1030:
1729:
1722:
1715:
1488:
223:
1336:
7818:
3974:
1464:) and so are not a functional part of the Standard Model, although their exclusion is not a strict requirement; they are sometimes listed in particle tables to emphasize that they would have no active role if included in the model. Even though electrically charged right-handed particles (electron, muon, or tau) do not engage in the weak interaction specifically, they can still interact electrically, and hence still participate in the
1282:. Like the electron and the muon, it too was expected to have an associated neutrino. The first evidence for tau neutrinos came from the observation of "missing" energy and momentum in tau decay, analogous to the "missing" energy and momentum in beta decay leading to the discovery of the electron neutrino. The first detection of tau neutrino interactions was announced in 2000 by the
3721:
3571:
3292:
2165:
3969:{\displaystyle {\frac {\,\mathrm {T} _{\tau }\,}{\mathrm {T} _{\mu }}}={\frac {\;{\mathcal {B}}\left(\tau ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\tau }\right)\;}{{\mathcal {B}}\left(\mu ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\mu }\right)}}\,\left({\frac {m_{\mu }}{m_{\tau }}}\right)^{5}~.}
2160:
Conservation of the leptonic numbers means that the number of leptons of the same type remains the same, when particles interact. This implies that leptons and antileptons must be created in pairs of a single generation. For example, the following processes are allowed under conservation of leptonic
815:
at the time. After investigation, it was realized that the muon did not have the expected properties of a meson, but rather behaved like an electron, only with higher mass. It took until 1947 for the concept of "leptons" as a family of particles to be proposed. The first neutrino, the electron
3387:
4188:
3089:
2840:
968:
Rosenfeld chose the name as the common name for electrons and (then hypothesized) neutrinos. Additionally, the muon, initially classified as a meson, was reclassified as a lepton in the 1950s. The masses of those particles are small compared to nucleonsâthe mass of an electron
4312:
3123:
1398:. When a particle is massless, the direction of its momentum relative to its spin is the same in every reference frame, whereas for massive particles it is possible to 'overtake' the particle by choosing a faster-moving
3566:{\displaystyle \mathrm {T} _{\ell }={\frac {\;{\mathcal {B}}\left(\ell ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\ell }\right)\;}{\Gamma \left(\ell ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\ell }\right)}}\,}
4069:
2955:
1301:
Although all present data is consistent with three generations of leptons, some particle physicists are searching for a fourth generation. The current lower limit on the mass of such a fourth charged lepton is
2706:
4193:
1581:
In the language of quantum field theory, the electromagnetic interaction of the charged leptons is expressed by the fact that the particles interact with the quantum of the electromagnetic field, the
1655:
1225:
of the initial and observed final particles. The electron neutrino was simply called the neutrino, as it was not yet known that neutrinos came in different flavours (or different "generations").
4055:
experiments, have shown consistent deviations from the
Standard Model predictions. However the combined statistical and systematic significance is not yet high enough to claim an observation of
3616:
3287:{\displaystyle 0.9726\times \Gamma \left(\tau ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\tau }\right)=\Gamma \left(\tau ^{-}\rightarrow \mu ^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{\mu }}}+\nu _{\tau }\right)~.}
1686:, are very sensitive to the details of a quantum field theory model, and thus provide the opportunity for precision tests of the Standard Model. The theoretical and measured values for the
3653:
1680: factor is 2 for all leptons. However, higher-order quantum effects caused by loops in Feynman diagrams introduce corrections to this value. These corrections, referred to as the
4062:
In July 2021 results on lepton flavour universality have been published testing W decays, previous measurements by the LEP had given a slight imbalance but the new measurement by the
3331:
3690:
2055:, but the neutrinos remain massless. For technical reasons, the masslessness of the neutrinos implies that there is no mixing of the different generations of charged leptons as
1425:
treats left-handed and right-handed fermions differently: only left-handed fermions (and right-handed anti-fermions) participate in the weak interaction. This is an example of
1375:: no two leptons of the same species can be in the same state at the same time. Furthermore, it means that a lepton can have only two possible spin states, namely up or down.
2084:, which would explain both why the left-handed neutrinos are so light compared to the corresponding charged leptons, and why we have not yet seen any right-handed neutrinos.
6095:
Aad, G.; Abbott, B.; Abbott, D. C.; Abud, A. Abed; Abeling, K.; Abhayasinghe, D. K.; Abidi, S. H.; AbouZeid, O. S.; Abraham, N. L.; Abramowicz, H.; Abreu, H. (5 July 2021).
2607:
3371:
3351:
1406:, that does not change with reference frame. It is contrived to agree with helicity for massless particles, and is still well defined for particles with mass.
6234:
Precise test of lepton flavour universality in $ W$ -boson decays into muons and electrons in $ pp$ collisions at $ \sqrt{s}=13$ TeV with the ATLAS detector
2051:, each lepton starts out with no intrinsic mass. The charged leptons (i.e. the electron, muon, and tau) obtain an effective mass through interaction with the
718:). Electrons have the least mass of all the charged leptons. The heavier muons and taus will rapidly change into electrons and neutrinos through a process of
5593:
1244:, and thus the muon was reclassified: electrons, muons, and the (electron) neutrino were grouped into a new group of particlesâthe leptons. In 1962,
6034:
Ciezarek G, Franco
Sevilla M, Hamilton B, Kowalewski R, Kuhr T, LĂŒth V, Sato Y (2017). "A challenge to lepton universality in B meson decays".
7741:
5796:
4183:{\displaystyle R_{W}^{\tau /\mu }={\mathcal {B}}(W\rightarrow \tau \nu _{\tau })/{\mathcal {B}}(W\rightarrow \mu \nu _{\mu })=0.992\pm 0.013}
3084:{\displaystyle \Gamma \left(\tau ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\tau }\right)\approx K_{3}\,G_{\text{F}}^{2}\,m_{\tau }^{5}~,}
1240:
rather than a lepton. It later became clear that the muon was much more similar to the electron than to mesons, as muons do not undergo the
3301:
for the electronic mode (17.82%) and muonic (17.39%) mode of tau decay are not equal due to the mass difference of the final state leptons.
2835:{\displaystyle \Gamma \left(\mu ^{-}\rightarrow e^{-}+{\bar {\nu _{e}}}+\nu _{\mu }\right)\approx K_{2}\,G_{\text{F}}^{2}\,m_{\mu }^{5}~,}
722:: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Thus electrons are stable and the most common charged lepton in the
2501:
are known to violate the conservation of the individual leptonic numbers. Such a violation is considered to be smoking gun evidence for
4190:, which agrees with the standard-model prediction of unity. In 2024 a preprint by the ATLAS collaboration has published a new value of
1402:; in the faster frame, the helicity is reversed. Chirality is a technical property, defined through transformation behaviour under the
2538:
are flavour-independent: The interaction between leptons and a gauge boson measures the same for each lepton. This property is called
1592:
Because leptons possess an intrinsic rotation in the form of their spin, charged leptons generate a magnetic field. The size of their
964:, I adoptâas a pendant to "nucleon"âthe denomination "lepton" (from λΔÏÏÏÏ, small, thin, delicate) to denote a particle of small mass.
7491:
7729:
4307:{\displaystyle R_{W}^{\mu /e}={\mathcal {B}}(W\rightarrow \mu \nu _{\mu })/{\mathcal {B}}(W\rightarrow e\nu _{e})=0.9995\pm 0.0045}
799:
The first charged lepton, the electron, was theorized in the mid-19th century by several scientists and was discovered in 1897 by
6615:
6711:
6688:
6661:
6604:
6508:
6018:
5991:
5159:
5128:
1279:
857:
548:, while neutrinos rarely interact with anything, and are consequently rarely observed. The best known of all leptons is the
2582:
1920:, and one massless vector boson, the photon (γ), responsible for the electromagnetic interaction. The electric charge
825:
1605:
6771:
465:
5542:
3580:
853:
6207:
2039:. The interaction of the leptons with the massive weak interaction vector bosons is shown in the figure on the right.
7627:
2502:
7708:
1682:
1206:
3621:
1941:
895:
with muons and taus instead of electrons can also be synthesized, as well as leptonâantilepton particles such as
5601:
2516:), conserved even in the case of neutrino oscillations, but even it is still violated by a tiny amount by the
1533:
and one lepton with zero electric charge. The lepton with electric charge is commonly simply referred to as a
7847:
5084:
Farrar, W. V. (1969). "Richard Laming and the Coal-Gas
Industry, with His Views on the Structure of Matter".
2529:
2059:. The zero mass of neutrino is in close agreement with current direct experimental observations of the mass.
1458:
Right-handed neutrinos and left-handed anti-neutrinos have no possible interaction with other particles (see
563:
261:
52:
1690:
anomalous magnetic dipole moment are within agreement within eight significant figures. The results for the
7724:
6325:
3307:
993:), and the mass of a neutrino is nearly zero. However, the mass of the tau (discovered in the mid-1970s) (
781:, of which the latter is proportional to charge, and is thus zero for the electrically neutral neutrinos.
