Chemistry - Knowledge

2908: 1170: 2630: 2808: 2955: 840: 1542: 64: 2020: 2093: 981: 3149: 3788: 3491: 253: 3802: 1877: 7630: 7493: 266: 626: 7640: 7517: 1189: 3382: 2147:, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept. 2723: 1045: 2518: 1327: 1184: 753: 7529: 1175: 1161: 7650: 7505: 1910: 3337: 550: 1156: 5752:"What makes these family likenesses among the elements? In the 1860s everyone was scratching their heads about that, and several scientists moved towards rather similar answers. The man who solved the problem most triumphantly was a young Russian called Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, who visited the salt mine at Wieliczka in 1859." 1096:) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various 914: 1459: 2215:

A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better

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invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic

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Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields

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considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances – a

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is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind

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in 1556. His work, describing highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores and metal extraction, were the pinnacle of metallurgy during that time. His approach removed all mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could and would build. The

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An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic

2429:, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results. 1340:

In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with

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The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and

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that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are

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is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').

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which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.

1553:), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells). 877:

is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as

1143:. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. 1103:

However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as

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is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of solid state components or devices with a useful current or future function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry like

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At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897,

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balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom.

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began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused in

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is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds, such as metals and minerals. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of

650:, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a 645:

is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a

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of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions.

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is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include

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spans a period from the ancient past to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting

2350:, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in 2482:

described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.

1037:. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating 1968:. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons. 1944:

of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.

5289:, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the 1032:

or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a

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Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr.; Bursten, Bruce E.; Murphey, Catherine J.; Woodward, Patrick M.; Stoltzfus, Matthew W.; Lufaso, Michael W. (2018). "Introduction: Matter, energy, and measurement".

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creates isotactic polypropylene, which is hard and used in re-usable plastic containers.

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is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or

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electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the

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materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in

2603:(On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. 2907: 2758:

work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" and the founder of

1933:; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often 938:

is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the

5586:"On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases" 2208:, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as 1718:– that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the 2158:

scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the

1741:, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in 3146:. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. 5076: 2204:

changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as

3308:; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. 2622:(approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." and 4559: 3218: 2433:, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work 1802:

of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H

5731: 4220: 2699:(such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the 2474:

The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist

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In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist

2862:, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics. Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of 6071: 3767: 1716: 2880:

The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular,

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system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components. In addition the

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Improvements of the refining of ores and their extractions to smelt metals was widely used source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them

5661: 5674: 3816: 3375:. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Organic compounds can be classified, organized and understood in reactions by their 1925:

When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A

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discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully

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During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a

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the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into

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Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.

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Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a

2360:, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. 2166:), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher K 5141: 4009: 5322:

An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina

1873:, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra. 1474:, or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding). 658:.) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as 2923:

first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen.

1370:, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. 2490:, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, 3742: 3256:with a free-flowing composition. 939: 5218:

Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque

4884: 2626:(3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be". 2540: 2458:

that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the

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Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary' in this case the matter is considered to be in a

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gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an

6588: 6160: 4081: 622:. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it. 6560: 5494: 5301: 5080: 1631:. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an 4534: 4244: 6689: 6348: 1971:

The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its

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of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or

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and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the

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is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a

2130: 7567: 2406:, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into 3355:. By firing sub-critical uranium into another mass of sub-critical uranium within the bomb, a self-sustaining nuclear reaction (the 1502:. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in 5258: 1833:

emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the

1534:(Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound 962:

has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its

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Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the

1021:, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in 6672: 2027:(KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K cations and Cl anions. The overall charge of the ionic compound is zero. 4578: 4283: 2450:

employed in their work. Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of

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with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the

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introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (

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A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of

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considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their

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While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the

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There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of

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of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor

6728: 6667: 2707:, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as 1975:. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many 2877:; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights. 2708: 2543:

amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory.

1400:(alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the 1345:

is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as

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need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the

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Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are:

2250:. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time. 4918: 3897: 3752: 3705: 5293:

and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan.

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specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the

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Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is

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to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.

4640: 4619: 4597: 4267: 2046:. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or 290: 1842:

radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

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as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as

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predicted the existence of 7 new elements, and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.

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A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not

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featured foundational scientists to the field of theoretical chemistry and physics. This conference discussed

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The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the

1169: 5911: 5668:: "...it is surely true that had Mendeleev never lived modern chemists would be using a Periodic Table" and 1669:

Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the

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Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry".

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Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma",

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Dumas, J.B. (1837). 'Affinite' (lecture notes), vii, p 4. "Statique chimique", Paris: Académie des Sciences

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for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental)

2811: 1420: 726:. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the 4881: 2629: 7610: 7132: 6619: 3821: 3772: 2363: 2357: 2347: 2335: 2302: 2291: 1988: 283: 89: 79: 5053:

The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary

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scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (

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institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.

2159: 1954: 959: 231: 28: 21: 2154:, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative 1891:

is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a

1752: 1722:. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, 7633: 7600: 6647: 6156: 5705: 4073: 4004: 3722: 3544: 3160:

is a machine used to measure the effect light has on matter. The model pictured is the Beckman DU-640

2571: 2567: 2459: 1738: 6097: 5490: 1404:, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the 7615: 7553: 7402: 7318: 6957: 5560: 3737: 3576: 3548: 3481: 3212: 3016: 2807: 2615: 2559: 2007: 1950: 1941: 1837:

responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than

568: 226: 6025:(1st ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands Springer e-books Imprint: Springer. pp. 1–4. 5962: 5298: 4530: 4241: 2858:

in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist

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broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

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is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature.

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Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover Publications.

3861: 3623: 3473: 3407: 2988: 2823: 2563: 2500: 1870: 1742: 898: 475:. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though 6352: 2881: 7258: 7246: 7137: 7002: 6776: 6642: 5473: 5187: 3536: 2716: 2673: 2317: 2104: 2063: 1976: 1958: 1862: 1791: 1680: 1041:. Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable. 955: 848: 429: 145: 5136: 4910: 1561:

are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a

1396:. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid 1364:

tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the

7605: 7407: 7304: 7289: 7219: 7142: 6974: 6924: 6833: 6758: 6657: 5761: 5755: 5191: 3675: 3607: 3449: 3419: 3315: 3295: 3020: 2800:, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and 2792: 2766: 2700: 2634: 2435: 2387: 2144: 1858: 1243: 557: 102: 5552: 4902: 2478:

in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, the chemist

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S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker

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In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its

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Diagram showing relationships among the phases and the terms used to describe phase changes

1311: 1235: 947: 894: 808: 677: 619: 572: 178: 155: 98: 84: 2954: 882:. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element 8: 7420: 7374: 7299: 7272: 7170: 7152: 7105: 7043: 6939: 6919: 6788: 6783: 6684: 6361: 5553: 5253:, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences", 5109: 5103: 3651: 3591: 3580: 3540: 3394: 3327: 3279: 3270: 3207: 3181: 2936: 2491: 2247: 2117:. There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is 1999: 1659: 1655: 1636: 1624: 1598: 1511: 1499: 1374: 1307: 1265: 1239: 1140: 1038: 963: 816: 800: 373: 345:: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during 193: 6122:

Brown, William Henry; Iverson, Brent L.; Anslyn, Eric V.; Foote, Christopher S. (2018).

5173:(3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888, p. 161); F. Sherwood Taylor, "The Origins of Greek Alchemy", 4682: 3082: 7674: 7497: 7463: 7325: 7294: 7175: 7117: 6815: 6798: 6793: 6748: 6711: 6701: 6662: 5533: 5343: 5164: 4831: 4704: 4442: 4309: 4129: 3939: 3402: 3290:. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, 3143: 2966: 2611: 2479: 2343: 2246:; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a 2243: 2024: 1972: 1846: 1719: 1654:

if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of

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can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as

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which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry,

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Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew; Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth (2009).

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name "Geber", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as

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are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower K

2003: 1980: 1965: 1914: 1904: 1892: 1787: 1746: 1670: 1602: 1594: 1401: 1303: 1133: 1034: 929: 839: 804: 681: 655: 647: 642: 604: 503: 417: 358: 346: 330: 188: 135: 5629: 5537: 7521: 7438: 7093: 6952: 6929: 6882: 6823: 6412: 5970: 5597: 5525: 5360: 5335: 4935: 4708: 4686: 4141: 3969: 3831: 3793: 3647: 3639: 3615: 3512: 3477: 3443: 3415: 3386: 3376: 3372: 3323: 3193: 3098: 3090: 3067: 3034:

His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist

2932: 2912: 2893: 2839: 2696: 2684: 2547: 2285: 2217: 2205: 2114: 2096: 2081: 2051: 1918: 1811: 1647:; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. 1620: 1558: 1519: 1409: 1381:

and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.

1366: 1361: 943: 856: 757: 651: 600: 436: 326: 322: 318: 257: 220: 5429: 5051:

Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation".

4479:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 37. 2656:

and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Work, particularly the development of

392:), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded ( 7576: 7379: 7335: 7330: 7224: 7200: 7034: 6997: 6850: 6840: 6723: 5665: 5585: 5305: 5265: 5145: 4888: 4623: 4601: 4582: 4563: 4474: 4271: 4248: 3866: 3683: 3679: 3635: 3631: 3352: 3283: 3253: 3234: 3089:. Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding ( 3051: 2924: 2831: 2754: 2730: 2599: 2368: 2339: 2209: 2201: 2055: 2006:. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the 1601:, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the 1535: 1471: 1299: 1221: 1112:, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules 1105: 902: 812: 381: 364:

In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between

3452:

is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within

2951:

at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.

