597:
3077:
1613:
M. Breidenbach; Friedman, J.; Kendall, H.; Bloom, E.; Coward, D.; Destaebler, H.; Drees, J.; Mo, L.; Taylor, R.; et al. (1969). "Observed
Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron–Proton Scattering".
1667:
612:
1050:
1087:' grew from a few particles in the early 1930s and 1940s to several dozens of them in the 1950s. The relationships between each of them were unclear until 1961, when
1536:
1137:
experiments indicated that protons had substructure, and that protons made of three more-fundamental particles explained the data (thus confirming the
1043:
1229:). The bare mass of up quarks is so light, it cannot be straightforwardly calculated because relativistic effects have to be taken into account.
1675:
3000:
690:
1911:
A. Ali, G. Kramer; Kramer (2011). "JETS and QCD: A historical review of the discovery of the quark and gluon jets and its impact on QCD".
1036:
1129:. However, while the quark model explained the Eightfold Way, no direct evidence of the existence of quarks was found until 1968 at the
2750:
2988:
686:
1740:
S. Kretzer; Lai, H.; Olness, Fredrick; Tung, W.; et al. (2004). "CTEQ6 Parton
Distributions with Heavy Quark Mass Effects".
613:
1999:
1845:
1808:
1389:
1347:
1218:
1562:
Bloom, E. D.; Coward, D.; Destaebler, H.; Drees, J.; Miller, G.; Mo, L.; Taylor, R.; Breidenbach, M.; et al. (1969).
616:
611:
2030:
1362:
1334:
M. Gell-Mann (2000) . "The
Eightfold Way: A theory of strong interaction symmetry". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.).
1130:
570:
617:
614:
2886:
716:
606:
624:
615:
2967:
622:
607:
1376:
Y. Ne'eman (2000) . "Derivation of strong interactions from gauge invariance". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.).
623:
1894:
604:
601:
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1154:
660:
59:
1012:
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897:
605:
1991:
1913:
1226:
602:
82:
609:
3059:
1528:
1401:
1149:
1134:
600:
2471:
1971:
977:
907:
1961:
618:
3027:
2662:
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2023:
1705:
1615:
1576:
1096:
678:
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562:
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283:
69:
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927:
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682:
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802:
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1932:
1800:
1761:
1714:
1624:
1585:
1447:
1410:
1288:
712:
652:
620:
610:
415:
1144:
At first people were reluctant to describe the three bodies as quarks, instead preferring
8:
3064:
2047:
1873:
1862:
1697:
1080:
947:
762:
747:
630:
471:
391:
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37:
30:
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1414:
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987:
3007:
2016:
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1826:
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1751:
1648:
922:
837:
515:
74:
1459:
1276:
3076:
3044:
2957:
2436:
2181:
2108:
1995:
1841:
1804:
1781:
1742:
1640:
1422:
1385:
1343:
1316:
1253:
1213:(particles made of three quarks), the 'effective mass' (or 'dressed' mass) of quarks
972:
902:
867:
797:
792:
757:
732:
708:
704:
439:
243:
214:
1952:
3054:
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2600:
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2446:
2128:
2039:
1940:
1769:
1722:
1652:
1632:
1593:
1509:
1482:
1455:
1418:
1357:
M. Gell-Mann (1961). "The
Eightfold Way: A theory of strong interaction symmetry".
1306:
1296:
1092:
1088:
957:
952:
852:
827:
787:
644:
588:
554:
539:
511:
507:
327:
150:
78:
3101:
3022:
2947:
2931:
2871:
2281:
2206:
2196:
2186:
2098:
1944:
1438:
1145:
1103:
1095:(independently of each other) proposed a hadron classification scheme called the
1002:
887:
877:
872:
862:
822:
817:
777:
664:
535:
419:
221:
1726:
1191:
1173:
1017:
459:
189:
3081:
2995:
2952:
2688:
2476:
2249:
2171:
2166:
2088:
1773:
1671:
1636:
1598:
1563:
1381:
1339:
1301:
942:
912:
857:
847:
832:
742:
648:
584:
478:
411:
262:
200:
174:
25:
1399:
