
1323:
1317:
1307:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1222:
1218:
1205:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1147:
1121:Rishon model
1081:
1074:
1068:
1052:
1038:
1020:
1011:
996:Please help
984:
957:
945:
936:
818:states that
813:
777:
757:
748:
733:Please help
721:
696:Rishon model
693:
672:
663:
658:
657:). They are
650:
648:
627:rishon model
625:
623:
620:Rishon model
614:Rishon model
604:
591:
583:
546:
543:Hans Dehmelt
537:In his 1989
536:
531:
527:
523:
517:
515:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
459:
457:
448:
421:
414:
405:proton decay
397:
386:
379:
370:weak isospin
359:
333:
306:
287:
266:
262:particle zoo
250:George Zweig
239:
224:
205:Account for
189:electro-weak
137:reductionist
121:
96:
69:
35:
29:
2939:Quark model
2707:Theta meson
2610:Positronium
2522:Omega meson
2517:J/psi meson
2447:Antineutron
2358:Dark photon
2323:Graviphoton
2282:Stop squark
1990:Down (quark
1348:Overbye, D.
1267:: 235–237.
1045:E. E. Smith
953:Higgs boson
805:uncertainty
640:Haim Harari
607:Higgs boson
539:Nobel Prize
503:Y-particles
382:gravitation
352:Higgs boson
220:candidates.
196:Higgs field
152:generations
145:quark model
56:Abdus Salam
52:Jogesh Pati
2681:Heptaquark
2642:Superatoms
2575:Pentaquark
2565:Tetraquark
2547:Quarkonium
2437:Antiproton
2338:Leptoquark
2273:Neutralino
2035:antiquark)
2025:antiquark)
2020:Top (quark
2015:antiquark)
2005:antiquark)
1995:antiquark)
1985:antiquark)
1954:Elementary
1865:2018-06-02
1734:(5): 319.
1520:(3): 703.
1363:2011-09-12
1131:References
1103:Preon star
788:scattering
703:Criticisms
559:See also:
400:antimatter
350:; and the
236:Background
128:down quark
94:elements.
92:CKM matrix
80:EMC effect
2919:Particles
2864:Particles
2823:Polariton
2813:Plasmaron
2783:Dropleton
2676:Hexaquark
2647:Molecules
2635:Protonium
2512:Phi meson
2497:Rho meson
2469:Xi baryon
2401:Composite
2237:Gravitino
1980:Up (quark
1504:Erratum:
1419:119474883
1299:119394495
985:does not
919:
915:Δ
891:
887:Δ
866:ℏ
851:≥
845:
841:Δ
837:⋅
831:
827:Δ
809:rest mass
751:July 2019
722:does not
594:July 2019
469:subquarks
465:prequarks
393:rest mass
361:chirality
329:neutrinos
182:top quark
3002:Category
2895:timeline
2747:R-hadron
2702:Glueball
2686:Skyrmion
2620:Tauonium
2333:Inflaton
2328:Graviton
2308:Curvaton
2278:Sfermion
2268:Higgsino
2263:Chargino
2224:Gauginos
2083:Neutrino
2068:Antimuon
2058:Positron
2053:Electron
1963:Fermions
1492:17349483
1442:(4): 83.