6627:
5559:
5529:
5120:
1504:
1383:
3662:
1429:
explicitly written into the model. In the literature, left-handed fields are often denoted by a capital
6680:
6261:
5554:
3981:
557:
6161:
5029:
7800:
2077:
1372:
102:
1838:
respectively. In the meantime, the right-handed charged lepton transforms as a weak isospin scalar (
7852:
7212:
6737:
5062:
2578:
1752:
In the
Standard Model, the left-handed charged lepton and the left-handed neutrino are arranged in
1202:
7768:
7403:
7030:
6764:
6640:
6558:
6556:
Perl, M. L.; et al. (1975). "Evidence for
Anomalous Lepton Production in eâe Annihilation".
5417:
5345:
4339:
2860:
1988:
To recover the observed electric charges for all particles, the left-handed weak isospin doublet
1465:
1414:
1364:
766:
461:
455:
431:
271:
31:
6097:"Test of the universality of Ï and ÎŒ lepton couplings in W-boson decays with the ATLAS detector"
788:, known as an antilepton, that differs from the lepton only in that some of its properties have
7703:
7040:
5184:
1593:
1418:
1410:
1399:
1261:
1198:
6491:
5620:
5452:
5145:
5052:
7790:
5614:
5114:
4790:
4784:
2906:
2653:
2592:
1081:
5002:â hypothetical particles that were once postulated to be subcomponents of quarks and leptons
1029:
6653:
6567:
6536:
6500:
6461:
6414:
6342:
6173:
6118:
6053:
5491:
5426:
5354:
5341:"Observation of high-energy neutrino reactions and the existence of two kinds of neutrinos"
5305:
5229:
5024:
3356:
3336:
2498:
2063:
1213:. Pauli theorized that an undetected particle was carrying away the difference between the
742:
735:
1791:
gauge symmetry. This means that these particles are eigenstates of the isospin projection
8:
7805:
6788:
6519:
6321:
5212:
1379:
1256:
showed that more than one type of neutrino exists by first detecting interactions of the
727:
482:
249:
242:
49:
6571:
6540:
6465:
6418:
6346:
6177:
6122:
6057:
5495:
5430:
5358:
5309:
5233:
1698:, hinting at a small, persistent discrepancy between the Standard Model and experiment.
7748:
6757:
6673:
6589:
6477:
6451:
6430:
6404:
6381:
6368:
6189:
6142:
6108:
6077:
6043:
5628:
5507:
5481:
5321:
5268:
4951:
2505:. A much stronger conservation law is the conservation of the total number of leptons (
1669:
1241:
1024:
924:
789:
762:
537:
509:
6473:
5586:
5503:
2109:
that are conserved under the
Standard Model. Electrons and electron neutrinos have an
1515:) and how strongly the particle reacts to an external electric or magnetic field (see
7817:
7785:
7698:
7177:
6922:
6849:
6707:
6700:
Astronomy
Through the Ages: The Story of the Human Attempt to Understand the Universe
6684:
6657:
6600:
6504:
6481:
6395:
Fukuda, Y.; et al. (1998). "Evidence for
Oscillation of Atmospheric Neutrinos".
6372:
6333:
6193:
6146:
6134:
6096:
6069:
6014:
5987:
5788:
5511:
5472:
5155:
5124:
5086:
4994:
4869:
4862:
4737:
4731:
4365:
2172:
2102:
1753:
1527:
1272:
1194:
849:
598:
486:
383:
353:
192:
5260:
1403:
953:
7842:
7795:
7566:
7341:
7202:
7187:
6869:
6780:
6575:
6544:
6469:
6434:
6422:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6238:
6181:
6126:
6081:
6061:
5499:
5434:
5362:
5325:
5313:
5296:
5237:
5193:
5095:
4944:
4063:
4052:
4048:
2081:
1917:
1859:
1848:
1738:
1512:
1469:
1460:
1426:
1422:
1253:
1245:
1233:
1222:
845:
837:
833:
808:
793:
778:
774:
474:
284:
276:
5524:
5179:
2157:. The antileptons have their respective generation's leptonic numbers of â1.
1264:, although by then the different flavours of neutrino had already been theorized.
7763:
7688:
7672:
7612:
7022:
6947:
6937:
6927:
6839:
6527:
6008:
5564:
5220:
4356:
3304:
Universality also accounts for the ratio of muon and tau lifetimes. The lifetime
3298:
1855:
1586:
1496:
1249:
932:
841:
746:
513:
377:
6579:
6426:
5438:
2069:
1728:
1721:
1714:
1487:
1315:
1305:
972:
7822:
7736:
7693:
7429:
7217:
6990:
6912:
6907:
6829:
6596:
6130:
4641:
4635:
4330:
3985:
for the branching ratios of the muon and tau yields a lifetime ratio of ~
2517:
2263:
2048:
1676:
for the lepton. First-order quantum mechanical approximation predicts that the
1559:
with a negative electric charge and the electrically neutral electron neutrino
1508:
1421:, left- and right-handed fermions are identical. However, the Standard Model's
1382:, which in turn is closely related to a more easily visualized property called
1344:
1291:
1268:
1190:
876:
817:
750:
719:
674:
568:
490:
410:
365:
237:
6242:
5380:
Perl, M. L.; et al. (1975). "Evidence for
Anomalous Lepton Production in
5197:
5099:
2062:
However, it is known from indirect experimentsâmost prominently from observed
7836:
7780:
7632:
7599:
7391:
7361:
7293:
7152:
6932:
6859:
6844:
6648:
Shankar, R. (1994). "Chapter 2: Rotational
Invariance and Angular Momentum".
6185:
6138:
5550:
5366:
5175:
4989:
4824:
4818:
2676:
2550:
2106:
2093:
1516:
1034:
1016:
912:
800:
647:
440:
361:
199:
119:
6442:
Kodama, K.; et al. (2001). "Observation of tau neutrino interactions".
6292:
5943:
5892:
5880:
5759:
5721:
5692:
5656:
5340:
7758:
7308:
7298:
7288:
7049:
7000:
6942:
6864:
6819:
6741:
6548:
6073:
5241:
5057:
4905:
4898:
2929:
2412:
2169:
2164:
2099:
1785:
1186:
861:
785:
696:
400:
369:
315:
206:
124:
6363:
1386:. The helicity of a particle is the direction of its spin relative to its
961:
7773:
7541:
7444:
7439:
7356:
7351:
7281:
7235:
7192:
7157:
7116:
7008:
6972:
6834:
4056:
3656:
2574:
2535:
2052:
1851:, while there is no evidence that a right-handed neutrino exists at all.
1390:; particles with spin in the same direction as their momentum are called
1295:
896:
892:
829:
770:
545:
280:
141:
6386:
6208:"New ATLAS result addresses long-standing tension in the Standard Model"
6065:
6033:
7515:
7409:
7399:
7381:
7271:
7172:
7107:
6824:
6749:
6456:
6409:
5486:
5116:
Representing Electrons: A Biographical Approach to Theoretical Entities
4314:
the most precise ratio so far testing the lepton flavour universality.
4019:
being constants: They depend slightly on the mass of leptons involved.
2697:
2547:
2056:
1271:
was first detected in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977 by
1210:
821:
731:
228:
114:
1335:
222:
7657:
7647:
7617:
7510:
7476:
7469:
7346:
7336:
7331:
7303:
7071:
6854:
6703:
5317:
5151:
254:
146:
6733:â The PDG compiles authoritative information on particle properties.
6380:
Anicin, I. V. (2005). "The Neutrino: Its Past, Present and Future".
5453:"Physicists find first direct evidence for tau neutrino at Fermilab"
7753:
7581:
7536:
7520:
7481:
7454:
7167:
7162:
7142:
7112:
7102:
7097:
6917:
6892:
6887:
6814:
6232:
6113:
6048:
5456:
4607:
4601:
4509:
4503:
4454:
4448:
2886:
2633:
2392:
2350:
2330:
2221:
2201:
1695:
1387:
1287:
1218:
1077:
1020:
945:
869:
723:
576:
549:
536:. Charged leptons can combine with other particles to form various
533:
521:
517:
349:
185:
167:
136:
7662:
7652:
7622:
7576:
7571:
7546:
7464:
7449:
7376:
7371:
7276:
7261:
7207:
7182:
7147:
7076:
7058:
6797:
5577:
4699:
4693:
4023:
2555:
2475:
2435:
2372:
2283:
2243:
1368:
1038:
888:
43:
2066:âthat neutrinos have to have a nonzero mass, probably less than
7642:
7637:
7266:
7253:
7244:
7066:
6980:
4396:
2310:
2181:
1757:
1582:
1214:
884:
24:
20:
1858:
recombines the gauge fields of the weak isospin SU(2) and the
1312:, while its associated neutrino would have a mass of at least
7667:
7607:
7459:
7318:
7197:
7137:
7092:
6985:
6963:
6806:
6586:
5581:
5543:
4999:
3101:
is some other constant. Muonâtauon universality implies that
2866:
1788:
1541:. For example, the first generation consists of the electron
1283:
1237:
1236:
in 1936. Due to its mass, it was initially categorized as a
865:
812:
758:
529:
177:
96:
6293:"Laboratory measurements and limits for neutrino properties"
1185:
The first lepton identified was the electron, discovered by
7434:
7366:
7326:
6902:
6897:
4543:
4537:
4066:
collaboration have twice the precision and give a ratio of
4044:
2613:
2543:
2455:
1276:
1257:
1229:
880:
804:
754:
625:
541:
525:
357:
172:
1589:
of the electronâphoton interaction is shown on the right.