2574:

were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination.

1586:, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas 7643: 7263: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7186: 7182: 7165: 7122: 7053: 6914: 6909: 6894: 6706: 6624: 5295:

Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry

4441:

Connelly, Neil G.; Damhus, Ture; Hartshom, Richard M.; Hutton, Alan T. (2005).

3807: 3671: 3659: 3603: 3599: 3568: 3556: 3552: 3524: 3516: 3427: 3345: 3305: 3301: 3185: 3028: 2975: 2962: 2944: 2928: 2827: 2797: 2750: 2575: 2325: 2307: 2279: 2118: 2059: 1888: 1850: 1807: 1644: 1432: 1416: 1335: 1139:

One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its

1109: 1097: 917: 890: 844: 772: 768: 715: 689: 397: 377: 125: 3917: 3314:

is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern

2974:

Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating

2676:, and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and 2664:

period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian

2019: 1541: 7668: 7468: 7357: 7313: 7038: 6872: 6867: 6860: 6738: 6420: 6416: 5982: 5397: 5287:

The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical ed., translation and study

5235: 5206: 4722: 4700: 4415: 4153: 3595: 3572: 3532: 3356: 3331: 3241: 3197: 3156:

studies interactions between electromagnetic radiation (light) and matter. A

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devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern

2920: 2897: 2874: 2551: 2533: 2496: 2463: 2312: 2126: 2122: 1825:

The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the

1495: 1487: 1453: 1428: 1029: 1018: 866: 608: 524: 513: 354: 130: 63: 3442:

and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from

3117:

applies that knowledge to develop technology and solve real-world problems.

893:, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in 529:, which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language. Alternately, 7345: 7195: 7110: 7086: 7076: 7068: 6969: 6904: 6803: 6652: 6187: 5602: 5405: 5319: 5132: 4161: 3667: 3627: 3469: 3423: 3165: 3153: 3000: 2984: 2889: 2885: 2819: 2782: 2778: 2704: 2688: 2657: 2590: 2475: 2430: 2296: 2259: 1854: 1378: 1242:. A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are 1117: 913: 685: 659: 401: 183: 160: 5529: 4384: 3265:

creates syndiotactic polypropylene, which is rubbery and semi-crystalline.

3148: 2092: 1458: 6743: 6323:(Penguin Books) translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984) 4636: 4498: 4396: 4357: 4340: 3490: 3453: 3349: 3094: 3004: 2870: 2854:(a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German 2677: 2536: 1991:

often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction.

1723: 1350: 1259: 874: 799:

The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the

634: 441: 6566: 4616: 4594: 4264: 3367:

is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and

3359:). It generated an explosive force of over 15,000 tons of equivalent TNT 1377:

state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a

7369: 6317: 5347: 3472:, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of 3341: 3035: 2866:

and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.

2851: 2786: 2669: 2619: 2582: 2521: 1876: 1731: 1571: 1491: 1196:

Examples of pure chemical substances. From left to right: the elements

1125: 980: 767:

is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the

612: 553: 476: 456: 452: 3801: 3138:

is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their

1268:(also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly 625: 7431: 6733: 6305:

The Disappearing Spoon – and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table

5974: 4783:

Affinity, That Elusive Dream – A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution

4613: 4261: 3520: 3245: 3226: 3043: 2996: 2940: 2661: 2594: 2555: 2155: 2071: 2067: 1566: 1479: 1315: 1209: 1188: 1121: 1069: 1022: 673: 611:

which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry

468: 464: 460: 6382:

Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F.

5555:

Affinity, that Elusive Dream: A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution

5339: 5079:. G.I.T. Laboratory Journal Europe. 25 February 2011. Archived from 4691: 4666: 4051:

Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Edward Bursten, H. Lemay.

2722: 1806:

O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by

479:

were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry.

7453: 4145: 3663: 3499: 3435: 3390: 3381: 3291: 3287: 3201: 3177: 3024: 2992: 2835: 2712: 2623: 2586: 2525: 2134: 1984: 1575: 1562: 1531: 1503: 1467: 1346: 1295: 1287: 985: 975: 828: 792: 788: 780: 723: 696:. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several 693: 580: 472: 409: 338: 38: 7545: 5297:. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available 2517: 1662:

if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of

1565:. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a 1044: 7473: 5101: 4130:"What Have We Learned from the Recent Historiography of Alchemy?" 3457: 3230: 2759: 2715:

disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the

2668:. Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the 2578: 2512: 2447: 2426: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1579: 1546: 1507: 1441: 1357: 1217: 1205: 1085: 1053: 879: 784: 776: 735: 697: 669: 592: 561: 446: 393: 389: 369: 365: 216: 6513:

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry

6360: 5996: 5886:

Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, F. James; Crouch, Stanley R. (2018).

5021: 4966: 4475:

Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S. (2005).

4374: 4372: 3217: 3176:

and interactions that take place at a molecular level in living

1779:; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at 1605:

theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

1326: 1174: 1160: 5963:"Highly active metallocene catalysts for olefin polymerization" 5789: 3503: 3322:

is an important result and tool for this field. In addition to

3237: 3113:

is the study of the fundamental principles of chemistry, while

2847: 2774: 2581:

dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as

2419: 2125:

when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces

2050:. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral 2043: 1640: 1614: 1587: 1530:(Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na cation while 1527: 1463: 1436: 1389: 1213: 1201: 1129: 1073: 883: 862: 752: 727: 719: 709: 665: 618:

The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of

596: 487: 385: 314: 120: 5697: 4444:

Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005

1909: 1183: 416:

of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the

4369: 3336: 3093:

in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (

2901: 2415: 2411: 2399: 2183: 2047: 1995: 1946: 1727: 1515: 1385: 1247: 1093: 1089: 1081: 889:

The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the

820: 588: 536: 516: 150: 5455:

Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks

5077:"International Year of Chemistry – The History of Chemistry" 4447:. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing / IUPAC. 4440: 3233:

metal centers. Depending on the placement of the catalyst's

1845:

The existence of characteristic energy levels for different

1522:

can be used to explain molecular structure and composition.

700:

are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:

549: 7448: 6411: 6212: 5255:

Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France

4510: 4504: 4402: 4390: 4363: 3768:

World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists

3086: 2653: 2407: 2110: 1964:

A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a

1881: 1397: 1283: 1155: 1077: 764: 747: 576: 334: 6126:(8th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. p. 19. 5890:(7th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning. p. 120. 5186: 4032:

Chemical Sciences in the 20th Century: Bridging Boundaries

313:

is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of

7458: 5377:

Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (Autumn 2005).

5281:

Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber",

5055:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. 4178:, J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, 3704:

represents an important economic activity worldwide. The

2403: 2137: 2032: 1866: 1745:. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the 1393: 1291: 1234:

A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite

1197: 886:, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13. 824: 599:. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma 405: 342: 140: 5192:"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D." 3886: 2935:

and independently by several other scientists including

2486:

The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by

1853:. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical 1128:), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar 376:

because it provides a foundation for understanding both

27:"Chemical science" redirects here. For the journal, see 6561:

General Chemistry principles, patterns and applications

6121: 4723:"Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry" 4337:

General, Organic, and Biochemistry: An Applied Approach

3817:

Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling

2151: 1917:, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the 1658:

the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be

901:, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying 692:. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as 5630:"A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table" 5457:. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. 5449: 5447: 3286:

with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to

2121:, which states that acid is a substance that produces 1849:

is useful for their identification by the analysis of

1310:

is the amount of a particular substance per volume of

1116:. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of 629:

Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including

522: 3438:

in deriving equations. It is usually associated with

3180:. Biochemistry is highly interdisciplinary, covering 1755: 1683: 1462:

An animation of the process of ionic bonding between

1408:

phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in

847:

of chemical elements. The colors represent different

714:

In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has

6371:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 33–76. 5967:

Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions

5728:"Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev" 5220:. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. 5022:

Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983).

