12821:
48:
1929:
10475:
12809:
4044:
12433:
6898:
3628:
10730:
11827:
6191:
6822:
10742:
4039:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{EW}}={\overline {Q}}_{Lj}i\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }Q_{Lj}+{\overline {u}}_{Rj}i\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }u_{Rj}+{\overline {d}}_{Rj}i\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }d_{Rj}+{\overline {\ell }}_{Lj}i\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }\ell _{Lj}+{\overline {e}}_{Rj}i\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }e_{Rj}-{\tfrac {1}{4}}W_{a}^{\mu \nu }W_{\mu \nu }^{a}-{\tfrac {1}{4}}B^{\mu \nu }B_{\mu \nu },}
7044:. The color charges inside the nucleon cancel out, meaning most of the gluon and quark fields cancel out outside of the nucleon. However, some residue is "leaked", which appears as the exchange of virtual mesons, that causes the attractive force between nucleons. The (fundamental) strong interaction is described by quantum chromodynamics, which is a component of the Standard Model.
5876:
4781:
1959:
is any boson with mass. In diagrams with multiple particle labels separated by / one particle label is chosen. In diagrams with particle labels separated by | the labels must be chosen in the same order. For example, in the four boson electroweak case the valid diagrams are WWWW, WWZZ, WWγγ, WWZγ.
7226:
and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants whose values are unrelated and arbitrary. Although the
Standard Model, as it now stands, can explain why neutrinos have masses, the specifics of neutrino mass are still unclear. It is believed that explaining neutrino mass will require an additional 7
2988:
of the various symmetry groups of the
Standard Model (see table). Upon writing the most general Lagrangian, one finds that the dynamics depends on 19 parameters, whose numerical values are established by experiment. The parameters are summarized in the table (made visible by clicking "show") above.
6186:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{Yukawa}}=(Y_{\text{u}})_{mn}({\bar {Q}}_{\text{L}})_{m}{\tilde {\varphi }}(u_{\text{R}})_{n}+(Y_{\text{d}})_{mn}({\bar {Q}}_{\text{L}})_{m}\varphi (d_{\text{R}})_{n}+(Y_{\text{e}})_{mn}({\bar {\ell }}_{\text{L}})_{m}{\varphi }(e_{\text{R}})_{n}+\mathrm {h.c.} }
6905:
Despite being perhaps the most familiar fundamental interaction, gravity is not described by the
Standard Model, due to contradictions that arise when combining general relativity, the modern theory of gravity, and quantum mechanics. However, gravity is so weak at microscopic scales, that it is
4339:
7023:. Confinement means that only color-neutral particles can exist in isolation, therefore quarks can only exist in hadrons and never in isolation, at low energies. Asymptotic freedom means that the strong force becomes weaker, as the energy scale increases. The strong force overpowers the
3177:
4633:
6974:. Z bosons are neutral and mediate neutral current interactions, which do not change particle flavour. Thus Z bosons are similar to the photon, aside from them being massive and interacting with the neutrino. The weak interaction is also the only interaction to violate
6970:. It is weak and short-range, due to the fact that the weak mediating particles, W and Z bosons, have mass. W bosons have electric charge and mediate interactions that change the particle type (referred to as flavour) and charge. Interactions mediated by W bosons are
4566:
gauge invariance. Neither is it possible to add explicit mass terms for the U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields. The Higgs mechanism is responsible for the generation of the gauge boson masses, and the fermion masses result from Yukawa-type interactions with the Higgs field.
4933:
5165:
2264:) in 1964, when he showed that Goldstone's 1962 theorem (generic continuous symmetry, which is spontaneously broken) provides a third polarisation of a massive vector field. Hence, Goldstone's original scalar doublet, the massive spin-zero particle, was
1783:(see the table). Each member of a generation has a greater mass than the corresponding particle of generations prior. Thus, there are three generations of quarks and leptons. As first-generation particles do not decay, they comprise all of ordinary (
7626:...Standard Model of Particle Physics: The modern theory of elementary particles and their interactions ... It does not, strictly speaking, include gravity, although it's often convenient to include gravitons among the known particles of nature...
5555:
2028:(QCD). They have no mass, and there are eight distinct gluons, with each being denoted through a color-anticolor charge combination (e.g. redâantigreen). As gluons have an effective color charge, they can also interact amongst themselves.
3305:
6553:
3060:
5332:
4199:
5750:
5465:
2946:. The construction of the Standard Model proceeds following the modern method of constructing most field theories: by first postulating a set of symmetries of the system, and then by writing down the most general
5817:
7167:
If one insists on using only
Standard Model particles, this can be achieved by adding a non-renormalizable interaction of leptons with the Higgs boson. On a fundamental level, such an interaction emerges in the
4833:
7164:, which the classic Standard Model did not allow. To accommodate this finding, the classic Standard Model can be modified to include neutrino mass, although it is not obvious exactly how this should be done.
7456:
Although nine colorâanticolor combinations mathematically exist, gluons form color octet particles. As one color-symmetric combination is linear and forms a color singlet particles, there are eight possible
2229:
are in reasonable agreement with the data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a "force-mediating particle") fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics,
5073:
8867:
Particle
Collider Probes of Dark Energy, Dark Matter and Generic Beyond Standard Model Signatures in Events With an Energetic Jet and Large Missing Transverse Momentum Using the ATLAS Detector at the LHC
2326:
until its closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the
Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating the masses of elementary particles must become visible at energies above
6486:
6928:
Electromagnetism is the only long-range force in the
Standard Model. It is mediated by photons and couples to electric charge. Electromagnetism is responsible for a wide range of phenomena including
5415:
3537:
3462:
4622:
6569:
The
Standard Model describes three of the four fundamental interactions in nature; only gravity remains unexplained. In the Standard Model, such an interaction is described as an exchange of
554:. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists worldwide, with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon
4776:{\displaystyle \varphi ={\begin{pmatrix}\varphi ^{+}\\\varphi ^{0}\end{pmatrix}}={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{pmatrix}\varphi _{1}+i\varphi _{2}\\\varphi _{3}+i\varphi _{4}\end{pmatrix}},}
5675:
8030:
6384:
5490:
4560:
2195:
boson interacts with both left-handed particles and right-handed antiparticles. These three gauge bosons along with the photons are grouped together, as collectively mediating the
3053:
7207:
would account for it to a degree. Though it addresses strong and electroweak interactions, the
Standard Model does not consistently explain the canonical theory of gravitation,
7149:) exist, it is not known whether they converge (in the sense of S-matrix elements) in the limit that the regulator is removed. A key question related to the consistency is the
6985:
In the
Standard Model, the weak force is understood in terms of the electroweak theory, which states that the weak and electromagnetic interactions become united into a single
6344:
2984:
that essentially defines the Standard Model. Roughly, the three factors of the gauge symmetry give rise to the three fundamental interactions. The fields fall into different
3374:
63:
5248:
5198:
4451:
6411:
6317:
6274:
6247:
6220:
5021:
4828:
4519:
3599:
501:
4989:
4106:
1795:
and can only be observed in high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do not decay, and pervade the universe, but rarely interact with baryonic matter.
5629:
5607:
4160:
3563:
6431:
5857:
5485:
5356:
5268:
5218:
5068:
5048:
4960:
4489:
4187:
4133:
3199:
5837:
3219:
6982:. Parity violation is maximal for charged current interactions, since the W boson interacts exclusively with left-handed fermions and right-handed antifermions.
2006:
mediate the electromagnetic force, responsible for interactions between electrically charged particles. The photon is massless and is described by the theory of
7145:
gauge theory quantized through path-integrals) has not been mathematically proved. While regularized versions useful for approximate computations (for example
5575:
4801:
4066:
7030:
While quarks are bound in hadrons by the fundamental strong interaction, which is mediated by gluons, nucleons are bound by an emergent phenomenon termed the
6494:
3055:. Since leptons do not interact with gluons, they are not affected by this sector. The Dirac Lagrangian of the quarks coupled to the gluon fields is given by
8972:
7567:
4991:
is the potential of the Higgs field. The square of the covariant derivative leads to three and four point interactions between the electroweak gauge fields
2303:, the Higgs boson generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks. As the Higgs boson is massive, it must interact with itself.
10360:
7689:
5577:
has units of mass and sets the scale of electroweak physics. This is the only dimensional parameter of the Standard Model and has a measured value of ~
9035:
G.S. Guralnik (2009). "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles".
9219:
8773:
7234:
if some new physics (coupled to the Higgs) is present at high energy scales. In these cases, in order for the weak scale to be much smaller than the
899:
The Standard Model includes members of several classes of elementary particles, which in turn can be distinguished by other characteristics, such as
11863:
7195:, a complete theory explaining all physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of the Standard Model that motivate such research include:
787:. In 1973 Gross and Wilczek and Politzer independently discovered that non-Abelian gauge theories, like the color theory of the strong force, have
494:
7068:, and predicted many of their properties before these particles were observed. The predictions were experimentally confirmed with good precision.
4334:{\displaystyle D_{\mu }\equiv \partial _{\mu }-ig'{\tfrac {1}{2}}Y_{\text{W}}B_{\mu }-ig{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\vec {\tau }}_{\text{L}}{\vec {W}}_{\mu }}
5280:
12697:
11750:
10504:
7414:
2372:
2213:, regarded as being the best explanation for gravity. In general relativity, gravity is explained as being the geometric curving of spacetime.
925:
141:
20:
12467:
12286:
12096:
10612:
8180:
F.J. Hasert; et al. (1974). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment".
8143:
F.J. Hasert; et al. (1973). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment".
5420:
9172:
8954:
5759:
3172:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{QCD}}={\overline {\psi }}i\gamma ^{\mu }D_{\mu }\psi -{\frac {1}{4}}G_{\mu \nu }^{a}G_{a}^{\mu \nu },}
8692:
2238:. The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the right of this section.
1991:. As a result, they do not follow the Pauli exclusion principle that constrains fermions; bosons do not have a theoretical limit on their
12786:
12178:
12137:
7261:, which are many orders of magnitude too large. It is also difficult to accommodate the observed predominance of matter over antimatter (
1981:
487:
19:
This article is about a non-mathematical general overview of the Standard Model of particle physics. For a mathematical description, see
5680:
1791:, ultimately constituted of up and down quarks. On the other hand, second- and third-generation charged particles decay with very short
664:) to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.
9197:
8798:
7447:), but the predictions extracted from the Standard Model by current methods applicable to current experiments are all self-consistent.
11500:
10746:
9037:
9000:
8380:
7253:
of cosmology. Contentions include the absence of an explanation in the Standard Model of particle physics for the observed amount of
11916:
11738:
10489:
7380:
137:
10353:
2299:(mediated by the W and Z bosons) are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In
2222:
64:
8842:
6436:
12665:
11941:
7246:, which suggests that it may not be possible to create a consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar particles.
7015:. It is mediated by gluons, which couple to color charge. Since gluons themselves have color charge, the strong force exhibits
610:
7215:. The reason for this is, among other things, that quantum field theories of gravity generally break down before reaching the
5361:
1838:; quarks cannot individually exist and must always bind with other quarks. Hadrons can contain either a quark-antiquark pair (
574:(2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of
12276:
12045:
10607:
10073:
10051:
10029:
10008:
9984:
9960:
9934:
9915:
9896:
9877:
9858:
9824:
9801:
9599:
8563:
7761:
7604:
7535:
7499:
7150:
9324:
4928:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}_{\text{H}}=\left(D_{\mu }\varphi \right)^{\dagger }\left(D^{\mu }\varphi \right)-V(\varphi ),}
2306:
Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when created, only a very high-energy
12168:
11856:
8687:
7239:
7135:
3467:
796:
585:
Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent and has demonstrated some success in providing
67:
62:
11906:
10780:
10690:
8594:
is an explanation of reality; this Knowledge article and some of the literature refers to the Standard Model as a theory.
10126:
M. Baak; et al. (2012). "The Electroweak Fit of the Standard Model after the Discovery of a New Boson at the LHC".
2279:
The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, by explaining why the other elementary particles, except the
1834:
phenomenon results in quarks being strongly bound together such that they form color-neutral composite particles called
12024:
10346:
8948:
7556:
4588:
918:
853:
were discovered experimentally in 1983; and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the Standard Model predicted.
9090:
B.W. Lee; C. Quigg; H.B. Thacker (1977). "Weak interactions at very high energies: The role of the Higgs-boson mass".
5160:{\displaystyle V(\varphi )=-\mu ^{2}\varphi ^{\dagger }\varphi +\lambda \left(\varphi ^{\dagger }\varphi \right)^{2},}
2363:), which is "consistent with the Higgs boson". On 13 March 2013, it was confirmed to be the searched-for Higgs boson.
1771:. Fermions are classified based on how they interact, which is determined by the charges they carry, into two groups:
868:
was proposed (a development which made QCD the main focus of theoretical research) and experiments confirmed that the
68:
65:
12460:
12436:
11636:
10514:
7418:
7088:
6869:
4529:
Notice that the addition of fermion mass terms into the electroweak Lagrangian is forbidden, since terms of the form
2265:
2261:
1932:
Interactions in the Standard Model. All Feynman diagrams in the model are built from combinations of these vertices.
590:
167:
57:
6851:
3427:
75:
66:
12366:
12173:
12116:
11936:
11717:
10695:
10325:
on the CERN website explains how the basic building blocks of matter interact, governed by four fundamental forces.
9992:
5634:
73:
58:
12820:
9449:
12326:
12229:
12209:
11969:
11849:
10128:
7423:
6843:
2177:
carries an electric charge of +1 and â1 and couples to the electromagnetic interaction. The electrically neutral
673:
74:
24:
9385:
5859:
are free parameters, the Higgs' mass could not be predicted beforehand and had to be determined experimentally.
5250:, so that the potential is bounded from below. The quartic term describes self-interactions of the scalar field
4135:
are the left-handed doublet, right-handed singlet up type, and right handed singlet down type quark fields; and
12613:
12132:
11891:
11886:
10655:
9127:
6847:
6555:
gauge symmetry of the Standard Model and generate masses for all fermions after spontaneous symmetry breaking.
6349:
4532:
2938:
controls the dynamics and kinematics of the theory. Each kind of particle is described in terms of a dynamical
55:
52:
10546:
10494:
7367:
7113:
2985:
1898:. The leptons do not carry color charge, and do not respond to strong interaction. The main leptons carry an
1780:
911:
645:
111:
8763:
463:
12846:
12453:
12405:
12281:
11931:
11733:
10705:
9223:
8081:
7362:
3424:
The QCD Lagrangian is invariant under local SU(3) gauge transformations; i.e., transformations of the form
1070:
677:
348:
56:
3010:
1980:. The Standard Model explains the four fundamental forces as arising from the interactions, with fermions
12750:
12400:
12194:
6971:
3408:
1757:
1553:
53:
9615:
A. Blumhofer; M. Hutter (1997). "Family Structure from Periodic Solutions of an Improved Gap Equation".
2310:
can observe and record it. Experiments to confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson using the
1928:
845:
in 1973, the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979
652:, and non-perturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building more exotic models that incorporate
12799:
12581:
12554:
11974:
10316:
8940:
6714:
4193:
3210:
3003:
The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) sector defines the interactions between quarks and gluons, which is a
1760:
cannot simultaneously occupy the same quantum state in the same atom. Each fermion has a corresponding
1038:
6322:
1779:. Within each group, pairs of particles that exhibit similar physical behaviors are then grouped into
60:
12851:
12142:
11809:
10660:
7705:
7385:
7238:, severe fine tuning of the parameters is required; there are, however, other scenarios that include
2935:
1753:
555:
9149:
3335:
51:
12687:
12378:
11221:
10665:
9332:
8837:
7642:
6832:
6709:
5227:
5221:
5170:
4423:
4404:â infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group â with subscript L to indicate that they only act on
1972:
1, with bosons being quantum particles containing an integer spin. The gauge bosons are defined as
706:
428:
358:
9586:
M. Gell-Mann, P. Ramond & R. Slansky (1979). F. van Nieuwenhuizen & D.Z. Freedman (eds.).
6389:
6295:
6252:
6225:
6198:
5550:{\displaystyle \langle \varphi \rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{pmatrix}0\\v\end{pmatrix}},}
4994:
4806:
4494:
3568:
69:
12841:
12250:
12106:
12075:
12050:
11989:
11777:
11412:
11039:
10773:
10734:
10579:
10447:
10437:
10185:
9551:
9477:
8501:
8462:
8419:
8353:
8307:
7933:
7890:
7847:
7789:
7741:
7740:
Greenberg, Oscar Wallace (2009), Greenberger, Daniel; Hentschel, Klaus; Weinert, Friedel (eds.),
7339:
7313:
7307:
7079:, the final fundamental particle predicted by the Standard Model to be experimentally confirmed.
6957:
6923:
6836:
6564:
5752:, which can be viewed as predictions of the theory. The photon remains massless. The mass of the
4965:
4071:
3610:
2300:
2209:
has been proposed, but not observed. This is due to the incompatibility of quantum mechanics and
2007:
1977:
1032:
773:
718:
586:
129:
59:
8925:
8682:
8248:; Grannis, Paul D.; Sciulli, Frank J. (January 1999). "The Standard Model of Particle Physics".
7027:
repulsion of protons and quarks in nuclei and hadrons respectively, at their respective scales.
5612:
5590:
1987:
force carrier particles, thus mediating the forces. At a macroscopic scale, this manifests as a
12771:
12633:
12417:
12341:
12336:
12271:
12199:
12101:
12004:
11994:
11979:
11896:
11712:
11049:
10452:
10425:
8661:
7974:
7343:
7326:
7012:
7006:
6944:. Electromagnetic interactions in the Standard Model are described by quantum electrodynamics.
4138:
3542:
2998:
2961:
2025:
861:
846:
378:
263:
203:
133:
72:
9549:
R.N. Mohapatra; G. Senjanovic (1980). "Neutrino Mass and Spontaneous Parity Nonconservation".