Y. Ne'eman (1961). "Derivation of strong interactions from gauge invariance".
3095:
3039:
2891:
2858:
2650:
2620:
2552:
2411:
2191:
2118:
2103:
1126:
1113:, but the physical basis behind it was still unclear. In 1964, Gell-Mann and
962:
917:
882:
737:
550:
3017:
2567:
2557:
2547:
2308:
2259:
2201:
2123:
2078:
1966:
1320:
1311:
1206:
1114:
1084:
1022:
992:
967:
937:
807:
782:
767:
656:
558:
519:
292:
252:
155:
117:
1170:
of the up quark is not well determined, but probably lies between 1.8 and
3032:
2800:
2703:
2698:
2615:
2610:
2540:
2494:
2451:
2416:
2375:
2267:
2231:
2093:
1513:
1486:
1274:
1248:
1181:
1138:
1118:
997:
982:
932:
892:
842:
503:
1063:
In the beginnings of particle physics (first half of the 20th century),
2774:
2668:
2658:
2640:
2530:
2431:
2366:
2083:
2008:
1756:
1238:
1122:
1007:
772:
546:
399:
206:
1644:
534:), which differs from it only in that some of its properties, such as
2916:
2906:
2876:
2769:
2735:
2728:
2605:
2595:
2590:
2562:
2330:
2113:
1502:"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: II"
1867:"PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)'"
1501:
1474:
3012:
2840:
2795:
2779:
2740:
2713:
2426:
2421:
2401:
2371:
2361:
2356:
2176:
2151:
2146:
481:
210:
1927:
1612:
1214:
1167:
445:
2921:
2911:
2881:
2835:
2830:
2805:
2723:
2708:
2635:
2630:
2535:
2520:
2466:
2441:
2406:
2335:
2317:
2056:
1860:
1475:"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking"
1243:
1152:
description, but over time the quark theory became accepted (see
1110:
1072:
1064:
474:
403:
86:
42:
1436:
M. Gell-Mann (1964). "A Schematic Model of
Baryons and Mesons".
2901:
2896:
2525:
2512:
2503:
2325:
2239:
2138:
1210:
1068:
566:
407:
395:
2926:
2866:
2718:
2577:
2456:
2396:
2351:
2244:
2222:
2065:
1823:
1222:
1202:
1100:
467:
387:
52:
2693:
2625:
2585:
2161:
2156:
1076:
166:
1561:
1526:
569:. The up quark was first observed by experiments at the
1910:
1739:
1109:
This classification scheme organized the hadrons into
1825:
1275:M. Tanabashi et al. (Particle Data Group) (2018).
3093:
1083:. However, as new hadrons were discovered, the '
1794:
599:
1895:"Mass of the Common Quark Finally Nailed Down"
1398:
1375:
2024:
1695:
1044:
1985:
1435:
1356:
1333:
1429:
1117:(independently of each other) proposed the
2031:
2017:
1665:
1606:
1051:
1037:
1926:
1788:
1755:
1597:
1493:
1466:
1310:
1300:
1270:
1268:
2038:
1698:"Very High-Energy Collisions of Hadrons"
1520:
1499:
1472:
1184:calculations give a more precise value:
1854:
1828:An introduction to quantum field theory
3094:
2502:
1824:M. E. Peskin, D. V. Schroeder (1995).
1265:
545:Its existence (along with that of the
2012:
1974:, Department of Physics and Astronomy
1359:Synchrotron Laboratory Report CTSL-20
1205:(particles made of one quark and one
1886:
1797:Introduction to Elementary Particles
1555:
1166:Despite being extremely common, the
406:(one up quark, two down quarks) and
1959:
1892:
410:(two up quarks, one down quark) of
394:, and a significant constituent of
386:(symbol: u) is the lightest of all
13:
1904:
1363:California Institute of Technology
1131:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
595:
571:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
14:
3118:
1527:B. Carithers, P. Grannis (1995).
717:Physics beyond the Standard Model
540:equal magnitude but opposite sign
3075:
2968:Timeline of particle discoveries
1817:
1733:
1689:
1659:
1369:
1327:
1121:, then consisting only of up,
1099:, or in more technical terms,
1:
1668:"The Road to the Nobel Prize"
1460:10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3
1259:
661:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
2984:History of subatomic physics
1529:"Discovery of the Top Quark"
1423:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90134-1
1277:"Review of Particle Physics"
553:) was postulated in 1964 by
7:
1992:University of Chicago Press
1914:European Physical Journal H
1727:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1415
1232:
498:, and experiences all four
10:
3123:
1945:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1
1893:Cho, Adrian (April 2010).