4489: 4310:"General Chemistry Online – Companion Notes: Matter" 3892:(14th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 46–85. 3783: 2733:, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article 603:, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, 530: 507: 491: 6236:Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008) . 5689: 5515: 5444: 5432:. University of California - Museum of Paleontology 5257:, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula. 4284:"California Occupational Guide Number 22: Chemists" 3318:is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the 3011:. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments 2220:, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. 1666:, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. 1514:, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model ( 6457:Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate textbooks 6149:"C&EN's Global Top 50 Chemical Firms For 2014" 5318:Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965). 3225:is an organometallic complex that features either 2896:. Davy discovered nine new elements including the 1940:Chemical reactions can result in the formation or 1771: 1710: 1264:The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an 5885: 5102:Bryan H. Bunch & Alexander Hellemans (2004). 3743:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 3252:creates atactic polypropylene, which is soft and 3127:Outline of chemistry § Branches of chemistry 1983:and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many 940:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 571:. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of 7666: 6235: 5810: 5753: 5376: 5050: 4752:. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. (reprint). 4378: 4286:. Calmis.ca.gov. 29 October 1999. Archived from 1961:are some examples of common chemical reactions. 5590:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 4808:Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry 2814:is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry". 2099:exists in the gas phase as a diatomic molecule. 1526:force of attraction between them. For example, 1253: 775:. The nucleus is made up of positively charged 6186: 4856: 4516: 3476:, which is the art of developing and applying 2888:, made possible by the prior invention of the 2804:that could be subject to rigorous experiment. 2133:, acids are substances that donate a positive 1590:, which has two electrons in its outer shell. 1228:(baking soda), which are both ionic compounds. 1012:is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure 819:, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., 7561: 6582: 3712:980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%. 2546:A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in 567:The current model of atomic structure is the 291: 6140: 5698:"WebElements: the periodic table on the web" 5550: 5000:. New York: Penguin Classics. pp. 7–8. 3430:. Physical chemistry has large overlap with 2830:, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; 2425:Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, 497: 5815:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 164. 5370: 5317: 4936:"de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)" 3842:List of important publications in chemistry 1895:or to transform other chemical substances. 1017:typically a set of atoms bound together by 396:), the properties of the soil on the Moon ( 7568: 7554: 6589: 6575: 5285:, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R. 5212: 4557:Mechanical force induces chemical reaction 4528: 3970:"Definition of chemistry | Dictionary.com" 3446:, but again, there is very strong overlap. 2753:(1494–1555), who published his major work 2524:' atomist philosophy was later adopted by 2109:A substance can often be classified as an 680:. They can be analyzed using the tools of 298: 284: 6596: 6541:Mathematical Methods for Science Students 6427:(1st ed.). Oxford University Press. 6386:(4th ed.) 2006 (Oxford University Press) 6098:"Little Boy and Fat Man - Nuclear Museum" 5601: 4942:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 4690: 4416:"IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry" 4334: 3906: 3715: 3434:. Physical chemistry involves the use of 3062:was developed by the American scientists 2299:(1809, relating pressure and temperature) 1768: 1557:In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of 1538:(NaCl), or common table salt, is formed. 1384:The most familiar examples of phases are 865:in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the 521:, which is in turn derived from the word 353:. Chemistry also addresses the nature of 5960: 5730:. Science History Institute. June 2016. 5195:Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 5190:; Azo, R.F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). 5170:Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs 4995: 4664: 3880: 3489: 3380: 3335: 3248:. 3216: 3147: 2953: 2906: 2806: 2721: 2628: 2516: 2091: 2018: 1908: 1875: 1540: 1457: 1325: 1146: 1043: 979: 912: 838: 751: 624: 548: 6020: 5424: 5422: 5379:"Rediscovery of the Elements: Agricola" 4964: 4829: 4566:, NewScientist.com news service, Reilly 4531:"Chemical Bonding by Anthony Carpi, Ph" 4242:Matter: Atoms from Democritus to Dalton 2288:(1787, relating volume and temperature) 2087: 984:A ball-and-stick representation of the 7667: 6527:Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction 6400:6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. 6384:Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry 5148:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 284. 4900: 4772: 4729:from the original on 17 September 2018 4667:"In retrospect: The Sceptical Chymist" 4127: 3847:List of unsolved problems in chemistry 2129:when dissolved in water. According to 722:(it takes up space) and is made up of 7549: 6570: 6146: 5760:. Little, Brown and Company. p. 5108:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 5105:The History of Science and Technology 4933: 4805: 4747: 4660: 4658: 4643:from the original on 27 February 2009 4434: 4012:from the original on 29 November 2020 3046:, who went on to father the emerging 2597:expanded upon the theory in his poem 2054:, such as the Na and Cl ions forming 791:cloud consists of negatively charged 771:surrounded by a space occupied by an 440:comes from a modification during the 7649: 7504: 6377:Introductory undergraduate textbooks 6349:"Dictionary of the History of Ideas" 6147:Tullo, Alexander H. (28 July 2014). 5640:from the original on 9 February 2020 5583: 5491:"History – Robert Boyle (1627–1691)" 5478:History of Geology and Palaeontology 5419: 5138:Mathematics for the nonmathematician 4102: 3586: 3460:). In particular the application of 2995:and soon after the French scientist 2939:. The inert gases, later called the 2633:15th-century artistic impression of 2499:. More recently, in 1998, Professor 2282:(1662, relating pressure and volume) 924:), an example of a chemical compound 544: 7575: 7528: 6163:from the original on 26 August 2014 5961:Kaminsky, Walter (1 January 1998). 5888:Principles of instrumental analysis 5813:The Development of Modern Chemistry 5788:. Chemistry2011.org. Archived from 5708:from the original on 4 January 2014 5497:from the original on 9 January 2011 4780: 4168: 4105:The development of modern chemistry 4074:"Chemistry – Chemistry and society" 3857:Periodic systems of small molecules 3748:Royal Australian Chemical Institute 3728:American Society for Neurochemistry 3077:Organic chemistry was developed by 2773:and others, a group of chemists at 2745:, giving chemistry its modern name. 2680:Europe through Latin translations. 2342:, even in modern physics. However, 2320:leads to the important concepts of 498: 388:), the formation of igneous rocks ( 13: 6260: 5734:from the original on 21 March 2018 5695: 5610:from the original on 18 April 2021 4971:The Internet History of Philosophy 4905:Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies 4891:, February 13, 1999, New Scientist 4655: 4223:from the original on 26 April 2012 3950:from the original on 7 August 2020 3753:Royal Netherlands Chemical Society 3330:which explores the topic of using 2838:and elucidated its properties and 1756: 1314:, and is commonly reported in mol/ 756:A diagram of an atom based on the 14: 7686: 6554: 5251:Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin 4946:from the original on 29 June 2011 4537:from the original on 17 July 2011 4316:from the original on 24 June 2011 3980:from the original on 5 March 2016 3120: 2532:Early civilizations, such as the 2462:, especially through the work of 2023:The crystal lattice structure of 2014: 637:, illuminated in different colors 7648: 7638: 7629: 7628: 7527: 7515: 7503: 7492: 7491: 5677:from the original on 2 July 2014 4977:from the original on 28 May 2010 4494:. ASM International. p. 59. 4422:from the original on 8 June 2011 3916:. Chemweb.ucc.ie. Archived from 3800: 3786: 3706:global top 50 chemical producers 3393:(right) functional group and an 3326:, nuclear chemistry encompasses 3023:the first element by bombarding 2253: 1772:{\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,} 1187: 1182: 1173: 1168: 1159: 1154: 265: 264: 251: 62: 6499:The Nature of the chemical bond 6240:(3rd ed.). Harlow, Essex: 6179: 6153:Chemical & Engineering News 6115: 6090: 6064: 6039: 6014: 5989: 5954: 5929: 5904: 5879: 5854: 5829: 5804: 5778: 5746: 5720: 5652: 5622: 5577: 5544: 5509: 5483: 5467: 5354: 5311: 5275: 5243: 5180: 5158: 5126: 5095: 5069: 5044: 5014: 4989: 4965:Simpson, David (29 June 2005). 4958: 4927: 4894: 4875: 4850: 4823: 4814: 4799: 4766: 4741: 4715: 4629: 4607: 4588: 4569: 4549: 4522: 4483: 4468: 4408: 4328: 4302: 4276: 4254: 4235: 4205: 4189: 4121: 4084:from the original on 6 May 2023 4055:. Prentice Hall; 8 ed. (1999). 3827:International Year of Chemistry 3007:investigated the phenomenon of 2683:The Arabic works attributed to 2386:For a chronological guide, see 2196:idation) reactions include all 2131:Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory 1341:certain chemical properties. A 6511:Pauling, L., and Wilson, E.B. 6487:(Oxford Science Publications) 6192:Elements of Physical Chemistry 5841:www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca 5673:. Royal Society of Chemistry. 