7491:
6416:
5842:
5470:
5341:
5253:
5203:
5053:
5026:
4938:
12776:
12745:
12608:
12529:
12390:
12385:
12224:
12219:
12152:
12055:
12019:
12009:
11964:
11799:
10700:
10574:
10541:
7302:
7281:
7277:
7076:
4522:
4456:
3616:
3004:
2346:
2311:
2287:, are massive. In particular, the Higgs boson explains why the photon has no mass, while the
1992:
653:
602:
253:
70:
54:
10247:
D.P. Roy (1999). "Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions â A Progress Report".
7555:
7443:
There are mathematical issues regarding quantum field theories still under debate (see e.g.
3300:{\displaystyle D_{\mu }\equiv \partial _{\mu }-ig_{s}{\frac {1}{2}}\lambda ^{a}G_{\mu }^{a}}
2205:: It is currently unexplained in the Standard Model, as the hypothetical mediating particle
12735:
12559:
12519:
12331:
12065:
11901:
11872:
10650:
10589:
10584:
10558:
10405:
10281:
10204:
10147:
10106:
9762:
9704:
9634:
9560:
9523:
9486:
9400:
9260:
9101:
9056:
8973:"What is the Standard Model of particle physics, and why are scientists looking beyond it?"
8890:
8543:
8510:
8471:
8428:
8362:
8316:
8267:
8191:
8154:
8117:
7996:
7942:
7899:
7856:
7798:
7714:
7660:
7596:
7408:
7289:
7212:
7192:
7188:
7177:
7146:
4165:
4111:
3184:
2931:
2338:
proton beams) was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists.
2307:
2226:
641:
637:
626:
594:
575:
163:
103:
71:
61:
8605:
8345:
5822:
891:
out of a sense of modesty and used it in 1973 during a talk in Aix-en-Provence in France.
8:
12710:
12569:
12564:
12549:
12524:
12501:
12477:
12395:
12361:
12296:
12214:
12204:
11999:
11814:
10797:
10617:
9794:
The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics
8768:
8633:
8106:
F.J. Hasert; et al. (1973). "Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering".
7482:
The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics
7173:
2981:
2965:
2253:
2149:
1732:
807:
633:
551:
398:
213:
198:
81:
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10151:
10110:
9766:
9708:
9638:
9564:
9527:
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9404:
9264:
9105:
9060:
8894:
8547:
8514:
8475:
8432:
8366:
8320:
8271:
8195:
8158:
8121:
8000:
7946:
7903:
7860:
7802:
7718:
7664:
7187:
Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a
6548:{\displaystyle \operatorname {SU} (2)_{\text{L}}\times \operatorname {U} (1)_{\text{Y}}}
1960:
The conjugate of each listed vertex (reversing the direction of arrows) is also allowed.
438:
12813:
12766:
12643:
12638:
12591:
12029:
11757:
10766:
10645:
10415:
10322:
10297:
10271:
10248:
10233:
10220:
10194:
10163:
10137:
9748:
9725:
9694:
9661:
9624:
9429:
9283:
9246:
9072:
9046:
8977:
8906:
8727:
8569:
8283:
8257:
7986:
7562:
7480:
7403:
7318:
7243:
7208:
7020:
6998:
5868:
5560:
4786:
4051:
3390:
2969:
2960:
is postulated for all relativistic quantum field theories. It consists of the familiar
2210:
2090:
gauge bosons mediate the weak interactions between all fermions, being responsible for
2013:
1827:
1648:
1184:
865:
857:
834:
788:
757:
726:
622:
606:
539:
373:
288:
10293:
9646:
9428:
Altarelli, Guido (2014). "The Higgs and the Excessive Success of the Standard Model".
8832:
7690:"Postage stamp to honor female physicist who many say should have won the Nobel Prize"
7280:
of the visible universe over large distances seems to require a mechanism like cosmic
5224:, which generates masses for the Electroweak gauge fields (the Higgs' mechanism), and
2349:) both reported independently that they had found a new particle with a mass of about
12808:
12781:
12730:
12675:
12655:
12541:
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11707:
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9911:
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9813:
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9595:
9535:
9514:
9288:
9092:
9010:
8944:
8910:
8745:
8573:
8559:
8287:
8203:
8182:
8166:
8145:
8129:
8108:
8012:
7920:
7757:
7726:
7610:
7600:
7531:
7495:
7231:
7106:
7016:
2091:
2020:
mediate the strong interactions, which binds quarks to each other by influencing the
1904:
1879:
1831:
1391:
649:
527:
423:
353:
318:
248:
243:
208:
183:
159:
155:
10301:
10167:
9076:
2957:
1912:
carry a neutral electric charge. Thus, the neutrinos' motion are only influenced by
12720:
12660:
12586:
12351:
11804:
11575:
11350:
11211:
11196:
10878:
10789:
10710:
10457:
10442:
10383:
10332:
10289:
10212:
10155:
10114:
9770:
9720:
9712:
9642:
9568:
9531:
9494:
9408:
9358:
9306:
9278:
9268:
9109:
9064:
8898:
8806:
8741:
8737:
8551:
8518:
8479:
8436:
8370:
8324:
8275:
8245:
8199:
8162:
8125:
8004:
7950:
7907:
7864:
7806:
7749:
7722:
7668:
7347:
7335:
7269:
7254:
7250:
7172:
where heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to the theory. This is natural in the
7169:
6975:
6953:
6937:
6919:
6901:
Fundamental Interactions of the Standard Model including the hypothetical Graviton.
4625:
4363:
2342:
2292:
2031:
1999:
1984:
1913:
1871:
1867:
1768:
1765:
1618:
753:
749:
738:
734:
722:
681:
657:
598:
535:
531:
519:
408:
403:
303:
278:
238:
95:
39:
9834:
6910:
is postulated to be the mediating particle, but has not yet been proved to exist.
756:. In 1964, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig introduced quarks and that same year
621:
particle that possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational
12740:
12650:
12596:
12496:
12373:
12111:
12060:
11772:
11697:
11681:
11621:
11031:
10956:
10946:
10936:
10848:
10632:
10499:
10097:
10063:
10041:
10019:
9753:
8008:
7753:
7651:
7372:
6888:
5273:
The minimum of the potential is degenerate with an infinite number of equivalent
4576:
2954:
2947:
2939:
2218:
1899:
1859:
1316:
884:
830:
769:
761:
745:
730:
685:
453:
338:
328:
323:
313:
273:
268:
228:
115:
10216:
9716:
9498:
9336:
8522:
8484:
8457:
8441:
8414:
8375:
8329:
8302:
8218:
7811:
7784:
2352:
799:. In 1977, a team led by Leon Lederman at Fermilab discovered the bottom quark.
468:
12825:
12670:
12625:
12603:
12491:
12316:
12070:
11831:
11702:
11438:
11226:
10999:
10921:
10916:
10838:
10670:
9572:
9413:
8902:
8056:
7955:
7928:
7912:
7885:
7869:
7842:
7638:
7551:
7053:
6963:
6933:
6929:
6646:
4401:
3315:
2977:
2973:
2288:
2269:
2225:
approximation, invoke "force mediating particles", and when applied to analyze
2035:
1969:
1891:
1788:
1764:, which are particles that have corresponding properties with the exception of
1736:
1559:
1469:
811:
702:
691:
579:
393:
363:
308:
298:
283:
193:
9068:
8499:
Pais, A.; Treiman, S. B. (1975). "How Many Charm Quantum Numbers are There?".
8279:
6413:
are right-handed up-type quark, down-type quark, and lepton singlets. Finally
3565:
unitary matrix with determinant 1, making it a member of the group SU(3), and
12835:
12680:
12412:
12346:
12321:
11921:
11789:
11641:
11608:
11400:
11370:
11302:
11161:
10941:
10868:
10853:
10640:
10599:
9591:
9113:
9014:
8016:
7614:
7487:
7395:
7142:
7036:
7024:
7002:
6582:
5335:
2950:
Lagrangian from its particle (field) content that observes these symmetries.
1973:
1887:
1811:
1442:
1339:
1249:
780:
779:
In 1970, Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani introduced the
714:
661:
413:
368:
333:
188:
12445:
864:, QCD), to which many contributed, acquired its modern form in 1973â74 when
12705:
12356:
12266:
11984:
11926:
11911:
11767:
11317:
11307:
11297:
11058:
11009:
10951:
10873:
10828:
10622:
10553:
10462:
10420:
10410:
10081:
9968:
9734:
9292:
9005:
8749:
8537:
8396:
8223:
7673:
7646:
7391:
7358:
7351:
7322:
7235:
7219:. As a consequence, we have no reliable theory for the very early universe.
7216:
7181:
6979:
6897:
6722:
5274:
4830:
of both components is 1. Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is
3206:
3202:
2330:
2021:
1895:
1863:
1823:
1819:
1787:) matter. Specifically, all atoms consist of electrons orbiting around the
1761:
1492:
1350:
1259:
1178:
1029:
900:
876:
710:
567:
473:
443:
418:
388:
258:
233:
218:
107:
8555:
7590:
5327:{\displaystyle \varphi ^{\dagger }\varphi ={\tfrac {\mu ^{2}}{2\lambda }}}
1952:
is any particle with mass (with the possible exception of the neutrinos),
12014:
11841:
11782:
11550:
11453:
11448:
11365:
11360:
11290:
11244:
11201:
11166:
11125:
11017:
10981:
10843:
10536:
10430:
10398:
10393:
10276:
7444:
7376:
7330:
7258:
7200:
7127:
7072:
7065:
6941:
6668:
5753:
5467:. This breaks the symmetry of the ground state. The expectation value of
4582:
2268:, and is a key building block in the Standard Model. It has no intrinsic
2257:
2247:
2231:
2196:
1965:
1807:
1664:
1334:
1240:
1229:
1190:
887:, has since claimed priority, explaining that he chose the term Standard
880:
784:
765:
618:
614:
571:
448:
433:
383:
343:
293:
10021:
Elementary Particle Physics: Foundations of the Standard Model, Volume 2
9512:
P. Minkowski (1977). "Îź â e Îł at a Rate of One Out of 10 Muon Decays?".
9198:"New results indicate that particle discovered at CERN is a Higgs boson"
8715:
7830:. Eighth Nobel Symposium. Stockholm: Almquvist and Wiksell. p. 367.
12725:
12715:
11524:
11418:
11408:
11390:
11280:
11181:
11116:
10833:
10758:
10253:
10238:
10199:
9682:
9666:
9629:
8262:
7991:
7399:
7266:
7120:
6967:
2943:
2934:
provides the mathematical framework for the Standard Model, in which a
2296:
2291:
are very heavy. Elementary-particle masses and the differences between
1803:
1328:
838:
792:
695:
458:
223:
9751:(1988). "Triviality Pursuit: Can Elementary Scalar Particles Exist?".
9273:
8865:
7203:, although physical confirmation of a theoretical particle known as a
7141:
Self-consistency of the Standard Model (currently formulated as a non-
7130:
fit into the model? Does it even consist of one or more new particles?
5460:{\displaystyle \varphi _{3}={\tfrac {\mu }{\sqrt {\lambda }}}\equiv v}
12576:
12147:
11666:
11656:
11626:
11519:
11485:
11478:
11355:
11345:
11340:
11312:
11080:
10863:
9974:
7527:
7273:
7157:
7061:
6664:
6586:
5812:{\displaystyle m_{\text{H}}={\sqrt {2\mu ^{2}}}={\sqrt {2\lambda }}v}
4189:
are the left-handed doublet and right-handed singlet lepton fields.
2968:
and the inertial reference frame invariance central to the theory of
1815:
1792:
1345:
563:
7926:
6821:
6292:, and h.c. means Hermitian conjugate of preceding terms. The fields
883:
in 1975, with reference to the electroweak theory with four quarks.
12245:
11762:
11590:
11545:
11529:
11490:
11463:
11176:
11171:
11151:
11121:
11111:
11106:
10926:
10901:
10896:
10823:
10715:
7242:
in which such fine tuning can be avoided. There are also issues of
7204:
7092:
6907:
6685:
6639:
2323:
2319:
2206:
1909:
1875:
1799:
1718:
1367:
1323:
547:
10142:
9699:
9660:
Strumia, Alessandro (2006). "Neutrino masses and mixings and...".
9434:
9386:"Let's have a coffee with the Standard Model of particle physics!"
9051:
8732:
5745:{\displaystyle m_{\text{Z}}={\frac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {g^{2}+g'^{2}}}v}
11671:
11661:
11631:
11585:
11580:
11555:
11473:
11458:
11385:
11380:
11285:
11270:
11216:
11191:
11156:
11085:
11067:
10806:
10388:
10338:
9585:
9475:
S. Weinberg (1979). "Baryon and Lepton Nonconserving Processes".
9384:
Woithe, Julia; Wiener, Gerfried; Van der Veken, Frederik (2017).
9251:
8638:
8610:
7284:, which would also constitute an extension of the Standard Model.
6892:
2235:
2202:
1917:
1855:
1847:
1749:
1063:
1023:
815:
640:
particle physicists alike. The Standard Model is a paradigm of a
543:
10175:
Y. Hayato; et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through
7828:
Elementary Particle Physics: Relativistic Groups and Analyticity
7703:
S.L. Glashow (1961). "Partial-symmetries of weak interactions".
4962:
is the electroweak gauge covariant derivative defined above and
3205:, each element of which refers to a quark field with a specific
2377:
11651:
11646:
11275:
11262:
11253:
11075:
10989:
10888:
8591:
7262:
6699:
6651:
6574:
2280:
2003:
1851:
1843:
1835:
1784:
1776:
1530:
1201:
869:
823:
644:
for theorists, exhibiting a wide range of phenomena, including
523:
10328:
8401:
A Brief History of String Theory: From Dual Models to M-Theory
8082:"Inquiring Minds | Discoveries at Fermilab - The Bottom Quark"
7184:, the neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude.
11676:
11616:
11468:
11327:
11206:
11146:
11101:
10994:
10972:
10815:
9889:
The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction for Scientists
9815:
Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics
8881:
Jaeger, Gregg (2021). "Exchange Forces in Particle Physics".
8587:
7647:"Conservation of Isotopic Spin and Isotopic Gauge Invariance"
7057:
6694:
6671:
6578:
6570:
2284:
2273:
2017:
1988:
1839:
1772:
1625:
1152:
1057:
888:
850:
819:
559:
9851:
Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction
9835:"The Standard Model of Particle Physics Interactive Graphic"
9128:"Huge $ 10 billion collider resumes hunt for 'God particle'"
9089:
8542:. Cambridge University Press (published 1998). p. 320.
4783:
where the superscripts + and 0 indicate the electric charge
11443:
11375:
11335:
10911:
10906:
10317:
The Standard Model explained in Detail by CERN's John Ellis
9548:
9453:
8811:
7877:
7161:
7041:
6660:
5358:
such that the ground state is transformed to a basis where
2315:
1883:
1419:
842:
803:
7589:
Carroll, Sean M.; Rhoades, Zachary H.; Leven, Jon (2007).
7524:
An Introduction to Particle Physics and the Standard Model
7102:
What gives rise to the Standard Model of particle physics?
6481:{\displaystyle {\tilde {\varphi }}=i\tau _{2}\varphi ^{*}}
2221:
calculations, which are a graphical representation of the
9383:
8930:
7557:"Don't Expect a 'Theory of Everything' to Explain It All"
7011:
The strong nuclear force is responsible for hadronic and
6962:
The weak interaction is responsible for various forms of
2024:, with the interactions being described in the theory of
5410:{\displaystyle \varphi _{1}=\varphi _{2}=\varphi _{4}=0}
10232:
S.F. Novaes (2000). "Standard Model: An Introduction".
9542:
8346:"Reliable perturbative results for strong interactions"
7592:
Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe
7071:
The Standard Model also predicted the existence of the
6581:
for the strong interaction. Those particles are called
4418:
are the U(1) and SU(2) coupling constants respectively,
810:
in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the
10262:
F. Wilczek (2004). "The Universe Is A Strange Place".
9886:
9150:"Observation of a New Particle with a Mass of 125 GeV"
8539:
Conceptual Developments of 20th Century Field Theories
8244:
7979:
The European Physical Journal C - Particles and Fields
7040:. This interaction is mediated by mesons, such as the
5523:
5438:
5301:
4703:
4648:
4282:
4241:
3996:
3945:
760:
implicitly introduced color charge of quarks. In 1967
12797:
9998:
9614:
7843:"Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons"
6497:
6439:
6419:
6392:
6352:
6346:
are left-handed quark and lepton doublets. Likewise,
6325:
6298:
6255:
6228:
6201:
5879:
5845:
5825:
5762:
5683:
5637:
5615:
5593:
5563:
5493:
5473:
5423:
5364:
5344:
5283:
5256:
5230:
5206:
5173:
5076:
5056:
5029:
4997:
4968:
4941:
4836:
4809:
4789:
4636:
4591:
4535:
4497:
4459:
4426:
4202:
4168:
4141:
4114:
4074:
4054:
3631:
3571:
3545:
3532:{\displaystyle U=e^{-ig_{s}\lambda ^{a}\phi ^{a}(x)}}
3470:
3430:
3338:
3222:
3187:
3063:
3013:
8458:"Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in ee Annihilation"
8303:"Ultraviolet behavior of non-abelian gauge theories"
8300:
7742:"Color Charge Degree of Freedom in Particle Physics"
7227:
or 8 constants, which are also arbitrary parameters.
7180:. As long as new physics appears below or around 10
3216:
The gauge covariant derivative of QCD is defined by
802:
The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the
632:
The development of the Standard Model was driven by
9867:
9608:
7588:
2341:
On 4 July 2012, two of the experiments at the LHC (
10094:
9975:J.F. Donoghue; E. Golowich; B.R. Holstein (1994).
