216:
4414:
3932:
4511:
4112:
620:
514:
667:
3625:
4392:
4871:
4858:
3996:
4285:
4885:
4303:
450:
5183:
5088:
4989:
12518:
7169:
6208:
2028:
4808:
4103:
12542:
7193:
6232:
4723:
22:
4711:
4752:
4736:
7205:
6244:
12530:
7181:
6220:
3333:
3325:
4499:. The electrophile attack results in the so-called Ď-complex, a transition state in which the aromatic system is abolished. Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split off and the aromaticity is restored. An alternative to aromatic substitution is electrophilic aliphatic substitution. It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major types, S
965:. These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with the time of the reaction: the reverse rate gradually increases and becomes equal to the rate of the forward reaction, establishing the so-called chemical equilibrium. The time to reach equilibrium depends on parameters such as temperature, pressure, and the materials involved, and is determined by the
3474:
said to have been reduced. Because the chlorine is the one reduced, it is considered the electron acceptor, or in other words, induces oxidation in the sodium â thus the chlorine gas is considered the oxidizing agent. Conversely, the sodium is oxidized or is the electron donor, and thus induces a reduction in the other species and is considered the
4804:
reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides. This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or bases, where the acids increase the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom, whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile.
4135:. Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, forming weak bonds with reactants or intermediates, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase (
4971:
will overlap and interact constructively to form new bonds. Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat. These perturbations result in a different arrangement of electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules and therefore in different effects. For example, the Diels-Alder reactions
4179:, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes.
658:
is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has no intermediate products. Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentially. The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is known as
980:
The reaction yield stabilizes at equilibrium but can be increased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or changed by increasing the temperature or pressure. A change in the concentrations of the reactants does not affect the equilibrium constant but does affect the equilibrium position.
4151:
side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid-liquid system or evaporate in a solidâgas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction â chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts
3473:
In the reaction, sodium metal goes from an oxidation state of 0 (a pure element) to +1: in other words, the sodium lost one electron and is said to have been oxidized. On the other hand, the chlorine gas goes from an oxidation of 0 (also a pure element) to â1: the chlorine gains one electron and is
4803:
plays an important role in the carbon-heteroatom multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group. This process is often associated with elimination so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again. It is, therefore, called an addition-elimination
1111:
reactions, heat is consumed from the environment. This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous or dissolved reaction products, which have higher entropy. Since the entropy term in the free-energy change increases with temperature, many endothermic
4693:
can be produced by eliminating a suitable leaving group. Similar to the nucleophilic substitution, there are several possible reaction mechanisms that are named after the respective reaction order. In the E1 mechanism, the leaving group is ejected first, forming a carbocation. The next step, the
5159:
and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra. A less accessible but rather efficient method is the introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and monitoring how it changes over time and where it moves to; this method is often used to analyze the redistribution of
5019:
residues, and the rest of the enzyme is used mainly for stabilization. The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape ("induced fit"), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base
566:
of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow (â) which indicates the direction and type of the reaction; the arrow is read as the word "yields". The tip of the arrow points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds. A double arrow (â)
4743:
The E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate. In contrast to the E1 eliminations, different stereochemical configurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2
3866:
8365:
Bateman, Leslie C.; Church, Mervyn G.; Hughes, Edward D.; Ingold, Christopher K.; Taher, Nazeer Ahmed (1940). "188. Mechanism of substitution at a saturated carbon atom. Part XXIII. A kinetic demonstration of the unimolecular solvolysis of alkyl halides. (Section E) a general discussion".
3603:
reactions, where electrons from the power supply at the negative electrode are used as the reducing agent and electron withdrawal at the positive electrode as the oxidizing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as
7752:
5154:
Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend strongly on the reaction rate. Relatively slow processes can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and identities of the individual ingredients. Important tools of real-time analysis are the measurement of
4106:
Schematic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction. The presence of a catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (in red) with lower activation energy. The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the
3366:
of atoms and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving
1112:
reactions preferably take place at high temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur preferably at lower temperatures. A change in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the
4776:. This rule states that "In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of hydrogen atoms."
4759:
The counterpart of elimination is an addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds. Similar to substitution reactions, there are several types of additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle. For example, in the
4698:). The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that is the proton is split off first. This mechanism requires the participation of a base. Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always compete with the S
3970:
rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area.
7777:
3485:
of their elements. Elements with low electronegativities, such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize â they are reducing agents. On the contrary, many oxides or ions with high oxidation numbers of their non-oxygen atoms, such as
4152:
are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction that is kinetically inhibited by high activation energy can take place in the circumvention of this activation energy.
4526:, for example in the reaction of alkanes with halogens. In the first step, light or heat disintegrates the halogen-containing molecules producing radicals. Then the reaction proceeds as an avalanche until two radicals meet and recombine.
645:
can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction. Here the analysis starts from the products, for example by splitting selected chemical bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents. A special arrow (â) is used in retro reactions.
3736:
7724:
1650:, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with lower activation energy.
4744:
mechanism, because the attack of the base preferentially occurs in the anti-position with respect to the leaving group. Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the S
575:, the number of atoms of each species should be the same on both sides of the equation. This is achieved by scaling the number of involved molecules (A, B, C and D in a schematic example below) by the appropriate integers
4772:, which then reacts with the nucleophile (bromine). The carbocation can be formed on either side of the double bond depending on the groups attached to its ends, and the preferred configuration can be predicted with the
3987:, it is possible to observe reactions at the solid|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range. Reactions at the solid|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis.
1886:
is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with a characteristic
1467:
3141:
1233:
4779:
If the addition of a functional group takes place at the less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible. In this case, one has to use the
1865:
1570:
2646:
2442:
945:
1280:
3596:
by combining the oxidation and reduction half-reactions multiplied by coefficients such that the number of electrons lost in the oxidation equals the number of electrons gained in the reduction.
3469:
4331:
departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are
1663:. Catalysts are substances that make weak bonds with reactants or intermediates and change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the
1055:
4232:. Specific types of organic reactions may be grouped by their reaction mechanisms (particularly substitution, addition and elimination) or by the types of products they produce (for example,
4591:
3315:
3229:
4656:
1971:
157:
occur or non-redox in which there is no oxidation and reduction occurring. Most simple redox reactions may be classified as a combination, decomposition, or single displacement reaction.
2493:
1772:
874:
2334:
2296:, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of:
2283:
2144:
9989:
678:
The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by isomerization or a
820:
763:
2194:
2078:
7827:
7802:
1624:
concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit of time. Some reactions, however, have rates that are
3669:, they can be both ions and neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia or water. The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the
4929:
group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. Other examples are
3942:
is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the
829:
and acid-base reactions. In redox reactions, the transferred particle is an electron, whereas in acid-base reactions it is a proton. This type of reaction is also called
12204:
2162:
A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction and can be written as
2866:
2696:
961:
Most chemical reactions are reversible; that is, they can and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in
3946:
limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by the removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an
4449:
2 mechanisms, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the leaving group is cleaved. These two mechanisms differ in the
682:
into one or more other molecules. Such reactions require the addition of energy in the form of heat or light. A typical example of a unimolecular reaction is the
230:
and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the
7707:
997:, that is if they release free energy. The associated free energy change of the reaction is composed of the changes of two different thermodynamic quantities,
612:. Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such additions are water, heat, illumination, a
4841:
Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles can be succeeded with free radicals. As with the free-radical substitution, the
5111:
in air. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the number of reagents, energy inputs and waste.
3589:
configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron, respectively. Noble gases themselves are chemically inactive.
4155:
Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the
3612:. The reverse process, in which electrons are released in redox reactions and chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, is possible and used in
4327:, replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the
4027:. They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogenâoxygen reactions,
1891:. More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the
663:. An elementary reaction involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time.
4967:
Whether a certain cycloaddition would proceed depends on the electronic orbitals of the participating species, as only orbitals with the same sign of
3861:{\displaystyle {\ce {{\underset {acid}{HA}}+{\underset {base}{B}}<=>{\underset {conjugated\ base}{A^{-}}}+{\underset {conjugated\ acid}{HB+}}}}}
2082:
Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of
11320:
11265:
8759:
8472:
8235:
8206:
8006:
7977:
7546:
7490:
7329:
7235:
2999:
7326:
Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idÊes scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des Êcrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque
409:, organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by the synthesis of
12033:
9006:
4972:
can be assisted by heat whereas the cycloaddition is selectively induced by light. Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing
1638:
available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction rates.
608:
More elaborate reactions are represented by reaction schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or
3870:
The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium. The equilibrium is determined by the
11375:
5303:
11525:
10159:
2547:
2349:
1656:, which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit of time,
825:
Another possibility is that only a portion of one molecule is transferred to the other molecule. This type of reaction occurs, for example, in
12254:
2455:, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:
545:
on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reaction.
360:. It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during
12360:
12028:
9854:
5404:
1644:â increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the frequency of collisions between the molecules.
107:, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called
2046:
In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. These reactions are in the general form:
325:, respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry. Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the
11130:
9051:
5409:
3389:
285:
by later alchemists, starting from c. 1300. The production of mineral acids involved the heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as
9021:
3697:, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom.
11700:
10900:
9644:
1686:
Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the molecular level. This field is referred to as reaction dynamics. The rate
261:
The artificial production of chemical substances already was a central goal for medieval alchemists. Examples include the synthesis of
3913:
3706:
2702:
of the reaction. They do not require much energy to proceed in the forward direction. Most reactions are forward reactions. Examples:
1316:
11865:
11795:
11775:
11270:
10437:
9899:
4948:, wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule. An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the
3233:
3160:
1472:
is favored by low temperatures, but its reverse is favored by high temperatures. The shift in reaction direction tendency occurs at
10318:
9874:
3362:. Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation is better defined as an increase in
1126:
184:
syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperature and concentrations present within a
977:. For example, an increase in pressure due to decreasing volume causes the reaction to shift to the side with fewer moles of gas.
374:
recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other. Based on this idea and the atomic theory of
9087:
6282:
5387:
1783:
1499:
11620:
2458:
119:, which symbolically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions.
12098:
12048:
10452:
6902:
5431:
4827:
3922:
definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, and bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition.
1238:
885:
11555:
5091:
Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding. Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap.
2299:
2213:
2097:
12194:
12003:
11660:
11640:
11600:
10407:
9350:
8990:
8965:
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8921:
8876:
8802:
8744:
8647:
8616:
8560:
8527:
8349:
8278:
8191:
8129:
Waldmann, T.; KĂźnzel, D.; Hoster, H.E.; GroĂ, A.; Behm, R.J.R. (2012). "Oxidation of an
Organic Adlayer: A Bird's Eye View".
8070:
7926:
7895:
7613:
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6621:
3899:
Acid-base reactions can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are:
12448:
12189:
12119:
12018:
11675:
11530:
11160:
11005:
10615:
10242:
10019:
5443:
5382:
4781:
2148:
Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water.
2031:
Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and double replacement.
168:, a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form
12534:
12269:
12053:
11365:
10855:
10530:
7088:
5296:
4496:
2165:
2049:
1667:
needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again.
191:
The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including
11075:
4197:, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involves
12264:
11978:
11840:
11630:
11595:
5271:
4356:
4097:
1678:, is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving
1013:
12154:
12093:
11625:
11540:
11510:
11490:
11355:
11350:
10725:
10650:
10293:
10247:
10114:
9375:
8311:
7911:
Guo, Liang-Hong; Allen, H.; Hill, O. (1991). "Direct
Electrochemistry of Proteins and Enzymes". In A.G. Sykes (ed.).
7861:
7704:
7337:
7305:
4534:
3903:
3733:. In other words, acids act as proton donors and bases act as proton acceptors according to the following equation:
29:
reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake.
12353:
12259:
12219:
12169:
11845:
11645:
11395:
11325:
9814:
9385:
8794:
8519:
7029:
5052:
4597:
11460:
10353:
10074:
7880:(1991). "Structural Aspects of Metal Liganding to Functional Groups in Proteins". In Christian B. Anfinsen (ed.).