4492:Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 4096: 4066: 4053:Chemistry: The Central Science 4045: 4024: 3992: 3962: 3932: 3890:Chemistry: The Central Science 3109:In the practice of chemistry, 2900:by extracting them from their 2554:as propounded definitively by 2223: 1574:. However, some elements like 869:and represented by the symbol 1: 6856:Interface and colloid science 6610:Glossary of chemical formulae 6293:(Cambridge University Press) 5636:. Western Oregon University. 5270:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 4940:The Internet Classics Archive 4176:The Oxford English Dictionary 3873: 3334:sources for generating energy 2606:An early form of the idea of 2506: 2495:characterization accepted by 2469: 2338:continues to be conserved in 2318:Law of conservation of energy 2008:interconversion of conformers 1415:Less familiar phases include 1356:Physical properties, such as 954:are created according to the 556:, Institute of Biochemistry, 6021:Fahlman, Bradley D. (2011). 5024:The Presocratic Philosophers 4996:Strodach, George K. (2012). 4773:Glaser, Christopher (1663). 4490:M.M. Avedesian; Hugh Baker. 4379:Housecroft & Sharpe 2008 3763:Society of Chemical Industry 3733:Chemical Institute of Canada 3511:Others subdivisions include 2976:a small, concentrated charge 2931:of elements in the 1860s by 2812:Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier 2762:as a scientific discipline. 2062:that do not split up during 1510:. In many simple compounds, 1254:Mole and amount of substance 1136:such as quartz and granite. 486:in turn is derived from the 423: 7: 7133:Bioorganometallic chemistry 6620:List of inorganic compounds 6501:(Cornell University Press) 6478:Molecular Quantum Mechanics 6190:; de Paula, Julio (2009) . 5026:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: 4836:. Dover Publications, Inc. 4219:. Encyclopædia Britannica. 4128:Newman, William R. (2011). 3822:Glossary of chemistry terms 3779: 3773:List of chemistry societies 3689: 3104: 3054:. The electronic theory of 2765:Under the influence of the 2364:Law of multiple proportions 2358:Law of definite composition 2336:Law of conservation of mass 2212:, reductants, or reducers. 1898: 1486:The chemical bond can be a 969: 946:are named according to the 908: 531: 508: 492: 408:evidence at a crime scene ( 10: 7691: 7059:Dynamic covalent chemistry 7030:Enantioselective synthesis 7010:Physical organic chemistry 6963:Organolanthanide chemistry 6466:(Oxford University Press) 6337:(Oxford University Press) 6307:(Black Swan) London, 2010 6194:(5th ed.). New York: 5837:"Chemistry Subdisciplines" 5634:Chemistry 412 course notes 5453:Rafferty, John P. (2012). 5392:(3). Alpha Chi Sigma: 59. 5028:Cambridge University Press 4967:"Lucretius (c. 99–55 BCE)" 4595:Chemical Reaction Equation 4517:Atkins & de Paula 2009 3758:Royal Society of Chemistry 3693: 3561:physical organic chemistry 3124: 2612:Nothing comes from nothing 2510: 2385: 2379: 2375: 2257: 2227: 2216:defined as an increase in 2200:in which atoms have their 2181: 2160:acid dissociation constant 2102: 2030: 1902: 1820:dipole–dipole interactions 1612: 1451: 1447: 1333: 1257: 973: 960:Chemical Abstracts Service 927: 854: 834: 745: 707: 676:, phase, as well as their 537: 517: 427: 22:Chemistry (disambiguation) 18: 7624: 7596: 7583: 7487: 7390: 7151: 7067: 6988: 6938: 6814: 6757: 6648:Electroanalytical methods 6633: 6605: 6480:(Oxford University Press) 6157:American Chemical Society 6051:American Chemical Society 5941:American Chemical Society 5866:American Chemical Society 5811:Ihde, Aaron John (1984). 5754:Bronowski, Jacob (1973). 5664:24 September 2015 at the 4861:. New York: McGraw Hill. 4576:Changing States of Matter 4555:Reilly, Michael. (2007). 4335:Armstrong, James (2012). 4312:. Antoine.frostburg.edu. 4005:American Chemical Society 4000:"Chemistry Is Everywhere" 3940:"Definition of CHEMISTRY" 3723:American Chemical Society 3545:natural product chemistry 3496:Solvay Conference of 1927 3298:between different phases. 3152:In analytical chemistry, 2660:, continued in the early 2460:history of thermodynamics 2454:, who developed a law of 2143:A third common theory is 1711:{\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}} 1650:A reaction is said to be 1608: 1593:Similarly, theories from 1421:Bose–Einstein condensates 1302:per mole is known as the 1195: 1181: 1167: 1153: 703: 400:), how medications work ( 372:. It is sometimes called 237:List of unsolved problems 16:Scientific field of study 7403:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 7319:Supramolecular chemistry 6958:Organometallic chemistry 5304:25 February 2021 at the 5144:5 September 2015 at the 5020:Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of 4247:28 February 2007 at the 3738:Chemical Society of Peru 3577:supramolecular chemistry 3549:organometallic chemistry 3482:condensed matter physics 3397:(left) functional group. 3213:organometallic chemistry 3017:University of Manchester 2969:of the atom undisturbed. 2618:, which can be found in 2616:Ancient Greek philosophy 2303:Le Chatelier's principle 2292:Fick's laws of diffusion 2234:Although the concept of 2177: 1321: 803:of the element, such as 595:and other aggregates of 569:quantum mechanical model 329:that make up matter and 227:List of chemistry awards 37:Not to be confused with 7341:Combinatorial chemistry 7252:Food physical chemistry 7215:Environmental chemistry 7099:Bioorthogonal chemistry 7025:Retrosynthetic analysis 6846:Chemical thermodynamics 6829:Spectroelectrochemistry 6772:Computational chemistry 6368:Encyclopædia Britannica 6335:A Guide to the Elements 6277:Oxford University Press 6219:Oxford University Press 6196:Oxford University Press 6072:"21: Nuclear Chemistry" 5912:"Studying Biochemistry" 5702:University of Sheffield 5324:by Seyyed Hossein Nasr" 4857:Chang, Raymond (1998). 4830:Pauling, Linus (1947). 4600:12 October 2007 at the 4251:by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. 4103:Ihde, Aaron J. (1984). 3862:Philosophy of chemistry 3624:environmental chemistry 3533:hydrogenation chemistry 3474:computational chemistry 3468:. Since the end of the 3464:to chemistry is called 3408:chemical thermodynamics 3385:4-Hydroxybutanal is an 2989:University of Cambridge 2911:In his periodic table, 2904:with electric current. 2824:Jan Baptist van Helmont 2717:transmutation of metals 2709:Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 2348:mass–energy equivalence 2058:, or NaCl. Examples of 1989:Woodward–Hoffmann rules 1743:chemical thermodynamics 741: 730:. Matter can be a pure 523: 7413:of element discoveries 7259:Agricultural chemistry 7247:Carbohydrate chemistry 7138:Bioinorganic chemistry 7003:Alkane stereochemistry 6948:Coordination chemistry 6777:Mathematical chemistry 6643:Instrumental chemistry 6102:ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ 5862:"Analytical Chemistry" 5603:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001 5584:Davy, Humphry (1808). 5474:Karl Alfred von Zittel 5365:The Making of Humanity 4887:8 January 2015 at the 4806:Stahl, George (1730). 4781:Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). 4748:Boyle, Robert (1661). 4562:14 August 2014 at the 3716:Professional societies 3537:mathematical chemistry 3506: 3436:infinitesimal calculus 3398: 3360: 3266: 3161: 3081:and others, following 2999:as well as the couple 2979: 2947:in collaboration with 2916: 2815: 2746: 2737:, exclusively writing 2645: 2529: 2145:Lewis acid–base theory 2100: 2028: 1977:reaction intermediates 1922: 1884: 1773: 1712: 1554: 1518:), and the concept of 1475: 1331: 1065: 1005: 956:inorganic nomenclature 950:system. The names for 925: 852: 760: 638: 564: 430:Etymology of chemistry 404:), and how to collect 7408:Timeline of chemistry 7305:Post-mortem chemistry 7290:Clandestine chemistry 7220:Atmospheric chemistry 7143:Biophysical chemistry 6975:Solid-state chemistry 6925:Equilibrium chemistry 6834:Photoelectrochemistry 6515:(Dover Publications) 6476:Atkins, P. W. et al. 5937:"Inorganic Chemistry" 5559:. MIT Press. p. 5551:Mi Gyung Kim (2003). 5530:10.1007/s00897980249a 5518:The Chemical Educator 5264:18 April 2021 at the 4909:. Routledge. p. 4901:Barnes, Ruth (2004). 4750:The Sceptical Chymist 4665:Principe, L. (2011). 4581:28 April 2007 at the 3708:in 2013 had sales of 3676:solid-state chemistry 3608:atmospheric chemistry 3493: 3450:Theoretical chemistry 3426:, and more recently, 3420:statistical mechanics 3384: 3339: 3220: 3151: 2957: 2910: 2810: 2793:The Sceptical Chemyst 2767:new empirical methods 2725: 2632: 2520: 2436:The Sceptical Chymist 2388:Timeline of chemistry 2095: 2022: 1921:, and carbon dioxide. 1912: 1880:Emission spectrum of 1879: 1800:intermolecular forces 1774: 1713: 1664:endothermic reactions 1544: 1461: 1425:fermionic condensates 1412:(that is, in water). 1329: 1147:Substance and mixture 1047: 983: 916: 843:Standard form of the 842: 755: 678:chemical compositions 628: 558:University of Cologne 552: 7398:History of chemistry 7353:Chemical engineering 7128:Bioorganic chemistry 6878:Structural chemistry 6615:List of biomolecules 5916:www.biochemistry.org 4998:The Art of Happiness 4639:. BBC. 27 May 2004. 4637:"History of Acidity" 4622:4 March 2007 at the 4270:4 March 2007 at the 4174:"alchemy", entry in 3914:"What is Chemistry?" 3852:Outline of chemistry 3612:chemical engineering 3529:immunohistochemistry 3324:medical applications 3168:is the study of the 3140:chemical composition 3136:Analytical chemistry 2965:passing through the 2882:Jöns Jacob Berzelius 2873:proposed the modern 2864:conservation of mass 2844:Carl Wilhelm Scheele 2842:and, independently, 2666:Zosimos of Panopolis 2639:Perso-Arab alchemist 2610:is the notion that " 2608:conservation of mass 2456:conservation of mass 2395:history of chemistry 2382:History of chemistry 2230:Chemical equilibrium 2088:Acidity and basicity 1947:Oxidation, reduction 1935:laboratory glassware 1753: 1681: 1656:endergonic reactions 948:organic nomenclature 809:ionization potential 620:laboratory glassware 573:elementary particles 512:is derived from the 258:Chemistry portal 179:Analytical chemistry 156:Chemical equilibrium 20:For other uses, see 7421:The central science 7375:Ceramic engineering 7300:Forensic toxicology 7273:Chemistry education 7171:Radiation chemistry 7153:Interdisciplinarity 7106:Medicinal chemistry 7044:Fullerene chemistry 6920:Microwave chemistry 6789:Molecular mechanics 6784:Molecular modelling 6529:(Chapman and Hall) 6238:Inorganic Chemistry 6047:"Nuclear Chemistry" 6023:Materials Chemistry 5430:"Georgius Agricola" 5240:vol. II, pp. 41–42. 