1189:
and his team of British physicists in 1897. Then in 1930,
784:
For every lepton flavor, there is a corresponding type of
5261:"The Reines-Cowan Experiments: Detecting the Poltergeist"
4381:
2696:
is approximately given by an expression of the form (see
2080:. The currently most favoured extension is the so-called
1495:
One of the most prominent properties of leptons is their
1228:
Nearly 40 years after the discovery of the electron, the
6286:
6284:
6282:
3117:. On the other hand, electronâmuon universality implies
5793:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
1503:. The electric charge determines the strength of their
5589:. Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages.
3993:, comparable to the measured lifetime ratio of ~
2863:. The decay rate of tau particles through the process
796:. It is not currently known whether this is the case.
6740:. Physics & Astronomy. Georgia State University.
6728:
6279:
4196:
4072:
3724:
3665:
3624:
3583:
3390:
3359:
3339:
3310:
3126:
2958:
2709:
2595:
1608:
935:
836:
in 1956. The muon neutrino was discovered in 1962 by
5294:
Reines, F.; Cowan, C.L. Jr. (1956). "The Neutrino".
5147:
Histories of the Electron: The Birth of Microphysics
3715:
The ratio of tau and muon lifetime is thus given by
1650:{\displaystyle \mu =g\,{\frac {\;Q\hbar \;}{4m}}\ ,}
6517:
6488:
6230:
6094:
5210:
1442:) and right-handed fields are denoted by a capital
986:) are fractions of the mass of the "heavy" proton (
6672:
6588:
6490:
4306:
4182:
3968:
3684:
3647:
3611:{\displaystyle \;{\mathcal {B}}(x\rightarrow y)\;}
3610:
3565:
3365:
3345:
3325:
3286:
3083:
2834:
2601:
2530:LHCb experiment § Lepton flavour universality
1649:
848:, and the tau discovered between 1974 and 1977 by
792:. According to certain theories, neutrinos may be
227:Leptons are involved in several processes such as
6290:
5781:
5332:
5044:
4596:
1290:, making it the second-to-latest particle of the
931:); the earliest attested form of the word is the
726:, whereas muons and taus can only be produced in
7834:
6162:"ATLAS measurement supports lepton universality"
2087:
1862:U(1) symmetries to three massive vector bosons (
6613:
5143:
2141:, while tau particles and tau neutrinos have a
5986:. Vol. 12. Atlantica SĂ©guier FrontiĂšres.
1924:can be calculated from the isospin projection
1482:
820:in 1930 to explain certain characteristics of
6765:
6634:
6492:"Chapter 2: Leptons, quarks and hadrons"
6379:
5968:
5966:
5964:
5962:
5960:
5958:
5956:
6670:
6520:"Note on the Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles"
6518:Neddermeyer, S. H.; Anderson, C. D. (1937).
6027:
5789:"2022 CODATA Value: tau-electron mass ratio"
5470:"Observation of tau neutrino interactions".
5213:"Note on the Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles"
5211:Neddermeyer, S. H.; Anderson, C. D. (1937).
1519:). Each generation contains one lepton with
927:nominative/accusative singular form: λΔÏÏÏÎœ
6647:
6555:
5975:
5937:
5935:
5933:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5912:M. E. Peskin, D. V. Schroeder (1995), p. 27
5903:M.E. Peskin, D. V. Schroeder (1995), p. 197
5651:
5649:
5647:
5293:
3648:{\displaystyle \;\Gamma (x\rightarrow y)\;}
2949:is given by an expression of the same form
2542:and has been tested in measurements of the
915:
864:remained elusive until July 2000, when the
6772:
6758:
6697:
6441:
6394:
6319:
6000:
5953:
5463:
5445:
3839:
3763:
3700:replaced by two different particles from "
3666:
3644:
3625:
3607:
3584:
3485:
3409:
1727:
1720:
1713:
1629:
1622:
979:) and the mass of a muon (with a value of
765:, but they are subject to the other three
761:, however, leptons are not subject to the
6455:
6408:
6385:
6362:
6262:"The delicate balance of lepton flavours"
6159:
6112:
6047:
5944:"Particle listings â Neutrino properties"
5485:
5112:
3920:
3741:
3728:
3562:
3059:
3043:
2810:
2794:
1618:
1000:) is nearly twice that of the proton and
879:. Electrons are one of the components of
803:. The next lepton to be observed was the
555:There are six types of leptons, known as
6779:
6587:Peskin, M. E.; Schroeder, D. V. (1995).
5924:
5843:S. H. Neddermeyer, C. D. Anderson (1937)
5754:
5752:
5750:
5748:
5746:
5644:
5598:Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B
5137:
5106:
2534:The coupling of leptons to all types of
2163:
2125:, while muons and muon neutrinos have a
2076:. This implies the existence of physics
2015:, while the right-handed isospin scalar
1486:
1334:
1028:
5981:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5681:
5174:
4022:Recent tests of lepton universality in
1847:) and thus does not participate in the
1339:Left-handed and right-handed helicities
532:, and neutral leptons, better known as
520:-like leptons or muons), including the
466:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
7835:
7243:
6006:
5941:
5714:
5168:
5083:
1371:and thus that they are subject to the
6753:
5743:
5338:
5255:
5253:
5251:
5144:Buchwald, J. Z.; Warwick, A. (2001).
5077:
5065:, Department of Physics and Astronomy
1468:, although with different strengths (
1433:subscript (e.g. the normal electron e
1330:
1294:to have been directly observed, with
875:Leptons are an important part of the
858:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
512:. Two main classes of leptons exist:
6675:The Discovery of Subatomic Particles
6591:Introduction to Quantum Field Theory
6291:Peltoniemi, J.; Sarkamo, J. (2005).
5678:
5625:DÄMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo
5591:
5379:
3326:{\displaystyle \mathrm {T} _{\ell }}
1507:. It determines the strength of the
730:collisions (such as those involving
6160:Middleton, Christine (2021-07-09).
5864:
4317:
3381:") is related to the decay rate by
1701:
1537:while a neutral lepton is called a
811:in 1936, which was classified as a
13:
6313:
6231:ATLAS Collaboration (2024-03-04),
5893:Searches for Heavy Neutral Leptons
5248:
4262:
4225:
4138:
4101:
3844:
3766:
3745:
3731:
3685:{\displaystyle \;x\rightarrow y~,}
3626:
3587:
3488:
3412:
3393:
3313:
3207:
3133:
2959:
2710:
2596:
2328: â
1076:boson subsequently decays into an
854:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
14:
7864:
6721:
3618:denotes the branching ratios and
2503:physics beyond the Standard Model
2098:The members of each generation's
1626:
790:equal magnitude but opposite sign
7816:
7709:Timeline of particle discoveries
5942:Amsler, C.; et al. (2008).
5600:. Deaditerranean. Archived from
5050:
2583:Large ElectronâPositron Collider
1741:of the first generation leptons.
1683:anomalous magnetic dipole moment
1260:neutrino, which earned them the
1207:conservation of angular momentum
960:Following a suggestion of Prof.
826:CowanâReines neutrino experiment
221:
6650:Principles of Quantum Mechanics
6254:
6224:
6200:
6153:
6088:
5915:
5906:
5897:
5885:
5873:
5855:
5846:
5837:
5828:
5819:
5810:
5635:
5570:
5536:
5518:
5373:
5339:Danby, G.; et al. (1962).
2610:) of muons through the process
2523:
1511:generated by the particle (see
824:. It was first observed in the
6729:"Particle Data Group homepage"
6489:B. R. Martin; G. Shaw (1992).
6355:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
5881:Heavy Charged Leptons Searches
5287:
5204:
5017:
4289:
4273:
4267:
4252:
4236:
4230:
4165:
4149:
4143:
4128:
4112:
4106:
3893:
3864:
3815:
3786:
3670:
3641:
3635:
3629:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3535:
3506:
3461:
3432:
3254:
3225:
3180:
3151:
3006:
2977:
2757:
2728:
1664:is the mass of the lepton and
1394:and they are otherwise called
1378:A closely related property is
1:
6616:"Logbook: Neutrino Invention"
6474:10.1016/S0370-2693(01)00307-0
6007:Fraser, G. (1 January 1998).
5504:10.1016/S0370-2693(01)00307-0
5011:
2088:Lepton flavor quantum numbers
1325:
1025:Tau (particle) § History
16:Class of elementary particles
7725:History of subatomic physics
6326:"Review of Particle Physics"
5972:B. R. Martin, G. Shaw (1992)
5587:"The Linear B word re-po-to"
1505:electromagnetic interactions
1446:subscript (e.g. a positron e
1007:times that of the electron.
952:was first used by physicist
902:
852:and his colleagues from the
7:
6580:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1489
6427:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1562
5530:Online Etymology Dictionary
5439:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1489
5121:University of Chicago Press
4983:
4001:. The difference is due to
3979:Using values from the 2008
2453: â
2199: â
1942:Gell-MannâNishijima formula
1483:Electromagnetic interaction
1367:thus implies that they are
1275:with his colleagues at the
516:leptons (also known as the
10:
7869:
6681:Cambridge University Press
6297:The Ultimate Neutrino Page
6131:10.1038/s41567-021-01236-w
5544:
4430:
3982:Review of Particle Physics
2527:
2091:
1466:combined electroweak force
1298:being discovered in 2012.
