2233:
642:
But I don't feel secure enough to publish anything about this idea, so I first turn confidently to you, dear radioactives, with a question as to the situation concerning experimental proof of such a neutron, if it has something like about 10 times the penetrating capacity of a
604:-spectrum, I have hit upon a desperate remedy to save the "exchange theorem" of statistics and the energy theorem. Namely the possibility that there could exist in the nuclei electrically neutral particles that I wish to call neutrons, which have spin
628:
in that they do not travel with the velocity of light: The mass of the neutron must be of the same order of magnitude as the electron mass and, in any case, not larger than 0.01 proton mass. The continuous
756:
during a conversation with Fermi at the
Institute of physics of via Panisperna in Rome, in order to distinguish this light neutral particle from Chadwick's neutron) to resolve the confusion. It was a
657:
probability because neutrons, if they exist, would probably have long ago been seen. However, only those who wager can win, and the seriousness of the situation of the continuous
585:, in which he proposed the electron "neutron" as a potential solution to solve the problem of the continuous beta decay spectrum. A translated excerpt of his letter reads:
795:
Upon the prediction and discovery of a second neutrino, it became important to distinguish between different types of neutrinos. Pauli's neutrino is now identified as the
887:
was notably opposed to this interpretation of beta decay and was ready to accept that energy, momentum, and angular momentum were not conserved quantities.
992:
2156:
637:
decay a neutron is emitted together with the electron, in such a way that the sum of the energies of neutron and electron is constant.
1906:
2144:
987:
1126:
C.L. Cowan Jr.; F. Reines; F.B. Harrison; H.W. Kruse; A.D. McGuire (1956). "Detection of the Free
Neutrino: A Confirmation".
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378:
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59:
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As the bearer of these lines will explain more exactly, considering the 'false' statistics of
473:
362:
2205:
472:
theorized that an undetected particle was carrying away the observed difference between the
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1026:
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8:
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30:
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is whether neutrinos and anti-neutrinos are the same particle. If so, they would be
690:
A translated reprint of the full letter can be found in the
September 1978 issue of
2262:
2210:
1981:
1756:
1617:
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661:-spectrum can be made clear by the saying of my honored predecessor in office,
577:
On 4 December 1930, Pauli wrote a letter to the
Physical Institute of the
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discovered a much more massive nuclear particle in 1932 and also named it a
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In the early 1900s, theories predicted that the electrons resulting from
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633:-spectrum would then become understandable by the assumption that in
597:
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showed that electrons were instead emitted in a continuous spectrum.
42:
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1996:
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should have been emitted at a specific energy. However, in 1914,
78:
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One does best not to think about that at all, like the new taxes
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343:
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1378:
1221:
669:." So, dear radioactives, put it to test and set it right.
1849:
1781:
1741:
1317:
1312:
844:), which differs only in that some of its properties have
953:"The Reines-Cowan Experiments: Detecting the Poltergeist"
757:
1086:
1051:
726:
Pauli originally named his proposed light particle a
1087:F. Reines; C.L. Cowan Jr. (1956). "The Neutrino".
738:, this left the two particles with the same name.
653:I admit that my remedy may appear to have a small
896:Pauli means what was later named "neutrino". See
799:, while the second neutrino is identified as the
2249:
1015:Brown, L.M. (1978). "The idea of the neutrino".
985:
369:, and was discovered in 1956 by a team led by
1180:
277:left-handed (for right-handed neutrinos, see
784:could be read as the "large neutral thing";
1014:
1187:
1173:
813:The electron neutrino has a corresponding
1194:
808:
788:replaces the augmentative suffix with a
710:The electron neutrino was discovered by
589:Dear radioactive ladies and gentlemen,
2250:
1658:
1168:
947:
945:
943:
941:
463:The early understanding of beta decay
673:With many greetings to you, also to
484:of the initial and final particles.
752:in 1934 (it was jokingly coined by
13:
1080:
938:
600:nuclei, as well as the continuous
14:
2279:
846:equal magnitude but opposite sign
572:
2231:
2124:Timeline of particle discoveries
856:, whereas if not, they would be
706:Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment
379:Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment
624:, and additionally differ from
579:Federal Institute of Technology
353:. It was first hypothesized by
1045:
1008:
979:
890:
878:
742:, who developed the theory of
1:
988:"Logbook: Neutrino Invention"
931:
848:. One major open question in
567:Pauli's version of beta decay
2140:History of subatomic physics
1150:10.1126/science.124.3212.103
699:
7:
909:
384:
10:
2284:
1052:M.F. L'Annunziata (2007).
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2013:
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2157:mathematical formulation
1752:Eta and eta prime mesons
871:
357:in 1930, to account for
172:Small but non-zero. See
1819:Double-charm tetraquark
986:K. Riesselmann (2007).