9848:
9812:
9450:"Particle chameleon caught in the act of changing"
7886:"Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons"
7840:
7748:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 109â111,
7479:
7052:The Standard Model predicted the existence of the
6547:
6480:
6425:
6405:
6378:
6338:
6311:
6268:
6241:
6214:
6185:
5851:
5831:
5811:
5744:
5669:
5623:
5601:
5569:
5549:
5479:
5459:
5409:
5350:
5326:
5262:
5242:
5212:
5192:
5159:
5062:
5042:
5015:
4983:
4954:
4927:
4822:
4795:
4775:
4616:
4554:
4513:
4483:
4445:
4333:
4181:
4154:
4127:
4100:
4060:
4038:
3593:
3557:
3531:
3456:
3368:
3299:
3193:
3171:
3047:
9950:
7929:"Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles"
7927:G.S. Guralnik; C.R. Hagen; T.W.B. Kibble (1964).
4617:{\displaystyle \operatorname {SU} (2)_{\text{L}}}
4525:for the weak isospin and weak hypercharge fields.
1995:. The types of gauge bosons are described below.
12833:
8937:The Experimental Foundations of Particle Physics
8415:"Experimental Observation of a Heavy Particle J"
2992:
1866:, and thus interact with other fermions through
10095:E.S. Abers; B.W. Lee (1973). "Gauge theories".
9747:
7176:extension of the Standard Model and in certain
6736:
3209:(i.e. red, blue, and green) and summation over
50:
10505:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model
9905:
9325:"Standard Model of Particles and Interactions"
8662:"Q&A with Standard Bearer Steven Weinberg"
3457:{\displaystyle \psi \rightarrow \psi '=U\psi }
2373:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model
2334:; therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two
872:were composed of fractionally charged quarks.
21:Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model
12475:
12461:
11857:
10774:
10354:
9681:Salvio, Alberto; Strumia, Alessandro (2018).
9680:
9579:
9505:
9220:"LHC experiments delve deeper into precision"
9190:
9173:"A New Particle Could Be Physics' Holy Grail"
9034:
8923:
8343:
5670:{\displaystyle m_{\text{W}}={\frac {1}{2}}gv}
4068:sums over the three generations of fermions;
2378:Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian
919:
495:
9511:
9247:"The Elementary Particles of Quantum Fields"
9244:
9212:
9164:
8799:"Standard Model - ATLAS Physics Cheat Sheet"
8219:"The discovery of the weak neutral currents"
7702:
7249:The model is inconsistent with the emerging
6284:term giving the coupling of the generations
5500:
5494:
3213:(i.e. up, down, strange, etc.) is implied.
1976:, as they are responsible for mediating the
906:All particles can be summarized as follows:
875:The term "Standard Model" was introduced by
10231:
10043:Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model
9953:Gauge theory of elementary particle physics
9474:
8998:
8924:Cahn, Robert N.; Goldbaher, Gerson (2010).
8498:
8179:
8142:
8105:
7834:
7782:
7544:
7094:
6850:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
6594:The four fundamental interactions of nature
6558:
5587:After symmetry breaking, the masses of the
595:complete theory of fundamental interactions
12468:
12454:
11871:
11864:
11850:
10781:
10767:
10361:
10347:
10264:Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings Supplements
10261:
9170:
8590:is a representation of reality, whereas a
7883:
2359:(about 133 proton masses, on the order of
2318:began in early 2010 and were performed at
926:
912:
502:
488:
10275:
10252:
10237:
10198:
10174:
10141:
10061:
10017:
9924:
9842:
9724:
9698:
9665:
9628:
9433:
9427:
9412:
9282:
9272:
9050:
9038:International Journal of Modern Physics A
8943:(published 31 August 2009). p. 306.
8731:
8483:
8440:
8374:
8328:
8261:
7990:
7954:
7911:
7868:
7810:
7739:
7672:
7637:
7477:
6870:Learn how and when to remove this message
6491:The Yukawa terms are invariant under the
6379:{\displaystyle u_{\text{R}},d_{\text{R}}}
4555:{\displaystyle m{\overline {\psi }}\psi }
2272:, and for that reason is classified as a
597:. For example, it does not fully explain
10788:
10246:
10039:
9741:
8603:
8455:
8216:
8054:
7972:
7825:
7381:Alternatives to the Standard Higgs Model
7047:
6896:
6734:Planets, stars, galaxies, galaxy groups
6573:between the objects affected, such as a
4803:of the components. The weak hypercharge
1944:is any charged particle, Îł is a photon,
1927:
667:
617:. The model does not contain any viable
16:Theory of forces and subatomic particles
10125:
9659:
7550:
7521:
6992:
6280:matrices of Yukawa couplings, with the
3601:is an arbitrary function of spacetime.
2211:Einstein's theory of general relativity
1964:The Standard Model includes 4 kinds of
791:. In 1976, Martin Perl discovered the
12834:
12666:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
11942:Two-dimensional conformal field theory
11252:
10183:in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector".
9810:
9791:
8970:
8880:
8863:
8713:
8412:
7570:from the original on 11 September 2023
7292:has been widely accepted or verified.
7230:The Higgs mechanism gives rise to the
3393:, generators of the SU(3) color group,
3201:is a three component column vector of
2366:
2130:. The weak interactions involving the
12449:
11845:
10762:
10342:
9944:
8793:
8791:
8677:
8675:
8673:
8671:
8055:magazine, STANFORD (1 January 2015).
7968:
7966:
7826:A. Salam (1968). N. Svartholm (ed.).
6947:
4628:fields with four degrees of freedom:
4384:is the 3-component SU(2) gauge field,
3604:
1658:
1656:
1523:
1521:
1360:
1358:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1272:
1256:
1254:
1237:
1235:
1198:
1196:
1149:
1119:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1079:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1019:
1017:
1015:
989:
963:
961:
959:
948:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
10741:
9908:Introduction to Elementary Particles
9222:. CERN. 11 July 2017. Archived from
8688:SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
6848:adding citations to reliable sources
6815:
6577:for the electromagnetic force and a
3619:with the symmetry group U(1)âŻĂâŻSU(2)
3048:{\displaystyle T^{a}=\lambda ^{a}/2}
1920:, making them difficult to observe.
660:, and elaborate symmetries (such as
10088:
9001:"Gravity versus the Standard Model"
8535:
7687:
7595:. Guidebook Part 2. Chantilly, VA:
7136:(more unsolved problems in physics)
6913:
5070:. The scalar potential is given by
894:
690:In 1928, Paul Dirac introduced the
526:describing three of the four known
13:
10368:
9927:Modern Elementary Particle Physics
9819:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
9785:
8960:from the original on 14 July 2012.
8845:from the original on 22 March 2002
8788:
8776:from the original on 31 March 2014
8668:
8604:Weinberg, Steven (20 April 2010).
8456:Augustin, J.; et al. (1974).
8386:from the original on 19 July 2018.
7975:"The making of the Standard Model"
7963:
7222:Some physicists consider it to be
6523:
6176:
6170:
5883:
4840:
4366:â the generator of the U(1) group,
4217:
3635:
3237:
3067:
3007:with SU(3) symmetry, generated by
2227:high-energy scattering experiments
46:
14:
12863:
12437:Template:Quantum mechanics topics
10309:
10294:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2004.08.001
10001:Group structure of gauge theories
9887:J.E. Dodd; B.M. Gripaios (2020).
9870:Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions
8695:from the original on 20 June 2006
8031:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1995"
7631:
7419:Physics beyond the Standard Model
7151:YangâMills existence and mass gap
7089:Physics beyond the Standard Model
7075:, which was found in 2012 at the
2385:Parameters of the Standard Model
2295:(mediated by the photon) and the
2256:elementary particle theorized by
1874:. The six leptons consist of the
611:universe's accelerating expansion
168:Physics beyond the Standard Model
12819:
12807:
12432:
12431:
11825:
11718:Timeline of particle discoveries
10740:
10729:
10728:
10473:
10329:Particle Physics: Standard Model
8999:Butterworth, Jon (1 June 2014).
8714:Eisert, Jens (22 January 2013).
8413:Aubert, J.; et al. (1974).
7109:have the values that we measure?
6820:
6339:{\displaystyle \ell _{\text{L}}}
5862:
3420:is the strong coupling constant.
2252:The Higgs particle is a massive
1846:). The lightest baryons are the
849:for discovering it. The W and Z
12787:Timeline of physics discoveries
10129:The European Physical Journal C
9674:
9653:
9468:
9442:
9421:
9377:
9351:
9317:
9299:
9238:
9142:
9120:
9083:
9028:
8992:
8964:
8917:
8874:
8857:
8825:
8756:
8707:
8654:
8626:
8597:
8580:
8536:Cao, Tian Yu (1 October 2019).
8529:
8492:
8449:
8406:
8390:
8337:
8301:D.J. Gross; F. Wilczek (1973).
8294:
8238:
8210:
8173:
8136:
8099:
8074:
8048:
8023:
7819:
7776:
7688:Cho, Adrian (5 February 2021).
7450:
7424:Electron electric dipole moment
7257:(CDM) and its contributions to
6930:atomic electron shell structure
6786:(relative to electromagnetism)
6753:(relative to electromagnetism)
6751:Strength at the scale of quarks
6488:is its charge conjugate state.
4570:
2892:Higgs vacuum expectation value
1923:
1731:The Standard Model includes 12
694:which implied the existence of
674:History of quantum field theory
625:. It also does not incorporate
25:Standard model (disambiguation)
10656:Causal dynamical triangulation
10160:10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9
10084:aspects of the Standard Model.
10003:. Cambridge University Press.
9995:aspects of the Standard Model.
9979:. Cambridge University Press.
9977:Dynamics of the Standard Model
9971:aspects of the Standard Model.
9891:. Cambridge University Press.
9868:W. Greiner; B. MĂźller (2000).
9687:Journal of High Energy Physics
8833:"Color Charge and Confinement"
8742:10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.040404
7733:
7696:
7681:
7582:
7515:
7471:
7437:
7119:Why is there more matter than
6989:interaction at high energies.
6906:essentially unmeasurable. The
6536:
6529:
6511:
6504:
6446:
6157:
6143:
6129:
6116:
6106:
6094:
6080:
6068:
6054:
6042:
6029:
6019:
6007:
5993:
5981:
5967:
5961:
5946:
5933:
5923:
5911:
5897:
5334:. It is possible to perform a
5086:
5080:
4978:
4972:
4919:
4913:
4605:
4598:
4319:
4300:
3588:
3582:
3524:
3518:
3434:
3369:{\displaystyle a=1,2,\dots ,8}
2241:
2094:. They contain mass, with the
1717:) is conventionally called a "
725:to provide an explanation for
593:and so falls short of being a
591:physical phenomena unexplained
1:
10495:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
10065:The Standard Model and Beyond
10040:Schwartz, Matthew D. (2014).
9849:I. Aitchison; A. Hey (2003).
9647:10.1016/S0550-3213(96)00644-X
8606:"This World and the Universe"
7841:F. Englert; R. Brout (1964).
7746:Compendium of Quantum Physics
7464:
7082:
5277:solutions, which occurs when
5243:{\displaystyle \lambda >0}
5193:{\displaystyle \mu ^{2}>0}
4446:{\displaystyle W^{a\mu \nu }}
2993:Quantum chromodynamics sector
1826:, and hence interact via the
776:, giving it its modern form.
646:spontaneous symmetry breaking
112:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
11734:History of subatomic physics
10119:10.1016/0370-1573(73)90027-6
10018:Nagashima, Yorikiyo (2013).
9951:T.P. Cheng; L.F. Li (2006).
9775:10.1016/0370-1573(88)90008-7
9536:10.1016/0370-2693(77)90435-X
8204:10.1016/0550-3213(74)90038-8
8167:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90499-1
8130:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90494-2
7754:10.1007/978-3-540-70626-7_32
7727:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2
7363:Introduction to gauge theory
6972:charged current interactions
6809:
6804:
6801:
6796:
6788:
6774:
6771:
6768:
6763:
6755:
6745:
6742:
6739:
6733:
6726:
6721:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6698:
6692:
6689:
6683:
6680:
6659:
6656:
6650:
6645:
6634:
6406:{\displaystyle e_{\text{R}}}
6312:{\displaystyle Q_{\text{L}}}
6269:{\displaystyle Y_{\text{e}}}
6242:{\displaystyle Y_{\text{d}}}
6215:{\displaystyle Y_{\text{u}}}
5016:{\displaystyle W_{\mu }^{a}}
4823:{\displaystyle Y_{\text{W}}}
4544:
4514:{\displaystyle B^{\mu \nu }}
3891:
3832:
3773:
3714:
3655:
3615:The electroweak sector is a
3594:{\displaystyle \phi ^{a}(x)}
3086:
678:History of subatomic physics
7:
12751:Quantum information science
12401:Quantum information science
10217:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529
9955:. Oxford University Press.
9499:10.1103/PhysRevLett.43.1566
8971:Hooper, Dan (19 May 2022).
8716:"Pauli Principle, Reloaded"
8523:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1556
8485:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1406
8442:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1404
8376:10.1103/PhysRevLett.30.1346
8330:10.1103/PhysRevLett.30.1343
8217:D. Haidt (4 October 2004).
7973:Weinberg, S. (1 May 2004).
7812:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264
7415:Mathematical formulation of
7295:
7199:The model does not explain
7105:Why do particle masses and
7095:Unsolved problem in physics
4984:{\displaystyle V(\varphi )}
4581:In the Standard Model, the
4562:do not respect U(1)âŻĂâŻSU(2)
4101:{\displaystyle Q_{L},u_{R}}
3409:gluon field strength tensor
2266:proposed as the Higgs boson
1726:
1554:electromagnetic interaction
629:and their non-zero masses.
562:. Since then, proof of the
10:
12868:
12582:Classical electromagnetism
9999:L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988).
9573:10.1103/PhysRevLett.44.912
9171:D. Overbye (4 July 2012).
8941:Cambridge University Press
8926:"Quarks, gluons, and jets"
8903:10.1007/s10701-021-00425-0
8009:10.1140/epjc/s2004-01761-1
7956:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585
7913:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508
7870:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321
7156:Experiments indicate that
7086:
6996:
6951:
6917:
6886:
6882:
6562:
5624:{\displaystyle {\text{Z}}}
5602:{\displaystyle {\text{W}}}
4574:
4194:gauge covariant derivative
3608:
2996:
2370:
2245:
2112:having more mass than the
671:
550:and classifying all known
142:Standard Model mathematics
18:
12759:
12696:
12624:
12540:
12512:
12484:
12426:
12309:
12259:
12238:
12187:
12161:
12125:
12089:
12038:
11957:
11950:
11879:
11823:
11726:
11690:
11607:
11568:
11538:
11512:
11508:
11499:
11431:
11399:
11326:
11261:
11243:
11139:
11094:
11066:
11057:
11048:
11030:
11008:
10980:
10971:
10887:
10814:
10805:
10796:
10724:
10683:
10661:Canonical quantum gravity
10631:
10598:
10567:
10524:
10513:
10482:
10471:
10376:
9991:Highlights dynamical and
9910:. John Wiley & Sons.
9811:Schumm, Bruce A. (2004).
9069:10.1142/S0217751X09045431
8280:10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S96
8250:Reviews of Modern Physics
6782:Strength at the scale of
6608:
6605:
6602:
6599:
6433:is the Higgs doublet and
4155:{\displaystyle \ell _{L}}
3558:{\displaystyle 3\times 3}
2384:
1754:Pauli exclusion principle
1306:
1304:
1296:
1294:
1286:
1284:
1276:
1274:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1117:
1113:
1107:
1095:
1091:
1085:
1009:
1007:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
997:
987:
983:
981:
979:
973:
971:
969:
737:was not conserved in the
613:as possibly described by
556:experimental confirmation
12688:Condensed matter physics
11751:mathematical formulation
11346:Eta and eta prime mesons
10666:Superfluid vacuum theory
10062:Langacker, Paul (2009).
10046:. Cambridge University.
9853:. Institute of Physics.
9414:10.1088/1361-6552/aa5b25
9333:Johns Hopkins University
9114:10.1103/PhysRevD.16.1519
8838:University of Pittsburgh
8634:"World Science Festival"
8403:. Springer, p. 11 n. 22.
7430:
6559:Fundamental interactions
6426:{\displaystyle \varphi }
5852:{\displaystyle \lambda }
5480:{\displaystyle \varphi }
5351:{\displaystyle \varphi }
5263:{\displaystyle \varphi }
5222:Vacuum expectation value
5213:{\displaystyle \varphi }
5063:{\displaystyle \varphi }
5043:{\displaystyle B_{\mu }}
4955:{\displaystyle D_{\mu }}
4351:is the U(1) gauge field,
1978:fundamental interactions
1071:BoseâEinstein statistics
814:, and the masses of the
709:extended the concept of
587:experimental predictions
12097:2D free massless scalar
11990:Quantum electrodynamics
11917:QFT in curved spacetime
11413:Double-charm tetraquark
10448:Quantum electrodynamics
10438:Electroweak interaction
10186:Physical Review Letters
10080:670 pages. Highlights
9906:D.J. Griffiths (1987).
9792:Oerter, Robert (2006).
9717:10.1007/JHEP06(2014)080
9552:Physical Review Letters
9478:Physical Review Letters
9130:. CNN. 11 November 2009
8502:Physical Review Letters
8463:Physical Review Letters
8420:Physical Review Letters
8354:Physical Review Letters
8308:Physical Review Letters
7934:Physical Review Letters
7891:Physical Review Letters
7848:Physical Review Letters
7790:Physical Review Letters
7340:Electroweak interaction
7314:Quantum electrodynamics
7308:Fundamental interaction
7288:Currently, no proposed
6958:Electroweak interaction
6924:Quantum electrodynamics
6565:Fundamental interaction
4484:{\displaystyle a=1,2,3}
3617:YangâMills gauge theory
3611:Electroweak interaction
3005:YangâMills gauge theory
2727:CKM CP violation Phase
2008:quantum electrodynamics
1752:. Fermions respect the
774:electroweak interaction
719:quantum electrodynamics
601:, incorporate the full
130:Electroweak interaction
12772:Nobel Prize in Physics
12634:Relativistic mechanics
12418:Quantum thermodynamics
12342:On shell and off shell
12337:Loop quantum cosmology
12179:N = 4 super YangâMills
12138:N = 1 super YangâMills
12005:Scalar electrodynamics
11995:Quantum chromodynamics
11897:Conformal field theory
11873:Quantum field theories
10426:Quantum chromodynamics
9843:Introductory textbooks
8883:Foundations of Physics
8344:H.D. Politzer (1973).