1014:
1010:
936:
816:neutrino, was proposed by
29:
18:
7814:
7717:
7681:
7598:
7559:
7529:
7503:
7499:
7490:
7422:
7390:
7317:
7252:
7234:
7130:
7085:
7057:
7048:
7039:
7021:
6999:
6971:
6962:
6878:
6805:
6796:
6787:
6320:Amsler, C.; et al. (
6243:10.48550/arXiv.2403.02133
6023:– via Google Books.
5758:C. Amsler et al. (2008):
5720:C. Amsler et al. (2008):
5691:C. Amsler et al. (2008):
5655:C. Amsler et al. (2008):
5198:10.1080/14786449708621070
5100:10.1080/00033796900200141
4938:
4935:
4929:
4926:
4856:
4853:
4850:
4844:
4778:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4757:
4726:
4681:
4672:
4666:
4663:
4583:
4574:
4571:
4565:
4497:
4485:
4482:
4479:
4391:
4376:
4373:
4355:
4352:
4347:
4329:
4043:decays, performed by the
2078:beyond the Standard Model
1735:
1491:Leptonâphoton interaction
1373:Pauli exclusion principle
1033:A muon transmutes into a
1017:Electron § Discovery
916:
872:announced its discovery.
734:and those carried out in
669:); and the third are the
439:
409:
399:
376:
344:
314:
290:
270:
260:
248:
236:
220:
152:
95:
48:
42:
7742:mathematical formulation
7337:Eta and eta prime mesons
6614:Riesselmann, K. (2007).
6186:10.1063/PT.6.1.20210709a
5891:C. Amsler et al. (2008)
5879:C. Amsler et al. (2008)
5861:M. L. Perl et al. (1975)
5621:"PY 1322 Un + fr. (Cii)"
5367:10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.36
5063:Georgia State University
5006:
2579:Stanford Linear Collider
2168:Each generation forms a
1203:conservation of momentum
767:fundamental interactions
508:) that does not undergo
19:Not to be confused with
7404:Double-charm tetraquark
6746:â a summary of leptons.
6641:Interscience Publishers
6559:Physical Review Letters
6397:Physical Review Letters
5921:Y. Fukuda et al. (1998)
5560:A GreekâEnglish Lexicon
5418:Physical Review Letters
5346:Physical Review Letters
5030:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
2861:Fermi coupling constant
2602:{\displaystyle \Gamma }
2042:
1756:that transforms in the
1415:quantum electrodynamics
1365:spin-statistics theorem
923:, "fine, small, thin" (
32:Lepton (disambiguation)
6635:Rosenfeld, L. (1948).
6549:10.1103/PhysRev.51.884
5982:Cumalat, J.P. (1993).
5242:10.1103/PhysRev.51.884
5185:Philosophical Magazine
5113:Arabatzis, T. (2006).
4325:Properties of leptons
4308:
4184:
3970:
3686:
3649:
3612:
3567:
3367:
3347:
3327:
3288:
3085:
2852:is some constant, and
2836:
2603:
2577:, particularly at the
2176:
1651:
1594:magnetic dipole moment
1492:
1419:quantum chromodynamics
1411:quantum field theories
1340:
1199:conservation of energy
1115:electron antineutrino
1085:
966:
794:their own antiparticle
620:); the second are the
454:This article contains
38:Generations of matter
7801:Waveâparticle duality
7791:Relativistic particle
6928:Electron antineutrino
6671:Weinberg, S. (2003).
6501:John Wiley & Sons
5834:K. Riesselmann (2007)
5551:Liddell, Henry George
4785:electron antineutrino
4374:Lepton flavor number
4309:
4185:
3971:
3687:
3650:
3613:
3568:
3368:
3366:{\displaystyle \ell }
3348:
3346:{\displaystyle \ell }
3328:
3289:
3086:
2837:
2604:
2499:neutrino oscillations
2167:
2064:neutrino oscillations
1931:and weak hypercharge
1652:
1490:
1338:
1082:electron antineutrino
1032:
958:
741:Leptons have various
736:particle accelerators
571:leptons, also called
7848:Elementary particles
7031:FaddeevâPopov ghosts
6781:Particles in physics
6656:. pp. 305â352.
6010:The Particle Century
5984:Physics in Collision
5480:(3): 218â224. 2001.
5154:. pp. 195â203.
4194:
4070:
3722:
3663:
3622:
3581:
3388:
3357:
3337:
3308:
3124:
2956:
2707:
2593:
2390: â
2261: â
1606:
1177:tauonic antineutrino
1089:Lepton nomenclature
743:intrinsic properties
378:Electric charge
30:For other uses, see
7806:Particle chauvinism
7749:Subatomic particles
6698:Wilson, R. (1997).
6626:(2). Archived from
6572:1975PhRvL..35.1489P
6541:1937PhRv...51..884N
6466:2001PhLB..504..218D
6419:1998PhRvL..81.1562F
6347:2008PhLB..667....1A
6322:Particle Data Group
6178:2021PhT..2021a.709.
6123:2021NatPh..17..813A
6066:10.1038/nature22346
6058:2017Natur.546..227C
5852:I. V. Anicin (2005)
5641:L. Rosenfeld (1948)
5496:2001PhLB..504..218D
5431:1975PhRvL..35.1489P
5359:1962PhRvL...9...36D
5310:1956Natur.178..446R
5234:1937PhRv...51..884N
4326:
4219:
4095:
3074:
3058:
2825:
2809:
2585:(LEP) experiments.
2540:lepton universality
2305:but none of these:
2057:there is for quarks
1145:muonic antineutrino
1090:
1021:Muon § History
868:collaboration from
561:, grouped in three
538:composite particles
510:strong interactions
483:elementary particle
243:Elementary particle
217:
50:Elementary particle
39:
6503:. pp. 23â47.
5816:S. Weinberg (2003)
5760:Particle listingsâ
5722:Particle listingsâ
5693:Particle listingsâ
5657:Particle listingsâ
5629:University of Oslo
5269:Los Alamos Science
5123:. pp. 70â74.
5025:"Lepton (physics)"
4350:antiparticle name
4324:
4304:
4197:
4180:
4073:
3966:
3682:
3645:
3608:
3563:
3363:
3343:
3323:
3284:
3081:
3060:
3044:
2832:
2811:
2795:
2700:for more details)
2599:
2177:
1647:
1493:
1341:
1331:Spin and chirality
1242:strong interaction
1232:was discovered by
1175:tauon antineutrino
1097:Antiparticle name
1088:
1086:
763:strong interaction
573:electronic leptons
456:special characters
441:Baryon number
215:
37:
7830:
7829:
7786:Massless particle
7594:
7593:
7590:
7589:
7555:
7554:
7418:
7417:
7230:
7229:
7226:
7225:
7178:Magnetic monopole
7126:
7125:
7017:
7016:
6958:
6957:
6938:Muon antineutrino
6923:Electron neutrino
6713:978-0-7484-0748-4
6690:978-0-521-82351-7
6663:978-0-306-44790-7
6620:Symmetry Magazine
6606:978-0-201-50397-5
6566:(22): 1489â1492.
6510:978-0-471-92358-9
6444:Physics Letters B
6334:Physics Letters B
6042:(7657): 227â233.
6020:978-1-4200-5033-2
5993:978-2-86332-129-4
5584:Un 1322 tablets.
5473:Physics Letters B
5455:(Press release).
5161:978-0-262-52424-7
5130:978-0-226-02421-9
5087:Annals of Science
4995:List of particles
4979:
4978:
4863:muon antineutrino
4732:electron neutrino
4400:
4389:
4371:
4345:
3962:
3948:
3918:
3896:
3818:
3755:
3678:
3560:
3538:
3464:
3280:
3257:
3183:
3077:
3051:
3009:
2828:
2802:
2760:
2609:
2111:electronic number
1800:with eigenvalues
1750:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1739:weak interactions
1668:is the so-called
1643:
1639:
1445:
1432:
1286:collaboration at
1273:Martin Lewis Perl
1195:electron neutrino
1183:
1182:
1179:tau antineutrino
1170:tauonic neutrino
1143:muon antineutrino
1112:electron neutrino
948:syllabic script.
850:Martin Lewis Perl
673:, comprising the
624:, comprising the
599:electron neutrino
487:half-integer spin
462:rendering support
449:
448:
354:electron neutrino
213:
212:
193:electron neutrino
7860:
7820:
7796:Virtual particle
7567:Mesonic molecule
7501:
7500:
7497:
7496:
7342:Bottom eta meson
7250:
7249:
7241:
7240:
7213:WâČ and ZâČ bosons
7203:Sterile neutrino
7188:Majorana fermion
7055:
7054:
7046:
7045:
6969:
6968:
6948:Tau antineutrino
6803:
6802:
6794:
6793:
6774:
6767:
6760:
6751:
6750:
6745:
6732:
6717:
6694:
6678:
6667:
6652:(2nd ed.).
6644:
6631:
6610:
6594:
6583:
6552:
6524:
6514:
6497:Particle Physics
6494:
6485:
6459:
6438:
6412:
6403:(8): 1562â1567.