4078:. Many significant photochemical reactions, such as ozone formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute
1901:
12403:
12013:
11855:
11725:
11720:
11535:
11010:
10920:
10510:
10442:
10333:
9909:
9664:
9589:
9044:
6248:
11770:
3919:
1700:
839:
712:. In the second case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with one of the products, resulting in charged
12299:
12184:
12083:
12023:
11670:
11465:
11425:
11400:
11310:
10770:
9804:
9734:
9370:
9300:
7363:
7039:
6127:
5289:
10890:
4264:
is replaced by another group. These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a
12289:
11875:
11765:
11385:
11110:
10895:
10840:
10685:
10645:
10477:
10232:
9949:
9799:
5570:
5324:
4914:
4788:
atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom. In the second step, the nucleophilic
3984:
3955:
624:
12249:
11810:
11255:
4000:
3916:
definition: Acids are proton (H) donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the
Arrhenius definition.
12284:
12199:
12174:
12149:
12134:
12058:
11973:
11870:
11830:
11695:
11650:
11415:
10960:
10945:
10810:
10600:
10268:
10024:
9704:
9679:
9649:
9240:
8639:
7209:
6569:
5161:
5135:
2293:
791:
734:
418:
8364:
4457:
1 leads to the non-stereospecific addition and does not result in a chiral center, but rather in a set of
12568:
12522:
12503:
12346:
12234:
12179:
12124:
11835:
11755:
11655:
11370:
11335:
11180:
11070:
10785:
10780:
10605:
10565:
10462:
10273:
10237:
10089:
10079:
9934:
9794:
9654:
9604:
9599:
9574:
9534:
9480:
9245:
9235:
9210:
7128:
6387:
6275:
5847:
5334:
4977:
2656:
2452:
974:
966:
383:
227:
708:. In the first case, the bond is divided so that each product retains an electron and becomes a neutral
461:
12433:
12209:
11910:
11715:
11150:
11035:
10715:
10690:
10630:
10487:
10222:
9929:
9709:
9674:
9579:
9270:
9205:
9037:
8341:
7467:
7412:
6224:
5773:
5744:
5724:
5677:
4476:
4269:
3889:
3871:
422:
238:
stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements â fire, water, air and earth. In the
11500:
9764:
8577:
7405:
Stranges, Anthony N. (2000). "Germany's synthetic fuel industry, 1935â1940". In Lesch, John E. (ed.).
12438:
12383:
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11890:
11805:
11735:
11690:
11665:
11585:
11485:
11445:
11140:
10760:
10750:
10675:
10199:
10059:
10054:
10034:
9719:
9516:
9495:
9455:
9380:
8736:
8041:
7581:
7034:
6892:
6554:
6499:
6479:
6474:
5362:
5261:
5251:
4265:
3939:
2887:
2872:
of the reaction. They require input of energy to proceed in the forward direction. Examples include:
1671:
1100:
490:
401:, it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained
9200:
4483:, has low electron density and thus a positive charge. Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of
2868:
is positive, which means that if they occur at constant temperature and pressure, they increase the
2698:
is negative, which means that if they occur at constant temperature and pressure, they decrease the
12413:
12274:
12164:
12144:
12008:
11850:
11760:
11730:
11710:
11605:
11560:
11390:
11300:
11230:
11115:
11105:
10935:
10492:
10432:
10397:
10204:
10184:
10144:
9919:
9789:
9754:
9714:
9465:
9305:
9295:
9225:
6963:
6307:
6117:
6033:
5672:
4949:
4495:
cations. This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called
2842:
2003:
1691:
1308:
830:
693:
679:
215:
11740:
5171:
allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at a time scaled down to a few femtoseconds.
4413:
12478:
12244:
12103:
11953:
11895:
11820:
11800:
11520:
11470:
11330:
11295:
11235:
11165:
10720:
10467:
10447:
10179:
10099:
9994:
9954:
9924:
9859:
9744:
9729:
9639:
9629:
9290:
9215:
9170:
7185:
7123:
7108:
6504:
6484:
6055:
5966:
5929:
5813:
5739:
5560:
5543:
5486:
5226:
4458:
4136:
4131:, the reaction does not proceed directly, but through a reaction with a third substance known as
3481:
Which of the involved reactants would be a reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the
1999:
705:
683:
642:
430:
371:
341:
9505:
8086:
Wintterlin, J. (1997). "Atomic and
Macroscopic Reaction Rates of a Surface-Catalyzed Reaction".
7520:
Corey, E.J. (1988). "Robert
Robinson Lecture. Retrosynthetic thinking?essentials and examples".
5063:(ATP), which can then be used to energize other reactions. Decomposition of organic material by
12493:
12443:
11983:
11705:
11455:
11435:
11410:
11360:
11275:
11250:
11205:
11175:
11155:
11125:
11090:
11045:
11020:
10995:
10880:
10805:
10585:
10278:
10214:
10014:
9739:
9659:
9345:
9320:
9097:
9092:
9015:
8938:
8270:
6636:
6532:
6459:
6449:
6330:
6268:
5973:
5961:
5852:
5717:
5491:
5357:
5146:, it requires much less equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas.
5060:
4898:
4846:
4761:
4479:
is the counterpart of the nucleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or molecule, an
4379:. In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the
4036:
4028:
3710:
3582:
2157:
1307:
Changes in temperature can also reverse the direction tendency of a reaction. For example, the
1107:, in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in
484:
298:
8976:
8932:
8862:
8633:
8301:
8177:
8056:
7912:
7851:
7406:
4681:, are reactions that change the number of substituents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave
4518:
In the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a
3979:
The reaction can take place at the solid|gas interface, surfaces at very low pressure such as
2848:
2678:
616:, etc. Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the arrow, often with a minus sign.
12488:
12319:
11905:
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11575:
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11450:
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11345:
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11305:
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11145:
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11065:
11015:
10535:
10338:
9914:
9869:
9699:
9689:
9435:
9360:
9155:
9117:
7599:
6576:
6367:
6122:
6019:
6004:
5934:
5857:
5689:
5639:
5548:
5473:
5372:
5204:
4815:
4800:
4773:
4348:
4253:
4140:
4079:
3346:
reactions can be understood in terms of the transfer of electrons from one involved species (
2660:
1599:
701:
434:
9365:
8730:
7881:
5115:
are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its
5099:, where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as
368:
who found the correct explanation of the combustion as a reaction with oxygen from the air.
12408:
12388:
12088:
12038:
11988:
11968:
11958:
11815:
11790:
11505:
11495:
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11195:
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11120:
10905:
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10665:
10595:
10560:
10515:
10482:
10348:
10323:
10303:
10124:
10084:
10044:
10009:
9939:
9694:
9564:
9539:
9077:
8827:
8095:
7605:
7386:
7321:
7024:
6997:
6975:
6882:
6815:
6564:
6494:
6439:
6112:
6067:
5842:
5662:
5592:
5349:
5329:
5096:
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4910:
4678:
4352:
4273:
4217:
3931:
3686:
3650:
2672:
1488:
956:
568:
314:
204:
3581:
the number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from the
2841:
Reactions that proceed in the backward direction to approach equilibrium are often called
1628:
of reactant concentrations, due to a limited number of catalytic sites. These are called
8:
12423:
12294:
12279:
11925:
11900:
11885:
11880:
11610:
11565:
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10975:
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10695:
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10545:
10457:
10313:
10298:
10283:
10104:
10049:
9819:
9669:
9614:
9485:
9400:
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9185:
7103:
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6489:
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6135:
6089:
6014:
5987:
5885:
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5820:
5758:
5654:
5634:
5503:
5498:
5399:
5276:
5219:
5059:
or assimilated from food and air, respectively. All organisms use this energy to produce
4945:
4799:
While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the
4519:
4164:
4116:
3690:
2671:
Reactions that proceed in the forward direction to approach equilibrium are often called
2343:
1679:
1088:
709:
655:
542:
200:
135:
131:
108:
104:
12304:
10955:
10139:
9330:
8831:
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1629:
414:
12573:
12369:
12043:
11993:
11963:
11825:
11615:
11405:
11290:
11225:
11215:
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10910:
10875:
10870:
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10790:
10700:
10550:
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10402:
10308:
10094:
10039:
9969:
9889:
9784:
9684:
9619:
9544:
9390:
9255:
9190:
9175:
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7083:
7061:
7051:
6887:
6212:
6178:
6040:
6009:
5890:
5832:
5530:
5513:
5508:
5463:
5426:
5416:
5377:
4934:
4835:
4175:. Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of
3593:
3578:
3562:
2041:
1991:
1892:
1484:
1117:
778:
660:
563:
402:
161:
138:. Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more
112:
42:
8729:
Karlson, Peter; Doenecke, Detlef; Koolman, Jan; Fuchs, Georg; Gerok, Wolfgang (2005).
8728:
4510:
4111:
3966:
Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small
3725:). When a proton is removed from an acid, the resulting species is termed that acid's
12541:
12468:
12463:
12458:
12393:
11780:
11100:
10985:
10950:
10915:
10860:
10815:
10730:
10710:
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10655:
10625:
10610:
10520:
10427:
10363:
10328:
10154:
10029:
9904:
9829:
9809:
9724:
9559:
9554:
9500:
9410:
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9275:
9230:
9112:
9107:
9072:
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8942:
8917:
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8740:
8643:
8612:
8556:
8523:
8345:
8317:
8307:
8274:
8187:
8146:
8111:
8066:
8062:
7922:
7891:
7857:
7609:
7471:
7416:
7343:
7333:
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7293:
7192:
6985:
6810:
6671:
6631:
6601:
6586:
6559:
6469:
6372:
6312:
6302:
6231:
6193:
6158:
6079:
5997:
5992:
5920:
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5734:
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5704:
5694:
5614:
5602:
5481:
5394:
5196:
4906:
4674:
4380:
4261:
4194:
4059:
4058:
as a side-product. Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and
3980:
3729:. When the proton is accepted by a base, the resulting species is termed that base's
3525:
3488:
3482:
2877:
2869:
2699:
2541:
2506:
1675:
1664:
1647:
1614:
970:
962:
782:
555:
550:
417:
in 1828. Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include
398:
391:
365:
353:
352:
tried to establish theories of experimentally observed chemical transformations. The
302:
294:
262:
231:
219:
196:
192:
169:
142:
available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms.
116:
78:
74:
50:
10775:
8769:
8513:
8482:
8245:
8216:
8016:
7987:
7556:
7500:
7245:
5035:
and enzyme-controlled processes result in the production of large molecules such as
4143:) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include
2659:, reactions may proceed in the forward or reverse direction until they end or reach
12546:
12453:
12428:
12314:
12159:
12129:
12073:
11998:
11930:
11685:
11635:
11480:
11285:
11060:
11055:
11000:
10990:
10765:
10575:
10555:
10525:
10422:
10358:
10343:
10174:
10129:
10119:
10109:
10004:
9984:
9979:
9964:
9959:
9839:
9834:
9774:
9759:
9749:
9594:
9584:
9450:
9440:
9340:
9335:
9310:
9250:
9102:
9061:
8835:
8773:
8764:
8711:
8702:
Woodward, R.B.; Hoffmann, R. (1965). "Stereochemistry of
Electrocyclic Reactions".
8672:
8548:
8486:
8477:
8371:
8249:
8240:
8220:
8211:
8138:
8103:
8020:
8011:
7991:
7982:
7560:
7551:
7529:
7504:
7495:
7274:
7249:
7240:
7144:
7118:
7113:
7093:
7078:
6919:
6909:
6689:
6616:
6352:
6236:
6153:
5808:
5667:
5644:
5597:
5538:
5266:
5246:
5188:
5023:
The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively known as
4842:
4831:
4765:
4466:
4257:
4188:
3893:
3722:
3678:
3670:
3613:
3600:
2533:
2529:
2091:
1995:
1293:
is endothermic at low temperatures, becoming less so with increasing temperature. Î
777:
reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other. Their merger is called
609:
559:
322:
270:
266:
95:
The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called
89:
9430:
8107:
5015:, a small part of the enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined by
134:, while others may require heat to enable the reaction to occur, which are called
12578:
12498:
12224:
11915:
11750:
11745:
11040:
11025:
10970:
10925:
10885:
10835:
10800:
10795:
10740:
10735:
10670:
10620:
10540:
10368:
10252:
10227:
10189:
10164:
10149:
10134:
10069:
9944:
9894:
9884:
9864:
9824:
9634:
9624:
9609:
9405:
9325:
9195:
9165:
9150:
9145:
8335:
7711:
7598:
Kandori, Hideki (2006). "Retinal
Binding Proteins". In Dugave, Christophe (ed.).