5188:Stapleton, Henry E. 4775:Traite de la chymie 4683:2011Natur.469...30P 4505:Burrows et al. 2009 4403:Burrows et al. 2009 4391:Burrows et al. 2009 4364:Burrows et al. 2009 4107:. New York: Dover. 4034:. Wiley-VCH, 2001. 4030:Carsten Reinhardt. 3686:, and many others. 3652:medicinal chemistry 3583:, and many others. 3581:synthetic chemistry 3541:molecular mechanics 3328:nuclear engineering 3280:inorganic chemistry 3271:Materials chemistry 3208:Inorganic chemistry 3182:medicinal chemistry 2943:were discovered by 2937:Julius Lothar Meyer 2550:with the theory of 2492:Jean-Baptiste Dumas 2248:dynamic equilibrium 2064:acid–base reactions 2000:elementary reaction 1847:chemical substances 1512:valence bond theory 1500:Van der Waals force 1498:or just because of 1308:Molar concentration 1300:number of particles 1266:amount of substance 964:CAS registry number 952:inorganic compounds 817:coordination number 801:chemical properties 374:the central science 194:Inorganic chemistry 50:Part of a series on 7464:Chemical substance 7326:Chemical synthesis 7295:Forensic chemistry 7176:Actinide chemistry 7118:Clinical chemistry 6799:Molecular geometry 6794:Molecular dynamics 6749:Elemental analysis 6702:Separation process 6464:Physical Chemistry 6321:The Periodic Table 6078:. 18 November 2014 5671:"Dmitri Mendeleev" 5165:Marcelin Berthelot 4533:. visionlearning. 4213:"chemical bonding" 3974:www.dictionary.com 3507: 3403:Physical chemistry 3399: 3361: 3267: 3174:chemical reactions 3162: 3060:molecular orbitals 2980: 2967:plum pudding model 2961:Expected results: 2917: 2869:English scientist 2816: 2802:chemical reactions 2747: 2697:organic substances 2646: 2530: 2480:Christopher Glaser 2346:shows that due to 2344:special relativity 2198:chemical reactions 2105:Acid–base reaction 2101: 2029: 2025:potassium chloride 1923: 1885: 1769: 1737:A related concept 1720:Arrhenius equation 1708: 1555: 1476: 1332: 1226:sodium bicarbonate 1220:(pure sugar), and 1070:noble gas elements 1066: 1050:structural formula 1014:chemical substance 1006: 926: 897:, or columns, and 853: 761: 732:chemical substance 639: 631:ammonium hydroxide 565: 359:chemical compounds 199:Physical chemistry 146:Acid–base reaction 7662: 7661: 7543: 7542: 7479:Quantum mechanics 7444:Chemical compound 7427:Chemical reaction 7365:Materials science 7283:General chemistry 7278:Amateur chemistry 7206:Photogeochemistry 7191:Stellar chemistry 7161:Nuclear chemistry 7082:Molecular biology 7049:Polymer chemistry 7020:Organic synthesis 7015:Organic reactions 6980:Ceramic chemistry 6970:Cluster chemistry 6900:Chemical kinetics 6888:Molecular physics 6767:Quantum chemistry 6680:Mass spectrometry 6525:Smart and Moore. 6485:Coulson's Valence 6434:978-0-19-850346-0 6425:Organic Chemistry 6415:; Greeves, Nick; 6413:Clayden, Jonathan 6362:"Chemistry" 6355:on 10 March 2008. 6329:978-0-14-139944-7 6313:978-0-552-77750-6 6291:Atkins' Molecules 6251:978-0-13-175553-6 6242:Pearson Education 6228:978-0-19-927789-6 6205:978-0-19-922672-6 6133:978-1-305-58035-0 6124:Organic chemistry 6032:978-94-007-0693-4 5897:978-1-305-57721-3 5822:978-0-486-64235-2 5792:on 8 October 2011 5771:978-0-316-10930-7 5757:The Ascent of Man 5570:978-0-262-11273-4 5259:"Jābir b. Ḥayyān" 5227:978-3-487-09115-0 5119:978-0-618-22123-3 5062:978-0-521-27556-9 5037:978-0-521-27455-5 5007:978-0-14-310721-7 4868:978-0-07-115221-1 4859:Chemistry, 6th Ed 4843:978-0-486-65622-9 4833:General Chemistry 4792:978-0-262-11273-4 4785:. The MIT Press. 4759:978-0-486-42825-3 4617:Chemical Reaction 4585:– Chemforkids.com 4477:General Chemistry 4350:978-0-534-49349-3 4114:978-0-486-64235-2 3920:on 3 October 2018 3837:List of compounds 3702:chemical industry 3696:Chemical industry 3656:molecular biology 3644:materials science 3620:chemo-informatics 3592:Interdisciplinary 3587:Interdisciplinary 3565:polymer chemistry 3486:molecular physics 3478:computer programs 3466:quantum chemistry 3462:quantum mechanics 3440:quantum chemistry 3432:molecular physics 3412:chemical kinetics 3377:functional groups 3373:organic compounds 3365:Organic chemistry 3320:table of nuclides 3312:Nuclear chemistry 3276:organic chemistry 3240:, it can produce 3223:Kaminsky catalyst 3190:molecular biology 3158:spectrophotometer 3115:applied chemistry 3079:Justus von Liebig 3048:nuclear chemistry 3038:, the Englishman 3013:Ernest Rutherford 2860:Antoine Lavoisier 2856:Georg Ernst Stahl 2771:Sir Francis Bacon 2727:Georgius Agricola 2693:ammonium chloride 2650:Hellenistic world 2643:organic chemistry 2589:. In 50 BCE, the 2488:Georg Ernst Stahl 2452:Antoine Lavoisier 2444:scientific method 2352:nuclear chemistry 2004:stepwise reaction 1994:According to the 1985:physical chemists 1966:chemical equation 1927:chemical reaction 1919:chemical elements 1905:Chemical reaction 1893:chemical reaction 1788:quantum mechanics 1747:Gibbs free energy 1671:activation energy 1603:molecular orbital 1595:classical physics 1559:valence electrons 1402:crystal structure 1304:Avogadro constant 1232: 1231: 1134:silicate minerals 1035:mass spectrometer 944:Organic compounds 930:Chemical compound 805:electronegativity 783:(together called 682:chemical analysis 656:radioactive decay 648:chemical equation 643:chemical reaction 545:Modern principles 541:'cast together'. 502:). This may have 418:chemical industry 327:chemical elements 325:that studies the 308: 307: 189:Organic chemistry 136:Chemical reaction 69:Science of matter 7682: 7652: 7651: 7642: 7632: 7631: 7611:Physical science 7570: 7563: 7556: 7547: 7546: 7531: 7530: 7519: 7507: 7506: 7495: 7494: 7439:Chemical element 7094:Chemical biology 6953:Magnetochemistry 6930:Mechanochemistry 6883:Chemical physics 6824:Electrochemistry 6729:Characterization 6591: 6584: 6577: 6568: 6567: 6438: 6396:Chang, Raymond. 6372: 6364: 6356: 6351:. Archived from 6273:Galileo's Finger 6255: 6232: 6209: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6168: 6144: 6138: 6137: 6119: 6113: 6112: 6110: 6108: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6083: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6057: 6043: 6037: 6036: 6018: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6007: 5993: 5987: 5986: 5975:10.1039/A800056E 5969:(9): 1413–1418. 5958: 5952: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5933: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5922: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5883: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5872: 5858: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5847: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5808: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5782: 5776: 5775: 5750: 5744: 5743: 5741: 5739: 5724: 5718: 5717: 5715: 5713: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5656: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5645: 5626: 5620: 5619: 5617: 5615: 5605: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5558: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5513: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5502: 5487: 5481: 5471: 5465: 5451: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5426: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5412: 5383: 5374: 5368: 5361:Robert Briffault 5358: 5352: 5351: 5315: 5309: 5279: 5273: 5247: 5241: 5239: 5210: 5184: 5178: 5162: 5156: 5130: 5124: 5123: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5088: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5048: 5042: 5041: 5018: 5012: 5011: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4908: 4898: 4892: 4879: 4873: 4872: 4854: 4848: 4847: 4827: 4821: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4803: 4797: 4796: 4778: 4770: 4764: 4763: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4694: 4662: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4633: 4627: 4611: 4605: 4604:– IUPAC Goldbook 4592: 4586: 4573: 4567: 4553: 4547: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4529:Visionlearning. 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4502: 4496: 4495: 4487: 4481: 4480: 4472: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4461: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4323: 4321: 4306: 4300: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4280: 4274: 4258: 4252: 4239: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4209: 4203: 4193: 4187: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4125: 4119: 4118: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4070: 4064: 4049: 4043: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4017: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3884: 3832:List of chemists 3810: 3805: 3804: 3796: 3794:Chemistry portal 3791: 3790: 3789: 3648:mechanochemistry 3640:marine chemistry 3616:chemical biology 3521:flavor chemistry 3513:electrochemistry 3470:Second World War 3444:chemical physics 3416:electrochemistry 3387:organic compound 3353:fission reaction 3304:is the study of 3099:Svante Arrhenius 3091:Edward Frankland 3085:'s synthesis of 3083:Friedrich Wöhler 3068:Gilbert N. Lewis 2933:Dmitri Mendeleev 2913:Dmitri Mendeleev 2894:Alessandro Volta 2850:. The theory of 2840:Joseph Priestley 2822:and the Flemish 2796:. He formulated 2685:Jabir ibn Hayyan 2674:Muslim conquests 2635:Jābir ibn Hayyān 2548:Classical Greece 2340:isolated systems 2297:Gay-Lussac's law 2275:Beer–Lambert law 2218:oxidation number 2206:oxidizing agents 2119:Arrhenius theory 2097:Hydrogen bromide 1812:hydrogen sulfide 1790:, which require 1778: 1776: 1775: 1770: 1717: 1715: 1714: 1709: 1707: 1706: 1699: 1520:oxidation number 1410:aqueous solution 1367:phase transition 1362:refractive index 1281: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1191: 