6391:
6389:
6376:
6366:
6330:
6308:
6307:
6305:
6303:
6288:
6277:
6276:
6274:
6273:
6258:
6252:
6251:
6250:
6249:
6228:
6222:
6221:
6219:
6218:
6204:
6198:
6197:
6157:
6151:
6150:
6116:
6092:
6086:
6085:
6051:
6031:
6025:
6024:
6004:
5998:
5997:
5979:
5973:
5970:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5939:
5922:
5919:
5913:
5910:
5904:
5901:
5895:
5889:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5870:K. Kodama (2001)
5868:
5862:
5859:
5853:
5850:
5844:
5841:
5835:
5832:
5826:
5825:R. Wilson (1997)
5823:
5817:
5814:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5804:
5785:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5775:
5768:
5767:
5756:
5741:
5739:
5738:
5737:
5730:
5729:
5718:
5712:
5710:
5709:
5708:
5701:
5700:
5689:
5676:
5674:
5673:
5672:
5665:
5664:
5653:
5642:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5618:
5615:"KN 693 L (103)"
5612:
5610:
5609:
5590:
5574:
5568:
5547:
5546:
5540:
5534:
5522:
5516:
5515:
5489:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5449:
5443:
5442:
5414:
5413:
5412:
5405:
5404:
5397:
5396:
5395:
5388:
5387:
5377:
5371:
5370:
5336:
5330:
5329:
5318:10.1038/178446a0
5291:
5285:
5284:
5282:
5281:
5265:
5257:
5246:
5245:
5217:
5208:
5202:
5201:
5172:
5166:
5165:
5141:
5135:
5134:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5081:
5075:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5048:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5021:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4968:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4945:tau antineutrino
4924:
4923:
4921:
4920:
4912:
4911:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4886:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4842:
4840:
4839:
4831:
4830:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4800:
4797:
4796:
4776:
4775:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4744:
4743:
4716:
4714:
4713:
4706:
4705:
4688:
4686:
4679:
4677:
4658:
4656:
4655:
4648:
4647:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4614:
4613:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4579:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4550:
4549:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4516:
4515:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4471:
4469:
4468:
4461:
4460:
4445:
4443:
4442:
4439:
4436:
4423:
4415:
4407:
4394:
4379:
4363:
4361:
4337:
4335:
4327:
4323:
4318:Table of leptons
4313:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4288:
4287:
4266:
4265:
4259:
4251:
4250:
4229:
4228:
4218:
4214:
4205:
4189:
4187:
4186:
4181:
4164:
4163:
4142:
4141:
4135:
4127:
4126:
4105:
4104:
4094:
4090:
4081:
4040:
4039:
4038:
4031:
4030:
4011:
4004:
4000:
3998:
3992:
3990:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3949:
3947:
3946:
3937:
3936:
3927:
3919:
3917:
3916:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3891:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3863:
3862:
3848:
3847:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3813:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3785:
3784:
3770:
3769:
3761:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3742:
3740:
3739:
3734:
3726:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3676:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3617:
3615:
3614:
3609:
3591:
3590:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3533:
3524:
3518:
3517:
3505:
3504:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3459:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3431:
3430:
3416:
3415:
3407:
3402:
3401:
3396:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3299:branching ratios
3293:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3224:
3223:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3178:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3150:
3149:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3097:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3082:
3075:
3073:
3068:
3057:
3052:
3049:
3042:
3041:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3011:
3010:
3005:
3004:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2976:
2975:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2936:
2935:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2903:
2901:
2900:
2893:
2892:
2883:
2881:
2880:
2873:
2872:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2826:
2824:
2819:
2808:
2803:
2800:
2793:
2792:
2780:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2755:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2727:
2726:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2683:
2682:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2640:
2639:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2620:
2619:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2589:
2588:The decay rate (
2572:
2570:
2569:
2562:
2561:
2515:
2508:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2482:
2481:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2462:
2461:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2442:
2441:
2430:
2428:
2427:
2419:
2418:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2399:
2398:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2378:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2357:
2356:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2337:
2336:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2317:
2316:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2290:
2289:
2280:
2278:
2277:
2270:
2269:
2260:
2258:
2257:
2250:
2249:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2228:
2227:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2208:
2207:
2198:
2196:
2195:
2188:
2187:
2156:
2154:
2140:
2135:
2124:
2119:
2107:leptonic numbers
2082:seesaw mechanism
2075:
2038:
2033:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2014:
2004:
2002:
2001:
1984:
1982:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1936:
1927:
1923:
1918:weak interaction
1916:) mediating the
1915:
1914:
1913:
1906:
1905:
1897:
1896:
1895:
1888:
1887:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1870:
1869:
1860:weak hypercharge
1849:weak interaction
1846:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1796:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1766:
1760:representation (
1731:
1724:
1717:
1710:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1702:Weak interaction
1679:
1673:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1630:
1620:
1598:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1567:
1566:
1558:
1557:
1556:
1549:
1548:
1532:
1525:
1502:
1474:
1461:Sterile neutrino
1454:
1453:
1443:
1441:
1440:
1430:
1427:parity violation
1423:weak interaction
1362:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1321:
1311:
1262:1988 Nobel Prize
1254:Jack Steinberger
1246:Leon M. Lederman
1234:Carl D. Anderson
1223:angular momentum
1147:mu antineutrino
1091:
1087:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1066:
1065:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1046:
1045:
1006:
1003:
999:
992:
985:
978:
939:
938:
919:
918:
846:Jack Steinberger
838:Leon M. Lederman
834:Frederick Reines
809:Carl D. Anderson
807:, discovered by
779:electromagnetism
775:weak interaction
717:
716:
715:
707:
706:
694:
693:
692:
685:
684:
668:
667:
666:
658:
657:
645:
644:
643:
636:
635:
619:
618:
617:
609:
608:
596:
595:
594:
587:
586:
569:first-generation
507:
505:
504:
501:
498:
475:particle physics
429:
427:
426:
423:
420:
339:
338:
337:
331:
328:
327:
310:
309:
308:
301:
300:
277:Electromagnetism
225:
218:
214:
209:
202:
195:
188:
164:
159:
133:
111:
106:
91:
84:
77:
70:
63:
40:
36:
7868:
7867:
7863:
7862:
7861:
7859:
7858:
7857:
7853:1897 in science
7833:
7832:
7831:
7826:
7810:
7764:Nuclear physics
7713:
7677:
7613:Davydov soliton
7586:
7551:
7525:
7486:
7414:
7386:
7313:
7222:
7122:
7081:
7035:
7013:
6995:
6954:
6874:
6783:
6778:
6736:
6727:
6724:
6714:
6706:. p. 138.
6691:
6664:
6643:. p. xvii.
6630:on 31 May 2009.
6607:
6535:(10): 884â886.
6528:Physical Review
6522:
6511:
6387:physics/0503172
6328:
6316:
6314:Further reading
6311:
6301:
6299:
6289:
6280:
6271:
6269:
6260:
6259:
6255:
6247:
6245:
6229:
6225:
6216:
6214:
6206:
6205:
6201:
6158:
6154:
6093:
6089:
6032:
6028:
6021:
6005:
6001:
5994:
5980:
5976:
5971:
5954:
5946:
5940:
5925:
5920:
5916:
5911:
5907:
5902:
5898:
5890:
5886:
5878:
5874:
5869:
5865:
5860:
5856:
5851:
5847:
5842:
5838:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5820:
5815:
5811:
5802:
5800:
5787:
5786:
5782:
5774:
5772:
5771:
5770:
5766:
5764:
5763:
5762:
5761:
5757:
5744:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5732:
5728:
5726:
5725:
5724:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5707:
5705:
5704:
5703:
5699:
5697:
5696:
5695:
5694:
5690:
5679:
5671:
5669:
5668:
5667:
5663:
5661:
5660:
5659:
5658:
5654:
5645:
5640:
5636:
5619:
5613:
5607:
5605:
5592:Raymoure, K.A.
5585:
5575:
5571:
5565:Perseus Project
5541:
5537:
5523:
5519:
5469:
5468:
5464:
5459:. 20 July 2000.
5451:
5450:
5446:
5415:Annihilation".
5411:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5403:
5401:
5400:
5399:
5398:
5394:
5392:
5391:
5390:
5386:
5384:
5383:
5382:
5381:
5378:
5374:
5337:
5333:
5292:
5288:
5279:
5277:
5263:
5259:
5258:
5249:
5228:(10): 884â886.