1774:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.114005
1637:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935
1599:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930
1302:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001
691:Standard Model mathematics
576:
3073:
2976:
2940:
2857:
2818:
2788:
2762:
2758:
2749:
2681:
2649:
2576:
2511:
2493:
2389:
2344:
2316:
2307:
2298:
2280:
2258:
2230:
2221:
2137:
2064:
2055:
2046:
1572:Scattering at 6° and 10°"
1135:Deep inelastic scattering
565:classification scheme of
326:
291:
261:
251:
220:
199:
173:
162:
146:
116:
92:
68:
58:
48:
36:
24:
3001:mathematical formulation
2596:Eta and eta prime mesons
1972:Georgia State University
1795:D. J. Griffiths (1987).
1225:between each quark (see
500:fundamental interactions
2663:Double-charm tetraquark
1865:); et al. (2012).
1706:Physical Review Letters
1616:Physical Review Letters
1577:Physical Review Letters
1564:"High-Energy Inelastic
1227:mass–energy equivalence
1161:
679:Electroweak interaction
522:of the up quark is the
1696:R. P. Feynman (1969).
683:Quantum chromodynamics
627:
3060:Wave–particle duality
3050:Relativistic particle
2187:Electron antineutrino
1986:A. Pickering (1984).
1801:John Wiley & Sons
713:Neutrino oscillations
633:of the Standard Model
626:
470:, the up quark is an
398:. It, along with the
328:Weak hypercharge
3107:Elementary particles
2290:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
2040:Particles in physics
1994:. pp. 114–125.
1514:10.17181/CERN-TH-412
1487:10.17181/CERN-TH-401
1081:elementary particles
653:Quantum field theory
631:Elementary particles
414:. It is part of the
222:Electric charge
3065:Particle chauvinism
3008:Subatomic particles
1988:Constructing Quarks
1937:2011EPJH...36..245A
1897:. Science Magazine.
1874:Particle Data Group
1863:Particle Data Group
1766:2004PhRvD..69k4005K
1719:1969PhRvL..23.1415F
1629:1969PhRvL..23..935B
1590:1969PhRvL..23..930B
1452:1964PhL.....8..214G
1415:1961NucPh..26..222N
1293:2018PhRvD..98c0001T
1155:November Revolution
1079:were thought to be
516:strong interactions
392:elementary particle
31:elementary particle
21:
1111:isospin multiplets
628:
526:(sometimes called
418:of matter, has an
19:
3089:
3088:
3045:Massless particle
2853:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2814:
2813:
2677:
2676:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2437:Magnetic monopole
2385:
2384:
2276:
2275:
2217:
2216:
2197:Muon antineutrino
2182:Electron neutrino
2001:978-0-226-66799-7
1847:978-0-201-50397-5
1810:978-0-471-60386-3
1743:Physical Review D
1713:(24): 1415–1417.
1500:G. Zweig (1964).
1473:G. Zweig (1964).
1391:978-0-7382-0299-0
1378:The Eightfold Way
1349:978-0-7382-0299-0
1336:The Eightfold Way
1281:Physical Review D
1254:Quantum Mechanics
1061:
1060:
709:Hierarchy problem
705:Strong CP problem
512:weak interactions
376:
375:
293:Weak isospin
215:electron neutrino
3114:
3079:
3055:Virtual particle
2826:Mesonic molecule
2760:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2601:Bottom eta meson
2509:
2508:
2500:
2499:
2472:W′ and Z′ bosons
2462:Sterile neutrino
2447:Majorana fermion
2314:
2313:
2305:
2304:
2228:
2227:
2207:Tau antineutrino
2062:
2061:
2053:
2052:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1956:
1930:
1899:
1898:
1890:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1871:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1831:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1759:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1702:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1683:
1674:. Archived from
1666:J. I. Friedman.