7461:
7173:
7154:
7068:
6835:
6750:
6606:
6596:
6581:
6539:
6444:
6394:
6345:
6094:
6050:
6045:
5939:
5915:
5749:
5712:
5565:
5555:
5438:
4973:
4450:
4075:
3694:
3383:
3363:
3351:
3336:
2537:
2498:
1480:
1113:
1104:
1095:
is negative and energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are
513:
502:
326:
318:
310:
100:
4323:, an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or
689:, in which the cis-form of a compound converts to the trans-form or vice versa.
12473:
12418:
12229:
12139:
12078:
11170:
11080:
11050:
10825:
10680:
10417:
10194:
10064:
9879:
9849:
9549:
9445:
9220:
9082:
8982:
8602:
7918:
7887:
7149:
7098:
7073:
6877:
6842:
6775:
6765:
6681:
6661:
6656:
6641:
6611:
6591:
6549:
6527:
6509:
6409:
6399:
6335:
5978:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5901:
5897:
5880:
5837:
5768:
5629:
5624:
5609:
5421:
5339:
5165:
5056:
5047:
studies the sources of energy for such reactions. Important energy sources are
4523:
4484:
4324:
4237:
4156:
4047:
4043:
4032:
4016:
3730:
3726:
3658:
3624:
3347:
2883:
1286:
990:
725:
717:
619:
306:
286:
185:
139:
70:
9029:
4838:. This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of CâC bonds.
3888:) of the involved substances. A special case of the acid-base reaction is the
666:
12562:
12483:
12239:
11940:
11785:
11680:
11475:
10865:
10830:
10820:
10755:
10745:
10635:
10472:
10288:
9999:
9974:
9844:
9490:
9475:
9460:
9355:
9285:
9265:
9180:
8768:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
8676:
8481:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
8321:
8303:
Advanced
Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure, 3rd edition
8244:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
8215:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
8015:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
7986:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
7877:
7852:
Wilbraham, Antony; Stanley, Dennis; Waterman, Edward; Matta, Michael (2012).
7555:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
7499:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
7347:
7278:
7244:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
7197:
7056:
7016:
6980:
6936:
6862:
6825:
6743:
6666:
6434:
6429:
6382:
6362:
6183:
6072:
6028:
5753:
5587:
5582:
5575:
5453:
5143:
5116:
5072:
5044:
5040:
4968:
4941:
4789:
4695:
4682:
4435:
4328:
4210:
4198:
4160:
4024:
3674:
2760:
2007:
686:
572:
387:
379:
330:
278:
274:
123:
62:
8839:
8777:
8608:
8490:
8253:
8224:
8024:
7995:
7564:
7508:
7253:
4857:
4694:
formation of the double bond, takes place with the elimination of a proton (
4391:
973:
of reaction must be zero. The pressure dependence can be explained with the
254:, for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with
12398:
11280:
10640:
10392:
10169:
9769:
9569:
9420:
9415:
9280:
9135:
8150:
6953:
6897:
6847:
6830:
6651:
6424:
6357:
6060:
5910:
5825:
5801:
5791:
5783:
5684:
5619:
5518:
5367:
5256:
5127:
5076:
4996:
4480:
4398:
4372:
4364:
4360:
4241:
4225:
3662:
3511:
2199:
1998:. More realistic models are tailored to a specific problem and include the
1635:
357:
349:
345:
165:
8847:
8818:
Trost, B. (1991). "The atom economy â a search for synthetic efficiency".
8115:
7656:
4870:
4228:
to create smaller, simpler molecules. This process is used to manufacture
4119:
in order to maximize their surface area. This exhaust converter is from a
3892:
where an acid and a base, taken at the exact same amounts, form a neutral
3685:, whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the
126:
at a given temperature and chemical concentration. Some reactions produce
9779:
9425:
9395:
9160:
8663:
Diels, O.; Alder, K. (1928). "Synthesen in der hydroaromatischen Reihe".
8375:
8297:
7533:
7384:
6958:
6924:
6798:
6788:
6731:
6714:
6699:
6646:
6544:
5458:
5139:
5087:
5012:
4961:
4823:
4769:
4690:
4686:
4439:
4320:
4302:
4284:
4233:
4221:
4168:
4120:
3995:
2993:
2752:
2011:
1653:
1108:
774:
721:
636:
496:
375:
282:
239:
86:
81:
is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of
8715:
5281:
5160:
substances in the human body. Faster reactions are usually studied with
5122:
Some specific reactions have their niche applications. For example, the
4363:. Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms,
4042:
Many important processes involve photochemistry. The premier example is
449:
12063:
11590:
10940:
8552:
6992:
6914:
6852:
6820:
6760:
6454:
6084:
5241:
5024:
5016:
4884:
4807:
4202:
3943:
3666:
3574:, can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents.
3539:
2977:
1290:
1096:
671:
558:
are used to graphically illustrate chemical reactions. They consist of
361:
235:
181:
9014:
8142:
7265:
4988:
4845:
proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are the basis of the
222:
developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen.
12338:
8913:
8868:
7002:
6929:
6803:
6783:
6755:
6694:
6146:
5448:
5313:
5236:
5100:
5028:
5008:
4819:
4492:
4332:
4128:
4091:
4067:
4063:
3967:
3947:
3654:
3628:
3609:
3586:
3339:
is formed through the redox reaction of sodium metal and chlorine gas
3150:
2996:. For instance, the combustion of 1 mole (114 g) of octane in oxygen
2528:
Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of
2339:
2027:
1888:
994:
243:
173:
150:
111:, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the
73:(no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a
38:
8055:
Meyer, H. JĂźrgen (2007). "FestkĂśrperchemie". In Erwin Riedel (ed.).
4102:
1483:
change, which takes into account changes in the entropy, volume and
9470:
9140:
8960:(in German) (3rd ed.). MĂźnchen: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag.
8183:
6738:
6719:
6704:
6404:
6168:
5214:
5123:
5112:
5068:
4918:
4902:
4336:
4229:
4176:
4132:
3682:
3605:
3379:
3368:
2517:
anion switches places with the 2Cl anion, giving the compounds BaSO
2207:
1694:, which could be the disintegration of a substance A, is given by:
1660:
1641:
1621:
998:
613:
406:
82:
58:
54:
26:
21:
8975:
Wiberg, Egon, Wiberg, Nils and
Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001).
8631:
8035:
5011:
only a single, specific reaction. The reaction takes place in the
9130:
8514:
Latscha, Hans Peter; Kazmaier, Uli; Klein, Helmut Alfons (2008).
6872:
6414:
6188:
5231:
5209:
5131:
5048:
5036:
5004:
5000:
4722:
4469:) of the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the S
4206:
4172:
4148:
4051:
4008:
3951:
3324:
2980:
reaction, an element or compound reacts with an oxidant, usually
2756:
1462:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO(g) + H2O({v}) <=> CO2(g) + H2(g)}}}
1002:
334:
96:
8578:"Chapter 18: Enols and Enolates â The Michael Addition reaction"
8036:
Wingender, JÜrg; Ortanderl, Stefanie (July 2009). "Ausfällung".
7910:
3950:
or microcrystalline residue and a slow process can yield single
3136:{\displaystyle {\ce {C8H18(l) + 25/2 O2(g)->8CO2 + 9H2O(l)}}}
6419:
6340:
6291:
5108:
5064:
4957:
4751:
4735:
4710:
4488:
4344:
4144:
4071:
4055:
4020:
4004:
3714:
3646:
3639:
3375:
3154:
3146:
2981:
2203:
2087:
1300:
628:
538:
255:
180:. Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that
177:
57:
reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of
16:
Process that results in the interconversion of chemical species
7394:. Boca Raton, Florida: Acid Engineering & Consulting, Inc.
5134:. Although it is less controllable than the more conventional
4115:
Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic
3585:
of the reactant element. Elements try to reach the low-energy
3332:
1304:, and the reaction becomes exothermic above that temperature.
1228:{\displaystyle {\ce {2CO(g) + MoO2(s) -> 2CO2(g) + Mo(s)}}}
7298:
Promethean Ambitions: Alchemy and the Quest to Perfect Nature
5168:
4953:
4922:
4793:
4785:
4768:, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double bond forming a
4442:. This is followed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile.
4340:
3343:
3145:
releases 5500 kJ. A combustion reaction can also result from
2989:
826:
700:) resulting in two molecular fragments. The splitting can be
632:
433:, who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of
426:
154:
146:
8603:
Lechner, Manfred; Gehrke, Klaus; Nordmeier, Eckhard (2003).
4976:
products upon cycloaddition is limited, as described by the
4661:
Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution
1874:
is the first-order rate constant, having dimension 1/time, (
1860:{\displaystyle {\ce {}}(t)={\ce {}}_{0}\cdot e^{-k\cdot t}.}
7700:
7698:
7696:
7694:
6793:
6726:
6709:
6377:
6163:
4926:
3718:
3599:
An important class of redox reactions are the electrolytic
2985:
2083:
1565:{\displaystyle {d}U=T\cdot {d}S-p\cdot {d}V+\mu \cdot {d}n}
410:
290:
251:
247:
127:
66:
46:
4209:, etc.). Many specific reactions in organic chemistry are
2641:{\displaystyle {\ce {Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI->PbI2(v) + 2KNO3}}}
2437:{\displaystyle {\ce {Mg + 2H2O->Mg(OH)2 (v) + H2 (^)}}}
940:{\displaystyle {\ce {NaCl + AgNO3 -> NaNO3 + AgCl(v)}}}
8788:
6260:
6173:
5104:
5032:
4621:
4003:, a photoexcited carbonyl group is added to an unexcited
3425:
3292:
3265:
3196:
3115:
3095:
3064:
3027:
3014:
2634:
2609:
2583:
2570:
2425:
2404:
2374:
2271:
2255:
2232:
2122:
1444:
1417:
1348:
1275:{\displaystyle \Delta H^{o}=+21.86\ {\text{kJ at 298 K}}}
1193:
1162:
922:
906:
713:
8264:
8128:
7691:
5020:
catalysis), electrostatic interactions and many others.
4992:
Illustration of the induced fit model of enzyme activity
4216:
One of the most industrially important reactions is the
8175:
5156:
4405:. The nucleophile is green and the leaving group is red
3974:
480:
The general characteristics of chemical reactions are:
321:, allowing large-scale production of sulfuric acid and
7714:
Utah State Office of Education. Retrieved 4 June 2011.
4159:
metals and other transition metals, which are used in
3785:
3044:
2338:
One example of a single displacement reaction is when
1613:
The speed at which reactions take place is studied by
1388:
7408:
The German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century
4600:
4537:
4423:
2 reaction causes stereo inversion (Walden inversion)
3739:
3392:
3236:
3163:
3002:
2851:
2681:
2550:
2461:
2352:
2302:
2216:
2168:
2100:
2052:
1994:. One of the simplest models of reaction rate is the
1904:
1786:
1703:
1502:
1319:
1241:
1129:
1016:
888:
842:
794:
768:
Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and B
737:
716:. Dissociation plays an important role in triggering
269:
as described in the works (c. 850â950) attributed to
92:
where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.
49:
are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an
12205:
ErlenmeyerâPlĂśchl azlactone and amino-acid synthesis
9025:. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 26â33.
7404:
7385:
Friedman, Leonard J.; Friedman, Samantha J. (2008).
5178:
5027:. Among the most important of its mechanisms is the
4952:(the so-called cycloaddition) between a conjugated
4852:
4167:
and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as
4074:
in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that results in
3910:
O ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH ions.