5221:Physical Review
5215:
5209:
5205:
5173:
5169:
5162:
5142:
5138:
5131:
5111:
5107:
5082:
5078:
5068:
5066:
5049:
5045:
5035:
5033:
5023:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5009:
4986:
4967:
4964:
4963:
4962:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4950:
4949:
4936:< 15.5
4919:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4880:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4871:
4870:
4868:
4867:
4854:< 0.17
4838:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4773:
4771:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4742:
4740:
4739:
4738:
4736:
4712:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4704:
4702:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4684:
4682:
4675:
4673:
4654:
4652:
4651:
4650:
4646:
4644:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4620:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4612:
4610:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4595:
4590:
4586:
4584:
4577:
4575:
4556:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4522:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4440:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4418:
4413:
4410:
4405:
4393:
4378:
4359:
4358:
4349:
4333:
4332:
4320:
4283:
4279:
4261:
4260:
4255:
4246:
4242:
4224:
4223:
4210:
4206:
4201:
4195:
4192:
4191:
4159:
4155:
4137:
4136:
4131:
4122:
4118:
4100:
4099:
4086:
4082:
4077:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4033:
4029:
4027:
4026:
4025:
4024:
4014:
4009:
4007:
4002:
3996:
3994:
3988:
3986:
3954:
3942:
3938:
3932:
3928:
3926:
3922:
3921:
3906:
3902:
3887:
3883:
3881:
3880:
3871:
3867:
3858:
3854:
3853:
3849:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3828:
3824:
3809:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3793:
3789:
3780:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3749:
3744:
3743:
3735:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3659:of the process
3657:resonance width
3623:
3620:
3619:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3548:
3544:
3529:
3525:
3523:
3522:
3513:
3509:
3500:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3474:
3470:
3455:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3439:
3435:
3426:
3422:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3378:
3374:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3317:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3305:
3267:
3263:
3248:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3232:
3228:
3219:
3215:
3214:
3210:
3193:
3189:
3174:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3158:
3154:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3115:
3110:
3108:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3095:
3069:
3064:
3053:
3048:
3037:
3033:
3019:
3015:
3000:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2984:
2980:
2971:
2967:
2966:
2962:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2928:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2885:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2858:
2853:
2851:
2846:
2820:
2815:
2804:
2799:
2788:
2784:
2770:
2766:
2751:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2735:
2731:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2685:
2681:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2532:
2526:
2509:
2506:
2488:
2486:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2456:
2454:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2272:
2268:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2234:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2138:
2131:
2130:
2122:
2115:
2114:
2096:
2090:
2067:
2045:
2036:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2005:must thus have
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1981:
1970:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1949:
1948:
1939:
1932:
1930:
1925:
1921:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1856:Higgs mechanism
1840:
1839:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1792:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1770:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1742:
1704:
1696:are problematic
1677:
1671:
1665:
1661:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1596:
1587:Feynman diagram
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1521:
1520:
1500:
1497:electric charge
1485:
1477:
1470:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1439:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1400:reference frame
1363:particles. The
1357:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1333:
1328:
1313:
1303:
1250:Melvin Schwartz
1193:postulated the
1178:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1162:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1146:
1144:
1139:
1138:muonic neutrino
1137:
1130:
1128:
1123:
1121:
1106:
1072:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1027:
1013:
1004:
1001:
994:
988:938.3 MeV/
987:
981:105.7 MeV/
980:
970:
933:Mycenaean Greek
911:comes from the
905:
842:Melvin Schwartz
747:electric charge
714:
711:
710:
709:
705:
703:
702:
701:
700:
691:
689:
688:
687:
683:
681:
680:
679:
678:
671:tauonic leptons
665:
662:
661:
660:
656:
654:
653:
652:
651:
642:
640:
639:
638:
634:
632:
631:
630:
629:
616:
613:
612:
611:
607:
605:
604:
603:
602:
593:
591:
590:
589:
585:
583:
582:
581:
580:
575:, comprise the
502:
499:
496:
495:
493:
471:
470:
469:
460:Without proper
424:
421:
418:
417:
415:
336:
334:
333:
332:
329:
326:
324:
323:
322:
321:
307:
305:
304:
303:
299:
297:
296:
295:
294:
232:
205:
198:
191:
184:
162:
157:
156:
131:
109:
100:
99:
87:
80:
73:
66:
59:
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7866:
7856:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7828:
7827:
7823:Physics portal
7815:
7812:
7811:
7809:
7808:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7777:
7776:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7746:
7745:
7744:
7737:Standard Model
7734:
7733:
7732:
7721:
7719:
7715:
7714:
7712:
7711:
7706:
7704:Quasiparticles
7701:
7696:
7691:
7685:
7683:
7679:
7678:
7676:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7650:
7645:
7640:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7610:
7604:
7602:
7600:Quasiparticles
7596:
7595:
7592:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7585:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7569:
7563:
7561:
7557:
7556:
7553:
7552:
7550:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7533:
7531:
7527:
7526:
7524:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7507:
7505:
7494:
7488:
7487:
7485:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7473:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7452:
7447:
7437:
7432:
7426:
7424:
7420:
7419:
7416:
7415:
7413:
7412:
7407:
7396:
7394:
7392:Exotic hadrons
7388:
7387:
7385:
7384:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7329:
7323:
7321:
7315:
7314:
7312:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7285:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7258:
7256:
7247:
7238:
7232:
7231:
7228:
7227:
7224:
7223:
7221:
7220:
7218:X and Y bosons
7215:
7210:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7150:
7145:
7140:
7134:
7132:
7128:
7127:
7124:
7123:
7121:
7120:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7089:
7087:
7083:
7082:
7080:
7079:
7074:
7069:
7063:
7061:
7052:
7043:
7037:
7036:
7034:
7033:
7027:
7025:
7019:
7018:
7015:
7014:
7012:
7011:
7005:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6994:
6993:
6991:W and Z bosons
6988:
6983:
6977:
6975:
6966:
6960:
6959:
6956:
6955:
6953:
6952:
6951:
6950:
6945:
6940:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6884:
6882:
6876:
6875:
6873:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6845:Strange (quark
6842:
6837:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6811:
6809:
6800:
6791:
6785:
6784:
6777:
6776:
6769:
6762:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6734:
6723:
6722:External links
6720:
6719:
6718:
6712:
6695:
6689:
6668:
6662:
6645:
6637:Nuclear Forces
6632:
6611:
6605:
6597:Westview Press
6584:
6553:
6515:
6509:
6486:
6457:hep-ex/0012035
6450:(3): 218â224.
6439:
6410:hep-ex/9807003
6392:
6377:
6364:1854/LU-685594
6315:
6312:
6310:
6309:
6278:
6253:
6223:
6199:
6152:
6107:(7): 813â818.
6101:Nature Physics
6087:
6026:
6019:
5999:
5992:
5974:
5952:
5923:
5914:
5905:
5896:
5884:
5872:
5863:
5854:
5845:
5836:
5827:
5818:
5809:
5780:
5773:
5765:
5742:
5735:
5727:
5713:
5706:
5698:
5677:
5670:
5662:
5643:
5634:
5569:
5535:
5517:
5487:hep-ex/0012035
5462:
5444:
5410:
5402:
5393:
5385:
5372:
5331:
5286:
5247:
5203:
5180:"Cathode Rays"
5176:Thomson, J. J.
5167:
5160:
5136:
5129:
5105:
5094:(3): 243â254.
5076:
5043:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5003:
4997:
4992:
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4098:
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4076:
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4005:
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3681:
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3405:
3400:
3395:
3362:
3342:
3320:
3315:
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3283:
3276:
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3266:
3262:
3256:
3251:
3247:
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3222:
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3213:
3209:
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3196:
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3113:
3106:
3098:
3092:
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3080:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3047:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2979:
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2970:
2965:
2961:
2941:
2933:
2920:
2910:
2898:
2890:
2878:
2870:
2856:
2849:
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2842:
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2823:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2798:
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2779:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2688:
2680:
2667:
2657:
2645:
2637:
2625:
2617:
2598:
2573:boson partial
2567:
2559:
2525:
2522:
2518:chiral anomaly
2495:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2467:
2459:
2447:
2439:
2432:
2424:
2416:
2404:
2396:
2384:
2376:
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2362:
2354:
2342:
2334:
2322:
2314:
2303:
2302:
2295:
2287:
2275:
2267:
2255:
2247:
2240:
2233:
2225:
2213:
2205:
2193:
2185:
2151:
2143:tauonic number
2136:
2120:
2092:Main article:
2089:
2086:
2049:Standard Model
2044:
2041:
2034:
2021:
2010:
1998:
1991:
1986:
1985:
1979:
1957:
1937:
1928:
1911:
1903:
1893:
1885:
1875:
1867:
1797:
1748:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1725:
1718:
1703:
1700:
1658:
1657:
1646:
1637:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1572:
1564:
1554:
1546:
1535:charged lepton
1509:electric field
1484:
1481:
1475:
1450:
1437:
1404:Poincaré group
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1292:Standard Model
1191:Wolfgang Pauli
1181:
1180:
1173:
1168:tauon neutrino
1165:
1164:
1161:antitau lepton
1157:
1149:
1148:
1141:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1071:
1063:
1051:
1043:
1037:by emitting a
1012:
1009:
995:1777 MeV/
954:LĂ©on Rosenfeld
904:
901:
877:Standard Model
818:Wolfgang Pauli
720:particle decay
712:
704:
690:
682:
663:
655:
641:
633:
622:muonic leptons
614:
606:
592:
584:
464:, you may see
452:
451:
450:
447:
446:
443:
437:
436:
413:
407:
406:
403:
397:
396:
380:
374:
373:
346:
342:
341:
335:
325:
318:
312:
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306:
298:
292:
288:
287:
274:
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267:
264:
258:
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252:
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245:
240:
234:
233:
226:
211:
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203:
196:
189:
181:
180:
175:
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165:
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149:
144:
139:
134:
128:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
93:
92:
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
55:
47:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7865:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7840:
7838:
7825:
7824:
7819:
7813:
7807:
7804:
7802:
7799:
7797:
7794:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7781:Exotic matter
7779:
7775:
7772:
7771:
7770:
7769:Eightfold way
7767:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7759:Antiparticles
7757:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7747:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7738:
7735:
7731:
7728:
7727:
7726:
7723:
7722:
7720:
7716:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7687:
7686:
7684:
7680:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7664:
7661:
7659:
7656:
7654:
7651:
7649:
7646:
7644:
7641:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7621:
7619:
7616:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7605:
7603:
7601:
7597:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7564:
7562:
7558:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7534:
7532:
7528:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7508:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7489:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7442:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7430:Atomic nuclei
7428:
7427:
7425:
7421:
7411:
7408:
7405:
7401:
7398:
7397:
7395:
7393:
7389:
7383:
7380:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7362:Upsilon meson
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7328:
7325:
7324:
7322:
7320:
7316:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7294:Lambda baryon
7292:
7290:
7287:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7264:
7263:
7260:
7259:
7257:
7255:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7233:
7219:
7216:
7214:
7211:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7153:Dual graviton
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7135:
7133:
7129:
7118:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7090:
7088:
7084:
7078:
7075:
7073:
7070:
7068:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7060:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7050:Superpartners
7047:
7044:
7042:
7038:
7032:
7029:
7028:
7026:
7024:
7020:
7010:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7002:
6998:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6979:
6978:
6976:
6974:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6961:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6934:
6933:Muon neutrino
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6920:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6881:
6877:
6871:
6868:
6866:
6865:Bottom (quark
6863:
6861:
6858:
6856:
6853:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6812:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6795:
6792:
6790:
6786:
6782:
6775:
6770:
6768:
6763:
6761:
6756:
6755:
6752:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6730:
6726:
6725:
6715:
6709:
6705:
6701:
6696:
6692:
6686:
6682:
6677:
6676:
6669:
6665:
6659:
6655:
6651:
6646:
6642:
6638:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6612:
6608:
6602:
6598:
6593:
6592:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6560:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6529:
6521:
6516:
6512:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6493:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6388:
6383:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6335:
6327:
6323:
6318:
6317:
6298:
6294:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6267:
6263:
6257:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6235:
6227:
6213:
6209:
6203:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6166:Physics Today
6163:
6156:
6148:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6091:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6030:
6022:
6016:
6013:. CRC Press.