1663:
1657:
1656:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1601:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1533:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1395:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1353:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1314:
1304:
1272:
1197:
1189:
1179:
1089:Murray Gell-Mann
1053:
1046:
1039:
645:Particle physics
598:
589:particle physics
581:
580:
555:Murray Gell-Mann
508:electromagnetism
496:
494:
493:
490:
487:
465:
457:
456:
437:
435:
434:
431:
428:
416:first generation
372:
371:
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351:
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322:
316:
314:
313:
310:
307:
281:
279:
278:
275:
272:
241:
239:
238:
235:
232:
201:Decays into
195:
187:
186:
151:Murray Gell-Mann
141:
140:
139:
133:
130:
129:
112:
111:
110:
103:
102:
22:
18:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3069:
3023:Nuclear physics
2972:
2936:
2872:Davydov soliton
2845:
2810:
2784:
2745:
2673:
2645:
2572:
2481:
2381:
2340:
2294:
2272:
2254:
2213:
2133:
2042:
2037:
2002:
1977:
1975:
1907:
1905:Further reading
1902:
1891:
1887:
1878:
1876:
1869:
1859:
1855:
1848:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1793:
1789:
1738:
1734:
1700:
1694:
1690:
1681:
1679:
1664:
1660:
1623:(16): 935–939.
1611:
1607:
1584:(16): 930–934.
1560:
1556:
1547:
1545:
1531:
1525:
1521:
1498:
1494:
1471:
1467:
1439:Physics Letters
1434:
1430:
1402:Nuclear Physics
1396:
1392:
1374:
1370:
1354:
1350:
1332:
1328:
1273:
1266:
1262:
1235:
1217:because of the
1215:becomes greater
1187:
1185:
1171:
1164:
1146:Richard Feynman
1104:flavor symmetry
1057:
1028:
1027:
728:
720:
719:
715:
711:
707:
702:
694:
693:
689:
685:
681:
676:
668:
667:
665:Higgs mechanism
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
642:
634:
625:
596:
579:
561:to explain the
491:
488:
485:
484:
482:
454:
452:
451:
449:
432:
429:
426:
425:
423:
420:electric charge
366:
363:
360:
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357:
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340:
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337:
332:
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305:
304:
302:
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138:
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135:
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128:
126:
125:
124:
123:
109:
107:
106:
105:
101:
99:
98:
97:
96:
83:electromagnetic
17:
12:
11:
5:
3120:
3110:
3109:
3104:
3087:
3086:
3082:Physics portal
3074:
3071:
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3042:
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3036:
3035:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2996:Standard Model
2993:
2992:
2991:
2980:
2978:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2970:
2965:
2963:Quasiparticles
2960:
2955:
2950:
2944:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2863:
2861:
2859:Quasiparticles
2855:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2766:
2764:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2696:
2691:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2655:
2653:
2651:Exotic hadrons
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2582:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2517:
2515:
2506:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2477:X and Y bosons
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2380:
2379:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2292:
2286:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2250:W and Z bosons
2247:
2242:
2236:
2234:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2143:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2104:Strange (quark
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2070:
2068:
2059:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2036:
2035:
2028:
2021:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2000:
1983:
1957:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1900:
1885:
1853:
1846:
1834:Addison–Wesley
1816:
1809:
1803:. p. 42.
1787:
1757:hep-ph/0307022
1750:(11): 114005.
1732:
1688:
1672:Hue University
1658:
1605:
1554:
1519:
1492:
1465:
1446:(3): 214–215.
1428:
1409:(2): 222–229.
1390:
1382:Westview Press
1368:
1348:
1342:. p. 11.