1243:Archived
1091:See also
1075:tweedles
802:momentum
780:Fermilab
681:flavours
679:and all
634:(SM) of
491:tweedles
454:Attempts
356:graviton
317:electron
258:taxonomy
156:fermions
143:and the
132:up quark
84:nucleons
72:hadronic
65:W bosons
2883:Related
2854:Baryons
2828:Polaron
2818:Plasmon
2793:Fracton
2788:Exciton
2742:Diquark
2737:Pomeron
2712:T meson
2669:Baryons
2630:Pionium
2615:Muonium
2542:D meson
2537:B meson
2442:Neutron
2427:Nucleon
2419:Baryons
2410:Hadrons
2373:Tachyon
2348:Majoron
2313:Dilaton
2242:Photino
2078:Antitau
2045:Leptons
1840:Bibcode
1736:Bibcode
1699:Bibcode
1674:1447265
1654:Bibcode
1622:6534180
1602:Bibcode
1561:Bibcode
1522:Bibcode
1472:Bibcode
1399:Bibcode
1279:Bibcode
1227:Bibcode
1185:Bibcode
1006:removed
991:sources
795:⁄
743:removed
728:sources
677:leptons
669:"Chaos"
584:updated
532:primons
528:primons
524:primons
507:primons
499:haplons
486:rishons
477:alphons
432:hadrons
389:atomism
340:photons
309:leptons
277:baryons
180:to the
111:
99:
70:In the
48:leptons
2859:Mesons
2808:Phonon
2803:Magnon
2725:Others
2695:Mesons
2588:Others
2484:Mesons
2432:Proton
2296:Others
2251:Others
2232:Gluino
2166:Scalar
2146:Photon
2129:Bosons
1972:Quarks
1885:Nature
1672:
1620:
1490:
1417:
1297:
1158:
689:spin-½
685:quarks
671:) and
655:Hebrew
548:cosmon
505:, and
495:helons
481:quinks
436:quarks
417:parton
344:gluons
336:bosons
327:. The
323:, and
315:: the
298:colors
294:quarks
273:quarks
269:mesons
242:quarks
169:, and
163:masses
78:, the
44:quarks
36:preons
2847:Lists
2838:Trion
2833:Roton
2773:Anyon
2600:Atoms
2363:Preon
2303:Axion
2258:Axino
2151:Gluon
2138:Gauge
1859:(PDF)
1828:(PDF)
1804:arXiv
1640:(PDF)
1499:(PDF)
1488:S2CID
1458:(PDF)
1415:S2CID
1389:arXiv
1295:S2CID
1269:arXiv
1246:(PDF)
1215:(PDF)
511:Preon
473:maons
460:preon
275:, or
21:Prion
2798:Hole
2625:Onia
2532:Kaon
2492:Pion
2063:Muon
1670:OSTI
1618:OSTI
1156:ISBN
989:any
987:cite
797:1000
726:any
724:cite
694:The
624:The
563:and
442:and
342:and
321:muon
248:and
225:only
130:and
54:and
46:and
2073:Tau
1890:doi
1848:doi
1836:204
1744:doi
1732:102
1707:doi
1662:doi
1610:doi
1569:doi
1530:doi
1480:doi
1407:doi
1328:doi
1287:doi
1265:142
1235:doi
1193:doi
1000:by
949:LHC
784:GeV
737:by
683:of
372:).
325:tau
304:).
264:".
154:of
30:In
3004::
1905:.
1888:.
1846:.
1834:.
1830:.
1767:.
1742:.
1730:.
1705:.
1695:86
1693:.
1668:.
1660:.
1650:86
1648:.
1642:.
1616:.
1608:.
1598:81
1596:.
1590:.
1567:.
1557:15
1555:.
1528:.
1518:11
1516:.
1510:.
1486:.
1478:.
1468:10
1466:.
1460:.
1438:.
1413:.
1405:.
1397:.
1385:37
1383:.
1354:.
1322:.
1316:.
1293:.
1285:.
1277:.
1263:.
1241:.
1233:.
1223:30
1221:.
1217:.
1191:.
1181:28
1179:.
1154:.
1150:.
1138:^
1043:,
691:.
646:.
509:.
501:,
497:,
493:,
489:,
483:,
479:,
475:,
471:,
467:,
446:.
346:;
319:,
231:).
34:,
2571:)
2567:(
2284:)
2280:(
1938:e
1931:t
1924:v
1896:.
1892::
1868:.
1850::
1842::
1812:.
1806::
1790:.
1769:4
1750:.
1746::
1738::
1713:.
1709::
1701::
1676:.
1664::
1656::
1624:.
1612::
1604::
1575:.
1571::
1563::
1538:.
1532::
1524::
1482::
1474::
1440:1
1421:.
1409::
1401::
1391::
1366:.
1336:.
1330::
1324:3
1301:.
1289::
1281::
1271::
1237::
1229::
1199:.
1195::
1187::
1164:.
1027:)
1021:(
1016:)
1012:(
1008:.
994:.
922:p
894:x
860:2
857:1
848:p
834:x
793:1
764:)
758:(
753:)
749:(
745:.
731:.
673:V
664:e
659:T
596:)
592:(
586:.
213:.
184:.
158:.
108:2
105:/
102:1
27:.
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