3464:{\displaystyle {\ce {2Na(s) + Cl2(g)->2NaCl(s)}}}
99:. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a
4046:, in which most plants use solar energy to convert
4023:) of the illumination light and convert it into an
1617:. The rate depends on various parameters, such as:
1080:: difference (change between original and product)
4650:
4585:
4355:. The latter have high electron density and enter
3860:
3463:
3309:
3223:
3135:
2860:
2690:
2640:
2487:
2436:
2328:
2277:
2188:
2138:
2072:
1965:
1859:
1766:
1564:
1461:
1274:
1227:
1049:
993:. Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are
939:
868:
814:
757:
11266:Divinylcyclopropane-cycloheptadiene rearrangement
8861:Weismantel, Guy E (1999). John J. McKetta (ed.).
8860:
7876:
4182:
3906:definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H
3793:
3792:
3775:
3774:
2650:
1487:. The latter depends, among other things, on the
1396:
1395:
1378:
1377:
1050:{\displaystyle \Delta G=\Delta H-T\cdot \Delta S}
989:Chemical reactions are determined by the laws of
12560:
8701:
8054:
7778:"20.3: Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Reactions"
7576:Frenking, Gernot (2006). "Elementarreaktionen".
7575:
7388:The History of the Contact Sulfuric Acid Process
4861:The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadiene
4514:Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitution
571:. Equations should be balanced according to the
9059:
8333:
7597:
5126:reaction is used to generate light and heat in
4586:{\displaystyle {\ce {X. + R-H -> X-H + R.}}}
3310:{\displaystyle {\ce {S(s) + O2(g)->SO2(g)}}}
3224:{\displaystyle {\ce {2Mg(s) + O2->2MgO(s)}}}
2198:One example of a decomposition reaction is the
537:, a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the
226:Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire,
45:to another. When chemical reactions occur, the
11526:Thermal rearrangement of aromatic hydrocarbons
10160:Thermal rearrangement of aromatic hydrocarbons
8864:Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design
7459:
7361:
4651:{\displaystyle {\ce {R. + X2 -> R-X + X.}}}
4383:of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular.
2706:Reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water.
122:Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic
12354:
12255:Lectka enantioselective beta-lactam synthesis
9515:
9045:
8632:Fox, Marye Anne; Whitesell, James K. (2004).
7753:"11.5: Spontaneous Reactions and Free Energy"
7747:
7745:
6276:
5297:
4811:Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanism
4434:1 reaction proceeds in two steps. First, the
1479:Reactions can also be characterized by their
340:From the 16th century, researchers including
160:Different chemical reactions are used during
12034:Inverse electron-demand DielsâAlder reaction
9855:Heterogeneous metal catalyzed cross-coupling
9005:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
8296:
7362:Karpenko, VladimĂr; Norris, John A. (2002).
4062:is initiated by a photochemical reaction of
2992:. Combustion reactions frequently involve a
2876:Charging a normal DC battery (consisting of
1966:{\displaystyle k=k_{0}e^{{-E_{a}}/{k_{B}T}}}
567:pointing in opposite directions is used for
246:. They attempted, in particular, to convert
53:as new products are generated. Classically,
11376:Lobry de BruynâVan Ekenstein transformation
4668:
4522:. This process usually takes the form of a
4347:. This type of reaction is found mainly in
3374:In the following redox reaction, hazardous
2488:{\displaystyle {\ce {AB + CD->AD + CB}}}
2012:RiceâRamspergerâKasselâMarcus (RRKM) theory
1767:{\displaystyle v=-{\frac {d}{dt}}=k\cdot .}
869:{\displaystyle {\ce {HA + B -> A + HB}}}
242:, chemical transformations were studied by
164:in order to obtain the desired product. In
12361:
12347:
9052:
9038:
8732:Karlson Biochemistry and Pathobiochemistry
8662:
8085:
7770:
7742:
7717:
7651:
7649:
7320:
6283:
6269:
5304:
5290:
4755:Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide
3990:
3354:). In this process, the former species is
3319:
2880:) from an external electrical power source
386:, which later resulted in the concepts of
11866:Petrenko-Kritschenko piperidone synthesis
11321:FritschâButtenbergâWiechell rearrangement
8908:Atkins, Peter W.; Julio de Paula (2006).
8518:(in German). Vol. 2 (6th ed.).
7330:Institut Français d'ArchÊologie Orientale
5311:
4890:Orbital overlap in a Diels-Alder reaction
4828:alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound
3445:
3397:
3205:
3168:
3104:
3084:
2623:
2592:
2363:
2342:replaces hydrogen in water to make solid
2329:{\displaystyle {\ce {A + BC->AC + B}}}
2278:{\displaystyle {\ce {2H2O->2H2 + O2}}}
2244:
2221:
2139:{\displaystyle {\ce {8Fe + S8->8FeS}}}
2131:
2105:
1182:
1134:
541:gas on the reactants side and before the
12029:Intramolecular DielsâAlder cycloaddition
8704:Journal of the American Chemical Society
8516:Organische Chemie: Chemie-basiswissen II
8292:
8290:
8131:Journal of the American Chemical Society
7300:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5086:
4987:
4983:
4909:of the original molecule. These include
4856:
4806:
4750:
4734:
4509:
4110:
4101:
3994:
3961:
3930:
3623:
3331:
3323:
2984:, often producing energy in the form of
2026:
665:
618:
512:
214:
115:. Chemical reactions are described with
20:
8542:
7646:
7601:Cis-trans Isomerization in Biochemistry
4834:, which belongs to the larger class of
3768:
3631:â an iron atom sandwiched between two C
1371:
950:
696:reaction, a bond in a molecule splits (
649:
12561:
12368:
12049:Metal-centered cycloaddition reactions
11701:DebusâRadziszewski imidazole synthesis
9645:BodrouxâChichibabin aldehyde synthesis
7292:
6903:Integrated gasification combined cycle
5055:, which can be produced by plants via
4147:where the catalyst becomes covered by
3700:
3693:. Complexation reactions also include
2446:
2287:
815:{\displaystyle {\ce {A + B -> AB}}}
758:{\displaystyle {\ce {AB -> A + B}}}
12342:
12195:Diazoalkane 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition
12099:Vinylcyclopropane (5+2) cycloaddition
12004:Diazoalkane 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition
11776:HurdâMori 1,2,3-thiadiazole synthesis
11271:DowdâBeckwith ring-expansion reaction
10438:HurdâMori 1,2,3-thiadiazole synthesis
9514:
9351:LFER solvent coefficients (data page)
9033:
8817:
8575:
8287:
7593:
7591:
7519:
7364:"Vitriol in the History of Chemistry"
7264:
6947:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
6622:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy
6264:
5285:
4019:, atoms and molecules absorb energy (
3954:. The latter can also be obtained by
2836:
364:. This proved to be false in 1785 by
12529:
11006:Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation
10243:Methoxymethylenetriphenylphosphorane
8789:Emig, Gerhard; Klemm, Elias (2005).
7828:"Photosynthesis of Exoplanet Plants"
7180:
6219:
4213:designated after their discoverers.
3975:Reactions at the solid/gas interface
3872:acid and base dissociation constants
2666:
2189:{\displaystyle {\ce {AB->A + B}}}
2073:{\displaystyle {\ce {A + B->AB}}}
1670:For some reactions, the presence of
444:
11131:AllenâMillarâTrippett rearrangement
8337:Aliphatic Nucleophilic Substitution
7204:
7089:World energy supply and consumption
6243:
5007:, which are usually specialized to
4876:Mechanism of a Diels-Alder reaction
4497:electrophilic aromatic substitution
4201:between carbon atoms or carbon and
3645:In complexation reactions, several
2022:
674:, induced by light (hν) or heat (Î)
13:
12270:Nitrone-olefin (3+2) cycloaddition
12265:Niementowski quinazoline synthesis
12054:Nitrone-olefin (3+2) cycloaddition
11979:Azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition
11841:Niementowski quinazoline synthesis
11596:Azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition
10901:MeerweinâPonndorfâVerley reduction
10453:LeimgruberâBatcho indole synthesis
8765:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
8665:Justus Liebig's Annalen der Chemie
8478:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
8241:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
8212:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
8012:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
7983:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
7588:
7552:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
7496:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
7241:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
5272:Reaction progress kinetic analysis
5095:Chemical reactions are central to
4357:nucleophilic aromatic substitution
4098:Reaction Progress Kinetic Analysis
3649:react with a metal atom to form a
2852:
2682:
1242:
1041:
1026:
1017:
440:
14:
12590:
12094:Trimethylenemethane cycloaddition
11796:JohnsonâCoreyâChaykovsky reaction
11661:CadoganâSundberg indole synthesis
11641:BohlmannâRahtz pyridine synthesis
11601:BaeyerâEmmerling indole synthesis
10408:CadoganâSundberg indole synthesis
9900:JohnsonâCoreyâChaykovsky reaction
8265:Elschenbroich, Christoph (2008).
4999:are mainly controlled by complex
4853:Other organic reaction mechanisms
3681:will collectively accommodate 18
2017:
1878:) is the concentration at a time
984:
12540:
12528:
12517:
12516:
12190:CookâHeilbron thiazole synthesis
12019:Hexadehydro DielsâAlder reaction
11846:Niementowski quinoline synthesis
11676:CookâHeilbron thiazole synthesis
11621:BischlerâMĂśhlau indole synthesis
11531:TiffeneauâDemjanov rearrangement
11161:BakerâVenkataraman rearrangement
10319:HornerâWadsworthâEmmons reaction
9990:Mizoroki-Heck vs. Reductive Heck
9875:HornerâWadsworthâEmmons reaction
9386:Neighbouring group participation
8176:Saunders, David Stanley (2002).
7203:
7191:
7179:
7168:
7167:
6242:
6230:
6218:
6207:
6206:
5181:
4883:
4869:
4782:hydroborationâoxidation reaction
4721:
4709:
4412:
4390:
4301:
4283:
3926:
3653:. This is achieved by providing
3328:Illustration of a redox reaction
2151:
623:An example of organic reaction:
448:
145:A reaction may be classified as
11726:Fiesselmann thiophene synthesis
11556:WestphalenâLettrĂŠ rearrangement
11536:Vinylcyclopropane rearrangement
11366:KornblumâDeLaMare rearrangement
11011:Epoxidation of allylic alcohols
10921:Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation
10856:KornblumâDeLaMare rearrangement
10531:GallagherâHollander degradation
8901:
8885:
8854:
8811:
8782:
8753:
8722:
8695:
8683:
8656:
8625:
8596:
8584:
8569:
8543:Denmark, Scott E., ed. (2004).
8536:
8507:
8495:
8466:
8454:
8442:
8430:
8418:
8406:
8394:
8382:
8368:Journal of the Chemical Society
8358:
8327:
8258:
8229:
8200:
8169:
8157:
8122:
8079:
8048:
8029:
8000:
7971:
7959:
7947:
7935:
7914:Advances in Inorganic Chemistry
7904:
7870:
7845:
7820:
7795:
7725:"8.3: Le Châtelier's Principle"
7679:
7667:
7634:
7622:
7569:
7540:
7513:
7484:
7453:
5082:
4247:
3707:BrønstedâLowry acidâbase theory
3619:
3382:gas to form the ionic compound
2890:usually in the form of sunlight
333:was developed in 1909â1910 for
61:in the forming and breaking of
37:is a process that leads to the
12185:Chichibabin pyridine synthesis
11671:Chichibabin pyridine synthesis
11631:BlumâIttah aziridine synthesis
11466:Ring expansion and contraction
9735:Cross dehydrogenative coupling
7441:
7429:
7398:
7378:
7355:
7314:
7285:
7258:
7229:
4940:Cyclic rearrangements include
4784:, wherein the first step, the
4624:
4559:
4183:Reactions in organic chemistry
3795:
3770:
3661:of the metal atom and forming
3456:
3450:
3439:
3435:
3429:
3408:
3402:
3302:
3296:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3248:
3242:
3216:
3210:
3199:
3179:
3173:
3128:
3122:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3037:
3031:
2651:Forward and backward reactions
2613:
2596:
2573:
2557:
2472:
2429:
2408:
2394:
2388:
2380:
2313:
2238:
2173:
2125:
2063:
1821:
1815:
1806:
1800:
1795:
1789:
1758:
1750:
1727:
1719:
1454:
1448:
1427:
1421:
1398:
1373:
1363:
1355:
1331:
1325:
1220:
1214:
1203:
1197:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1145:
1139:
932:
909:
853:
805:
742:
405:. According to the concept of
313:. With the development of the
309:by reacting sulfuric acid and
1:
12155:BischlerâNapieralski reaction
12113:Heterocycle forming reactions
11766:Hemetsberger indole synthesis
11626:BischlerâNapieralski reaction
11541:WagnerâMeerwein rearrangement
11511:SommeletâHauser rearrangement
11491:SeyferthâGilbert homologation
11356:IrelandâClaisen rearrangement
11351:HofmannâMartius rearrangement
11111:2,3-sigmatropic rearrangement
10726:CoreyâWinter olefin synthesis
10651:BartonâMcCombie deoxygenation
10294:CoreyâWinter olefin synthesis
10248:SeyferthâGilbert homologation
10115:SeyferthâGilbert homologation
8955:
8934:Viewegs Geschichte der Chemie
8735:(in German) (16th ed.).