860:. They are produced in
721:
115:Electron antineutrino (
746:, introduced the term
688:
2216:Wave–particle duality
2206:Relativistic particle
1343:Electron antineutrino
809:Electron antineutrino
680:Your devoted servant,
587:
338:, it forms the first
263:Weak hypercharge
2268:Elementary particles
1446:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
1196:Particles in physics
334:. Together with the
184:Electric charge
2221:Particle chauvinism
2164:Subatomic particles
1142:1956Sci...124..103C
1103:1956Natur.178..446R
1031:1978PhT....31i..23B
1000:(2). Archived from
864:and other types of
622:exclusion principle
314:elementary particle
31:Elementary particle
21:
961:Los Alamos Science
19:
16:Subatomic particle
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2201:Massless particle
2009:
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1593:Magnetic monopole
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1353:Muon antineutrino
1338:Electron neutrino
1069:978-0-444-52715-8
1039:10.1063/1.2995181
993:Symmetry Magazine
866:weak interactions
854:Majorana fermions
797:electron neutrino
776:ending can be an
568:
464:
346:, hence the name
289:electron neutrino
285:
284:
239:Weak isospin
20:Electron neutrino
2275:
2235:
2211:Virtual particle
1982:Mesonic molecule
1916:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1757:Bottom eta meson
1665:
1664:
1656:
1655:
1628:W′ and Z′ bosons
1618:Sterile neutrino
1603:Majorana fermion
1470:
1469:
1461:
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1384:
1383:
1363:Tau antineutrino
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1111:10.1038/178446a0
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850:particle physics
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716:Frederick Reines
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375:Frederick Reines
359:missing momentum
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279:sterile neutrino
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2179:Nuclear physics
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2028:Davydov soliton
2001:
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1136:(3212): 103–4.
1083:
1081:Further reading
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1062:. p. 100.
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817:, the electron
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780:in Italian, so
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2238:Physics portal
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2152:Standard Model
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1406:W and Z bosons
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1260:Strange (quark
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1007:
1004:on 2009-05-31.
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858:Dirac fermions
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768:equivalent of
754:Edoardo Amaldi
732:James Chadwick
723:
720:
704:Main article:
701:
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574:
573:Pauli's letter
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470:Wolfgang Pauli
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395:James Chadwick
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363:missing energy
355:Wolfgang Pauli
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145:Wolfgang Pauli
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2184:Eightfold way
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1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1568:Dual graviton
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1533:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1465:Superpartners
1462:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1348:Muon neutrino
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1280:Bottom (quark
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1190:
1185:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1171:
1170:
1167:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1097:(4531): 446.
1096:
1092:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1071:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1056:
1055:Radioactivity
1048:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1018:Physics Today
1011:
1003:
999:
995:
994:
989:
982:
967:
963:
962:
954:
948:
946:
944:
942:
937:
927:
924:
922:
921:Muon neutrino
919:
917:
914:
913:
901:
900:
893:
886:
881:
877:
869:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
820:
816:
806:
804:
803:
802:muon neutrino
798:
793:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
750:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
719:
717:
713:
707:
697:
695:
694:
693:Physics Today
684:
683:
679:
676:
672:
671:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
651:
649:
647:
640:
638:
636:
632:
627:
623:
620:and obey the
603:
599:
595:
590:
586:
584:
580:
565:
487:
486:
485:
483:
479:
475:
471:
461:
458:
438:
418:
400:
399:
398:
396:
392:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
351:
345:
341:
337:
323:
319:
315:
290:
280:
276:
274:
270:
266:
264:
260:
242:
240:
236:
233:
232:
212:
210:
206:
202:
200:
196:
193:
192:
187:
185:
181:
177:
176:
175:neutrino mass
171:
169:
165:
161:
157:
154:
150:
146:
143:
139:
114:
112:
108:
87:
83:
80:
76:
73:
71:
67:
63:
61:
57:
54:
51:
47:
44:
41:
39:
35:
32:
29:
27:
23:
2236:
1907:Hypothetical
1855:Exotic atoms
1724:Omega baryon
1714:Sigma baryon
1704:Delta baryon
1456:Hypothetical
1438:Ghost fields
1424:Higgs boson
1358:Tau neutrino
1337:
1250:Charm (quark
1133:
1127:
1094:
1088:
1054:
1047:
1025:(9): 23–28.