7674:10.1103/PhysRev.96.191
7522:R. Mann (2010). "25".
7327:Quantum chromodynamics
7178:grand unified theories
7007:Quantum chromodynamics
6902:
6549:
6482:
6427:
6407:
6380:
6340:
6313:
6270:
6243:
6216:
6187:
5853:
5833:
5813:
5746:
5671:
5625:
5603:
5571:
5551:
5481:
5461:
5411:
5352:
5328:
5264:
5244:
5214:
5194:
5161:
5064:
5044:
5017:
4985:
4956:
4929:
4824:
4797:
4777:
4618:
4556:
4523:field strength tensors
4515:
4485:
4447:
4335:
4183:
4156:
4129:
4102:
4062:
4040:
3595:
3559:
3533:
3458:
3370:
3301:
3195:
3173:
3049:
2999:Quantum chromodynamics
2962:translational symmetry
2026:quantum chromodynamics
1961:
1798:There are six quarks:
1039:FermiâDirac statistics
862:quantum chromodynamics
847:Nobel Prize in Physics
654:hypothetical particles
134:Quantum chromodynamics
78:
23:. For other uses, see
12777:Philosophy of physics
12391:Quantum hydrodynamics
12386:Quantum hadrodynamics
12010:Scalar chromodynamics
11810:Waveâparticle duality
11800:Relativistic particle
10937:Electron antineutrino
10542:Cosmological constant
9245:Gregg Jaeger (2021).
9200:. CERN. 14 March 2013
8864:Lindon, Jack (2020).
8764:"What is antimatter?"
8556:10.1017/9781108566926
7554:(11 September 2023).
7077:Large Hadron Collider
7048:Tests and predictions
7032:residual strong force
6900:
6690:Electrically charged
6600:Property/Interaction
6550:
6483:
6428:
6408:
6381:
6341:
6314:
6271:
6244:
6217:
6188:
5854:
5834:
5814:
5747:
5672:
5626:
5604:
5572:
5552:
5482:
5462:
5412:
5353:
5329:
5265:
5245:
5215:
5195:
5162:
5065:
5050:and the scalar field
5045:
5018:
4986:
4957:
4930:
4825:
4798:
4778:
4619:
4557:
4516:
4486:
4448:
4336:
4184:
4182:{\displaystyle e_{R}}
4157:
4130:
4128:{\displaystyle d_{R}}
4103:
4063:
4041:
3596:
3560:
3534:
3459:
3371:
3302:
3196:
3194:{\displaystyle \psi }
3174:
3050:
2838:SU(3) gauge coupling
2795:SU(2) gauge coupling
2312:Large Hadron Collider
1931:
831:neutral weak currents
668:Historical background
627:neutrino oscillations
609:, or account for the
603:theory of gravitation
582:with great accuracy.
576:weak neutral currents
164:Neutrino oscillations
84:of the Standard Model
77:
12736:Mathematical physics
12362:Quantum fluctuations
12332:Loop quantum gravity
11902:Lattice field theory
11040:FaddeevâPopov ghosts
10790:Particles in physics
10651:Loop quantum gravity
10590:Theory of everything
10585:Grand Unified Theory
10559:Neutrino oscillation
10406:Quantum field theory
10319:" omega tau podcast.
9594:. pp. 315â321.
9359:"The Standard Model"
9307:"The Standard Model"
8683:"The Standard Model"
7785:"A Model of Leptons"
7783:S. Weinberg (1967).
7597:The Teaching Company
7409:Quantum field theory
7290:theory of everything
7213:quantum field theory
7193:theory of everything
7189:unified field theory
7174:left-right symmetric
7147:lattice gauge theory
7112:Why are there three
6993:Strong nuclear force
6844:improve this section
6731:Bound states formed
6710:Stressâenergy tensor
6632:Mediating particles
6495:
6437:
6417:
6390:
6350:
6323:
6296:
6253:
6226:
6199:
5877:
5843:
5832:{\displaystyle \mu }
5823:
5760:
5681:
5635:
5613:
5591:
5561:
5491:
5471:
5421:
5362:
5342:
5336:gauge transformation
5281:
5254:
5228:
5220:acquires a non-zero
5204:
5171:
5074:
5054:
5027:
4995:
4966:
4939:
4834:
4807:
4787:
4634:
4589:
4533:
4495:
4457:
4424:
4200:
4166:
4139:
4112:
4072:
4052:
4048:where the subscript
3629:
3569:
3543:
3468:
3428:
3376:) SU(3) gauge field,
3336:
3332:is the 8-component (
3220:
3185:
3061:
3011:
2932:quantum field theory
2755:U(1) gauge coupling
2709:CKM 13-mixing angle
2688:CKM 23-mixing angle
2667:CKM 12-mixing angle
2308:particle accelerator
1858:. Quarks also carry
1733:elementary particles
951:Elementary particles
808:elementary particles
642:quantum field theory
558:of the existence of
552:elementary particles
104:Quantum field theory
82:Elementary particles
12847:Concepts in physics
12711:Atmospheric physics
12550:Classical mechanics
12478:branches of physics
12396:Quantum information
12000:Quartic interaction
11815:Particle chauvinism
11758:Subatomic particles
10618:Split supersymmetry
10580:KaluzaâKlein theory
10453:Fermi's interaction
10286:2004NuPhS.134....3W
10209:1999PhRvL..83.1529H
10152:2012EPJC...72.2205B
10111:1973PhR.....9....1A
9767:1988PhR...167..241C
9709:2014JHEP...06..080S
9639:1997NuPhB.484...80B
9565:1980PhRvL..44..912M
9528:1977PhLB...67..421M
9491:1979PhRvL..43.1566W
9405:2017PhyEd..52c4001W
9313:. 15 December 2023.
9265:2021Entrp..23.1416J
9152:. CERN. 4 July 2012
9106:1977PhRvD..16.1519L
9061:2009IJMPA..24.2601G
8895:2021FoPh...51...13J
8772:. 24 January 2002.
8769:Scientific American
8548:2019code.book.....C
8515:1975PhRvL..35.1556P
8476:1974PhRvL..33.1406A
8433:1974PhRvL..33.1404A
8367:1973PhRvL..30.1346P
8321:1973PhRvL..30.1343G
8272:1999RvMPS..71...96G
8196:1974NuPhB..73....1H
8159:1973PhLB...46..138H
8122:1973PhLB...46..121H
8001:2004EPJC...34....5W
7947:1964PhRvL..13..585G
7904:1964PhRvL..13..508H
7884:P.W. Higgs (1964).
7861:1964PhRvL..13..321E
7803:1967PhRvL..19.1264W
7719:1961NucPh..22..579G
7665:1954PhRv...96..191Y
7486:(Kindle ed.).
7344:Fermi's interaction
6678:Affected particles
6596:
5012:
4624:doublet of complex
3991:
3973:
3296:
3165:
3147:
2966:rotational symmetry
2543:Strange quark mass
2367:Theoretical aspects
2223:perturbation theory
2014:Strong Interactions
1842:) or three quarks (
1756:, meaning that two
1185:strong interactions
727:strong interactions
540:strong interactions
12767:History of physics
12282:NambuâJona-Lasinio
12210:Higher dimensional
12117:WessâZuminoâWitten
11907:Noncommutative QFT
10646:Superstring theory
10416:Strong interaction
10323:The Standard Model
9945:Advanced textbooks
9925:G.L. Kane (1987).
9177:The New York Times
8978:Astronomy Magazine
7563:The New York Times
7478:R. Oerter (2006).
7404:Quantum triviality
7319:Strong interaction
7244:quantum triviality
7209:general relativity
7107:coupling constants
7021:asymptotic freedom
6999:Strong interaction
6948:Weak nuclear force
6903:
6592:
6545:
6478:
6423:
6403:
6376:
6336:
6309:
6266:
6239:
6212:
6183:
5869:Yukawa interaction
5849:
5829:
5809:
5742:
5667:
5621:
5599:
5567:
5547:
5538:
5477:
5457:
5449:
5407:
5348:
5324:
5322:
5260:
5240:
5210:
5190:
5157:
5060:
5040:
5013:
4998:
4981:
4952:
4925:
4820:
4793:
4773:
4764:
4677:
4614:
4552:
4511:
4481:
4443:
4331:
4291:
4250:
4179:
4152:
4125:
4098:
4058:
4036:
4005:
3974:
3956:
3954:
3605:Electroweak sector
3591:
3555:
3529:
3454:
3391:Gell-Mann matrices
3366:
3297:
3282:
3191:
3169:
3148:
3130:
3045:
2970:special relativity
2609:Bottom quark mass
2301:electroweak theory
1962:
1908:, while the three
1828:strong interaction
1758:identical fermions
1699:An anti-electron (
1649:strong interaction
866:asymptotic freedom
858:strong interaction
856:The theory of the
789:asymptotic freedom
758:Oscar W. Greenberg
607:general relativity
528:fundamental forces
79:
12795:
12794:
12782:Physics education
12731:Materials science
12698:Interdisciplinary
12656:Quantum mechanics
12443:
12442:
12305:
12304:
11839:
11838:
11795:Massless particle
11603:
11602:
11599:
11598:
11564:
11563:
11427:
11426:
11239:
11238:
11235:
11234:
11187:Magnetic monopole
11135:
11134:
11026:
11025:
10967:
10966:
10947:Muon antineutrino
10932:Electron neutrino
10756:
10755:
10679:
10678:
10554:Strong CP problem
10532:Hierarchy problem
10082:group-theoretical
10075:978-1-4200-7907-4
10053:978-1-107-03473-0
10031:978-3-527-64890-0
10010:978-0-521-34785-3
9986:978-0-521-47652-2
9962:978-0-19-851961-4
9936:978-0-201-11749-3
9929:. Perseus Books.
9917:978-0-471-60386-3
9898:978-1-108-72740-2
9879:978-3-540-67672-0
9860:978-0-585-44550-2
9826:978-0-8018-7971-5
9803:978-0-452-28786-0
9601:978-0-444-85438-4
9515:Physics Letters B
9485:(21): 1566â1570.
9365:. 4 December 2023
9274:10.3390/e23111416
9093:Physical Review D
9045:(14): 2601â2627.
8614:. Talks at Google
8565:978-1-108-56692-6
8509:(23): 1556â1559.
8470:(23): 1406â1408.
8427:(23): 1404â1406.
8361:(26): 1346â1349.
8315:(26): 1343â1346.
8246:Gaillard, Mary K.
8183:Nuclear Physics B
8146:Physics Letters B
8109:Physics Letters B
7797:(21): 1264â1266.
7763:978-3-540-70626-7
7606:978-1-59803-350-2
7537:978-1-4200-8298-2
7501:978-0-13-236678-6
7303:YangâMills theory
7232:hierarchy problem
6938:electric circuits
6880:
6879:
6872:
6814:
6813:
6794:
6784:protons/neutrons
6761:
6740:Atoms, molecules
6643:
6627:
6622:
6542:
6517:
6449:
6400:
6373:
6360:
6333:
6306:
6263:
6236:
6209:
6153:
6125:
6119:
6090:
6064:
6038:
6032:
6003:
5977:
5964:
5942:
5936:
5907:
5891:
5804:
5791:
5770:
5737:
5705:
5691:
5659:
5645:
5619:
5597:
5570:{\displaystyle v}
5516:
5515:
5448:
5447:
5321:
4848:
4817:
4796:{\displaystyle Q}
4696:
4695:
4611:
4547:
4408:-chiral fermions,
4397:
4376:
4322:
4309:
4303:
4290:
4259:
4249:
4061:{\displaystyle j}
4004:
3953:
3894:
3835:
3776:
3717:
3658:
3643:
3270:
3128:
3089:
3075:
2982:internal symmetry
2976:SU(3)ĂSU(2)ĂU(1)
2958:PoincarĂŠ symmetry
2928:
2927:
2874:QCD vacuum angle
2573:Charm quark mass
2032:Weak Interactions
1880:electron neutrino
1832:color confinement
1723:
1691:
1690:
1392:Electron neutrino
1363:Three generations
1318:Three generations
1266:
1252:
1247:
1233:
1227:
1224:
1194:
1187:
1181:
1175:
1073:
1067:
1041:
1035:
783:, predicting the
768:incorporated the
754:weak interactions
723:nonabelian groups
589:, it leaves some
512:
511:
160:Hierarchy problem
156:Strong CP problem
12859:
12852:Particle physics
12824:
12823:
12812:
12811:
12803:
12721:Chemical physics
12661:Particle physics
12587:Classical optics
12470:
12463:
12456:
12447:
12446:
12435:
12434:
12352:Quantum dynamics
12025:YangâMillsâHiggs
11980:Non-linear sigma
11970:EulerâHeisenberg
11955:
11954:
11866:
11859:
11852:
11843:
11842:
11829:
11805:Virtual particle
11576:Mesonic molecule
11510:
11509:
11506:
11505:
11351:Bottom eta meson
11259:
11258:
11250:
11249:
11222:WⲠand ZⲠbosons
11212:Sterile neutrino
11197:Majorana fermion
11064:
11063:
11055:
11054:
10978:
10977:
10957:Tau antineutrino
10812:
10811:
10803:
10802:
10783:
10776:
10769:
10760:
10759:
10744:
10743:
10732:
10731:
10522:
10521:
10477:
10476:
10458:Weak hypercharge
10443:Weak interaction
10384:Particle physics
10363:
10356:
10349:
10340:
10339:
10335:lectures (2010).
10333:Leonard Susskind
10305:
10279:
10277:astro-ph/0401347
10258:
10256:
10243:
10241:
10228:
10202:
10193:(8): 1529â1533.
10171:
10145:
10122:
10089:Journal articles
10079:
10057:
10035:
10014:
9993:phenomenological
9990:
9966:
9940:
9921:
9902:
9883:
9864:
9838:
9830:
9818:
9807:
9779:
9778:
9745:
9739:
9738:
9728:
9702:
9678:
9672:
9671:
9669:
9657:
9651:
9650:
9632:
9612:
9606:
9605:
9583:
9577:
9576:
9546:
9540:
9539:
9509:
9503:
9502:
9472:
9466:
9465:
9463:
9461:
9446:
9440:
9439:
9437:
9425:
9419:
9418:
9416:
9390:
9381:
9375:
9374:
9372:
9370:
9355:
9349:
9348:
9346:
9344:
9335:. Archived from
9321:
9315:
9314:
9303:
9297:
9296:
9286:
9276:
9242:
9236:
9235:
9233:
9231:
9216:
9210:
9209:
9207:
9205:
9194:
9188:
9187:
9185:
9183:
9168:
9162:
9161:
9159:
9157:
9146:
9140:
9139:
9137:
9135:
9124:
9118:
9117:
9100:(5): 1519â1531.
9087:
9081:
9080:
9054:
9032:
9026:
9025:
9023:
9021:
8996:
8990:
8989:
8987:
8985:
8968:
8962:
8961:
8959:
8939:(2nd ed.).
8934:
8921:
8915:
8914:
8878:
8872:
8871:
8861:
8855:
8854:
8852:
8850:
8829:
8823:
8822:
8820:
8818:
8803:
8795:
8786:
8785:
8783:
8781:
8760:
8754:
8753:
8735:
8711:
8705:
8704:
8702:
8700:
8679:
8666:
8665:
8658:
8652:
8651:
8649:
8647:
8630:
8624:
8623:
8621:
8619:
8601:
8595:
8584:
8578:
8577:
8533:
8527:
8526:
8496:
8490:
8489:
8487:
8453:
8447:
8446:
8444:
8410:
8404:
8394:
8388:
8387:
8385:
8378:
8350:
8341:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8298:
8292:
8291:
8265:
8242:
8236:
8235:
8233:
8231:
8214:
8208:
8207:
8177:
8171:
8170:
8140:
8134:
8133:
8103:
8097:
8096:
8094:
8092:
8078:
8072:
8071:
8069:
8067:
8052:
8046:
8045:
8043:
8041:
8027:
8021:
8020:
7994:
7970:
7961:
7960:
7958:
7924:
7918:
7917:
7915:
7881:
7875:
7874:
7872:
7838:
7832:
7831:
7823:
7817:
7816:
7814:
7780:
7774:
7773:
7772:
7770:
7737:
7731:
7730:
7700:
7694:
7693:
7685:
7679:
7678:
7676:
7635:
7629:
7628:
7623:
7621:
7586:
7580:
7579:
7577:
7575:
7559:
7548:
7542:
7541:
7519:
7513:
7512:
7510:
7508:
7485:
7475:
7458:
7454:
7448:
7441:
7413:Standard Model:
7390:Open questions:
7348:Weak hypercharge
7336:Weak interaction
7255:cold dark matter
7251:Lambda-CDM model
7170:seesaw mechanism
7123:in the universe?