6012:
6011:
6003:
5995:
5989:
5985:
5978:
5969:
5967:
5965:
5963:
5961:
5959:
5957:
5945:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5932:
5930:
5928:
5918:
5909:
5900:
5894:
5888:
5882:
5876:
5867:
5858:
5849:
5840:
5831:
5822:
5813:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5784:
5778:
5755:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5747:
5740:
5717:
5711:
5688:
5686:
5684:
5682:
5675:
5652:
5650:
5648:
5638:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5616:
5604:on 2016-01-16
5603:
5599:
5595:
5588:
5583:
5579:
5576:Found on the
5573:
5566:
5562:
5561:
5556:
5555:Scott, Robert
5552:
5548:
5539:
5532:
5531:
5526:
5521:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5474:
5466:
5458:
5454:
5448:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5420:
5419:
5376:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5347:
5342:
5335:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5304:(4531): 446.
5303:
5299:
5298:
5290:
5275:
5271:
5270:
5262:
5256:
5254:
5252:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5222:
5214:
5207:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5171:
5163:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5148:
5140:
5132:
5126:
5122:
5118:
5117:
5109:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5088:
5080:
5064:
5060:
5059:
5054:
5047:
5032:
5031:
5026:
5020:
5016:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4990:Koide formula
4988:
4987:
4974:
4970:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4942:
4932:
4922:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4847:
4841:
4822:
4820:
4819:muon neutrino
4817:
4816:
4812:
4809:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4760:
4754:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4715:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4691:
4669:
4660:
4657:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4629:
4626:
4623:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4599:
4568:
4562:
4559:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4531:
4528:
4525:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4501:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4429:
4420:
4412:
4404:
4403:
4398:
4387:
4383:
4369:
4368:
4362:
4343:
4342:
4336:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4315:
4301:
4298:
4295:
4292:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4270:
4256:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4233:
4220:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4202:
4198:
4177:
4174:
4171:
4168:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4146:
4132:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4109:
4096:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4065:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4020:
4018:
3984:
3983:
3963:
3955:
3950:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3929:
3923:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3888:
3884:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3835:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3757:
3750:
3736:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3713:
3679:
3673:
3667:
3658:
3638:
3632:
3601:
3595:
3555:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3501:
3497:
3492:
3481:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3456:
3452:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3403:
3398:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3360:
3340:
3318:
3302:
3300:
3281:
3274:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3204:
3200:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3159:
3155:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3120:
3119:
3118:
3078:
3070:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3045:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2985:
2981:
2972:
2968:
2963:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2925:
2902:
2882:
2862:
2829:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2796:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2693:
2672:
2649:
2629:
2586:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2521:
2519:
2513:
2504:
2500:
2491:
2471:
2451:
2433:
2429:
2408:
2388:
2370:
2366:
2346:
2326:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2299:
2279:
2259:
2241:
2237:
2217:
2197:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2150:
2144:
2134:
2128:
2127:muonic number
2118:
2112:
2108:
2105:are assigned
2104:
2101:
2095:
2094:Lepton number
2085:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2073:
2065:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2040:
2032:
2009:
1978:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1935:
1919:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1850:
1843:
1827: 1
1808: 1
1795:
1790:
1787:
1765:
1759:
1755:
1740:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1675:
1674: factor"
1644:
1635:
1632:
1623:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1530:
1524:
1518:
1517:Lorentz force
1514:
1513:Coulomb's law
1510:
1506:
1498:
1489:
1480:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1346:
1337:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1174:
1167:
1166:
1158:
1151:
1150:
1142:
1136:muon neutrino
1135:
1134:
1129:antimu lepton
1126:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1094:Particle name
1093:
1092:
1083:
1079:
1057:
1036:
1035:muon neutrino
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1008:
998:
991:
984:
977:
976:
965:
963:
957:
955:
951:
947:
944:, written in
943:
934:
930:
926:
922:
914:
910:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
828:conducted by
827:
823:
819:
814:
810:
806:
802:
801:J. J. Thomson
797:
795:
791:
787:
782:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
698:
676:
672:
649:
648:muon neutrino
627:
623:
600:
578:
574:
570:
566:
565:
560:
559:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
467:
463:
459:
457:
444:
442:
438:
435:
434:
414:
412:
408:
404:
402:
398:
395:
391:
387:
386:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
362:muon neutrino
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
319:
317:
313:
293:
289:
286:
282:
278:
275:
273:
269:
266:1st, 2nd, 3rd
265:
263:
259:
256:
253:
251:
247:
244:
241:
239:
235:
230:
224:
219:
208:
204:
201:
200:muon neutrino
197:
194:
190:
187:
183:
182:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
161:
158:(color-free)
155:
151:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
130:
129:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
108:
104:
98:
94:
90:
86:
83:
79:
76:
72:
69:
65:
62:
58:
57:
54:
51:
45:
41:
33:
26:
22:
7821:
7492:Hypothetical
7440:Exotic atoms
7309:Omega baryon
7299:Sigma baryon
7289:Delta baryon
7041:Hypothetical
7023:Ghost fields
7009:Higgs boson
6943:Tau neutrino
6879:
6835:Charm (quark
6742:Hyperphysics
6699:
6674:
6649:
6636:
6628:the original
6623:
6619:
6590:
6563:
6557:
6532:
6526:
6496:
6447:
6443:
6400:
6396:
6338:
6332:
6300:. Retrieved
6296:
6270:. Retrieved
6268:. 2024-09-18
6265:
6256:
6246:, retrieved
6233:
6226:
6215:. Retrieved
6211:
6202:
6172:(1): 0709a.
6169:
6165:
6155:
6104:
6100:
6090:
6039:
6035:
6029:
6009:
6002:
5983:
5977:
5917:
5908:
5899:
5887:
5875:
5866:
5857:
5848:
5839:
5830:
5821:
5812:
5801:. Retrieved
5792:
5783:
5716:
5637:
5624:
5606:. Retrieved
5602:the original
5597:
5572:
5558:
5538:
5528:
5520:
5477:
5471:
5465:
5447:
5425:(22): 1489.
5422:
5416:
5375:
5350:
5344:
5334:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5278:. Retrieved
5273:
5267:
5225:
5219:
5206:
5192:(269): 293.