1186: 1177: 1172: 1163: 1158: 1151: 1150: 857:Chemical element 758:Rutherford model 652:nuclear reaction 540: 539: 535:may derive from 534: 528: 520: 519: 511: 501: 500: 495: 482:The modern word 323:natural sciences 319:physical science 300: 293: 286: 273: 268: 267: 260: 256: 255: 254: 232:List of journals 66: 47: 46: 42: 35: 30:Chemical Science 25: 7690: 7689: 7685: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7680: 7679: 7665: 7664: 7663: 7658: 7620: 7592: 7579: 7577:Natural science 7574: 7544: 7539: 7483: 7386: 7380:Polymer science 7336:Click chemistry 7331:Green chemistry 7225:Ocean chemistry 7201:Biogeochemistry 7147: 7063: 7035:Total synthesis 6998:Stereochemistry 6984: 6934: 6851:Surface science 6841:Thermochemistry 6810: 6753: 6724:Crystallography 6629: 6601: 6595: 6557: 6539:Stephenson, G. 6441:Voet and Voet. 6435: 6359: 6347: 6266:Popular reading 6263: 6261:Further reading 6258: 6252: 6229: 6206: 6182: 6177: 6176: 6166: 6164: 6145: 6141: 6134: 6120: 6116: 6106: 6104: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6081: 6079: 6070: 6069: 6065: 6055: 6053: 6045: 6044: 6040: 6033: 6019: 6015: 6005: 6003: 5997:"Polypropylene" 5995: 5994: 5990: 5959: 5955: 5945: 5943: 5935: 5934: 5930: 5920: 5918: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5898: 5884: 5880: 5870: 5868: 5860: 5859: 5855: 5845: 5843: 5835: 5834: 5830: 5823: 5809: 5805: 5795: 5793: 5784: 5783: 5779: 5772: 5751: 5747: 5737: 5735: 5726: 5725: 5721: 5711: 5709: 5694: 5690: 5680: 5678: 5669: 5666:Wayback Machine 5657: 5653: 5643: 5641: 5628: 5627: 5623: 5613: 5611: 5582: 5578: 5571: 5549: 5545: 5514: 5510: 5500: 5498: 5489: 5488: 5484: 5472: 5468: 5452: 5445: 5435: 5433: 5428: 5427: 5420: 5410: 5408: 5381: 5375: 5371: 5359: 5355: 5340:10.2307/2851429 5316: 5312: 5306:Wayback Machine 5283:Sudhoffs Archiv 5280: 5276: 5266:Wayback Machine 5248: 5244: 5228: 5185: 5181: 5163: 5159: 5146:Wayback Machine 5131: 5127: 5120: 5100: 5096: 5086: 5084: 5083:on 15 June 2013 5075: 5074: 5070: 5063: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5019: 5015: 5008: 4994: 4990: 4980: 4978: 4963: 4959: 4949: 4947: 4932: 4928: 4921: 4899: 4895: 4889:Wayback Machine 4880: 4876: 4869: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4746: 4742: 4732: 4730: 4721: 4720: 4716: 4692:10.1038/469030a 4677:(7328): 30–31. 4663: 4656: 4646: 4644: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4624:Wayback Machine 4612: 4608: 4602:Wayback Machine 4593: 4589: 4583:Wayback Machine 4574: 4570: 4564:Wayback Machine 4554: 4550: 4540: 4538: 4527: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4503: 4499: 4488: 4484: 4473: 4469: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4439: 4435: 4425: 4423: 4418:. Acdlabs.com. 4414: 4413: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4389: 4385: 4377: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4351: 4333: 4329: 4319: 4317: 4308: 4307: 4303: 4293: 4291: 4290:on 10 June 2011 4282: 4281: 4277: 4272:Wayback Machine 4259: 4255: 4249:Wayback Machine 4240: 4236: 4226: 4224: 4211: 4210: 4206: 4194: 4190: 4173: 4169: 4126: 4122: 4115: 4101: 4097: 4087: 4085: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4063:. pp. 3–4. 4050: 4046: 4042:. pp. 1–2. 4029: 4025: 4015: 4013: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3983: 3981: 3968: 3967: 3963: 3953: 3951: 3944:Merriam-Webster 3938: 3937: 3933: 3923: 3921: 3912: 3911: 3907: 3900: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3867:Science tourism 3806: 3799: 3792: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3777: 3718: 3698: 3692: 3684:thermochemistry 3680:surface science 3636:immunochemistry 3632:green chemistry 3594:fields include 3589: 3284:crystallography 3244:with different 3235:cyclopentadiene 3129: 3123: 3107: 3101:in the 1870s). 3052:nuclear fission 3050:and discovered 3042:and the German 3029:alpha particles 2991:discovered the 2970: 2963:alpha particles 2925:J.A.R. Newlands 2875:theory of atoms 2832:Henry Cavendish 2755:De re metallica 2731:De re metallica 2641:and pioneer in 2600:De rerum natura 2515: 2509: 2472: 2391: 2384: 2378: 2373: 2262: 2256: 2232: 2226: 2210:reducing agents 2202:oxidation state 2186: 2180: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2107: 2090: 2077: 2060:polyatomic ions 2056:sodium chloride 2035: 2017: 1907: 1901: 1889:chemical energy 1817: 1805: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1730:in the form of 1695: 1688: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1678: 1617: 1611: 1599:metal complexes 1552: 1536:sodium chloride 1472:sodium chloride 1456: 1450: 1338: 1324: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1262: 1256: 1222:sodium chloride 1149: 1106:ionic compounds 1098:pharmaceuticals 1068:The "inert" or 1063: 1059: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 978: 972: 932: 923: 911: 903:periodic trends 859: 837: 813:oxidation state 750: 744: 738:of substances. 712: 706: 547: 432: 426: 304: 263: 252: 250: 249: 242: 241: 212: 204: 203: 174: 166: 165: 116: 108: 94: 71: 43: 36: 26: 19: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7688: 7678: 7677: 7660: 7659: 7657: 7656: 7646: 7644:Science Portal 7636: 7625: 7622: 7621: 7619: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7597: 7594: 7593: 7591: 7590: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7573: 7572: 7565: 7558: 7550: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7537: 7525: 7513: 7501: 7488: 7485: 7484: 7482: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7435: 7434: 7424: 7417: 7416: 7415: 7405: 7400: 7394: 7392: 7388: 7387: 7385: 7384: 7383: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7362: 7361: 7360: 7350: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7323: 7322: 7321: 7310: 7309: 7308: 7307: 7302: 7292: 7287: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7264:Soil chemistry 7256: 7255: 7254: 7249: 7242:Food chemistry 7239: 7237:Carbochemistry 7234: 7232:Clay chemistry 7229: 7228: 7227: 7222: 7211: 7210: 7209: 7208: 7203: 7193: 7187:Astrochemistry 7183:Cosmochemistry 7180: 7179: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7166:Radiochemistry 7157: 7155: 7149: 7148: 7146: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7123:Neurochemistry 7120: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7091: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7073: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7056: 7054:Petrochemistry 7051: 7046: 7041: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7006: 7005: 6994: 6992: 6986: 6985: 6983: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6966: 6965: 6955: 6950: 6944: 6942: 6936: 6935: 6933: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6915:Spin chemistry 6912: 6910:Photochemistry 6907: 6902: 6897: 6895:Femtochemistry 6892: 6891: 6890: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6820: 6818: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6806: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6781: 6780: 6779: 6769: 6763: 6761: 6755: 6754: 6752: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6707:Chromatography 6704: 6699: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6650: 6645: 6639: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6628: 6627: 6625:Periodic table 6622: 6617: 6612: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6594: 6593: 6586: 6579: 6571: 6565: 6564: 6556: 6555:External links 6553: 6552: 6551: 6537: 6523: 6509: 6495: 6481: 6474: 6462:Atkins, P. W. 6454: 6453: 6439: 6433: 6421:Wothers, Peter 6417:Warren, Stuart 6409: 6394: 6374: 6373: 6357: 6345: 6331: 6315: 6301: 6287: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6256: 6250: 6233: 6227: 6210: 6204: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6139: 6132: 6114: 6089: 6063: 6038: 6031: 6013: 5988: 5953: 5928: 5903: 5896: 5878: 5853: 5828: 5821: 5803: 5777: 5770: 5745: 5719: 5696:Winter, Mark. 5688: 5651: 5621: 5576: 5569: 5543: 5508: 5482: 5466: 5443: 5418: 5369: 5367:, pp. 196–197. 5353: 5334:(4): 744–746. 5310: 5274: 5242: 5226: 5201:(6): 317–418. 5179: 5157: 5125: 5118: 5094: 5068: 5061: 5043: 5036: 5013: 5006: 4988: 4957: 4926: 4920:978-0415297660 4919: 4893: 4882:First chemists 4874: 4867: 4849: 4842: 4822: 4813: 4798: 4791: 4765: 4758: 4740: 4714: 4654: 4628: 4626:IUPAC Goldbook 4606: 4587: 4568: 4548: 4521: 4509: 4497: 4482: 4467: 4453: 4433: 4407: 4395: 4393:, p. 110. 4383: 4368: 4356: 4349: 4343:. p. 48. 4327: 4301: 4275: 4253: 4234: 4204: 4188: 4167: 4146:10.1086/660140 4140:(2): 313–321. 4120: 4113: 4095: 4065: 4044: 4023: 3991: 3961: 3931: 3905: 3899:978-0134414232 3898: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3811: 3808:Science portal 3797: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3694:Main article: 3691: 3688: 3672:phytochemistry 3660:nanotechnology 3604:cosmochemistry 3600:astrochemistry 3588: 3585: 3569:radiochemistry 3557:photochemistry 3553:petrochemistry 3525:flow chemistry 3517:femtochemistry 3509: 3508: 3447: 3428:astrochemistry 3400: 3362: 3309: 3306:neurochemicals 3302:Neurochemistry 3299: 3268: 3242:polypropylenes 3205: 3186:neurochemistry 3163: 3122: 3121:Subdisciplines 3119: 3111:pure chemistry 3106: 3103: 3056:chemical bonds 2945:William Ramsay 2929:periodic table 2846:isolated pure 2828:carbon dioxide 2769:propounded by 2751:Georg Agricola 2528:(341–270 BCE). 