1022:
1016:
1010:
1002:the original
997:
991:
981:
970:. Retrieved
965:
959:
926:Tau neutrino
897:
892:
880:
819:antineutrino
815:antiparticle
812:
800:
796:
794:
785:
781:
778:augmentative
773:
769:
747:
740:Enrico Fermi
727:
725:
709:
691:
689:
666:
658:
654:
652:
645:
641:
639:
634:
630:
626:light quanta
601:
591:
588:
576:
467:
388:
347:
288:
286:
230:
199:Color charge
190:
173:
111:Antiparticle
70:Interactions
2189:Quark model
1957:Theta meson
1860:Positronium
1772:Omega meson
1767:J/psi meson
1697:Antineutron
1608:Dark photon
1573:Graviphoton
1532:Stop squark
1240:Down (quark
916:PMNS matrix
899:§ Name
712:Clyde Cowan
371:Clyde Cowan
156:Clyde Cowan
26:Composition
2252:Categories
1931:Heptaquark
1892:Superatoms
1825:Pentaquark
1815:Tetraquark
1797:Quarkonium
1687:Antiproton
1588:Leptoquark
1523:Neutralino
1285:antiquark)
1275:antiquark)
1270:Top (quark
1265:antiquark)
1255:antiquark)
1245:antiquark)
1235:antiquark)
1204:Elementary
972:2010-02-10
932:References
885:Niels Bohr
862:beta decay
790:diminutive
744:beta decay
391:beta decay
367:beta decay
340:generation
152:Discovered
60:Generation
38:Statistics
2258:Neutrinos
2169:Particles
2114:Particles
2073:Polariton
2063:Plasmaron
2033:Dropleton
1926:Hexaquark
1897:Molecules
1885:Protonium
1762:Phi meson
1747:Rho meson
1719:Xi baryon
1651:Composite
1487:Gravitino
1230:Up (quark
968:: 3. 1997
718:in 1956.
700:Discovery
663:Mr. Debye
468:In 1930,
348:electron
273:Chirality
141:Theorized
43:Fermionic
2145:timeline
1997:R-hadron
1952:Glueball
1936:Skyrmion
1870:Tauonium
1583:Inflaton
1578:Graviton
1558:Curvaton
1528:Sfermion
1518:Higgsino
1513:Chargino
1474:Gauginos
1333:Neutrino
1318:Antimuon
1308:Positron
1303:Electron
1213:Fermions
1158:17796274
1060:Elsevier
910:See also
902:, above.
782:neutrone
762:neutrone
749:neutrino
685:W. Pauli
675:Mr. Back
655:a priori
478:momentum
385:Proposal
350:neutrino
336:electron
312:) is an
2263:Leptons
2133:Related
2104:Baryons
2078:Polaron
2068:Plasmon
2043:Fracton
2038:Exciton
1992:Diquark
1987:Pomeron
1962:T meson
1919:Baryons
1880:Pionium
1865:Muonium
1792:D meson
1787:B meson
1692:Neutron
1677:Nucleon
1669:Baryons
1660:Hadrons
1623:Tachyon
1598:Majoron
1563:Dilaton
1492:Photino
1328:Antitau
1295:Leptons
1138:Bibcode
1129:Science
1119:4293703
1099:Bibcode
1027:Bibcode
770:neutron
766:Italian
736:neutron
730:. When
728:neutron
618:
606:
344:leptons
329:⁄
256:
244:
226:
214:
188:0
79:Gravity
2109:Mesons
2058:Phonon
2053:Magnon
1975:Others
1945:Mesons
1838:Others
1734:Mesons
1682:Proton
1546:Others
1501:Others
1482:Gluino
1416:Scalar
1396:Photon
1379:Bosons
1222:Quarks
1156:
1117:
1090:Nature
1066:
832:ν
772:: the
764:, the
583:Zürich
552:ν
480:, and
474:energy
320:and a
301:ν
228:
162:(1956)
147:(1930)
125:ν
96:ν
85:Symbol
53:Lepton
49:Family
2097:Lists
2088:Trion
2083:Roton
2023:Anyon
1850:Atoms
1613:Preon
1553:Axion
1508:Axino
1401:Gluon
1388:Gauge
1115:S2CID
956:(PDF)
872:Notes
792:one.
377:(see
64:First
2048:Hole
1875:Onia
1782:Kaon
1742:Pion
1313:Muon
1154:PMID
1064:ISBN
786:-ino
774:-one
722:Name
714:and
665:, "
598:Li-6
596:and
594:N-14
373:and
361:and
322:spin
287:The
209:Spin
168:Mass
75:Weak
1323:Tau
1146:doi
1134:124
1107:doi
1095:178
1035:doi
760:on
758:pun
648:ray
381:).
365:in
342:of
324:of
2254::
1152:.
1144:.
1132:.
1113:.
1105:.
1093:.
1058:.
1033:.
1023:31
1021:.
996:.
990:.
966:25
964:.
958:.
940:^
868:.
805:.
696:.
650:.
581:,
542:+
524:+
506:→
476:,
440:+
420:→
267:−1
203:No
158:,
77:,
1821:)
1817:(
1534:)
1530:(
1188:e
1181:t
1174:v
1160:.
1148::
1140::
1121:.
1109::
1101::
1072:.
1041:.
1037::
1029::
998:4
975:.
838:e
821:(
677:,
659:β
646:γ
635:β
631:β
615:2
612:/
609:1
602:β
558:e
533:e
515:p
497:n
450:e
430:p
410:n
331:2
327:1
306:e
291:(
281:)
253:2
250:/
247:1
231:ħ
223:2
220:/
217:1
191:e
178:.
136:)
131:e
101:e
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