8689:
8590:
8501:
8448:
8436:
8424:
8412:
8400:
8388:
8182:(Third ed.). Amsterdam:
8108:10.1126/science.278.5345.1931
7883:Advances in Protein Chemistry
7856:. Pearson. pp. 734â735.
7222:
5571:Interface and colloid science
5325:Glossary of chemical formulae
5149:
4915:Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement
3985:scanning tunneling microscopy
3958:from microcrystalline salts.
2971:
1983:is the activation energy and
1659:The presence or absence of a
413:from inorganic precursors by
103:, and they yield one or more
41:transformation of one set of
12260:LehmstedtâTanasescu reaction
12220:GabrielâColman rearrangement
12175:Bucherer carbazole synthesis
12170:BorscheâDrechsel cyclization
12150:Bernthsen acridine synthesis
12135:Bamberger triazine synthesis
12120:AlgarâFlynnâOyamada reaction
11831:Nazarov cyclization reaction
11696:De Kimpe aziridine synthesis
11651:Bucherer carbazole synthesis
11646:BorscheâDrechsel cyclization
11416:Nazarov cyclization reaction
11396:MeyerâSchuster rearrangement
11326:GabrielâColman rearrangement
11076:WolffensteinâBĂśters reaction
10961:Reduction of nitro compounds
10811:Grundmann aldehyde synthesis
10616:AlgarâFlynnâOyamada reaction
10025:Olefin conversion technology
10020:NozakiâHiyamaâKishi reaction
9815:GabrielâColman rearrangement
9705:Claisen-Schmidt condensation
9650:Bouveault aldehyde synthesis
8793:(in German) (5th ed.).
8061:(in German) (3rd ed.).
5162:ultrafast laser spectroscopy
5075:is also within the scope of
4465:). In contrast, a reversal (
4085:
2453:double displacement reaction
2294:single displacement reaction
2035:
1491:of the involved substances.
508:
419:Alexander William Williamson
172:. These reactions are often
7:
12504:Volume combustion synthesis
12235:Hantzsch pyridine synthesis
12014:Enoneâalkene cycloadditions
11836:Nenitzescu indole synthesis
11756:Hantzsch pyridine synthesis
11721:FerrarioâAckermann reaction
11371:Kowalski ester homologation
11336:Halogen dance rearrangement
11181:Benzilic acid rearrangement
10606:Akabori amino-acid reaction
10566:Von Braun amide degradation
10511:BarbierâWieland degradation
10463:Nenitzescu indole synthesis
10443:KharaschâSosnovsky reaction
10334:JuliaâKocienski olefination
10238:Kowalski ester homologation
9935:Kowalski ester homologation
9910:JuliaâKocienski olefination
9665:CadiotâChodkiewicz coupling
9590:Aza-BaylisâHillman reaction
9535:Acetoacetic ester synthesis
9246:Dynamic binding (chemistry)
9236:Conrotatory and disrotatory
9211:Charge remote fragmentation
8974:
8956:BrĂźckner, Reinhard (2004).
8937:(in German). Braunschweig:
8907:
8891:
8460:
8269:(6th ed.). Wiesbaden:
8163:
7965:
7953:
7941:
7917:. Vol. 36. San Diego:
7886:. Vol. 42. San Diego:
7685:
7673:
7640:
7628:
5848:Bioorganometallic chemistry
5335:List of inorganic compounds
5174:
4901:, the carbon skeleton of a
4847:free-radical polymerization
4361:electron withdrawing groups
4205:(such as oxygen, nitrogen,
3592:The overall redox reaction
1608:
384:law of definite proportions
10:
12595:
12434:Enantioselective synthesis
12300:RobinsonâGabriel synthesis
12250:KrĂśhnke pyridine synthesis
12084:Retro-DielsâAlder reaction
12024:Imine DielsâAlder reaction
11811:KrĂśhnke pyridine synthesis
11426:NewmanâKwart rearrangement
11401:MislowâEvans rearrangement
11311:FischerâHepp rearrangement
11256:Di-Ď-methane rearrangement
11036:Stephen aldehyde synthesis
10771:EschweilerâClarke reaction
10488:Williamson ether synthesis
9805:FujiwaraâMoritani reaction
9710:Combes quinoline synthesis
9675:Carbonyl olefin metathesis
9376:More O'FerrallâJencks plot
9301:GrunwaldâWinstein equation
9271:Electron-withdrawing group
9206:Catalytic resonance theory
8931:Brock, William H. (1997).
8930:
8912:(4th ed.). Weinheim:
8342:Cambridge University Press
8058:Modern Inorganic Chemistry
7501:chemical reaction equation
7468:Greenwood Publishing Group
7447:
7435:
7413:Kluwer Academic Publishers
6290:
5774:Dynamic covalent chemistry
5745:Enantioselective synthesis
5725:Physical organic chemistry
5678:Organolanthanide chemistry
4477:Electrophilic substitution
4186:
4095:
4089:
3717:(H) from one species (the
2155:
2039:
954:
548:
517:As seen from the equation
210:
12512:
12439:Fully automated synthesis
12384:Artificial gene synthesis
12376:
12310:Urech hydantoin synthesis
12290:PomeranzâFritsch reaction
12215:Fischer oxazole synthesis
12112:
11949:1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition
11939:
11921:Urech hydantoin synthesis
11891:Reissert indole synthesis
11876:PomeranzâFritsch reaction
11806:Knorr quinoline synthesis
11736:Fischer oxazole synthesis
11666:Camps quinoline synthesis
11586:1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition
11574:
11486:Semipinacol rearrangement
11461:RambergâBäcklund reaction
11446:Piancatelli rearrangement
11386:McFadyenâStevens reaction
11141:Alpha-ketol rearrangement
11089:
10896:McFadyenâStevens reaction
10841:KilianiâFischer synthesis
10761:Elbs persulfate oxidation
10686:BouveaultâBlanc reduction
10646:BaeyerâVilliger oxidation
10584:
10501:
10478:SchottenâBaumann reaction
10381:
10354:RambergâBäcklund reaction
10261:
10233:KilianiâFischer synthesis
10213:
10075:RambergâBäcklund reaction
10060:Pinacol coupling reaction
10055:Piancatelli rearrangement
9950:LiebeskindâSrogl coupling
9800:FujimotoâBelleau reaction
9523:
9517:List of organic reactions
9381:Negative hyperconjugation
9126:
9068:
7705:To react or not to react?
7163:
7137:
7013:
6893:Fossil fuel power station
6861:
6774:
6680:
6555:Electric potential energy
6520:
6500:Thermodynamic temperature
6480:Thermodynamic free energy
6475:Thermodynamic equilibrium
6321:
6298:
6202:
6105:
5866:
5782:
5703:
5653:
5529:
5472:
5363:Electroanalytical methods
5348:
5320:
5262:Microscopic reversibility
5252:List of organic reactions
4826:to the double bond of an
4677:and its counterpart, the
4438:is eliminated creating a
3657:of the ligand into empty
2888:electromagnetic radiation
2843:non-spontaneous reactions
2002:, the calculation of the
1672:electromagnetic radiation
12414:Custom peptide synthesis
12285:PictetâSpengler reaction
12200:EinhornâBrunner reaction
12165:Boger pyridine synthesis
12059:Oxo-DielsâAlder reaction
11974:Aza-DielsâAlder reaction
11871:PictetâSpengler reaction
11771:HofmannâLĂśffler reaction
11761:Hegedus indole synthesis
11731:Fischer indole synthesis
11606:Bartoli indole synthesis
11561:Willgerodt rearrangement
11391:McLafferty rearrangement
11301:Ferrier carbocyclization
11116:2,3-Wittig rearrangement
11106:1,2-Wittig rearrangement
10946:ParikhâDoering oxidation
10936:Oxygen rebound mechanism
10601:AdkinsâPeterson reaction
10493:Yamaguchi esterification
10433:Hegedus indole synthesis
10398:Bartoli indole synthesis
10269:BamfordâStevens reaction
10185:Weinreb ketone synthesis
10145:Stork enamine alkylation
9920:Knoevenagel condensation
9790:Ferrier carbocyclization
9680:CastroâStephens coupling
9306:Hammett acidity function
9296:Free-energy relationship
9241:CurtinâHammett principle
9226:Conformational isomerism
8677:10.1002/jlac.19284600106
8605:Macromolecular Chemistry
8580:. University of Calgary.
8334:Hartshorn, S.R. (1973).
7988:conjugate acidâbase pair
7657:"F*A*C*T - REACTION-Web"
7522:Chemical Society Reviews
7279:10.1002/ciuz.19730070604
6964:Concentrated solar power
6118:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
6034:Supramolecular chemistry
5673:Organometallic chemistry
4905:is rearranged to give a
4796:attacks the boron atom.
4669:Addition and elimination
4139:) or in the same phase (
3386:, or common table salt:
3378:metal reacts with toxic
2886:driven by absorption of
2861:{\displaystyle \Delta G}
2691:{\displaystyle \Delta G}
2657:Le Chatelier's Principle
2004:potential energy surface
1777:Its integration yields:
1309:water gas shift reaction
975:Le Chatelier's principle
356:was proposed in 1667 by
69:, with no change to the
12245:Knorr pyrrole synthesis
12180:BuchererâBergs reaction
12125:AllanâRobinson reaction
12104:Wagner-Jauregg reaction
11896:Ring-closing metathesis
11821:Larock indole synthesis
11801:Knorr pyrrole synthesis
11656:BuchererâBergs reaction
11521:Stieglitz rearrangement
11501:Skattebøl rearrangement
11471:Ring-closing metathesis
11331:Group transfer reaction
11296:Favorskii rearrangement
11236:Cornforth rearrangement
11166:Bamberger rearrangement
11071:WolffâKishner reduction
10891:MarkĂłâLam deoxygenation
10786:FlemingâTamao oxidation
10781:FischerâTropsch process
10468:Oxymercuration reaction
10448:Knorr pyrrole synthesis
10274:BartonâKellogg reaction
10180:Wagner-Jauregg reaction
10100:Ring-closing metathesis
10090:ReimerâTiemann reaction
10080:RauhutâCurrier reaction
9995:Nef isocyanide reaction
9955:Malonic ester synthesis
9925:Knorr pyrrole synthesis
9860:High dilution principle
9795:FriedelâCrafts reaction
9730:Cross-coupling reaction
9655:BuchererâBergs reaction
9640:Blanc chloromethylation
9630:Blaise ketone synthesis
9605:BaylisâHillman reaction
9600:BartonâKellogg reaction
9575:AllanâRobinson reaction
9481:WoodwardâHoffmann rules
9216:Charge-transfer complex
9022:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
9016:"Chemical Action"
8840:10.1126/science.1962206
8778:10.1351/goldbook.A00314
8607:(3rd ed.). Basel:
8491:10.1351/goldbook.M03707
8254:10.1351/goldbook.I03035
8225:10.1351/goldbook.C00876
8025:10.1351/goldbook.P04795
7996:10.1351/goldbook.C01266
7565:10.1351/goldbook.E02035
7509:10.1351/goldbook.C01034
7463:The Basics of Chemistry
7460:Myers, Richard (2009).