2508: 2505: 2471: 2468: 2380:Main article: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2355: 2333: 2326:thermodynamics 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2294: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2272: 2270:Avogadro's law 2266: 2258:Main article: 2255: 2252: 2228:Main article: 2225: 2222: 2195: 2191: 2182:Main article: 2179: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2127:hydroxide ions 2123:hydronium ions 2103:Main article: 2089: 2086: 2075: 2031:Main article: 2016: 2015:Ions and salts 2013: 1957:and molecular 1955:neutralization 1903:Main article: 1900: 1897: 1851:spectral lines 1815: 1808:hydrogen bonds 1803: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1726:or mechanical 1705: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1691: 1687: 1613:Main article: 1610: 1607: 1550: 1452:Main article: 1449: 1446: 1334:Main article: 1323: 1320: 1258:Main article: 1255: 1252: 1230: 1229: 1193: 1192: 1179: 1178: 1165: 1164: 1148: 1145: 1110:network solids 1061: 1057: 1019:covalent bonds 1001: 997: 993: 989: 974:Main article: 971: 968: 928:Main article: 921: 918:Carbon dioxide 910: 907: 891:periodic table 855:Main article: 845:periodic table 836: 833: 779:and uncharged 773:electron cloud 769:atomic nucleus 746:Main article: 743: 740: 708:Main article: 705: 702: 690:chromatography 609:chemical bonds 546: 543: 506:origins since 428:Main article: 425: 422: 398:cosmochemistry 355:chemical bonds 306: 305: 303: 302: 295: 288: 280: 277: 276: 275: 274: 261: 244: 243: 240: 239: 234: 229: 224: 213: 210: 209: 206: 205: 202: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 175: 172: 171: 168: 167: 164: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 117: 115:Key components 114: 113: 110: 109: 107: 106: 95: 93: 92: 87: 82: 76: 73: 72: 67: 59: 58: 52: 51: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7687: 7676: 7673: 7672: 7670: 7655: 7647: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7635: 7627: 7626: 7623: 7617: 7616:Space science 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7606:Life sciences 7604: 7602: 7601:Earth science 7599: 7598: 7595: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7582: 7578: 7571: 7566: 7564: 7559: 7557: 7552: 7551: 7548: 7536: 7535: 7526: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7514: 7512: 7511: 7502: 7500: 7499: 7490: 7489: 7486: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7469:Chemical bond 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7429: 7428: 7425: 7422: 7418: 7414: 7411: 7410: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7359: 7358:Stoichiometry 7356: 7355: 7354: 7351: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7328: 7327: 7324: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7314:Nanochemistry 7312: 7311: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7271: 7270: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7257: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7244: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7217: 7216: 7213: 7212: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7198: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7181: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7163: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7154: 7150: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7112: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7104: 7100: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7092: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7070: 7066: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7039:Semisynthesis 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7004: 7001: 7000: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6993: 6991: 6987: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6945: 6943: 6941: 6937: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6873:Sonochemistry 6871: 6869: 6868:Cryochemistry 6866: 6862: 6861:Micromeritics 6859: 6858: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6826: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6817: 6813: 6805: 6802: 6801: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6785: 6782: 6778: 6775: 6774: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6739:Wet chemistry 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6681: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6604: 6600: 6592: 6587: 6585: 6580: 6578: 6573: 6572: 6569: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6550: 6549:0-582-44416-0 6546: 6542: 6538: 6536: 6535:0-412-40040-5 6532: 6528: 6524: 6522: 6521:0-486-64871-0 6518: 6514: 6510: 6508: 6507:0-8014-0333-2 6504: 6500: 6496: 6494: 6493:0-19-855144-4 6490: 6486: 6482: 6479: 6475: 6473: 6472:0-19-879285-9 6469: 6465: 6461: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6452: 6451:0-471-58651-X 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6430: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6407: 6406:0-07-115221-0 6403: 6399: 6395: 6393: 6392:0-19-926463-5 6389: 6385: 6381: 6380: 6379: 6378: 6370: 6369: 6363: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6344: 6343:0-19-515027-9 6340: 6336: 6333:Stwertka, A. 6332: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6300: 6299:0-521-82397-8 6296: 6292: 6289:Atkins, P.W. 6288: 6286: 6285:0-19-860941-8 6282: 6278: 6274: 6271:Atkins, P.W. 6270: 6269: 6268: 6267: 6253: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6211: 6207: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6188:Atkins, Peter 6185: 6184: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6143: 6135: 6129: 6125: 6118: 6103: 6099: 6093: 6077: 6073: 6067: 6052: 6048: 6042: 6034: 6028: 6024: 6017: 6002: 5998: 5992: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5957: 5942: 5938: 5932: 5917: 5913: 5907: 5899: 5893: 5889: 5882: 5867: 5863: 5857: 5842: 5838: 5832: 5824: 5818: 5814: 5807: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5773: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5758: 5749: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5692: 5676: 5672: 5667: 5663: 5660: 5655: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5572: 5566: 5562: 5557: 5556: 5547: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5512: 5496: 5492: 5486: 5479: 5475: 5470: 5464: 5463:9781615305445 5460: 5456: 5450: 5448: 5431: 5425: 5423: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5380: 5373: 5366: 5362: 5357: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5323: 5314: 5307: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5278: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5246: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5219: 5216:(1942–1943). 5215: 5211:pp. 338–340; 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5193: 5189: 5183: 5177:1 (1937), 40. 5176: 5172: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5155: 5154:0-486-24823-2 5151: 5147: 5143: 5140: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5121: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5106: 5098: 5082: 5078: 5072: 5064: 5058: 5054: 5047: 5039: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5017: 5009: 5003: 4999: 4992: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4961: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4922: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4906: 4897: 4890: 4886: 4883: 4878: 4870: 4864: 4860: 4853: 4845: 4839: 4835: 4834: 4826: 4817: 4809: 4802: 4794: 4788: 4784: 4779:as found in: 4776: 4769: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4728: 4724: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4659: 4642: 4638: 4632: 4625: 4621: 4618: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4599: 4596: 4591: 4584: 4580: 4577: 4572: 4565: 4561: 4558: 4552: 4536: 4532: 4525: 4518: 4513: 4507:, p. 16. 4506: 4501: 4493: 4486: 4478: 4471: 4456: 4450: 4446: 4445: 4437: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4405:, p. 12. 4404: 4399: 4392: 4387: 4380: 4375: 4373: 4366:, p. 13. 4365: 4360: 4352: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4315: 4311: 4305: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4273: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4246: 4243: 4238: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4208: 4202: 4201:0-486-21873-2 4198: 4192: 4185: 4184:0-19-861213-3 4181: 4177: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4124: 4116: 4110: 4106: 4099: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4069: 4062: 4061:0-13-010310-1 4058: 4054: 4048: 4041: 4040:3-527-30271-9 4037: 4033: 4027: 4011: 4007: 4006: 4001: 3995: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3965: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3935: 3919: 3915: 3909: 3901: 3895: 3891: 3883: 3879: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3803: 3798: 3795: 3784: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3720: 3713: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3697: 3687: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3596:agrochemistry 3593: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3573:sonochemistry 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3363: 3358: 3357:critical mass 3354: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3333: 3332:nuclear power 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3316:transmutation 3313: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3272: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3214: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3198:plant science 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3164: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3064:Linus Pauling 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3040:Henry Moseley 3037: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3009:radioactivity 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2950: 2949:Lord Rayleigh 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2921:William Prout 2914: 2909: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2898:alkali metals 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2794: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2602: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2558:stating that 2557: 2553: 2552:four elements 2549: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2504: 2502: 2501:Raymond Chang 2498: 2497:Linus Pauling 2493: 2489: 2484: 2481: 2477: 2467: 2465: 2464:Willard Gibbs 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2438: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2421: 2417: 2414:, and making 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2389: 2383: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2334: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2301: 2298: 2295: 2293: 2290: 2287: 2286:Charles's law 2284: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2273: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2261: 2254:Chemical laws 2251: 2249: 2245: 2240: 2237: 2231: 2221: 2219: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2175: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2146: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2106: 