1340:Westview Press
1326:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1234:
1231:
1221:caused by the
1219:binding energy
1201:When found in
1163:
1160:
1127:strange quarks
1059:
1058:
1056:
1055:
1048:
1041:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
975:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
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920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
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880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
729:
726:
725:
722:
721:
703:
700:
699:
696:
695:
677:
674:
673:
670:
669:
649:Standard Model
643:
640:
639:
636:
635:
629:
592:
591:
585:Standard Model
578:
575:
551:strange quarks
374:
373:
330:
324:
323:
295:
289:
288:
265:
259:
258:
255:
249:
248:
224:
218:
217:
203:
197:
196:
177:
171:
170:
164:
160:
159:
148:
144:
143:
137:
127:
122:up antiquark (
120:
114:
113:
108:
100:
94:
90:
89:
72:
66:
65:
62:
56:
55:
50:
46:
45:
40:
34:
33:
28:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3119:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3084:
3083:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3040:Exotic matter
3038:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3028:Eightfold way
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3018:Antiparticles
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2943:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2689:Atomic nuclei
2687:
2686:
2684:
2680:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2621:Upsilon meson
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2553:Lambda baryon
2551:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2492:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2412:Dual graviton
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2392:
2388:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2309:Superpartners
2306:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2220:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2192:Muon neutrino
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2124:Bottom (quark
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1896:
1889:
1875:
1868:
1864:
1861:J. Beringer (
1857:
1849:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1830:
1829:
1820:
1812:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1744:
1736:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1699:
1692:
1678:on 2008-12-25
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1617:
1609:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1558:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1530:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1440:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1351:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1312:10044/1/68623
1308:
1303:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1269:
1264:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1183:
1178:
1177:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1098:
1097:Eightfold Way
1094:
1093:Yuval Ne'eman
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1042:
1040:
1035:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
730:
724:
723:
718:
714:
710:
706:
698:
697:
692:
688:
684:
680:
672:
671:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
638:
637:
632:
594:
593:
590:
586:
583:
582:
574:
572:
568:
564:
563:Eightfold Way
560:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
480:
476:
473:
469:
464:
463:
447:
443:
442:
421:
417:
413:
412:atomic nuclei
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
355:
335:
331:
329:
325:
320:
300:
296:
294:
290:
287:
286:
266:
264:
260:
256:
254:
250:
247:
246:
225:
223:
219:
216:
212:
208:
204:
202:
198:
194:
193:
178:
176:
172:
168:
165:
161:
157:
152:
149:
145:
121:
119:
115:
95:
91:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
71:
67:
63:
61:
57:
54:
51:
47:
44:
41:
39:
35:
32:
29:
27:
23:
16:Type of quark
3080:
2751:Hypothetical
2699:Exotic atoms
2568:Omega baryon
2558:Sigma baryon
2548:Delta baryon
2300:Hypothetical
2282:Ghost fields
2268:Higgs boson
2202:Tau neutrino
2094:Charm (quark
2073:
1987:
1976:. Retrieved
1967:HyperPhysics
1965:
1918:
1912:
1888:
1877:. Retrieved
1856:
1827:
1819:
1796:
1790:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1710:
1704:
1691:
1680:. Retrieved
1676:the original
1661:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1565:
1557:
1546:. Retrieved
1541:
1535:
1522:
1505:
1495:
1478:
1468:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1406:
1400:
1377:
1371:
1358:
1335:
1329:
1287:(3): 1–708.
1284:
1280:
1200:
1193:
1175:
1165:
1153:
1143:
1115:George Zweig
1108:
1085:particle zoo
1062:
675:Constituents
657:Gauge theory
559:George Zweig
544:
531:
528:antiup quark
527:
524:up antiquark
523:
520:antiparticle
461:
440:
402:, forms the
390:, a type of
383:
379:
377:
284:
253:Color charge
244:
191:
156:George Zweig
118:Antiparticle
70:Interactions
3033:Quark model
2801:Theta meson
2704:Positronium
2616:Omega meson
2611:J/psi meson
2541:Antineutron
2452:Dark photon
2417:Graviphoton
2376:Stop squark
2084:Down (quark
1506:Cern-Th-412
1479:Cern-Th-401
1249:Quark model
1223:gluon field
1182:Lattice QCD
1139:quark model
1119:quark model
853:Chamberlain
701:Limitations
504:gravitation
466:. Like all
26:Composition
3096:Categories
2775:Heptaquark
2736:Superatoms
2669:Pentaquark
2659:Tetraquark
2641:Quarkonium
2531:Antiproton
2432:Leptoquark
2367:Neutralino
2129:antiquark)
2119:antiquark)
2114:Top (quark
2109:antiquark)
2099:antiquark)
2089:antiquark)
2079:antiquark)
2048:Elementary
1978:2008-06-29
1921:(2): 245.
1879:2013-02-21
1836:. p.
1682:2008-09-29
1548:2008-09-23
1355:Original:
1260:References
1239:Down quark
1190:0.14
823:Iliopoulos
733:Rutherford
727:Scientists
687:CKM matrix
641:Background
530:or simply
472:elementary
400:down quark
207:down quark
205:stable or
163:Discovered
60:Generation
38:Statistics
3013:Particles
2958:Particles
2917:Polariton
2907:Plasmaron
2877:Dropleton
2770:Hexaquark
2741:Molecules
2729:Protonium
2606:Phi meson
2591:Rho meson
2563:Xi baryon
2495:Composite
2331:Gravitino
2074:Up (quark
1960:R. Nave.