7096:
6954:Weak interaction
6920:Electromagnetism
6914:Electromagnetism
6875:
6868:
6864:
6861:
6855:
6824:
6816:
6799:
6792:
6791:
6766:
6759:
6758:
6719:Electric charge
6637:
6635:Not yet observed
6625:
6620:
6617:Electromagnetic
6597:
6591:
6554:
6552:
6551:
6546:
6544:
6543:
6540:
6519:
6518:
6515:
6487:
6485:
6484:
6479:
6477:
6476:
6467:
6466:
6451:
6450:
6442:
6432:
6430:
6429:
6424:
6412:
6410:
6409:
6404:
6402:
6401:
6398:
6385:
6383:
6382:
6377:
6375:
6374:
6371:
6362:
6361:
6358:
6345:
6343:
6342:
6337:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6318:
6316:
6315:
6310:
6308:
6307:
6304:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6273:
6272:
6267:
6265:
6264:
6261:
6248:
6246:
6245:
6240:
6238:
6237:
6234:
6221:
6219:
6218:
6213:
6211:
6210:
6207:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6184:
6182:
6165:
6164:
6155:
6154:
6151:
6142:
6137:
6136:
6127:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6120:
6112:
6105:
6104:
6092:
6091:
6088:
6076:
6075:
6066:
6065:
6062:
6050:
6049:
6040:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6033:
6025:
6018:
6017:
6005:
6004:
6001:
5989:
5988:
5979:
5978:
5975:
5966:
5965:
5957:
5954:
5953:
5944:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5937:
5929:
5922:
5921:
5909:
5908:
5905:
5893:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5886:
5858:
5856:
5855:
5850:
5838:
5836:
5835:
5830:
5818:
5816:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5797:
5792:
5790:
5789:
5777:
5772:
5771:
5768:
5751:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5736:
5735:
5734:
5718:
5717:
5708:
5706:
5698:
5693:
5692:
5689:
5676:
5674:
5673:
5668:
5660:
5652:
5647:
5646:
5643:
5630:
5628:
5627:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5608:
5606:
5605:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5583:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5568:
5556:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5542:
5517:
5511:
5507:
5486:
5484:
5483:
5478:
5466:
5464:
5463:
5458:
5450:
5443:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5416:
5414:
5413:
5408:
5400:
5399:
5387:
5386:
5374:
5373:
5357:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5333:
5331:
5330:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5312:
5311:
5302:
5293:
5292:
5269:
5267:
5266:
5261:
5249:
5247:
5246:
5241:
5219:
5217:
5216:
5211:
5199:
5197:
5196:
5191:
5183:
5182:
5166:
5164:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5152:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5138:
5114:
5113:
5104:
5103:
5069:
5067:
5066:
5061:
5049:
5047:
5046:
5041:
5039:
5038:
5022:
5020:
5019:
5014:
5011:
5006:
4990:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4961:
4959:
4958:
4953:
4951:
4950:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4926:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4897:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4868:
4850:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4829:
4827:
4826:
4821:
4819:
4818:
4815:
4802:
4800:
4799:
4794:
4782:
4780:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4768:
4761:
4760:
4745:
4744:
4731:
4730:
4715:
4714:
4697:
4691:
4687:
4682:
4681:
4674:
4673:
4660:
4659:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4613:
4612:
4609:
4561:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4540:
4520:
4518:
4517:
4512:
4510:
4509:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4452:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4417:
4413:
4399:
4398:
4395:
4383:
4377:
4374:
4364:weak hypercharge
4361:
4350:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4332:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4323:
4315:
4311:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4304:
4296:
4292:
4283:
4271:
4270:
4261:
4260:
4257:
4251:
4242:
4239:
4225:
4224:
4212:
4211:
4192:The electroweak
4188:
4186:
4185:
4180:
4178:
4177:
4161:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4134:
4132:
4131:
4126:
4124:
4123:
4107:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4097:
4096:
4084:
4083:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4031:
4019:
4018:
4006:
3997:
3990:
3985:
3972:
3964:
3955:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3927:
3926:
3917:
3916:
3904:
3903:
3895:
3887:
3881:
3880:
3868:
3867:
3858:
3857:
3845:
3844:
3836:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3809:
3808:
3799:
3798:
3786:
3785:
3777:
3769:
3763:
3762:
3750:
3749:
3740:
3739:
3727:
3726:
3718:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3691:
3690:
3681:
3680:
3668:
3667:
3659:
3651:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3592:
3581:
3580:
3564:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3517:
3516:
3507:
3506:
3497:
3496:
3463:
3461:
3460:
3455:
3444:
3419:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3331:
3330:
3329:
3313:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3298:
3295:
3290:
3281:
3280:
3271:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3245:
3244:
3232:
3231:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3178:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3164:
3156:
3146:
3141:
3129:
3121:
3113:
3112:
3103:
3102:
3090:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3035:
3023:
3022:
2924:
2922:
2847:
2804:
2764:
2752:
2648:On shell scheme
2618:
2582:
2552:
2522:
2513:Down quark mass
2492:
2382:
2381:
2362:
2358:
2337:
2333:
2293:electromagnetism
2194:
2193:
2192:
2185:
2184:
2176:
2175:
2174:
2167:
2166:
2147:
2146:
2145:
2138:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2120:
2119:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2101:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2079:
2078:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2061:
2060:
2052:
2051:
2050:
2043:
2042:
2000:Electromagnetism
1948:is any fermion,
1914:weak interaction
1872:weak interaction
1868:electromagnetism
1747:
1746:
1742:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1707:
1706:
1693:
1684:
1683:
1682:
1675:
1674:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1637:
1636:
1619:weak interaction
1616:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1606:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1589:
1588:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1570:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1542:
1541:
1515:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1504:
1503:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1480:
1479:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1453:
1439:
1438:
1437:
1430:
1429:
1416:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1403:
1402:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1264:
1263:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1207:
1206:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1158:
1157:
1068:
1062:
1036:
1028:
953:
934:
933:
928:
921:
914:
895:Particle content
739:weak interaction
682:Julian Schwinger
658:extra dimensions
605:as described by
599:baryon asymmetry
570:(2000), and the
520:particle physics
504:
497:
490:
96:Particle physics
49:
40:particle physics
32:
31:
12867:
12866:
12862:
12861:
12860:
12858:
12857:
12856:
12832:
12831:
12830:
12818:
12806:
12798:
12796:
12791:
12755:
12741:Medical physics
12692:
12651:Nuclear physics
12620:
12614:Non-equilibrium
12536:
12508:
12480:
12474:
12444:
12439:
12422:
12374:Quantum gravity
12301:
12260:Particle theory
12255:
12234:
12183:
12157:
12121:
12085:
12039:Low dimensional
12034:
11975:GinzburgâLandau
11946:
11937:Topological QFT
11875:
11870:
11840:
11835:
11819:
11773:Nuclear physics
11722:
11686:
11622:Davydov soliton
11595:
11560:
11534:
11495:
11423:
11395:
11322:
11231:
11131:
11090:
11044:
11022:
11004:
10963:
10883:
10792:
10787:
10757:
10752:
10720:
10675:
10633:Quantum gravity
10627:
10594:
10563:
10516:
10509:
10500:Higgs mechanism
10478:
10474:
10469:
10372:
10367:
10312:
10098:Physics Reports
10091:
10076:
10054:
10032:
10011:
9987:
9967:Highlights the
9963:
9947:
9937:
9918:
9899:
9880:
9861:
9845:
9833:
9827:
9804:
9788:
9786:Further reading
9783:
9782:
9754:Physics Reports
9749:D.J.E. Callaway
9746:
9742:
9679:
9675:
9658:
9654:
9617:Nuclear Physics
9613:
9609:
9602:
9584:
9580:
9559:(14): 912â915.
9547:
9543:
9510:
9506:
9473:
9469:
9459:
9457:
9448:
9447:
9443:
9426:
9422:
9388:
9382:
9378:
9368:
9366:
9357:
9356:
9352:
9342:
9340:
9339:on 4 March 2016
9323:
9322:
9318:
9305:
9304:
9300:
9243:
9239:
9229:
9227:
9226:on 14 July 2017
9218:
9217:
9213:
9203:
9201:
9196:
9195:
9191:
9181:
9179:
9169:
9165:
9155:
9153:
9148:
9147:
9143:
9133:
9131:
9126:
9125:
9121:
9088:
9084:
9033:
9029:
9019:
9017:
8997:
8993:
8983:
8981:
8969:
8965:
8957:
8951:
8928:
8922:
8918:
8879:
8875:
8862:
8858:
8848:
8846:
8831:
8830:
8826:
8816:
8814:
8801:
8797:
8796:
8789:
8779:
8777:
8762:
8761:
8757:
8712:
8708:
8698:
8696:
8681:
8680:
8669:
8660:
8659:
8655:
8645:
8643:
8632:
8631:
8627:
8617:
8615:
8602:
8598:
8585:
8581:
8566:
8534:
8530:
8497:
8493:
8454:
8450:
8411:
8407:
8395:
8391:
8383:
8348:
8342:
8338:
8299:
8295:
8256:(2): S96âS111.
8243:
8239:
8229:
8227:
8215:
8211:
8178:
8174:
8141:
8137:
8104:
8100:
8090:
8088:
8080:
8079:
8075:
8065:
8063:
8061:stanfordmag.org
8053:
8049:
8039:
8037:
8029:
8028:
8024:
7971:
7964:
7941:(20): 585â587.
7925:
7921:
7898:(16): 508â509.
7882:
7878:
7839:
7835:
7824:
7820:
7781:
7777:
7768:
7766:
7764:
7738:
7734:
7706:Nuclear Physics
7701:
7697:
7686:
7682:
7652:Physical Review
7636:
7632:
7619:
7617:
7607:
7587:
7583:
7573:
7571:
7552:Overbye, Dennis
7549:
7545:
7538:
7520:
7516:
7506:
7504:
7502:
7476:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7461:
7455:
7451:
7442:
7438:
7433:
7428:
7396:Neutrino masses
7373:Higgs mechanism
7298:
7240:quantum gravity
7139:
7138:
7133:
7098:
7091:
7085:
7050:
7013:nuclear binding
7009:
6995:
6960:
6950:
6926:
6916:
6895:
6889:Quantum gravity
6885:
6876:
6865:
6859:
6856:
6841:
6825:
6806:
6805:Not applicable
6797:
6789:
6785:
6783:
6776:
6775:Not applicable
6764:
6756:
6752:
6636:
6567:
6561:
6539:
6535:
6514:
6510:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6472:
6468:
6462:
6458:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6418:
6415:
6414:
6397:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6387:
6370:
6366:
6357:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6330:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6320:
6303:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6260:
6256:
6254:
6251:
6250:
6233:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6223:
6206:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6196:
6169:
6160:
6156:
6150:
6146:
6138:
6132:
6128:
6122:
6111:
6110:
6109:
6097:
6093:
6087:
6083:
6071:
6067:
6061:
6057:
6045:
6041:
6035:
6024:
6023:
6022:
6010:
6006:
6000:
5996:
5984:
5980:
5974:
5970:
5956:
5955:
5949:
5945:
5939:
5928:
5927:
5926:
5914:
5910:
5904:
5900:
5888:
5882:
5881:
5880:
5878:
5875:
5874:
5865:
5844:
5841:
5840:
5824:
5821:
5820:
5796:
5785:
5781:
5776:
5767:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5757:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5713:
5709:
5707:
5697:
5688:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5678:
5651:
5642:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5610:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5588:
5578:
5562:
5559:
5558:
5537:
5536:
5530:
5529:
5519:
5518:
5506:
5492:
5489:
5488:
5472:
5469:
5468:
5437:
5428:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5418:
5395:
5391:
5382:
5378:
5369:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5359:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5313:
5307:
5303:
5300:
5288:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5255:
5252:
5251:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5205:
5202:
5201:
5178:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5148:
5134:
5130:
5129:
5125:
5124:
5109:
5105:
5099:
5095:
5075:
5072:
5071:
5055:
5052:
5051:
5034:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5024:
5007:
5002:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4967:
4964:
4963:
4946:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4893:
4889:
4888:
4884:
4878:
4864:
4860:
4859:
4855:
4854:
4845:
4839:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4831:
4814:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4788:
4785:
4784:
4763:
4762:
4756:
4752:
4740:
4736:
4733:
4732:
4726:
4722:
4710:
4706:
4699:
4698:
4686:
4676:
4675:
4669:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4643:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4608:
4604:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4579:
4577:Higgs mechanism
4573:
4565:
4539:
4534:
4531:
4530:
4502:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4431:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4415:
4411:
4394:
4393:
4387:
4382:
4373:
4369:
4360:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4325:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4306:
4295:
4294:
4293:
4281:
4266:
4262:
4256:
4252:
4240:
4232:
4220:
4216:
4207:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4197:
4173:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4163:
4146:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4119:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4092:
4088:
4079:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4024:
4020:
4011:
4007:
3995:
3986:
3978:
3965:
3960:
3944:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3918:
3912:
3908:
3896:
3886:
3885:
3873:
3869:
3863:
3859:
3853:
3849:
3837:
3827:
3826:
3814:
3810:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3790:
3778:
3768:
3767:
3755:
3751:
3745:
3741:
3735:
3731:
3719:
3709:
3708:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3672:
3660:
3650:
3649:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3613:
3607:
3576:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3512:
3508:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3477:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3437:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3418:
3414:
3407:represents the
3403:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3385:
3383:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3337:
3334:
3333:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3311:
3291:
3286:
3276:
3272:
3262:
3256:
3252:
3240:
3236:
3227:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3157:
3152:
3142:
3134:
3120:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3094:
3081:
3072:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3037:
3031:
3027:
3018:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3001:
2995:
2986:representations
2920:
2918:
2910:
2871:
2855:
2848:
2845:
2835:
2828:
2812:
2805:
2802:
2788:
2772:
2765:
2762:
2750:
2745:
2706:
2685:
2664:
2645:Top quark mass
2642:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2606:
2590:
2583:
2580:
2570:
2553:
2550:
2540:
2523:
2520:
2510:
2493:
2490:
2480:
2459:
2438:
2417:
2401:scheme (point)
2400:
2399:Renormalization
2380:
2375:
2369:
2360:
2350:
2335:
2328:
2250:
2244:
2219:Feynman diagram
2191:
2189:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2144:
2142:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2085:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2036:
1993:spatial density
1958:
1926:
1900:electric charge
1860:electric charge
1822:. Quarks carry
1744:
1740:
1739:
1729:
1722:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1677:
1673:
1671:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1663:
1662:
1654:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1633:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1624:Eight types of
1613:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1583:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1567:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1538:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1519:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1478:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1428:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1374:
1373:
1372:
1371:
1356:
1349:
1338:
1327:
1257:
1238:
1226:No color charge
1218:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1209:
1204:and antileptons
1199:
1183:Participate in
1169:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1160:
1150:
1061:
1027:
949:
932:
897:
885:Steven Weinberg
839:were discovered
772:into Glashow's
770:Higgs mechanism
762:Steven Weinberg
750:electromagnetic
746:Sheldon Glashow
731:Chien-Shiung Wu
688:
686:John Clive Ward
670:
532:electromagnetic
508:
479:
478:
179:
171:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
145:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
119:
118:
116:Higgs mechanism
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
85:
76:
47:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
12865:
12855:
12854:
12849:
12844:
12842:Standard Model
12829:
12828:
12816:
12793:
12792:
12790:
12789:
12784:
12779:
12774:
12769:
12763:
12761:
12757:
12756:
12754:
12753:
12748:
12743:
12738:
12733:
12728:
12723:
12718:
12713:
12708:
12702:
12700:
12694:
12693:
12691:
12690:
12685:
12684:
12683:
12678:
12673:
12663:
12658:
12653:
12648:
12647:
12646:
12641:
12630:
12628:
12622:
12621:
12619:
12618:
12617:
12616:
12611:
12604:Thermodynamics
12601:
12600:
12599:
12594:
12584:
12579:
12574:
12573:
12572:
12567:
12562:
12557:
12546:
12544:
12538:
12537:
12535:
12534:
12533:
12532:
12522:
12516:
12514:
12510:
12509:
12507:
12506:
12505:
12504:
12494:
12488:
12486:
12482:
12481:
12473:
12472:
12465:
12458:
12450:
12441:
12440:
12427:
12424:
12423:
12421:
12420:
12415:
12410:
12409:
12408:
12398:
12393:
12388:
12383:
12382:
12381:
12371:
12370:
12369:
12359:
12354:
12349:
12344:
12339:
12334:
12329:
12324:
12319:
12317:Casimir effect
12313:
12311:
12307:
12306:
12303:
12302:
12300:
12299:
12294:
12292:Standard Model
12289:
12284:
12279:
12274:
12269:
12263:
12261:
12257:
12256:
12254:
12253:
12248:
12242:
12240:
12236:
12235:
12233:
12232:
12227:
12222:
12217:
12212:
12207:
12202:
12197:
12191:
12189:
12185:
12184:
12182:
12181:
12176:
12171:
12165:
12163:
12162:Superconformal
12159:
12158:
12156:
12155:
12150:
12145:
12143:SeibergâWitten
12140:
12135:
12129:
12127:
12126:Supersymmetric
12123:
12122:
12120:
12119:
12114:
12109:
12104:
12099:
12093:
12091:
12087:
12086:
12084:
12083:
12078:
12073:
12068:
12063:
12058:
12053:
12048:
12042:
12040:
12036:
12035:
12033:
12032:
12027:
12022:
12017:
12012:
12007:
12002:
11997:
11992:
11987:
11982:
11977:
11972:
11967:
11961:
11959:
11952:
11948:
11947:
11945:
11944:
11939:
11934:
11929:
11924:
11919:
11914:
11909:
11904:
11899:
11894:
11889:
11883:
11881:
11877:
11876:
11869:
11868:
11861:
11854:
11846:
11837:
11836:
11832:Physics portal
11824:
11821:
11820:
11818:
11817:
11812:
11807:
11802:
11797:
11792:
11787:
11786:
11785:
11775:
11770:
11765:
11760:
11755:
11754:
11753:
11746:Standard Model
11743:
11742:
11741:
11730:
11728:
11724:
11723:
11721:
11720:
11715:
11713:Quasiparticles
11710:
11705:
11700:
11694:
11692:
11688:
11687:
11685:
11684:
11679:
11674:
11669:
11664:
11659:
11654:
11649:
11644:
11639:
11634:
11629:
11624:
11619:
11613:
11611:
11609:Quasiparticles
11605:
11604:
11601:
11600:
11597:
11596:
11594:
11593:
11588:
11583:
11578:
11572:
11570:
11566:
11565:
11562:
11561:
11559:
11558:
11553:
11548:
11542:
11540:
11536:
11535:
11533:
11532:
11527:
11522:
11516:
11514:
11503:
11497:
11496:
11494:
11493:
11488:
11483:
11482:
11481:
11476:
11471:
11466:
11461:
11456:
11446:
11441:
11435:
11433:
11429:
11428:
11425:
11424:
11422:
11421:
11416:
11405:
11403:
11401:Exotic hadrons
11397:
11396:
11394:
11393:
11388:
11383:
11378:
11373:
11368:
11363:
11358:
11353:
11348:
11343:
11338:
11332:
11330:
11324:
11323:
11321:
11320:
11315:
11310:
11305:
11300:
11295:
11294:
11293:
11288:
11283:
11278:
11267:
11265:
11256:
11247:
11241:
11240:
11237:
11236:
11233:
11232:
11230:
11229:
11227:X and Y bosons
11224:
11219:
11214:
11209:
11204:
11199:
11194:
11189:
11184:
11179:
11174:
11169:
11164:
11159:
11154:
11149:
11143:
11141:
11137:
11136:
11133:
11132:
11130:
11129:
11119:
11114:
11109:
11104:
11098:
11096:
11092:
11091:
11089:
11088:
11083:
11078:
11072:
11070:
11061:
11052:
11046:
11045:
11043:
11042:
11036:
11034:
11028:
11027:
11024:
11023:
11021:
11020:
11014:
11012:
11006:
11005:
11003:
11002:
11000:W and Z bosons
10997:
10992:
10986:
10984:
10975:
10969:
10968:
10965:
10964:
10962:
10961:
10960:
10959:
10954:
10949:
10944:
10939:
10934:
10924:
10919:
10914:
10909:
10904:
10899:
10893:
10891:
10885:
10884:
10882:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10866:
10861:
10856:
10854:Strange (quark
10851:
10846:
10841:
10836:
10831:
10826:
10820:
10818:
10809:
10800:
10794:
10793:
10786:
10785:
10778:
10771:
10763:
10754:
10753:
10751:
10750:
10738:
10725:
10722:
10721:
10719:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10703:
10698:
10693:
10687:
10685:
10681:
10680:
10677:
10676:
10674:
10673:
10671:Twistor theory
10668:
10663:
10658:
10653:
10648:
10643:
10637:
10635:
10629:
10628:
10626:
10625:
10620:
10615:
10610:
10604:
10602:
10596:
10595:
10593:
10592:
10587:
10582:
10577:
10571:
10569:
10565:
10564:
10562:
10561:
10556:
10551:
10550:
10549:
10539:
10534:
10528:
10526:
10519:
10517:Standard Model
10511:
10510:
10508:
10507:
10502:
10497:
10492:
10486:
10484:
10480:
10479:
10472:
10470:
10468:
10467:
10466:
10465:
10460:
10455:
10450:
10445:
10435:
10434:
10433:
10428:
10423:
10413:
10408:
10403:
10402:
10401:
10396:
10391:
10380:
10378:
10374:
10373:
10370:Standard Model
10366:
10365:
10358:
10351:
10343:
10337:
10336:
10326:
10320:
10311:
10310:External links
10308:
10307:
10306:
10259:
10254:hep-ph/9912523
10244:
10239:hep-ph/0001283
10229:
10200:hep-ex/9904020
10172:
10123:
10090:
10087:
10086:
10085:
10074:
10059:
10052:
10037:
10030:
10015:
10009:
9996:
9985:
9972:
9961:
9946:
9943:
9942:
9941:
9935:
9922:
9916:
9903:
9897:
9884:
9878:
9865:
9859:
9844:
9841:
9840:
9839:
9831:
9825:
9808:
9802:
9787:
9784:
9781:
9780:
9761:(5): 241â320.