2098: 2094: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2040: 2034: 2026: 2021: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1959:rearrangement 1956: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1920: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1890: 1883: 1878: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1813: 1809: 1801: 1796: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1782: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1749:is negative, 1748: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1703: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1676: 1672: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1627:or aggregate 1626: 1622: 1616: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1548: 1543: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1496:hydrogen bond 1493: 1489: 1488:covalent bond 1484: 1481: 1473: 1470:(Cl) to form 1469: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1454:Chemical bond 1445: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1433:ferromagnetic 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1413: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1375:supercritical 1371: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1337: 1328: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1298:), where the 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1267: 1261: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1144: 1142: 1137: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1118:formula units 1115: 1111: 1107: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1055: 1051: 1046: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1030:molecular ion 1026: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1011: 987: 982: 977: 967: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 931: 919: 915: 906: 904: 900: 896: 892: 887: 885: 881: 876: 872: 868: 867:atomic number 864: 858: 850: 846: 841: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 797: 794: 790: 787:), while the 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 759: 754: 749: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 711: 701: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 661: 660:chemical laws 657: 653: 649: 644: 636: 632: 627: 623: 621: 616: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 563: 559: 555: 551: 542: 533: 527: 526: 515: 514:Ancient Greek 510: 505: 494: 489: 485: 480: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 448: 443: 439: 438: 431: 421: 419: 413: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 362: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 301: 296: 294: 289: 287: 282: 281: 279: 278: 272: 262: 259: 248: 247: 246: 245: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 222: 218: 215: 214: 208: 207: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 176: 170: 169: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 118: 112: 111: 104: 100: 97: 96: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 77: 75: 74: 70: 65: 61: 60: 57: 54: 53: 49: 48: 45: 40: 33: 31: 23: 7532: 7520: 7508: 7496: 7346:Biosynthesis 7196:Geochemistry 7111:Pharmacology 7087:Cell biology 7077:Biochemistry 6905:Spectroscopy 6804:VSEPR theory 6653:Spectroscopy 6598: 6597:Branches of 6540: 6526: 6512: 6498: 6497:Pauling, L. 6484: 6483:McWeeny, R. 6477: 6463: 6456: 6455: 6443:Biochemistry 6442: 6424: 6397: 6383: 6376: 6375: 6366: 6353:the original 6334: 6320: 6304: 6290: 6272: 6265: 6264: 6237: 6214: 6191: 6180:Bibliography 6165:. 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Retrieved 4939: 4929: 4904: 4896: 4877: 4858: 4852: 4832: 4825: 4816: 4807: 4801: 4782: 4774: 4768: 4749: 4743: 4731:. Retrieved 4717: 4674: 4670: 4645:. Retrieved 4631: 4609: 4590: 4571: 4551: 4539:. Retrieved 4524: 4519:, p. 9. 4512: 4500: 4491: 4485: 4476: 4470: 4458:. Retrieved 4443: 4436: 4424:. Retrieved 4410: 4398: 4386: 4381:, p. 2. 4359: 4336: 4330: 4318:. Retrieved 4304: 4292:. Retrieved 4288:the original 4278: 4256: 4237: 4225:. Retrieved 4216: 4207: 4191: 4175: 4170: 4137: 4133: 4123: 4104: 4098: 4086:. Retrieved 4077: 4068: 4052: 4047: 4031: 4026: 4014:. Retrieved 4003: 3994: 3982:. Retrieved 3973: 3964: 3952:. Retrieved 3943: 3934: 3922:. Retrieved 3918:the original 3908: 3889: 3882: 3699: 3668:pharmacology 3628:geochemistry 3590: 3510: 3424:spectroscopy 3348:utilizing a 3262: 3257: 3249: 3166:Biochemistry 3154:spectroscopy 3130: 3114: 3110: 3108: 3076: 3072: 3033: 2985:J.J. Thomson 2981: 2971: 2958: 2918: 2890:voltaic pile 2886:Humphry Davy 2879: 2868: 2820:Joseph Black 2817: 2791: 2783:Robert Hooke 2779:Robert Boyle 2764: 2748: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2729:, author of 2705:pseudo-Geber 2689:sal ammoniac 2682: 2658:distillation 2647: 2605: 2598: 2593:philosopher 2545: 2531: 2485: 2476:Robert Boyle 2473: 2441: 2434: 2431:Robert Boyle 2424: 2392: 2369:Raoult's law 2263: 2260:Chemical law 2241: 2233: 2214: 2187: 2149: 2142: 2108: 2080: 2038: 2036: 1993: 1970: 1963: 1953:, acid–base 1951:dissociation 1942:dissociation 1939: 1926: 1924: 1886: 1855:spectroscopy 1844: 1826: 1824: 1797: 1792:quantization 1785: 1736: 1674: 1668: 1649: 1618: 1592: 1583: 1556: 1549:molecule (CH 1524: 1485: 1477: 1429:paramagnetic 1414: 1405: 1383: 1379:triple point 1372: 1365: 1355: 1342: 1339: 1263: 1233: 1138: 1113: 1102: 1067: 1027: 1009: 1007: 935: 933: 888: 870: 860: 851:of elements. 811:, preferred 798: 762: 713: 686:spectroscopy 664: 640: 617: 566: 483: 481: 445: 444:of the word 435: 433: 414: 402:pharmacology 363: 310: 309: 184:Biochemistry 161:Chemical law 68: 55: 44: 29: 7534:WikiProject 6759:Theoretical 6744:Calorimetry 6318:Levi, Primo 6303:Kean, Sam. 5786:"Chemistry" 5614:30 November 5524:(5): 1–18. 5386:The Hexagon 5214:Kraus, Paul 4981:10 November 4934:Lucretius. 4341:Brooks/Cole 3454:mathematics 3350:uranium-235 3346:atomic bomb 3095:J. W. Gibbs 3005:Marie Curie 2941:noble gases 2871:John Dalton 2834:discovered 2826:discovered 2798:Boyle's law 2678:Renaissance 2637:(Geber), a 2537:Babylonians 2322:equilibrium 2308:Henry's law 2280:Boyle's law 2236:equilibrium 2224:Equilibrium 2156:logarithmic 1781:equilibrium 1739:free energy 1724:electricity 1351:temperature 1282:particles ( 1238:and set of 1236:composition 1224:(salt) and 1056:molecule (C 988:molecule (C 875:mass number 635:nitric acid 442:Renaissance 349:with other 321:within the 7370:Metallurgy 7069:Biological 6635:Analytical 6543:(Longman) 6076:Libretexts 5712:27 January 4454:0854044388 4265:Definition 4227:1 November 4217:Britannica 4078:Britannica 4016:1 December 3874:References 3342:Little Boy 3296:interfaces 3125:See also: 3036:Niels Bohr 3021:transmuted 2852:phlogiston 2787:John Mayow 2672:after the 2670:Arab world 2620:Empedocles 2583:Democritus 2522:Democritus 2511:See also: 2507:Background 2470:Definition 2313:Hess's law 2239:of phase. 1829:of energy 1810:. Whereas 1732:ultrasound 1660:exothermic 1572:octet rule 1492:ionic bond 1435:phases of 1240:properties 1126:table salt 1122:unit cells 1023:lone pairs 613:laboratory 585:substances 554:Laboratory 477:alchemists 457:philosophy 453:metallurgy 351:substances 317:. It is a 7675:Chemistry 7432:Catalysis 6940:Inorganic 6734:Titration 6599:chemistry 6398:Chemistry 6217:. Italy: 6215:Chemistry 6167:22 August 5983:1364-5447 5411:7 January 5398:0164-6109 5236:468740510 5207:706947607 4950:9 January 4810:. London. 4733:8 October 4701:1476-4687 4614:Gold Book 4262:Gold Book 4154:0021-1753 3984:24 August 3954:24 August 3500:electrons 3369:reactions 3288:materials 3254:amorphous 3246:tacticity 3227:zirconium 3194:forensics 3178:organisms 3170:chemicals 3144:structure 3044:Otto Hahn 2997:Becquerel 2701:Latinized 2662:Byzantine 2595:Lucretius 2556:Aristotle 2534:Egyptians 2410:, making 2072:phosphate 2070:(OH) and 2068:hydroxide 1973:mechanism 1887:The term 1863:microwave 1763:≤ 1757:Δ 1690:− 1652:exergonic 1629:structure 1625:molecular 1584:duet rule 1567:noble gas 1504:molecules 1480:multipole 1466:(Na) and 1296:electrons 1288:molecules 1210:allotrope 1200:(Sn) and 1141:structure 942:(IUPAC). 793:electrons 724:particles 716:rest mass 674:structure 605:reactions 581:molecules 469:mysticism 465:astronomy 461:astrology 437:chemistry 434:The word 424:Etymology 410:forensics 347:reactions 339:molecules 331:compounds 311:Chemistry 56:Chemistry 32:(journal) 7669:Category 7634:Category 7498:Category 7454:Molecule 7391:See also 6816:Physical 6445:(Wiley) 6423:(2001). 6161:Archived 6107:11 April 6082:11 April 6056:11 April 6006:11 April 5921:11 April 5796:10 March 5738:20 March 5732:Archived 5706:Archived 5675:Archived 5662:Archived 5638:Archived 5608:Archived 5596:: 1–45. 5538:97557390 5495:Archived 5363:(1938). 5328:Speculum 5302:Archived 5262:Archived 5142:Archived 5087:12 March 4975:Archived 4944:Archived 4885:Archived 4777:. Paris. 4727:Archived 4641:Archived 4620:Archived 4598:Archived 4579:Archived 4560:Archived 4535:Archived 4420:Archived 4314:Archived 4268:Archived 4245:Archived 4221:Archived 4162:21874691 4082:Archived 4010:Archived 3978:Archived 3948:Archived 3780:See also 3690:Industry 3664:oenology 3391:aldehyde 3389:with an 3292:polymers 3202:genetics 3105:Practice 3025:nitrogen 2993:electron 2919:British 2836:hydrogen 2743:chymista 2713:Avicenna 2624:Epicurus 2587:Epicurus 2526:Epicurus 2448:chemists 2439:(1661). 2330:kinetics 2174:values. 2135:hydrogen 1981:kinetics 1931:solution 1915:compound 1899:Reaction 1637:decrease 1633:increase 1576:hydrogen 1563:molecule 1532:chlorine 1508:crystals 1468:chlorine 1437:magnetic 1427:and the 1347:pressure 1312:solution 1039:radicals 1010:molecule 986:caffeine 976:Molecule 970:Molecule 936:compound 909:Compound 880:isotopes 829:covalent 821:metallic 789:electron 785:nucleons 781:neutrons 698:concepts 694:chemists 593:crystals 532:al-kīmīā 509:al-kīmīā 504:Egyptian 499:الكیمیاء 493:al-kīmīā 473:medicine 333:made of 271:Category 211:Research 173:Branches 103:timeline 90:Glossary 39:Kemistry 7654:Commons 7588:Outline 7510:Commons 7474:Alchemy 6990:Organic 6001:pslc.ws 5946:1 April 5871:1 April 5846:1 April 5681:18 July 5644:20 July 5501:12 June 5493:. 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