7254:10.1351/goldbook.C01033
6505:Volume (thermodynamics)
6485:Thermodynamic potential
6388:Massâenergy equivalence
6056:Combinatorial chemistry
5967:Food physical chemistry
5930:Environmental chemistry
5814:Bioorthogonal chemistry
5740:Retrosynthetic analysis
5561:Chemical thermodynamics
5544:Spectroelectrochemistry
5487:Computational chemistry
5227:Chemical reaction model
4978:WoodwardâHoffmann rules
4037:rearrangement reactions
4017:photochemical reactions
3991:Photochemical reactions
3713:involves a transfer of
3320:Oxidation and reduction
2000:transition state theory
1594:: number of molecules,
643:Retrosynthetic analysis
431:Christopher Kelk Ingold
372:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
342:Jan Baptist van Helmont
297:. In the 17th century,
273:, or the production of
12494:Solvothermal synthesis
12444:Hydrothermal synthesis
12210:FeistâBenary synthesis
11984:Bradsher cycloaddition
11954:4+4 Photocycloaddition
11911:SimmonsâSmith reaction
11856:PaternòâBĂźchi reaction
11716:FeistâBenary synthesis
11706:Dieckmann condensation
11456:Pummerer rearrangement
11436:Oxy-Cope rearrangement
11411:Myers allene synthesis
11361:Jacobsen rearrangement
11276:Electrocyclic reaction
11251:Demjanov rearrangement
11206:Buchner ring expansion
11176:Beckmann rearrangement
11156:Aza-Cope rearrangement
11151:ArndtâEistert reaction
11126:Alkyne zipper reaction
11046:Transfer hydrogenation
11021:Sharpless oxyamination
10996:Selenoxide elimination
10881:Lombardo methylenation
10806:Griesbaum coozonolysis
10716:CoreyâItsuno reduction
10691:BoylandâSims oxidation
10631:AngeliâRimini reaction
10279:Boord olefin synthesis
10223:ArndtâEistert reaction
10215:Homologation reactions
10015:Nitro-Mannich reaction
9930:KolbeâSchmitt reaction
9740:Cross-coupling partner
9660:Buchner ring expansion
9580:ArndtâEistert reaction
9346:Kinetic isotope effect
9093:Rearrangement reaction
7267:Chemie in unserer Zeit
6460:Quantum thermodynamics
6450:Laws of thermodynamics
6331:Conservation of energy
6128:of element discoveries
5974:Agricultural chemistry
5962:Carbohydrate chemistry
5853:Bioinorganic chemistry
5718:Alkane stereochemistry
5663:Coordination chemistry
5492:Mathematical chemistry
5358:Instrumental chemistry
5092:
5061:adenosine triphosphate
4993:
4960:to form a substituted
4913:reactions such as the
4899:rearrangement reaction
4862:
4812:
4762:electrophilic addition
4756:
4740:
4652:
4587:
4515:
4397:The three steps of an
4359:only with very strong
4349:aliphatic hydrocarbons
4124:
4108:
4029:radical polymerization
4012:
4001:PaternoâBĂźchi reaction
3936:
3862:
3642:
3583:electron configuration
3465:
3340:
3329:
3311:
3225:
3157:reacting with oxygen.
3137:
2862:
2692:
2642:
2489:
2438:
2330:
2279:
2190:
2158:Decomposition reaction
2140:
2074:
2032:
1967:
1861:
1768:
1590:: chemical potential,
1566:
1463:
1285:This reaction to form
1276:
1229:
1051:
969:. In equilibrium, the
941:
870:
816:
759:
675:
639:
546:
435:substitution reactions
329:in the 1880s, and the
299:Johann Rudolph Glauber
223:
199:and reactions between
30:
12489:Solid-phase synthesis
12069:PausonâKhand reaction
11906:Sharpless epoxidation
11861:Pechmann condensation
11741:Friedländer synthesis
11691:DavisâBeirut reaction
11546:Wallach rearrangement
11516:Stevens rearrangement
11451:Pinacol rearrangement
11431:Overman rearrangement
11346:Hofmann rearrangement
11341:Hayashi rearrangement
11306:Ferrier rearrangement
11261:Dimroth rearrangement
11246:Curtius rearrangement
11241:Criegee rearrangement
11221:Claisen rearrangement
11211:Carroll rearrangement
11146:Amadori rearrangement
11136:Allylic rearrangement
11016:Sharpless epoxidation
10751:DessâMartin oxidation
10676:BohnâSchmidt reaction
10536:Hofmann rearrangement
10339:Kauffmann olefination
10262:Olefination reactions
10200:WurtzâFittig reaction
10035:PalladiumâNHC complex
9915:Kauffmann olefination
9870:Homologation reaction
9720:CoreyâHouse synthesis
9700:Claisen rearrangement
9496:YukawaâTsuno equation
9456:SwainâLupton equation
9436:Spherical aromaticity
9371:MĂśbiusâHĂźckel concept
9156:Aromatic ring current
9118:Substitution reaction
8271:Vieweg+Teubner Verlag
7352:, vol. II, pp. 41â42.
6577:Interatomic potential
6368:Energy transformation
6123:Timeline of chemistry
6020:Post-mortem chemistry
6005:Clandestine chemistry
5935:Atmospheric chemistry
5858:Biophysical chemistry
5690:Solid-state chemistry
5640:Equilibrium chemistry
5549:Photoelectrochemistry
5164:where utilization of
5090:
5031:, in which different
4997:Biochemical reactions
4991:
4984:Biochemical reactions
4944:and, more generally,
4860:
4816:Nucleophilic addition
4810:
4801:nucleophilic addition
4754:
4738:
4653:
4588:
4513:
4319:In the first type, a
4254:substitution reaction
4114:
4105:
4096:Further information:
4080:atmospheric chemistry
3998:
3962:Solid-state reactions
3934:
3863:
3627:
3466:
3335:
3327:
3312:
3226:
3138:
2863:
2693:
2673:spontaneous reactions
2643:
2490:
2439:
2331:
2280:
2191:
2141:
2075:
2030:
1968:
1862:
1769:
1567:
1464:
1277:
1230:
1052:
942:
871:
817:
760:
669:
637:peroxycarboxylic acid
622:
569:equilibrium reactions
516:
358:Johann Joachim Becher
218:
136:endothermic reactions
97:reactants or reagents
24:
12409:Convergent synthesis
12389:Biomimetic synthesis
12275:PaalâKnorr synthesis
12145:BartonâZard reaction
12089:Staudinger synthesis
12039:Ketene cycloaddition
12009:DielsâAlder reaction
11989:Cheletropic reaction
11969:Alkyne trimerisation
11851:PaalâKnorr synthesis
11816:Kulinkovich reaction
11791:Jacobsen epoxidation
11711:DielsâAlder reaction
11506:Smiles rearrangement
11496:Sigmatropic reaction
11381:Lossen rearrangement
11231:CoreyâFuchs reaction
11196:Boekelheide reaction
11191:Bergmann degradation
11121:Achmatowicz reaction
10906:Methionine sulfoxide
10706:Clemmensen reduction
10666:Bergmann degradation
10596:Acyloin condensation
10561:Strecker degradation
10516:Bergmann degradation
10483:Ullmann condensation
10349:Peterson olefination
10324:Hydrazone iodination
10304:Elimination reaction
10205:ZinckeâSuhl reaction
10125:Sonogashira coupling
10085:Reformatsky reaction
10045:Peterson olefination
10010:Nierenstein reaction
9940:Kulinkovich reaction
9755:DielsâAlder reaction
9715:CoreyâFuchs reaction
9695:Claisen condensation
9565:Alkyne trimerisation
9540:Acyloin condensation
9506:ÎŁ-bishomoaromaticity
9466:ThorpeâIngold effect
9078:Elimination reaction
8958:Reaktionsmechanismen
8640:Jones & Bartlett
8376:10.1039/JR9400000979
8038:RĂśmpp Chemie-Lexikon
7832:Chemistry LibreTexts
7807:Chemistry LibreTexts
7803:"Electrolytic Cells"
7782:Chemistry LibreTexts
7757:Chemistry LibreTexts
7729:Chemistry LibreTexts
7578:RĂśmpp Chemie-Lexikon
7534:10.1039/CS9881700111
7025:Efficient energy use
6998:Airborne wind energy
6976:Solar thermal energy
6883:Electricity delivery
6495:Thermodynamic system
6440:Irreversible process
6113:History of chemistry
6068:Chemical engineering
5843:Bioorganic chemistry
5593:Structural chemistry
5330:List of biomolecules
5097:chemical engineering
5043:from smaller units.
4950:DielsâAlder reaction
4946:pericyclic reactions
4931:sigmatropic reaction
4830:can proceed via the
4598:
4535:
4353:aromatic hydrocarbon
4274:radical substitution
4117:catalytic converters
3737:
3687:crystal field theory
3651:coordination complex
3390:
3234:
3161:
3000:
2849:
2679:
2548:
2459:
2350:
2300:
2214:
2166:
2098:
2050:
1902:
1784:
1701:
1692:first-order reaction
1630:zero order reactions
1500:
1317:
1239:
1127:
1014:
957:Chemical equilibrium
951:Chemical equilibrium
886:
840:
792:
735:
650:Elementary reactions
315:lead chamber process
205:quantum field theory
201:elementary particles
132:exothermic reactions
109:elementary reactions
12424:Divergent synthesis
12295:Prilezhaev reaction
12280:Pellizzari reaction
11959:(4+3) cycloaddition
11926:Van Leusen reaction
11901:Robinson annulation
11886:Pschorr cyclization
11881:Prilezhaev reaction
11611:Bergman cyclization
11566:Wolff rearrangement
11551:Weerman degradation
11441:Pericyclic reaction
11421:Neber rearrangement
11316:Fries rearrangement
11201:Brook rearrangement
11186:Bergman cyclization
11031:Staudinger reaction
10976:Rosenmund reduction
10966:Reductive amination
10931:Oppenauer oxidation
10721:CoreyâKim oxidation
10696:Cannizzaro reaction
10571:Weerman degradation
10546:Isosaccharinic acid
10458:Mukaiyama hydration
10314:Hofmann elimination
10299:Dehydrohalogenation
10284:Chugaev elimination
10105:Robinson annulation
10050:Pfitzinger reaction
9820:Gattermann reaction
9765:WulffâDĂśtz reaction
9745:DakinâWest reaction
9670:Carbonyl allylation
9615:Bergman cyclization
9401:Kennedy J. P. Orton
9321:Hammond's postulate
9291:FlippinâLodge angle
9261:Electromeric effect
9186:Beta-silicon effect
9171:BakerâNathan effect
8978:Inorganic chemistry
8832:1991Sci...254.1471T
8826:(5037): 1471â1477.
8791:Technical Chemistry
8716:10.1021/ja01080a054
8306:, New York: Wiley,
8100:1997Sci...278.1931W
7661:www.crct.polymtl.ca
7557:elementary reaction
7047:Energy conservation
6969:Photovoltaic system
6942:Nuclear power plant
6627:Quantum fluctuation
6490:Thermodynamic state
6465:Thermal equilibrium
6136:The central science
6090:Ceramic engineering
6015:Forensic toxicology
5988:Chemistry education
5886:Radiation chemistry
5868:Interdisciplinarity
5821:Medicinal chemistry
5759:Fullerene chemistry
5635:Microwave chemistry
5504:Molecular mechanics
5499:Molecular modelling
5277:Reversible reaction
4836:conjugate additions
4623:
4165:catalytic reforming
3781:
3701:Acidâbase reactions
3691:ligand field theory
3579:main-group elements
3427:
3294:
3267:
3198:
3117:
3097:
3066:
3029:
3016:
2636:
2611:
2585:
2572:
2447:Double displacement
2427:
2406:
2376:
2344:magnesium hydroxide
2288:Single displacement
2273:
2257:
2234:
2124:
1578:: internal energy,
1485:chemical potentials
1446:
1419:
1384:
1350:
1195:
1164:
967:minimum free energy
924:
908:
656:elementary reaction
564:structural formulas
232:Four-Element Theory
43:chemical substances
12569:Chemical reactions
12370:Chemical synthesis
12044:McCormack reaction
11994:Conia-ene reaction
11826:Madelung synthesis
11616:Biginelli reaction
11406:Mumm rearrangement
11291:Favorskii reaction
11226:Cope rearrangement
11216:Chan rearrangement
10981:Rubottom oxidation
10911:Miyaura borylation
10876:Lipid peroxidation
10871:Lindgren oxidation
10851:Kornblum oxidation
10846:Kolbe electrolysis
10791:Fukuyama reduction
10701:Carbonyl reduction
10551:Marker degradation
10413:Diazonium compound
10403:Boudouard reaction
10382:Carbon-heteroatom
10309:Grieco elimination
10095:Rieche formylation
10040:Passerini reaction
9970:Meerwein arylation
9890:Hydroxymethylation
9785:Favorskii reaction
9685:Chan rearrangement
9620:Biginelli reaction
9545:Aldol condensation
9391:2-Norbornyl cation
9366:MĂśbius aromaticity
9361:Markovnikov's rule
9256:Effective molarity
9201:BĂźrgiâDunitz angle
9191:Bicycloaromaticity
8910:Physical Chemistry
8797:. pp. 33â34.