9740:
9673:
9667:hep-ph/0606054
9652:
9630:hep-ph/9605393
9607:
9600:
9578:
9541:
9522:(4): 421â428.
9504:
9467:
9441:
9420:
9376:
9350:
9316:
9298:
9237:
9211:
9189:
9163:
9141:
9119:
9082:
9027:
8991:
8963:
8950:978-0521521475
8949:
8916:
8873:
8856:
8824:
8787:
8755:
8706:
8667:
8653:
8625:
8596:
8579:
8564:
8528:
8491:
8448:
8405:
8389:
8336:
8293:
8263:hep-ph/9812285
8237:
8209:
8172:
8135:
8098:
8073:
8047:
8035:NobelPrize.org
8022:
7992:hep-ph/0401010
7962:
7919:
7876:
7855:(9): 321â323.
7833:
7818:
7775:
7762:
7732:
7713:(4): 579â588.
7695:
7680:
7659:(1): 191â195.
7630:
7605:
7599:. p. 59.
7581:
7543:
7536:
7514:
7500:
7469:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7460:
7459:
7449:
7435:
7434:
7432:
7429:
7427:
7426:
7421:
7411:
7406:
7388:
7383:
7370:
7365:
7356:
7355:
7354:
7333:
7316:
7305:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7286:
7285:
7247:
7228:
7220:
7211:, in terms of
7134:
7132:
7131:
7124:
7117:
7110:
7103:
7099:
7093:
7084:
7081:
7054:W and Z bosons
7049:
7046:
6994:
6991:
6964:particle decay
6949:
6946:
6934:chemical bonds
6915:
6912:
6884:
6881:
6878:
6877:
6828:
6826:
6819:
6812:
6811:
6808:
6803:
6800:
6795:
6787:
6779:
6778:
6773:
6770:
6767:
6762:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6746:Atomic nuclei
6744:
6741:
6738:
6735:
6732:
6728:
6727:
6725:
6720:
6717:
6712:
6707:
6703:
6702:
6697:
6691:
6688:
6682:
6681:All particles
6679:
6675:
6674:
6658:
6655:
6649:
6644:
6633:
6629:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6615:
6611:
6610:
6607:
6604:
6601:
6583:force carriers
6563:Main article:
6560:
6557:
6538:
6534:
6531:
6528:
6525:
6522:
6513:
6509:
6506:
6503:
6500:
6475:
6471:
6465:
6461:
6457:
6454:
6448:
6445:
6422:
6396:
6369:
6365:
6356:
6329:
6302:
6259:
6232:
6205:
6181:
6178:
6175:
6172:
6168:
6163:
6159:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6135:
6131:
6118:
6115:
6108:
6103:
6100:
6096:
6086:
6082:
6079:
6074:
6070:
6060:
6056:
6053:
6048:
6044:
6031:
6028:
6021:
6016:
6013:
6009:
5999:
5995:
5992:
5987:
5983:
5973:
5969:
5963:
5960:
5952:
5948:
5935:
5932:
5925:
5920:
5917:
5913:
5903:
5899:
5896:
5885:
5864:
5861:
5848:
5828:
5808:
5803:
5800:
5795:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5775:
5766:
5741:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5721:
5716:
5712:
5704:
5701:
5696:
5687:
5666:
5663:
5658:
5655:
5650:
5641:
5566:
5546:
5541:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5528:
5525:
5524:
5522:
5514:
5510:
5505:
5502:
5499:
5496:
5476:
5456:
5453:
5446:
5442:
5436:
5431:
5427:
5406:
5403:
5398:
5394:
5390:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5372:
5368:
5347:
5319:
5316:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5296:
5291:
5287:
5259:
5239:
5236:
5233:
5209:
5189:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5142:
5137:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5120:
5117:
5112:
5108:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5091:
5088:
5085:
5082:
5079:
5059:
5037:
5033:
5010:
5005:
5001:
4980:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4949:
4945:
4924:
4921:
4918:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4887:
4881:
4876:
4872:
4867:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4842:
4813:
4792:
4772:
4767:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4748:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4734:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4694:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4642:
4639:
4607:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4594:
4575:Main article:
4572:
4569:
4563:
4551:
4546:
4543:
4538:
4527:
4526:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4440:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4419:
4409:
4402:Pauli matrices
4391:
4385:
4378:
4367:
4358:
4352:
4347:
4328:
4321:
4318:
4302:
4299:
4289:
4286:
4280:
4277:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4255:
4248:
4245:
4238:
4235:
4231:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4196:is defined as
4176:
4172:
4149:
4145:
4122:
4118:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4082:
4078:
4057:
4035:
4030:
4027:
4023:
4017:
4014:
4010:
4003:
4000:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3981:
3977:
3971:
3968:
3963:
3959:
3952:
3949:
3943:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3925:
3921:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3902:
3899:
3893:
3890:
3884:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3866:
3862:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3843:
3840:
3834:
3831:
3825:
3820:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3781:
3775:
3772:
3766:
3761:
3758:
3754:
3748:
3744:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3725:
3722:
3716:
3713:
3707:
3702:
3699:
3695:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3663:
3657:
3654:
3648:
3637:
3620:
3609:Main article:
3606:
3603:
3590:
3587:
3584:
3579:
3575:
3554:
3551:
3548:
3526:
3523:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3473:
3453:
3450:
3447:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3422:
3421:
3416:
3412:
3401:
3394:
3389:are the 3âŻĂâŻ3
3384:
3377:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3326:
3319:
3316:Dirac matrices
3294:
3289:
3285:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3266:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3190:
3168:
3163:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3140:
3137:
3133:
3127:
3124:
3119:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3085:
3080:
3069:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3017:
2997:Main article:
2994:
2991:
2978:gauge symmetry
2948:renormalizable
2942:that pervades
2926:
2925:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2844:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2810:
2801:
2796:
2793:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2761:
2756:
2753:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2699:
2695:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2649:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2627:
2624:
2615:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2579:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2549:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2519:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2484:
2483:Up quark mass
2481:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2420:Electron mass
2418:
2415:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2376:
2371:Main article:
2368:
2365:
2289:W and Z bosons
2246:Main article:
2243:
2240:
2215:
2214:
2200:
2190:
2182:
2172:
2164:
2153:particles and
2143:
2135:
2125:
2117:
2107:
2099:
2084:
2076:
2066:
2058:
2048:
2040:
2029:
2011:
1974:force carriers
1956:
1940:is a gluon,
1936:is any quark,
1925:
1922:
1789:atomic nucleus
1728:
1725:
1712:
1704:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1680:
1672:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1642:
1634:
1622:
1612:
1604:
1594:
1586:
1576:
1568:
1560:W and Z bosons
1557:
1547:
1539:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1509:
1501:
1485:
1477:
1467:
1459:
1451:
1435:
1427:
1417:
1408:
1400:
1383:
1375:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1343:
1332:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1267:
1255:
1253:
1250:Force carriers
1236:
1234:
1197:
1195:
1155:and antiquarks
1147:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
991:
990:
988:
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
974:
972:
970:
968:
966:
964:
962:
960:
957:
955:
954:
947:
945:
943:
941:
939:
937:
931:
930:
923:
916:
908:
896:
893:
812:W and Z bosons
715:abelian groups
703:Yang Chen-Ning
692:Dirac equation
669:
666:
580:W and Z bosons
516:Standard Model
510:
509:
507:
506:
499:
492:
484:
481:
480:
477:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
180:
177:
176:
173:
172:
154:
151:
150:
147:
146:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
100:Standard Model
94:
91:
90:
87:
86:
80:
43:
42:
36:Standard Model
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12864:
12853:
12850:
12848:
12845:
12843:
12840:
12839:
12837:
12827:
12822:
12817:
12815:
12810:
12805:
12804:
12801:
12788:
12785:
12783:
12780:
12778:
12775:
12773:
12770:
12768:
12765:
12764:
12762:
12758:
12752:
12749:
12747:
12746:Ocean physics
12744:
12742:
12739:
12737:
12734:
12732:
12729:
12727:
12724:
12722:
12719:
12717:
12714:
12712:
12709:
12707:
12704:
12703:
12701:
12699:
12695:
12689:
12686:
12682:
12681:Modern optics
12679:
12677:
12674:
12672:
12669:
12668:
12667:
12664:
12662:
12659:
12657:
12654:
12652:
12649:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12637:
12636:
12635:
12632:
12631:
12629:
12627:
12623:
12615:
12612:
12610:
12607:
12606:
12605:
12602:
12598:
12595:
12593:
12590:
12589:
12588:
12585:
12583:
12580:
12578:
12575:
12571:
12568:
12566:
12563:
12561:
12558:
12556:
12553:
12552:
12551:
12548:
12547:
12545:
12543:
12539:
12531:
12530:Computational
12528:
12527:
12526:
12523:
12521:
12518:
12517:
12515:
12511:
12503:
12500:
12499:
12498:
12495:
12493:
12490:
12489:
12487:
12483:
12479:
12471:
12466:
12464:
12459:
12457:
12452:
12451:
12448:
12438:
12430:
12425:
12419:
12416:
12414:
12413:Quantum logic
12411:
12407:
12404:
12403:
12402:
12399:
12397:
12394:
12392:
12389:
12387:
12384:
12380:
12377:
12376:
12375:
12372:
12368:
12365:
12364:
12363:
12360:
12358:
12355:
12353:
12350:
12348:
12347:Quantum chaos
12345:
12343:
12340:
12338:
12335:
12333:
12330:
12328:
12325:
12323:
12322:Cosmic string
12320:
12318:
12315:
12314:
12312:
12308:
12298:
12295:
12293:
12290:
12288:
12285:
12283:
12280:
12278:
12275:
12273:
12270:
12268:
12265:
12264:
12262:
12258:
12252:
12249:
12247:
12244:
12243:
12241:
12237:
12231:
12228:
12226:
12223:
12221:
12218:
12216:
12213:
12211:
12208:
12206:
12203:
12201:
12198:
12196:
12195:Pure 4D N = 1
12193:
12192:
12190:
12186:
12180:
12177:
12175:
12172:
12170:
12167:
12166:
12164:
12160:
12154:
12151:
12149:
12146:
12144:
12141:
12139:
12136:
12134:
12131:
12130:
12128:
12124:
12118:
12115:
12113:
12110:
12108:
12105:
12103:
12100:
12098:
12095:
12094:
12092:
12088:
12082:
12079:
12077:
12076:ThirringâWess
12074:
12072:
12069:
12067:
12064:
12062:
12059:
12057:
12054:
12052:
12051:BulloughâDodd
12049:
12047:
12046:2D YangâMills
12044:
12043:
12041:
12037:
12031:
12028:
12026:
12023:
12021:
12018:
12016:
12013:
12011:
12008:
12006:
12003:
12001:
11998:
11996:
11993:
11991:
11988:
11986:
11983:
11981:
11978:
11976:
11973:
11971:
11968:
11966:
11963:
11962:
11960:
11956:
11953:
11949:
11943:
11940:
11938:
11935:
11933:
11930:
11928:
11925:
11923:
11922:String theory
11920:
11918:
11915:
11913:
11910:
11908:
11905:
11903:
11900:
11898:
11895:
11893:
11892:Axiomatic QFT
11890:
11888:
11887:Algebraic QFT
11885:
11884:
11882:
11878:
11874:
11867:
11862:
11860:
11855:
11853:
11848:
11847:
11844:
11834:
11833:
11828:
11822:
11816:
11813:
11811:
11808:
11806:
11803:
11801:
11798:
11796:
11793:
11791:
11790:Exotic matter
11788:
11784:
11781:
11780:
11779:
11778:Eightfold way
11776:
11774:
11771:
11769:
11768:Antiparticles
11766:
11764:
11761:
11759:
11756:
11752:
11749:
11748:
11747:
11744:
11740:
11737:
11736:
11735:
11732:
11731:
11729:
11725:
11719:
11716:
11714:
11711:
11709:
11706:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11695:
11693:
11689:
11683:
11680:
11678:
11675:
11673:
11670:
11668:
11665:
11663:
11660:
11658:
11655:
11653:
11650:
11648:
11645:
11643:
11640:
11638:
11635:
11633:
11630:
11628:
11625:
11623:
11620:
11618:
11615:
11614:
11612:
11610:
11606:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11582:
11579:
11577:
11574:
11573:
11571:
11567:
11557:
11554:
11552:
11549:
11547:
11544:
11543:
11541:
11537:
11531:
11528:
11526:
11523:
11521:
11518:
11517:
11515:
11511:
11507:
11504:
11502:
11498:
11492:
11489:
11487:
11484:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11472:
11470:
11467:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11457:
11455:
11452:
11451:
11450:
11447:
11445:
11442:
11440:
11439:Atomic nuclei
11437:
11436:
11434:
11430:
11420:
11417:
11414:
11410:
11407:
11406:
11404:
11402:
11398:
11392:
11389:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11377:
11374:
11372:
11371:Upsilon meson
11369:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11359:
11357:
11354:
11352:
11349:
11347:
11344:
11342:
11339:
11337:
11334:
11333:
11331:
11329:
11325:
11319:
11316:
11314:
11311:
11309:
11306:
11304:
11303:Lambda baryon
11301:
11299:
11296:
11292:
11289:
11287:
11284:
11282:
11279:
11277:
11274:
11273:
11272:
11269:
11268:
11266:
11264:
11260:
11257:
11255:
11251:
11248:
11246:
11242:
11228:
11225:
11223:
11220:
11218:
11215:
11213:
11210:
11208:
11205:
11203:
11200:
11198:
11195:
11193:
11190:
11188:
11185:
11183:
11180:
11178:
11175:
11173:
11170:
11168:
11165:
11163:
11162:Dual graviton
11160:
11158:
11155:
11153:
11150:
11148:
11145:
11144:
11142:
11138:
11127:
11123:
11120:
11118:
11115:
11113:
11110:
11108:
11105:
11103:
11100:
11099:
11097:
11093:
11087:
11084:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11074:
11073:
11071:
11069:
11065:
11062:
11060:
11059:Superpartners
11056:
11053:
11051:
11047:
11041:
11038:
11037:
11035:
11033:
11029:
11019:
11016:
11015:
11013:
11011:
11007:
11001:
10998:
10996:
10993:
10991:
10988:
10987:
10985:
10983:
10979:
10976:
10974:
10970:
10958:
10955:
10953:
10950:
10948:
10945:
10943:
10942:Muon neutrino
10940:
10938:
10935:
10933:
10930:
10929:
10928:
10925:
10923:
10920:
10918:
10915:
10913:
10910:
10908:
10905:
10903:
10900:
10898:
10895:
10894:
10892:
10890:
10886:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10874:Bottom (quark
10872:
10870:
10867:
10865:
10862:
10860:
10857:
10855:
10852:
10850:
10847:
10845:
10842:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10825:
10822:
10821:
10819:
10817:
10813:
10810:
10808:
10804:
10801:
10799:
10795:
10791:
10784:
10779:
10777:
10772:
10770:
10765:
10764:
10761:
10749:
10748:
10739:
10737:
10736:
10727:
10726:
10723:
10717:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10692:
10689:
10688:
10686:
10682:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10662:
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10641:String theory
10639:
10638:
10636:
10634:
10630:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10605:
10603:
10601:
10600:Supersymmetry
10597:
10591:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10572:
10570:
10566:
10560:
10557:
10555:
10552:
10548:
10545:
10544:
10543:
10540:
10538:
10535:
10533:
10530:
10529:
10527:
10523:
10520:
10518:
10512:
10506:
10503:
10501:
10498:
10496:
10493:
10491:
10488:
10487:
10485:
10481:
10464:
10461:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10444:
10441:
10440:
10439:
10436:
10432:
10429:
10427:
10424:
10422:
10419:
10418:
10417:
10414:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10400:
10397:
10395:
10392:
10390:
10387:
10386:
10385:
10382:
10381:
10379:
10375:
10371:
10364:
10359:
10357:
10352:
10350:
10345:
10344:
10341:
10334:
10330:
10327:
10324:
10321:
10318:
10314:
10313:
10303:
10299:
10295:
10291:
10287:
10283:
10278:
10273:
10269:
10265:
10260:
10255:
10250:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10230:
10226:
10222:
10218:
10214:
10210:
10206:
10201:
10196:
10192:
10188:
10187:
10182:
10178:
10173:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10157:
10153:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10135:
10131:
10130:
10124:
10120:
10116:
10112:
10108:
10104:
10100:
10099:
10093:
10092:
10083:
10077:
10071:
10068:. CRC Press.