1928:1012.2288
1782:119379329
1544:(3): 4–16
1537:Beam Line
1397:Original
1207:antiquark
1172:3.0
1168:bare mass
1013:de Mayolo
958:Schwinger
898:Kobayashi
788:Gell-Mann
753:Sudarshan
573:in 1968.
446:bare mass
147:Theorized
43:fermionic
2989:timeline
2841:R-hadron
2796:Glueball
2780:Skyrmion
2714:Tauonium
2427:Inflaton
2422:Graviton
2402:Curvaton
2372:Sfermion
2362:Higgsino
2357:Chargino
2318:Gauginos
2177:Neutrino
2162:Antimuon
2152:Positron
2147:Electron
2057:Fermions
1962:"Quarks"
1953:54062126
1321:10020536
1233:See also
1073:neutrons
1067:such as
1003:Guralnik
948:Politzer
923:'t Hooft
878:Weinberg
873:Majorana
863:Schwartz
828:Lederman
813:Anderson
803:Friedman
763:Anderson
758:Davis Jr
743:Chadwick
404:neutrons
380:up quark
211:positron
20:Up quark
2977:Related
2948:Baryons
2922:Polaron
2912:Plasmon
2887:Fracton
2882:Exciton
2836:Diquark
2831:Pomeron
2806:T meson
2763:Baryons
2724:Pionium
2709:Muonium
2636:D meson
2631:B meson
2536:Neutron
2521:Nucleon
2513:Baryons
2504:Hadrons
2467:Tachyon
2442:Majoron
2407:Dilaton
2336:Photino
2172:Antitau
2139:Leptons
1933:Bibcode
1762:Bibcode
1715:Bibcode
1653:2575595
1645:1444731
1625:Bibcode
1586:Bibcode
1448:Bibcode
1411:Bibcode
1289:Bibcode
1244:Isospin
1211:baryons
1069:protons
1065:hadrons
988:Englert
963:Wilczek
928:Veltman
903:Maskawa
858:Cabibbo
818:Glashow
793:Kendall
778:Feynman
738:Thomson
577:History
567:hadrons
495:
483:
475:fermion
436:
424:
408:protons
384:u quark
370:
358:
350:
338:
315:
303:
280:
268:
240:
228:
87:gravity
3102:Quarks
2953:Mesons
2902:Phonon
2897:Magnon
2819:Others
2789:Mesons
2682:Others
2578:Mesons
2526:Proton
2390:Others
2345:Others
2326:Gluino
2260:Scalar
2240:Photon
2223:Bosons
2066:Quarks
1998:
1951:
1844:
1807:
1780:
1651:
1643:
1388:
1346:
1319:
1203:mesons
1150:parton
1125:, and
1018:Lattes
1008:Kibble
968:Cronin
953:Reines
918:Yukawa
833:Maiani
808:Powell
798:Taylor
783:Rubbia
536:charge
532:antiup
518:. The
514:, and
468:quarks
458:
444:and a
438:
396:matter
388:quarks
282:
242:
188:
169:(1968)
158:(1964)
153:(1964)
93:Symbol
75:strong
49:Family
2941:Lists
2932:Trion
2927:Roton
2867:Anyon
2694:Atoms
2457:Preon
2397:Axion
2352:Axino
2245:Gluon
2232:Gauge
1949:S2CID
1923:arXiv
1870:(PDF)
1778:S2CID
1752:arXiv
1701:(PDF)
1649:S2CID
1532:(PDF)
1209:) or
1101:SU(3)
1077:pions
1023:Zweig
998:Hagen
993:Brout
983:Higgs
978:Vleck
973:Fitch
943:Pauli
933:Gross
908:Mills
893:Salam
848:Nambu
843:Cowan
773:Dirac
768:Fermi
538:have
477:with
64:first
53:quark
2892:Hole
2719:Onia
2626:Kaon
2586:Pion
2157:Muon
1996:ISBN
1842:ISBN
1805:ISBN
1641:OSTI
1386:ISBN
1344:ISBN
1317:PMID
1192:MeV/
1186:2.01
1174:MeV/
1162:Mass
1123:down
1091:and
1075:and
938:Pais
913:Yang
888:Ward
868:Perl
838:Meer
748:Bose
557:and
549:and
547:down
479:spin
460:MeV/
455:−0.4
453:+0.5
422:of +
378:The
263:Spin
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