8739:. pp. 55â56.
8638:(Third ed.).
8611:. pp. 53â65.
8553:10.1002/0471264180
8267:Organometallchemie
7710:2015-01-10 at the
7294:Newman, William R.
7084:Sustainable energy
7062:Energy development
7052:Energy consumption
6888:Energy engineering
6179:Chemical substance
6041:Chemical synthesis
6010:Forensic chemistry
5891:Actinide chemistry
5833:Clinical chemistry
5514:Molecular geometry
5509:Molecular dynamics
5464:Elemental analysis
5417:Separation process
5201:Chemical reaction
5093:
4994:
4956:and a substituted
4935:Cope rearrangement
4863:
4813:
4774:Markovnikov's rule
4757:
4741:
4648:
4611:
4583:
4516:
4487:, carbocations or
4453:of the products. S
4125:
4109:
4013:
3937:
3858:
3855:
3827:
3800:
3762:
3749:
3721:) to another (the
3711:acidâbase reaction
3673:, saying that the
3665:. The ligands are
3643:
3461:
3415:
3358:and the latter is
3341:
3330:
3307:
3282:
3255:
3221:
3186:
3133:
3105:
3085:
3054:
3053:
3017:
3004:
2878:electrolytic cells
2858:
2837:Backward reactions
2688:
2638:
2624:
2599:
2560:
2555:
2497:For example, when
2485:
2434:
2415:
2386:
2364:
2346:and hydrogen gas:
2326:
2275:
2261:
2245:
2222:
2186:
2136:
2112:
2070:
2042:Synthesis reaction
2033:
1992:Boltzmann constant
1963:
1893:Arrhenius equation
1857:
1764:
1562:
1459:
1434:
1407:
1403:
1338:
1272:
1225:
1183:
1152:
1118:molybdenum dioxide
1047:
937:
912:
896:
866:
812:
779:chemical synthesis
755:
676:
661:reaction mechanism
640:
556:Chemical equations
547:
485:Evolution of a gas
460:. You can help by
392:chemical equations
382:had developed the
267:organic substances
224:
203:, as described by
197:radioactive decays
170:metabolic pathways
162:chemical synthesis
117:chemical equations
113:reaction mechanism
31:
12556:
12555:
12469:Peptide synthesis
12464:Organic synthesis
12459:One-pot synthesis
12394:Bioretrosynthesis
12336:
12335:
12332:
12331:
12328:
12327:
12320:WohlâAue reaction
11964:6+4 Cycloaddition
11781:Iodolactonization
11101:1,2-rearrangement
11066:WohlâAue reaction
10986:Sabatier reaction
10951:Pinnick oxidation
10916:Mozingo reduction
10861:Leuckart reaction
10816:Haloform reaction
10731:Criegee oxidation
10711:Collins oxidation
10661:Benkeser reaction
10656:Bechamp reduction
10626:Andrussow process
10611:Alcohol oxidation
10521:Edman degradation
10428:Haloform reaction
10377:
10376:
10364:Takai olefination
10329:Julia olefination
10155:Takai olefination
10030:Olefin metathesis
9905:Julia olefination
9830:Grignard reaction
9810:Fukuyama coupling
9725:Coupling reaction
9690:ChanâLam coupling
9560:Alkyne metathesis
9555:Alkane metathesis
9411:Phosphaethynolate
9316:George S. Hammond
9276:Electronic effect
9231:Conjugated system
9113:Stereospecificity
9108:Stereoselectivity
9073:Addition reaction
9062:organic reactions
8992:978-0-12-352651-9
8967:978-3-8274-1579-0
8948:978-3-540-67033-9
8923:978-3-527-31546-8
8878:978-0-8247-2618-8
8804:978-3-540-23452-4
8746:978-3-13-357815-8
8649:978-0-7637-2197-8
8635:Organic chemistry
8618:978-3-7643-6952-1
8562:978-0-471-26418-7
8545:Organic Reactions
8529:978-3-540-77106-7
8483:Markownikoff rule
8351:978-0-521-09801-4
8280:978-3-8351-0167-8
8193:978-0-444-50407-4
8143:10.1021/ja302593v
8137:(21): 8817â8822.
8072:978-3-11-019060-1
7928:978-0-12-023636-7
7897:978-0-12-034242-6
7878:Glusker, Jenny P.
7615:978-3-527-31304-4
7477:978-0-313-31664-7
7422:978-0-7923-6487-0
7246:chemical reaction
7219:
7218:
6986:Solar power tower
6632:Quantum potential
6470:Thermal reservoir
6373:Energy transition
6258:
6257:
6194:Quantum mechanics
6159:Chemical compound
6142:Chemical reaction
6080:Materials science
5998:General chemistry
5993:Amateur chemistry
5921:Photogeochemistry
5906:Stellar chemistry
5876:Nuclear chemistry
5797:Molecular biology
5764:Polymer chemistry
5735:Organic synthesis
5730:Organic reactions
5695:Ceramic chemistry
5685:Cluster chemistry
5615:Chemical kinetics
5603:Molecular physics
5482:Quantum chemistry
5395:Mass spectrometry
5197:Chemical equation
4907:structural isomer
4662:
4643:
4637:
4629:
4614:
4604:
4578:
4572:
4564:
4558:
4550:
4541:
4459:geometric isomers
4262:chemical compound
4195:organic chemistry
3981:ultra-high vacuum
3956:recrystallization
3853:
3850:
3847:
3837:
3833:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3809:
3805:
3802:
3761:
3758:
3755:
3748:
3745:
3742:
3483:electronegativity
3455:
3448:
3434:
3418:
3407:
3400:
3301:
3285:
3274:
3258:
3247:
3240:
3215:
3208:
3189:
3178:
3171:
3127:
3120:
3108:
3088:
3073:
3057:
3052:
3036:
3020:
3007:
2870:Gibbs free energy
2700:Gibbs free energy
2667:Forward reactions
2627:
2602:
2595:
2563:
2554:
2542:potassium nitrate
2507:magnesium sulfate
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2418:
2393:
2385:
2379:
2367:
2356:
2324:
2318:
2312:
2306:
2264:
2248:
2237:
2225:
2202:of water to make
2184:
2178:
2172:
2134:
2115:
2108:
2068:
2062:
2056:
1820:
1794:
1756:
1739:
1725:
1676:ultraviolet light
1665:activation energy
1648:Activation energy
1615:reaction kinetics
1602:
1600:small change sign
1453:
1437:
1426:
1410:
1405:
1361:
1353:
1341:
1330:
1323:
1270:
1266:
1219:
1212:
1202:
1186:
1171:
1155:
1144:
1137:
1087:Reactions can be
1081:
971:Gibbs free energy
930:
915:
899:
892:
864:
858:
852:
846:
810:
804:
798:
783:addition reaction
769:
753:
747:
741:
670:Isomerization of
610:transition states
551:Chemical equation
478:
477:
399:organic chemistry
366:Antoine Lavoisier
354:phlogiston theory
303:hydrochloric acid
263:ammonium chloride
220:Antoine Lavoisier
193:nuclear reactions
79:Nuclear chemistry
75:chemical equation
35:chemical reaction
12586:
12544:
12532:
12531:
12520:
12519:
12454:Mechanosynthesis
12429:Electrosynthesis
12363:
12356:
12349:
12340:
12339:
12315:Wenker synthesis
12305:StollĂŠ synthesis
12160:Bobbitt reaction
12130:Auwers synthesis
12074:Povarov reaction
11999:Cyclopropanation
11937:
11936:
11931:Wenker synthesis
11686:Darzens reaction
11636:Bobbitt reaction
11481:Schmidt reaction
11286:Enyne metathesis
11061:Whiting reaction
11056:Wharton reaction
11001:Shapiro reaction
10991:Sarett oxidation
10956:PrĂŠvost reaction
10766:Emde degradation
10576:Wohl degradation
10556:Ruff degradation
10526:Emde degradation
10423:Grignard reagent
10359:Shapiro reaction
10344:McMurry reaction
10211:
10210:
10175:Ullmann reaction
10140:StollĂŠ synthesis
10130:Stetter reaction
10120:Shapiro reaction
10110:Sakurai reaction
10005:Negishi coupling
9985:Minisci reaction
9980:Michael reaction
9965:McMurry reaction
9960:Mannich reaction
9840:Hammick reaction
9835:Grignard reagent
9775:Enyne metathesis
9760:Doebner reaction
9750:Darzens reaction
9595:Barbier reaction
9585:Auwers synthesis
9512:
9511:
9486:Woodward's rules
9451:Superaromaticity
9441:Spiroaromaticity
9341:Inductive effect
9336:Hyperconjugation
9311:Hammett equation
9251:Edwards equation
9103:Regioselectivity
9054:
9047:
9040:
9031:
9030:
9026:
9018:
9010:
9004:
8996:
8971:
8952:
8927:
8895:
8889:
8883:
8882:
8867:. Vol. 67.
8858:
8852:
8851:
8815:
8809:
8808:
8786:
8780:
8757:
8751:
8750:
8726:
8720:
8719:
8699:
8693:
8687:
8681:
8680:
8660:
8654:
8653:
8629:
8623:
8622:
8600:
8594:
8588:
8582:
8581:
8573:
8567:
8566:
8540:
8534:
8533:
8511:
8505:
8499:
8493:
8470:
8464:
8458:
8452:
8446:
8440:
8434:
8428:
8422:
8416:
8410:
8404:
8398:
8392:
8386:
8380:
8379:
8362:
8356:
8355:
8331:
8325:
8324:
8294:
8285:
8284:
8262:
8256:
8233:
8227:
8204:
8198:
8197:
8173:
8167:
8161:
8155:
8154:
8126:
8120:
8119:
8094:(5345): 1931â4.
8083:
8077:
8076:
8052:
8046:
8045:
8033:
8027:
8004:
7998:
7975:
7969:
7963:
7957:
7951:
7945:
7939:
7933:
7932:
7908:
7902:
7901:
7874:
7868:
7867:
7849:
7843:
7842:
7840:
7839:
7824:
7818:
7817:
7815:
7814:
7799:
7793:
7792:
7790:
7789:
7774:
7768:
7767:
7765:
7764:
7749:
7740:
7739:
7737:
7736:
7721:
7715:
7702:
7689:
7683:
7677:
7671:
7665:
7664:
7653:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7619:
7595:
7586:
7585:
7573:
7567:
7544:
7538:
7537:
7517:
7511:
7488:
7482:
7481:
7457:
7451:
7445:
7439:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7402:
7396:
7395:
7393:
7382:
7376:
7375:
7359:
7353:
7351:
7318:
7312:
7311:
7289:
7283:
7282:
7262:
7256:
7233:
7207:
7206:
7195:
7183:
7182:
7171:
7170:
7145:Carbon footprint
7079:Renewable energy
6920:Hydroelectricity
6910:Geothermal power
6353:Energy condition
6285:
6278:
6271:
6262:
6261:
6246:
6245:
6234:
6222:
6221:
6210:
6209:
6154:Chemical element
5809:Chemical biology
5668:Magnetochemistry
5645:Mechanochemistry
5598:Chemical physics
5539:Electrochemistry
5444:Characterization
5306:
5299:
5292:
5283:
5282:
5267:Organic reaction
5247:Limiting reagent
5191:
5189:Chemistry portal
5186:
5185:
5184:
5136:oxy-fuel welding
4887:
4873:
4843:radical addition
4832:Michael reaction
4766:hydrogen bromide
4748:2-substitution.