10067:
10066:
10060:
10055:
10049:
10045:
10044:
10038:
10033:
10027:
10023:
10022:
10016:
10012:
10006:
10002:
9997:
9994:
9988:
9982:
9978:
9973:
9970:
9964:
9958:
9954:
9949:
9948:
9938:
9932:
9928:
9923:
9919:
9913:
9909:
9904:
9900:
9894:
9890:
9885:
9881:
9875:
9871:
9866:
9862:
9856:
9852:
9847:
9846:
9836:
9832:
9828:
9822:
9817:
9816:
9809:
9805:
9799:
9795:
9790:
9789:
9776:
9772:
9768:
9764:
9760:
9756:
9755:
9750:
9744:
9736:
9732:
9727:
9722:
9718:
9714:
9710:
9706:
9701:
9696:
9692:
9688:
9684:
9677:
9668:
9663:
9656:
9648:
9644:
9640:
9636:
9631:
9626:
9622:
9618:
9611:
9603:
9597:
9593:
9592:North Holland
9589:
9582:
9574:
9570:
9566:
9562:
9558:
9554:
9553:
9545:
9537:
9533:
9529:
9525:
9521:
9517:
9516:
9508:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9488:
9484:
9480:
9479:
9471:
9456:. 31 May 2010
9455:
9451:
9445:
9436:
9431:
9424:
9415:
9410:
9406:
9402:
9399:(3): 034001.
9398:
9394:
9387:
9380:
9364:
9360:
9354:
9338:
9334:
9330:
9326:
9320:
9312:
9308:
9302:
9294:
9290:
9285:
9280:
9275:
9270:
9266:
9262:
9258:
9254:
9253:
9248:
9241:
9225:
9221:
9215:
9199:
9193:
9178:
9174:
9167:
9151:
9145:
9129:
9123:
9115:
9111:
9107:
9103:
9099:
9095:
9094:
9086:
9078:
9074:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9058:
9053:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9039:
9031:
9016:
9012:
9008:
9007:
9002:
8995:
8980:
8979:
8974:
8967:
8956:
8952:
8946:
8942:
8938:
8932:
8927:
8920:
8912:
8908:
8904:
8900:
8896:
8892:
8888:
8884:
8877:
8869:
8868:
8860:
8844:
8840:
8839:
8834:
8828:
8813:
8809:
8808:
8800:
8794:
8792:
8775:
8771:
8770:
8765:
8759:
8751:
8747:
8743:
8739:
8734:
8729:
8725:
8721:
8717:
8710:
8694:
8690:
8689:
8684:
8678:
8676:
8674:
8672:
8663:
8657:
8641:
8640:
8635:
8629:
8613:
8612:
8607:
8600:
8593:
8589:
8583:
8575:
8571:
8567:
8561:
8557:
8553:
8549:
8545:
8541:
8540:
8532:
8524:
8520:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8504:
8503:
8495:
8486:
8481:
8477:
8473:
8469:
8465:
8464:
8459:
8452:
8443:
8438:
8434:
8430:
8426:
8422:
8421:
8416:
8409:
8402:
8398:
8393:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8368:
8364:
8360:
8356:
8355:
8347:
8340:
8331:
8326:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8310:
8309:
8304:
8297:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8273:
8269:
8264:
8259:
8255:
8251:
8247:
8241:
8226:
8225:
8220:
8213:
8205:
8201:
8197:
8193:
8189:
8185:
8184:
8176:
8168:
8164:
8160:
8156:
8152:
8148:
8147:
8139:
8131:
8127:
8123:
8119:
8115:
8111:
8110:
8102:
8087:
8083:
8077:
8062:
8058:
8057:"In Memoriam"
8051:
8036:
8032:
8026:
8018:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8002:
7998:
7993:
7988:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7969:
7967:
7957:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7936:
7935:
7930:
7923:
7914:
7909:
7905:
7901:
7897:
7893:
7892:
7887:
7880:
7871:
7866:
7862:
7858:
7854:
7850:
7849:
7844:
7837:
7829:
7822:
7813:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7796:
7792:
7791:
7786:
7779:
7765:
7759:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7736:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7716:
7712:
7708:
7707:
7699:
7691:
7684:
7675:
7670:
7666:
7662:
7658:
7654:
7653:
7648:
7644:
7640:
7634:
7627:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7602:
7598:
7594:
7593:
7585:
7569:
7565:
7564:
7558:
7553:
7547:
7539:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7518:
7503:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7488:Penguin Group
7484:
7483:
7474:
7470:
7453:
7446:
7440:
7436:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7371:
7369:
7366:
7364:
7360:
7357:
7353:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7337:
7334:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7311:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7301:
7300:
7293:
7291:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7245:
7241:
7237:
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7190:
7185:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7165:
7163:
7159:
7154:
7152:
7148:
7144:
7137:
7129:
7125:
7122:
7118:
7116:of particles?
7115:
7111:
7108:
7104:
7101:
7100:
7090:
7080:
7078:
7074:
7069:
7067:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7045:
7043:
7039:
7038:
7037:nuclear force
7033:
7028:
7026:
7025:electrostatic
7022:
7018:
7014:
7008:
7004:
7003:Nuclear force
7000:
6990:
6988:
6983:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6959:
6955:
6945:
6943:
6939:
6935:
6931:
6925:
6921:
6911:
6909:
6899:
6894:
6890:
6874:
6871:
6863:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6839:
6838:
6834:
6829:This section
6827:
6823:
6818:
6817:
6781:
6780:
6750:
6749:
6730:
6729:
6724:
6716:
6711:
6705:
6704:
6701:
6696:
6687:
6677:
6676:
6673:
6670:
6666:
6662:
6653:
6648:
6642:hypothesised)
6641:
6631:
6630:
6624:
6619:
6616:
6613:
6612:
6598:
6595:
6590:
6588:
6585:or messenger
6584:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6566:
6556:
6532:
6526:
6520:
6507:
6501:
6498:
6489:
6473:
6469:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6452:
6443:
6420:
6394:
6367:
6363:
6354:
6327:
6300:
6257:
6230:
6203:
6193:
6179:
6173:
6166:
6161:
6147:
6139:
6133:
6113:
6101:
6098:
6084:
6077:
6072:
6058:
6051:
6046:
6026:
6014:
6011:
5997:
5990:
5985:
5971:
5958:
5950:
5930:
5918:
5915:
5901:
5894:
5872:
5870:
5863:Yukawa sector
5860:
5846:
5826:
5806:
5801:
5798:
5793:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5773:
5764:
5755:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5714:
5710:
5702:
5699:
5694:
5685:
5664:
5661:
5656:
5653:
5648:
5639:
5631:are given by
5585:
5582:
5579:246 GeV/
5564:
5544:
5539:
5533:
5526:
5520:
5512:
5508:
5503:
5497:
5487:now becomes
5474:
5454:
5451:
5444:
5440:
5434:
5429:
5425:
5404:
5401:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5370:
5366:
5345:
5337:
5317:
5314:
5308:
5304:
5297:
5294:
5289:
5285:
5276:
5271:
5257:
5237:
5234:
5231:
5223:
5207:
5187:
5184:
5179:
5175:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5140:
5135:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5118:
5115:
5110:
5106:
5100:
5096:
5092:
5089:
5083:
5077:
5057:
5035:
5031:
5008:
5003:
4999:
4975:
4969:
4947:
4943:
4922:
4916:
4910:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4894:
4890:
4885:
4879:
4874:
4870:
4865:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4811:
4790:
4770:
4765:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4746:
4741:
4737:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4716:
4711:
4707:
4700:
4692:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4670:
4666:
4656:
4652:
4645:
4640:
4637:
4629:
4627:
4601:
4595:
4592:
4584:
4578:
4568:
4549:
4541:
4536:
4524:
4506:
4503:
4499:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4438:
4435:
4432:
4428:
4420:
4410:
4407:
4403:
4390:
4386:
4381:
4372:
4368:
4365:
4357:
4353:
4344:
4343:
4342:
4326:
4316:
4297:
4287:
4284:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4253:
4246:
4243:
4236:
4233:
4229:
4226:
4221:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4195:
4190:
4174:
4170:
4147:
4143:
4120:
4116:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4055:
4046:
4033:
4028:
4025:
4021:
4015:
4012:
4008:
4001:
3998:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3979:
3975:
3969:
3966:
3961:
3957:
3950:
3947:
3941:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3923:
3919:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3900:
3897:
3888:
3882:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3864:
3860:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3838:
3829:
3823:
3818:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3801:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3782:
3779:
3770:
3764:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3746:
3742:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3723:
3720:
3711:
3705:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3687:
3683:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3661:
3652:
3646:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3602:
3585:
3577:
3573:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3521:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3499:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3471:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3441:
3438:
3431:
3413:
3410:
3395:
3392:
3378:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3354:
3351:
3348:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3320:
3317:
3310:
3309:
3308:
3292:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3246:
3241:
3233:
3228:
3224:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3203:Dirac spinors
3188:
3179:
3166:
3161:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3138:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3117:
3114:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3083:
3078:
3056:
3042:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3006:
3000:
2990:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2930:Technically,
2923:0.24 GeV
2917:
2915:
2912:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2852:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2749:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2718:
2717:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2703:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2682:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2628:
2623:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2603:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2587:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2556:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2383:
2374:
2364:
2357:
2356:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2332:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2277:
2276:with spin-0.
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2249:
2239:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2158:
2157:antiparticles
2156:
2152:
2093:
2092:radioactivity
2089:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1888:muon neutrino
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1738:
1734:
1724:
1720:
1696:
1688:
1666:
1661:
1650:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1494:
1471:
1468:
1444:
1443:Muon neutrino
1421:
1418:
1393:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1341:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1311:
1271:
1269:
1262:
1261:
1260:Scalar bosons
1251:
1243:
1242:
1231:
1205:
1203:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1156:
1154:
1148:
1145:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1125:
1123:
1122:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1093:
1089:
1087:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1065:
1060:
1059:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1026:
1025:
1014:
1011:
995:
993:
992:
985:
977:
975:
967:
965:
958:
956:
952:
935:
929:
924:
922:
917:
915:
910:
909:
907:
904:
902:
892:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
871:
867:
863:
859:
854:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
827:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
781:GIM mechanism
777:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
748:combined the
747:
742:
740:
736:
733:demonstrated
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
697:
693:
687:
683:
679:
675:
665:
663:
662:supersymmetry
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
505:
500:
498:
493:
491:
486:
485:
483:
482:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
181:
175:
174:
169:
165:
161:
157:
149:
148:
143:
139:
135:
131:
123:
122:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
89:
88:
83:
45:
44:
41:
37:
34:
33:
30:
26:
22:
12706:Astrophysics
12520:Experimental
12428:
12357:Quantum foam
12297:Stueckelberg
12291:
12251:ChernâSimons
12188:Supergravity
11927:Supergravity
11912:Gauge theory
11830:
11745:
11501:Hypothetical
11449:Exotic atoms
11318:Omega baryon
11308:Sigma baryon
11298:Delta baryon
11050:Hypothetical
11032:Ghost fields
11018:Higgs boson
10952:Tau neutrino
10844:Charm (quark
10745:
10733:
10623:Supergravity
10483:Constituents
10463:Weak isospin
10421:Color charge
10411:Gauge theory
10369:
10267:
10263:
10190:
10184:
10180:
10176:
10136:(11): 2205.
10133:
10127:
10105:(1): 1â141.
10102:
10096:
10064:
10042:
10020:
10000:
9976:
9969:gauge theory
9952:
9926:
9907:
9888:
9872:. Springer.
9869:
9850:
9814:
9793:
9758:
9752:
9743:
9690:
9686:
9676:
9655:
9623:(1): 80â96.
9620:
9616:
9610:
9588:Supergravity
9587:
9581:
9556:
9550:
9544:
9519:
9513:
9507:
9482:
9476:
9470:
9458:. Retrieved
9444:
9423:
9396:
9392:
9379:
9367:. Retrieved
9362:
9353:
9341:. Retrieved
9337:the original
9328:
9319:
9310:
9301:
9259:(11): 1416.
9256:
9250:
9240:
9228:. Retrieved
9224:the original
9214:
9202:. Retrieved
9192:
9180:. Retrieved
9176:
9166:
9154:. Retrieved
9144:
9132:. Retrieved
9122:
9097:
9091:
9085:
9042:
9036:
9030:
9018:. Retrieved
9006:The Guardian
9004:
8994:
8982:. Retrieved
8976:
8966:
8936:
8919:
8886:
8882:
8876:
8870:(PhD). CERN.
8866:
8859:
8847:. Retrieved
8836:
8827:
8815:. Retrieved
8805:
8778:. Retrieved
8767:
8758:
8723:
8719:
8709:
8697:. Retrieved
8686:
8656:
8644:. Retrieved
8637:
8628:
8616:. Retrieved
8609:
8599:
8582:
8538:
8531:
8506:
8500:
8494:
8467:
8461:
8451:
8424:
8418:
8408:
8400:
8397:Dean Rickles
8392:
8358:
8352:
8339:
8312:
8306:
8296:
8253:
8249:
8240:
8228:. Retrieved
8224:CERN Courier
8222:
8212:
8187:
8181:
8175:
8150:
8144:
8138:
8113:
8107:
8101:
8091:17 September
8089:. Retrieved
8086:www.fnal.gov
8085:
8076:
8066:17 September
8064:. Retrieved
8060:
8050:
8040:17 September
8038:. Retrieved
8034:
8025:
7982:
7978:
7938:
7932:
7922:
7895:
7889:
7879:
7852:
7846:
7836:
7827:
7821:
7794:
7788:
7778:
7769:17 September
7767:, retrieved
7745:
7735:
7710:
7704:
7698:
7683:
7656:
7650:
7633:
7625:
7618:. Retrieved
7591:
7584:
7574:11 September
7572:. Retrieved
7561:
7546:
7523:
7517:
7505:. Retrieved
7481:
7473:
7452:
7439:
7392:CP violation
7359:Gauge theory
7352:Weak isospin
7323:Color charge
7287:
7236:Planck scale
7223:
7217:Planck scale
7186:
7166:
7155:
7140:
7070:
7051:
7035:
7031:
7029:
7010:
6986:
6984:
6961:
6927:
6904:
6866:
6857:
6842:Please help
6830:
6723:Color charge
6684:Left-handed
6606:Electroweak
6603:Gravitation
6593:
6568:
6490:
6194:
5873:
5866:
5586:
5580:
5275:ground state
5272:
4630:
4580:
4571:Higgs sector
4528:
4405:
4388:
4379:
4370:
4355:
4191:
4047:
3625:
3614:
3423:
3215:
3207:color charge
3180:
3057:
3002:
2952:
2929:
2905:
2887:
2866:
2850:
2841:
2830:
2823:
2807:
2798:
2790:
2783:
2767:
2758:
2747:
2740:
2722:
2701:
2680:
2659:
2637:
2621:
2612:
2601:
2585:
2576:
2565:
2546:
2535:
2516:
2505:
2486:
2475:
2454:
2433:
2412:
2396:Description
2354:
2340:
2305:
2278:
2251:
2232:bound states
2216:
2199:interaction.
2155:right-handed
2154:
2150:
2148:act only on
2022:color charge
1966:gauge bosons
1963:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1924:Gauge bosons
1903:
1896:tau neutrino
1864:weak isospin
1824:color charge
1797:
1762:antiparticle
1730:
1694:
1692:
1659:
1525:
1493:Tau neutrino
1362:
1317:
1258:
1241:Gauge bosons
1239:
1232:interactions
1200:
1193:interactions
1179:color charge
1151:
1055:
1030:Half-integer
1021:
950:
905:
901:color charge
898:
877:Abraham Pais
874:
855:
828:
801:
778:
743:
711:gauge theory
707:Robert Mills
700:
689:
638:experimental
631:
584:
568:tau neutrino
566:(1995), the
542:â excluding
515:
513:
126:Constituents
108:Gauge theory
99:
35:
29:
12814:Mathematics
12609:Statistical
12525:Theoretical
12502:Engineering
12239:Topological
12153:WessâZumino
12066:Sine-Gordon
12056:GrossâNeveu
11965:BornâInfeld
11932:Thermal QFT
11783:Quark model
11551:Theta meson
11454:Positronium
11366:Omega meson
11361:J/psi meson
11291:Antineutron
11202:Dark photon
11167:Graviphoton
11126:Stop squark
10834:Down (quark
10684:Experiments
10575:Technicolor
10537:Dark matter
10431:Quark model
10399:Higgs boson
10394:Gauge boson
9460:12 November
9369:17 December
7985:(1): 5â13.