5189:
5183:
5170:
5146:
5139:
5115:
5108:
5091:
5085:
5079:
5069:29 September
5067:. Retrieved
5058:HyperPhysics
5056:
5046:
5036:29 September
5034:. Retrieved
5028:
5019:
4899:tau neutrino
4385:
4366:
4348:Particle or
4340:
4061:
4021:
4016:
3980:
3978:
3714:
3655:denotes the
3576:
3333:of a lepton
3303:
3296:
3093:
2844:
2587:
2575:decay widths
2539:
2533:
2524:Universality
2511:
2496:
2304:
2170:weak isospin
2159:
2148:
2142:
2132:
2126:
2116:
2110:
2100:weak isospin
2097:
2071:
2061:
2046:
2030:
2007:
1987:
1976:
1954:
1950:
1940:through the
1933:
1853:
1841:
1793:
1786:weak isospin
1763:
1751:
1691:
1687:
1681:
1659:
1599:is given by
1591:
1580:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1494:
1471:
1459:
1457:
1408:
1395:
1392:right-handed
1391:
1377:
1343:Leptons are
1342:
1317:
1307:
1300:
1266:
1227:
1197:to preserve
1187:J.J. Thomson
1184:
1172:tau neutrino
1105:antielectron
996:
989:
982:
974:
967:
959:
949:
941:
928:
920:
908:
906:
893:Exotic atoms
883:, alongside
874:
862:tau neutrino
798:
786:antiparticle
783:
745:, including
740:
697:tau neutrino
670:
621:
572:
562:
556:
554:
478:
472:
453:
432:
401:Color charge
393:
389:
384:
370:tau neutrino
320:Antilepton (
316:Antiparticle
272:Interactions
207:tau neutrino
153:
88:
81:
74:
67:
60:
7774:Quark model
7542:Theta meson
7445:Positronium
7357:Omega meson
7352:J/psi meson
7282:Antineutron
7193:Dark photon
7158:Graviphoton
7117:Stop squark
6825:Down (quark
4057:new physics
2536:gauge boson
2053:Higgs field
1694:, however,
1396:left-handed
1304:100.8
1296:Higgs boson
1140:mu neutrino
971:0.511
897:positronium
830:Clyde Cowan
771:gravitation
732:cosmic rays
728:high-energy
564:generations
546:positronium
281:gravitation
238:Composition
46:categories
7837:Categories
7516:Heptaquark
7477:Superatoms
7410:Pentaquark
7400:Tetraquark
7382:Quarkonium
7272:Antiproton
7173:Leptoquark
7108:Neutralino
6870:antiquark)
6860:antiquark)
6855:Top (quark
6850:antiquark)
6840:antiquark)
6830:antiquark)
6820:antiquark)
6789:Elementary
6324:) (2008).
6302:7 November
6272:2024-09-20
6248:2024-09-20
6217:2021-07-12
6114:2007.14040
6049:1703.01766
5803:2024-05-18
5799:. May 2024
5608:2014-03-22
5594:"re-po-to"
5580:L 693 and
5280:2010-02-10
5012:References
4770:<
2698:muon decay
2581:(SLC) and
2528:See also:
2027:must have
1413:, such as
1326:Properties
1314:45.0
1211:beta decay
1154:tau lepton
1015:See also:
822:beta decay
695:) and the
646:) and the
597:) and the
392:, â1
262:Generation
250:Statistics
229:beta decay
53:generation
7754:Particles
7699:Particles
7658:Polariton
7648:Plasmaron
7618:Dropleton
7511:Hexaquark
7482:Molecules
7470:Protonium
7347:Phi meson
7332:Rho meson
7304:Xi baryon
7236:Composite
7072:Gravitino
6815:Up (quark
6738:"Leptons"
6704:CRC Press
6482:119335798
6373:227119789
6194:242888088
6147:220831347
6139:1745-2481
5512:119335798
5353:(1): 36.
5276:: 3. 1997
5152:MIT Press
5053:"Leptons"
5051:Nave, R.
4683:2.906(10)
4299:±
4281:ν
4274:→
4248:μ
4244:ν
4240:μ
4237:→
4208:μ
4175:±
4161:μ
4157:ν
4153:μ
4150:→
4124:τ
4120:ν
4116:τ
4113:→
4092:μ
4084:τ
3944:τ
3934:μ
3908:μ
3904:ν
3894:¯
3885:ν
3873:−
3865:→
3860:−
3856:μ
3830:τ
3826:ν
3816:¯
3807:ν
3795:−
3787:→
3782:−
3778:τ
3751:μ
3737:τ
3671:→
3636:→
3627:Γ
3599:→
3550:ℓ
3546:ν
3536:¯
3527:ν
3515:−
3507:→
3502:−
3498:ℓ
3489:Γ
3476:ℓ
3472:ν
3462:¯
3453:ν
3441:−
3433:→
3428:−
3424:ℓ
3399:ℓ
3361:ℓ
3341:ℓ
3319:ℓ
3269:τ
3265:ν
3255:¯
3250:μ
3246:ν
3234:−
3230:μ
3226:→
3221:−
3217:τ
3208:Γ
3195:τ
3191:ν
3181:¯
3172:ν
3160:−
3152:→
3147:−
3143:τ
3134:Γ
3131:×
3066:τ
3031:≈
3021:τ
3017:ν
3007:¯
2998:ν
2986:−
2978:→
2973:−
2969:τ
2960:Γ
2817:μ
2782:≈
2772:μ
2768:ν
2758:¯
2749:ν
2737:−
2729:→
2724:−
2720:μ
2711:Γ
2597:Γ
2551:lifetimes
2514:subscript
2497:However,
2161:numbers:
1784:) of the
1627:ℏ
1610:μ
1380:chirality
1280:LBL group
1159:antitauon
1122:mu lepton
1107:positron
962:C. MĂžller
956:in 1948:
907:The name
903:Etymology
777:, and to
757:. Unlike
534:neutrinos
388:, 0
255:Fermionic
110:down-type
7730:timeline
7582:R-hadron
7537:Glueball
7521:Skyrmion
7455:Tauonium
7168:Inflaton
7163:Graviton
7143:Curvaton
7113:Sfermion
7103:Higgsino
7098:Chargino
7059:Gauginos
6918:Neutrino
6903:Antimuon
6893:Positron
6888:Electron
6798:Fermions
6654:Springer
6341:(1): 1.
6074:28593973
5525:"lepton"
5457:Fermilab
5178:(1897).
4984:See also
4939:unknown
4857:unknown
4779:unknown
4602:antimuon
4504:positron
4449:electron
4392:Lifetime
4017:actually
1821:â
1802:+
1688:electron
1539:neutrino
1409:In many
1388:momentum
1384:helicity
1369:fermions
1288:Fermilab
1219:momentum
1163:antitau
1127:antimuon
1102:electron
1078:electron
946:Linear B
942:re-po-to
889:neutrons
870:Fermilab
724:universe
577:electron
558:flavours
550:electron
540:such as
522:electron
518:electron
382:+1
350:electron
168:electron
163:charged
7843:Leptons
7718:Related
7689:Baryons
7663:Polaron
7653:Plasmon
7628:Fracton
7623:Exciton
7577:Diquark
7572:Pomeron
7547:T meson
7504:Baryons
7465:Pionium
7450:Muonium
7377:D meson
7372:B meson
7277:Neutron
7262:Nucleon
7254:Baryons
7245:Hadrons
7208:Tachyon
7183:Majoron
7148:Dilaton
7077:Photino
6913:Antitau
6880:Leptons
6568:Bibcode
6537:Bibcode
6462:Bibcode
6435:7102535
6415:Bibcode
6343:Bibcode
6174:Bibcode
6119:Bibcode
6082:4385808
6054:Bibcode
5563:at the
5492:Bibcode
5427:Bibcode
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5306:Bibcode
5230:Bibcode
4694:antitau
4678:.84(17)
4576:105.658
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4444:
4432:
4353:Symbol
2859:is the
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2173:doublet
2103:doublet
2068:2
2047:In the
1974:
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1361:
1349:
1131:antimu
1080:and an
1011:History
1005:
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567:. The
514:charged
506:
494:
428:
416:
186:neutral
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7638:Magnon
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7131:Others
7086:Others
7067:Gluino
7001:Scalar
6981:Photon
6964:Bosons
6807:Quarks
6710:
6687:
6660:
6603:
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6371:
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6036:Nature
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5769:τ
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5297:Nature
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5000:Preons
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4832:ν
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4551:μ
4357:Charge
4302:0.0045
4296:0.9995
4051:, and
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2189:γ
1758:spinor
1660:where
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1583:photon
1568:ν
1347:
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1221:, and
1215:energy
1205:, and
1058:. The
1023:, and
950:Lepton
937:đ©đĄđ”
929:leptĂłn
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921:leptĂłs
917:λΔÏÏÏÏ
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7668:Roton
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7435:Atoms
7198:Preon
7138:Axion
7093:Axino
6986:Gluon
6973:Gauge
6523:(PDF)
6478:S2CID
6452:arXiv
6431:S2CID
6405:arXiv
6382:arXiv
6369:S2CID
6329:(PDF)
6212:ATLAS
6190:S2CID
6143:S2CID
6109:arXiv
6078:S2CID
6044:arXiv
5947:(PDF)
5508:S2CID
5482:arXiv
5322:S2CID
5264:(PDF)
5216:(PDF)
5007:Notes
4772:0.000
4585:2.197
4487:0.510
4399:]
4395:[
4388:]
4380:[
4370:]
4364:[
4344:]
4338:[
4178:0.013
4172:0.992
4064:ATLAS
4053:Belle
4049:BaBar
4041:meson
3692:with
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1526:= â1
1284:DONUT
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7460:Onia
7367:Kaon
7327:Pion
6898:Muon
6708:ISBN
6685:ISBN
6658:ISBN
6601:ISBN
6505:ISBN
6304:2008
6266:CERN
6170:2021
6135:ISSN
6070:PMID
6015:ISBN
5988:ISBN
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5156:ISBN
5125:ISBN
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5038:2010
4774:0022
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