7639:Yang, C. N.
7445:Landau pole
7377:Higgs boson
7331:Quark model
7278:homogeneity
7259:dark energy
7201:gravitation
7128:dark matter
7126:Where does
7114:generations
7073:Higgs boson
7066:charm quark
7017:confinement
6987:electroweak
6942:electronics
6807:to hadrons
6793:(predicted)
6760:(predicted)
6621:Fundamental
5871:terms are:
5754:Higgs Boson
4583:Higgs field
2913:Higgs mass
2258:Peter Higgs
2248:Higgs boson
2242:Higgs boson
2197:electroweak
2151:left-handed
1781:generations
1748:, known as
1665:Higgs boson
1526:Three kinds
1230:Electroweak
1191:electroweak
1056:Elementary
1022:Elementary
881:Sam Treiman
818:, i.e. the
806:of all the
785:charm quark
766:Abdus Salam
729:. In 1957,
634:theoretical
619:dark matter
615:dark energy
572:Higgs boson
304:Chamberlain
152:Limitations
12836:Categories
12726:Geophysics
12716:Biophysics
12560:Analytical
12513:Approaches
12020:YangâMills
11525:Heptaquark
11486:Superatoms
11419:Pentaquark
11409:Tetraquark
11391:Quarkonium
11281:Antiproton
11182:Leptoquark
11117:Neutralino
10879:antiquark)
10869:antiquark)
10864:Top (quark
10859:antiquark)
10849:antiquark)
10839:antiquark)
10829:antiquark)
10798:Elementary
10691:Gran Sasso
10515:Beyond the
10490:CKM matrix
10377:Background
10058:952 pages.
10036:920 pages.
9693:(6): 080.
9683:"Agravity"
9393:Phys. Educ
9020:20 January
8984:20 January
8817:19 January
8780:19 January
8699:18 January
8153:(1): 138.
8116:(1): 121.
7490:. p.
7465:References
7400:QCD matter
7386:Lagrangian
7368:Generation
7267:antimatter
7121:antimatter
7087:See also:
7083:Challenges
6997:See also:
6968:beta decay
6966:, such as
6952:See also:
6918:See also:
6887:See also:
6777:to quarks
6647:W, W and Z
5200:, so that
2944:space-time
2936:Lagrangian
2651:173.5 GeV
2446:105.7 MeV
2441:Muon mass
2425:0.511 MeV
2361:10 kg
2336:7 TeV
2297:weak force
2262:and others
1982:exchanging
1793:half-lives
833:caused by
829:After the
793:tau lepton
696:antimatter
672:See also:
274:Iliopoulos
184:Rutherford
178:Scientists
138:CKM matrix
92:Background
12676:Molecular
12577:Acoustics
12570:Continuum
12565:Celestial
12555:Newtonian
12542:Classical
12485:Divisions
12429:See also:
12148:Super QCD
12102:Liouville
12090:Conformal
12061:Schwinger
11763:Particles
11708:Particles
11667:Polariton
11657:Plasmaron
11627:Dropleton
11520:Hexaquark
11491:Molecules
11479:Protonium
11356:Phi meson
11341:Rho meson
11313:Xi baryon
11245:Composite
11081:Gravitino
10824:Up (quark
10225:118326409
10143:1209.2716
10024:. Wiley.
9796:. Plume.
9700:1403.4226
9435:1407.2122
9343:18 August
9052:0907.3466
9015:0261-3077
8911:231811425
8889:(1): 13.
8849:8 January
8733:1210.5531
8574:243686857
8288:119012610
8017:1434-6052
7643:Mills, R.
7615:288435552
7528:CRC Press
7282:inflation
7270:asymmetry
7158:neutrinos
7153:problem.
7062:top quark
6860:June 2021
6831:does not
6654:(photon)
6587:particles
6527:
6521:×
6502:
6474:∗
6470:φ
6460:τ
6447:~
6444:φ
6421:φ
6328:ℓ
6140:φ
6117:¯
6114:ℓ
6052:φ
6030:¯
5962:~
5959:φ
5934:¯
5847:λ
5827:μ
5802:λ
5783:μ
5501:⟩
5498:φ
5495:⟨
5475:φ
5452:≡
5445:λ
5441:μ
5426:φ
5393:φ
5380:φ
5367:φ
5346:φ
5318:λ
5305:μ
5295:φ
5290:†
5286:φ
5258:φ
5232:λ
5208:φ
5176:μ
5141:φ
5136:†
5132:φ
5122:λ
5116:φ
5111:†
5107:φ
5097:μ
5093:−
5084:φ
5058:φ
5036:μ
5004:μ
4976:φ
4948:μ
4917:φ
4908:−
4900:φ
4895:μ
4880:†
4871:φ
4866:μ
4754:φ
4738:φ
4724:φ
4708:φ
4667:φ
4653:φ
4638:φ
4596:
4550:ψ
4545:¯
4542:ψ
4507:ν
4504:μ
4439:ν
4436:μ
4341:, where
4327:μ
4320:→
4301:→
4298:τ
4273:−
4268:μ
4227:−
4222:μ
4218:∂
4214:≡
4209:μ
4144:ℓ
4029:ν
4026:μ
4016:ν
4013:μ
3993:−
3983:ν
3980:μ
3970:ν
3967:μ
3942:−
3924:μ
3914:μ
3910:γ
3892:¯
3871:ℓ
3865:μ
3855:μ
3851:γ
3833:¯
3830:ℓ
3806:μ
3796:μ
3792:γ
3774:¯
3747:μ
3737:μ
3733:γ
3715:¯
3688:μ
3678:μ
3674:γ
3656:¯
3574:ϕ
3550:×
3510:ϕ
3500:λ
3483:−
3452:ψ
3439:ψ
3435:→
3432:ψ
3358:…
3288:μ
3274:λ
3247:−
3242:μ
3238:∂
3234:≡
3229:μ
3189:ψ
3162:ν
3159:μ
3139:ν
3136:μ
3118:−
3115:ψ
3110:μ
3100:μ
3096:γ
3087:¯
3084:ψ
3029:λ
2629:4.24 GeV
2593:1.32 GeV
2467:1.78 GeV
2462:Tau mass
2351:125
2329:1.4
2314:(LHC) at
1910:neutrinos
1069:Obey the
1037:Obey the
837:exchange
744:In 1961,
701:In 1954,
650:anomalies
623:cosmology
564:top quark
546:) in the
464:de Mayolo
409:Schwinger
349:Kobayashi
239:Gell-Mann
204:Sudarshan
12225:Type IIB
12220:Type IIA
12205:4D N = 8
12200:4D N = 1
12169:6D (2,0)
12133:4D N = 1
12112:Polyakov
12071:Thirring
11880:Theories
11739:timeline
11591:R-hadron
11546:Glueball
11530:Skyrmion
11464:Tauonium
11177:Inflaton
11172:Graviton
11152:Curvaton
11122:Sfermion
11112:Higgsino
11107:Chargino
11068:Gauginos
10927:Neutrino
10912:Antimuon
10902:Positron
10897:Electron
10807:Fermions
10735:Category
10716:Tevatron
10568:Theories
10525:Evidence
10389:Fermions
10302:28234516
10168:15052448
9735:31258400
9293:34828114
9077:16298371
8955:Archived
8843:Archived
8774:Archived
8750:25166142
8726:(4): 8.
8693:Archived
8646:29 March
8618:29 March
8399:(2014).
8381:Archived
8190:(1): 1.
7645:(1954).
7620:28 March
7568:Archived
7507:28 March
7296:See also
7274:isotropy
7205:graviton
6908:graviton
6743:Hadrons
6706:Acts on
6693:Quarks,
6686:fermions
6640:Graviton
6626:Residual
5819:. Since
5728:′
4521:are the
4400:are the
4237:′
3464:, where
3442:′
3314:are the
3307:, where
2897:246 GeV
2554:= 2 GeV
2527:4.4 MeV
2524:= 2 GeV
2497:1.9 MeV
2494:= 2 GeV
2324:Tevatron
2320:Fermilab
2236:solitons
2207:graviton
1876:electron
1848:nucleons
1785:baryonic
1766:opposite
1750:fermions
1727:Fermions
1719:positron
1660:One kind
1368:Electron
1265:Spin = 0
1246:Spin = 1
1024:fermions
816:fermions
578:and the
548:universe
454:Guralnik
399:Politzer
374:'t Hooft
329:Weinberg
324:Majorana
314:Schwartz
279:Lederman
264:Anderson
254:Friedman
214:Anderson
209:Davis Jr
194:Chadwick
12826:Physics
12800:Portals
12760:Related
12644:General
12639:Special
12497:Applied
12327:History
12310:Related
12107:Minimal
11958:Regular
11727:Related
11698:Baryons
11672:Polaron
11662:Plasmon
11637:Fracton
11632:Exciton
11586:Diquark
11581:Pomeron
11556:T meson
11513:Baryons
11474:Pionium
11459:Muonium
11386:D meson
11381:B meson
11286:Neutron
11271:Nucleon
11263:Baryons
11254:Hadrons
11217:Tachyon
11192:Majoron
11157:Dilaton
11086:Photino
10922:Antitau
10889:Leptons
10747:Commons
10711:Super-K
10547:problem
10282:Bibcode
10205:Bibcode
10148:Bibcode
10107:Bibcode
9763:Bibcode
9726:6560704
9705:Bibcode
9635:Bibcode
9561:Bibcode
9524:Bibcode
9487:Bibcode
9401:Bibcode
9329:jhu.edu
9284:8623095
9261:Bibcode
9252:Entropy
9230:23 July
9204:14 June
9102:Bibcode
9057:Bibcode
8891:Bibcode
8720:Physics
8639:YouTube
8611:YouTube
8544:Bibcode
8511:Bibcode
8472:Bibcode
8429:Bibcode
8363:Bibcode
8317:Bibcode
8268:Bibcode
8192:Bibcode
8155:Bibcode
8118:Bibcode
7997:Bibcode
7943:Bibcode
7900:Bibcode
7857:Bibcode
7799:Bibcode
7715:Bibcode
7661:Bibcode
7457:gluons.
7272:). The
7143:abelian
6893:Gravity
6883:Gravity
6852:removed
6837:sources
6715:Flavour
6700:Hadrons
6657:Gluons
6609:Strong
4362:is the
2557:87 MeV
2393:Symbol
2203:Gravity
2004:Photons
1985:virtual
1918:gravity
1856:neutron
1844:baryons
1836:hadrons
1812:strange
1777:leptons
1769:charges
1743:⁄
1340:Strange
1222:
1210:
1208:Spin =
1202:Leptons
1173:
1161:
1159:Spin =
1064:Integer
870:hadrons
835:Z boson
824:leptons
795:at the
717:, e.g.
544:gravity
522:is the
439:Englert
414:Wilczek
379:Veltman
354:Maskawa
309:Cabibbo
269:Glashow
244:Kendall
229:Feynman
189:Thomson
12671:Atomic
12626:Modern
12476:Major
12267:Chiral
12215:Type I
12030:Yukawa
11951:Models
11703:Mesons
11652:Phonon
11647:Magnon
11569:Others
11539:Mesons
11432:Others
11328:Mesons
11276:Proton
11140:Others
11095:Others
11076:Gluino
11010:Scalar
10990:Photon
10973:Bosons
10816:Quarks
10300:
10223:
10166:
10072:
10050:
10028:
10007:
9983:
9959:
9933:
9914:
9895:
9876:
9857:
9823:
9800:
9733:
9723:
9598:
9291:
9281:
9182:4 July
9156:5 July
9075:
9013:
8947:
8909:
8748:
8642:. 2015
8592:theory
8572:
8562:
8286:
8015:
7760:
7613:
7603:
7534:
7498:
7263:matter
7224:ad hoc
7005:, and
6976:parity
6695:gluons
6672:mesons
6575:photon
6571:bosons
6249:, and
6195:where
5890:Yukawa
5557:where
5167:where
4935:where
4626:scalar
4585:is an
4491:) and
4108:, and
3211:flavor
3181:where
2980:is an
2972:. The
2955:global
2919:125.09
2858:1.221
2815:0.652
2775:0.357
2732:0.995
2672:13.1°
2404:Value
2281:photon
2254:scalar
2234:, and
2159:. The
2071:, and
2034:: The
2018:Gluons
2010:(QED).
1902:of -1
1894:, and
1852:proton
1850:: the
1840:mesons
1830:. The
1820:bottom
1818:, and
1773:quarks
1626:gluons
1543:γ
1531:Photon
1510:τ
1505:ν
1481:τ
1460:μ
1455:ν
1431:μ
1404:ν
1351:Bottom
1153:Quarks
1058:bosons
860:(i.e.
851:bosons
820:quarks
804:masses
735:parity
684:, and
560:quarks
524:theory
469:Lattes
459:Kibble
419:Cronin
404:Reines
369:Yukawa
284:Maiani
259:Powell
249:Taylor
234:Rubbia
12406:links
12379:links
12367:links
12287:NMSSM
12272:Fermi
12015:Soler
11985:Proca
11691:Lists
11682:Trion
11677:Roton
11617:Anyon
11444:Atoms
11207:Preon
11147:Axion
11102:Axino
10995:Gluon
10982:Gauge
10613:NMSSM
10298:S2CID
10272:arXiv
10270:: 3.
10249:arXiv
10234:arXiv
10221:S2CID
10195:arXiv
10164:S2CID
10138:arXiv
9695:arXiv
9662:arXiv
9625:arXiv
9430:arXiv
9389:(PDF)
9134:4 May
9073:S2CID
9047:arXiv
8958:(PDF)
8907:S2CID
8807:ATLAS
8802:(PDF)
8728:arXiv
8588:model
8570:S2CID
8384:(PDF)
8349:(PDF)
8284:S2CID
8258:arXiv
8230:8 May
7987:arXiv
7431:Notes
7191:or a
7160:have
7058:gluon
6614:Weak
6579:gluon
6278:3âŻĂâŻ3
3411:, and
2974:local
2940:field
2751:'
2714:0.2°
2693:2.4°
2343:ATLAS
2285:gluon
2274:boson
1989:force
1808:charm
1695:Notes
1335:Charm
1177:Have
889:Model
721:, to
474:Zweig
449:Hagen
444:Brout
434:Higgs
429:Vleck
424:Fitch
394:Pauli
384:Gross
359:Mills
344:Salam
299:Nambu
294:Cowan
224:Dirac
219:Fermi
12597:Wave
12492:Pure
12277:MSSM
12174:ABJM
12081:Toda
11642:Hole
11469:Onia
11376:Kaon
11336:Pion
10907:Muon
10608:MSSM
10070:ISBN
10048:ISBN
10026:ISBN
10005:ISBN
9981:ISBN
9957:ISBN
9931:ISBN
9912:ISBN
9893:ISBN
9874:ISBN
9855:ISBN
9821:ISBN
9798:ISBN
9731:PMID
9691:2014
9621:B484
9596:ISBN
9462:2016
9454:CERN
9371:2023
9363:CERN
9345:2016
9311:CERN
9289:PMID
9232:2017
9206:2020
9184:2012
9158:2012
9136:2010
9022:2024
9011:ISSN
8986:2024
8945:ISBN
8851:2024
8819:2024
8812:CERN
8782:2024
8746:PMID
8701:2024
8648:2022
8620:2022
8560:ISBN
8232:2008
8093:2024
8068:2024
8042:2024
8013:ISSN
7771:2024
7758:ISBN
7622:2022
7611:OCLC
7601:ISBN
7576:2023
7532:ISBN
7509:2022
7496:ISBN
7276:and
7162:mass
7064:and
7042:pion
7019:and
6978:and
6956:and
6940:and
6922:and
6891:and
6835:any
6833:cite
6667:and
6386:and
6319:and
6288:and
6276:are
5867:The
5839:and
5677:and
5609:and
5417:and
5235:>
5185:>
5023:and
4414:and
4406:left
4162:and
2953:The
2353:GeV/
2345:and
2316:CERN
2283:and
2270:spin
2217:The
1970:spin
1916:and
1884:muon
1870:and
1862:and
1854:and
1804:down
1775:and
1737:spin
1420:Muon
1348:(t),
1337:(c),
1329:Down
1326:(u),
1189:and
1066:spin
1033:spin
879:and
843:CERN
822:and
797:SLAC
764:and
752:and
713:for
705:and
636:and
538:and
536:weak
514:The
389:Pais
364:Yang
339:Ward
319:Perl
289:Meer
199:Bose
12592:Ray
12230:11D
10917:Tau
10706:SNO
10701:LHC
10696:INO
10290:doi
10268:134
10213:doi
10156:doi
10115:doi
9771:doi
9759:167
9721:PMC
9713:doi
9643:doi
9569:doi
9532:doi
9495:doi
9409:doi
9279:PMC
9269:doi
9110:doi
9065:doi
8931:PDF
8899:doi
8738:doi
8552:doi
8519:doi
8480:doi
8437:doi
8371:doi
8325:doi
8276:doi
8200:doi
8163:doi
8126:doi
8005:doi
7951:doi
7908:doi
7865:doi
7807:doi
7750:doi
7723:doi
7669:doi
7182:GeV
7034:or
6846:by
6810:20
6772:60
5756:is
5584:.
5338:on
3539:is
3074:QCD
2902:19
2884:18
2879:~0
2870:QCD
2863:17
2829:or
2820:16
2789:or
2780:15
2746:or
2737:14
2719:13
2698:12
2677:11
2656:10
2347:CMS
2331:TeV
2322:'s
1968:of
1892:tau
1816:top
1735:of
1470:Tau
1353:(b)
1346:Top
1342:(s)
1331:(d)
841:at
741:.
518:of
334:Lee
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12246:BF
10331:,
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