4728:E1cb elimination
4725:
4713:
4702:1 substitution.
4660:
4657:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4647:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4627:
4622:
4619:
4612:
4602:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4584:
4582:
4576:
4570:
4569:
4562:
4556:
4555:
4548:
4539:
4467:Walden inversion
4416:
4394:
4351:, and rarely in
4305:
4287:
4260:in a particular
4258:functional group
4189:Organic reaction
3867:
3865:
3864:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3835:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3807:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3791:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3773:
3765:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3750:
3746:
3743:
3679:transition metal
3671:18-electron rule
3573:
3571:
3570:
3559:
3557:
3556:
3548:
3547:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3497:
3496:
3470:
3468:
3467:
3462:
3460:
3459:
3453:
3446:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3423:
3416:
3411:
3405:
3398:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3306:
3305:
3299:
3293:
3290:
3283:
3278:
3272:
3266:
3263:
3256:
3251:
3245:
3238:
3230:
3228:
3227:
3222:
3220:
3219:
3213:
3206:
3197:
3194:
3187:
3182:
3176:
3169:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3125:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3106:
3096:
3093:
3086:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3062:
3055:
3045:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3025:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3005:
2967:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2951:
2950:
2949:
2948:
2941:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2902:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2823:
2822:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2803:
2802:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2751:Dissociation of
2746:
2744:
2743:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2721:
2720:
2719:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2625:
2616:
2610:
2607:
2600:
2593:
2584:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2568:
2561:
2552:
2534:potassium iodide
2530:lead(II) nitrate
2494:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2426:
2423:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2397:
2391:
2383:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2365:
2354:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2262:
2256:
2253:
2246:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2223:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2176:
2170:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2123:
2120:
2113:
2106:
2092:iron(II) sulfide
2079:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2023:Four basic types
1996:collision theory
1972:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1920:
1919:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1852:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1824:
1818:
1799:
1798:
1792:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1757:
1754:
1740:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1714:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1541:
1524:
1507:
1475:
1468:
1466:
1465:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1435:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1415:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1401:
1394:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1376:
1368:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1339:
1334:
1328:
1321:
1303:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1253:
1234:
1232:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1217:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1184:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1160:
1153:
1148:
1142:
1135:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1053:
1048:
946:
944:
943:
938:
936:
935:
928:
923:
920:
913:
907:
904:
897:
890:
875:
873:
872:
867:
865:
862:
856:
850:
844:
821:
819:
818:
813:
811:
808:
802:
796:
767:
764:
762:
761:
756:
754:
751:
745:
739:
604:
536:
473:
470:
452:
445:
415:Friedrich WĂśhler
323:sodium carbonate
317:in 1746 and the
271:JÄbir ibn ḤayyÄn
12594:
12593:
12589:
12588:
12587:
12585:
12584:
12583:
12559:
12558:
12557:
12552:
12508:
12499:Total synthesis
12372:
12367:
12337:
12324:
12225:Gewald reaction
12108:
11935:
11916:Skraup reaction
11751:Graham reaction
11746:Gewald reaction
11577:
11570:
11092:
11085:
11041:Swern oxidation
11026:Stahl oxidation
10971:Riley oxidation
10926:Omega oxidation
10886:Luche reduction
10836:Jones oxidation
10801:Glycol cleavage
10796:Ganem oxidation
10741:Davis oxidation
10736:Dakin oxidation
10671:Birch reduction
10621:Amide reduction
10587:
10580:
10541:Hooker reaction
10503:
10497:
10385:
10383:
10373:
10369:Wittig reaction
10257:
10253:Wittig reaction
10228:Hooker reaction
10209:
10190:Wittig reaction
10165:Thorpe reaction
10150:Suzuki reaction
10135:Stille reaction
10070:Quelet reaction
9945:Kumada coupling
9895:Ivanov reaction
9885:Hydrovinylation
9865:Hiyama coupling
9825:Glaser coupling
9635:Blaise reaction
9625:Bingel reaction
9610:Benary reaction
9527:
9525:
9519:
9510:
9406:Passive binding
9326:Homoaromaticity
9176:Baldwin's rules
9151:Antiaromaticity
9146:Anomeric effect
9122:
9064:
9058:
9013:
8998:
8997:
8993:
8968:
8949:
8924:
8904:
8899:
8898:
8890:
8886:
8879:
8871:. p. 109.
8859:
8855:
8816:
8812:
8805:
8787:
8783:
8758:
8754:
8747:
8727:
8723:
8700:
8696:
8688:
8684:
8661:
8657:
8650:
8642:. p. 699.
8630:
8626:
8619:
8601:
8597:
8589:
8585:
8574:
8570:
8563:
8541:
8537:
8530:
8522:. p. 273.
8512:
8508:
8500:
8496:
8471:
8467:
8463:, pp. 950, 1602
8459:
8455:
8447:
8443:
8435:
8431:
8423:
8419:
8411:
8407:
8399:
8395:
8387:
8383:
8363:
8359:
8352:
8332:
8328:
8314:
8295:
8288:
8281:
8273:. p. 263.
8263:
8259:
8234:
8230:
8205:
8201:
8194:
8186:. p. 179.
8174:
8170:
8162:
8158:
8127:
8123:
8084:
8080:
8073:
8065:. p. 171.
8053:
8049:
8034:
8030:
8005:
8001:
7976:
7972:
7968:, pp. 1180â1205
7964:
7960:
7952:
7948:
7940:
7936:
7929:
7921:. p. 359.
7909:
7905:
7898:
7875:
7871:
7864:
7850:
7846:
7837:
7835:
7826:
7825:
7821:
7812:
7810:
7801:
7800:
7796:
7787:
7785:
7776:
7775:
7771:
7762:
7760:
7751:
7750:
7743:
7734:
7732:
7723:
7722:
7718:
7712:Wayback Machine
7703:
7692:
7684:
7680:
7672:
7668:
7655:
7654:
7647:
7639:
7635:
7627:
7623:
7616:
7596:
7589:
7574:
7570:
7545:
7541:
7518:
7514:
7489:
7485:
7478:
7458:
7454:
7446:
7442:
7434:
7430:
7423:
7415:. p. 170.
7403:
7399:
7391:
7383:
7379:
7374:(12): 997â1005.
7360:
7356:
7340:
7319:
7315:
7308:
7290:
7286:
7263:
7259:
7234:
7230:
7225:
7220:
7215:
7159:
7155:Waste-to-energy
7133:
7069:Energy security
7015:
7009:
6865:
6857:
6836:Natural uranium
6770:
6751:Mechanical wave
6682:Energy carriers
6676:
6516:
6445:Isolated system
6323:
6317:
6294:
6289:
6259:
6254:
6198:
6101:
6095:Polymer science
6051:Click chemistry
6046:Green chemistry
5940:Ocean chemistry
5916:Biogeochemistry
5862:
5778:
5750:Total synthesis
5713:Stereochemistry
5699:
5649:
5566:Surface science
5556:Thermochemistry
5525:
5468:
5439:Crystallography
5344:
5316:
5310:
5187:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5152:
5085:
5073:micro-organisms
4986:
4895:
4894:
4893:
4892:
4891:
4888:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4874:
4855:
4747:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4729:
4726:
4718:
4717:
4714:
4701:
4671:
4630:
4620:
4615:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4595:
4565:
4551:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4532:
4506:
4502:
4485:carbonyl groups
4472:
4456:
4451:stereochemistry
4448:
4433:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4422:
4417:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4402:
4395:
4376:
4368:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4306:
4297:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4288:
4250:
4191:
4185:
4100:
4094:
4088:
4076:bioluminescence
4054:, disposing of
4050:and water into
4033:chain reactions
3993:
3977:
3964:
3929:
3909:
3887:
3880:
3844:
3838:
3834:
3832:
3816:
3810:
3806:
3804:
3794:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3776:
3769:
3767:
3766:
3764:
3754:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3734:
3703:
3695:ligand exchange
3638:
3634:
3622:
3601:electrochemical
3594:can be balanced
3569:
3566:
3565:
3564:
3561:
3555:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3538:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3495:
3492:
3491:
3490:
3487:
3449:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3401:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3384:sodium chloride
3364:oxidation state
3352:oxidizing agent
3337:Sodium chloride
3322:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3241:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3231:
3209:
3195:
3190:
3172:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3121:
3114:
3109:
3094:
3089:
3067:
3063:
3058:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3013:
3008:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2974:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2936:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2906:
2904:
2903:
2901:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2839:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2814:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2718:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2669:
2653:
2633:
2628:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2582:
2577:
2569:
2564:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2538:lead(II) iodide
2524:
2520:
2516:
2513:) react, the SO
2512:
2504:
2499:barium chloride
2462:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2449:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2387:
2373:
2368:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2290:
2270:
2265:
2254:
2249:
2231:
2226:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2154:
2121:
2116:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2038:
2025:
2020:
1989:
1982:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1885:
1839:
1835:
1826:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1753:
1731:
1722:
1715:
1713:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1674:, most notably
1611:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1554:
1537:
1520:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1497:
1481:internal energy
1473:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1397:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1379:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1342:
1324:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1298:
1267:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1213:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1138:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1114:carbon monoxide
1105:crystallization
1077:
1073:
1072:: temperature,
1069:
1065:
1064:: free energy,
1061:
1015:
1012:
1011:
987:
959:
953:
931:
921:
916:
905:
900:
889:
887:
884:
883:
843:
841:
838:
837:
795:
793:
790:
789:
738:
736:
733:
732:
722:hydrogenâoxygen
718:chain reactions
652:
587:
553:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
511:
489:Formation of a
474:
468:
465:
458:needs expansion
443:
441:Characteristics
327:contact process
319:Leblanc process
311:sodium chloride
213:
130:and are called
101:chemical change
17:
12:
11:
5:
12592:
12582:
12581:
12576:
12571:
12554:
12553:
12551:
12550:
12538:
12526:
12513:
12510:
12509:
12507:
12506:
12501:
12496:
12491:
12486:
12481:
12479:Retrosynthesis
12476:
12474:Radiosynthesis
12471:
12466:
12461:
12456:
12451:
12446:
12441:
12436:
12431:
12426:
12421:
12419:Direct process
12416:
12411:
12406:
12404:Chemosynthesis
12401:
12396:
12391:
12386:
12380:
12378:
12374:
12373:
12366:
12365:
12358:
12351:
12343:
12334:
12333:
12330:
12329:
12326:
12325:
12323:
12322:
12317:
12312:
12307:
12302:
12297:
12292:
12287:
12282:
12277:
12272:
12267:
12262:
12257:
12252:
12247:
12242:
12237:
12232:
12230:Hantzsch ester
12227:
12222:
12217:
12212:
12207:
12202:
12197:
12192:
12187:
12182:
12177:
12172:
12167:
12162:
12157:
12152:
12147:
12142:
12140:Banert cascade
12137:
12132:
12127:
12122:
12116:
12114:
12110:
12109:
12107:
12106:
12101:
12096:
12091:
12086:
12081:
12079:Prato reaction
12076:
12071:
12066:
12061:
12056:
12051:
12046:
12041:
12036:
12031:
12026:
12021:
12016:
12011:
12006:
12001:
11996:
11991:
11986:
11981:
11976:
11971:
11966:
11961:
11956:
11951:
11945:
11943:
11934:
11933:
11928:
11923:
11918:
11913:
11908:
11903:
11898:
11893:
11888:
11883:
11878:
11873:
11868:
11863:
11858:
11853:
11848:
11843:
11838:
11833:
11828:
11823:
11818:
11813:
11808:
11803:
11798:
11793:
11788:
11783:
11778:
11773:
11768:
11763:
11758:
11753:
11748:
11743:
11738:
11733:
11728:
11723:
11718:
11713:
11708:
11703:
11698:
11693:
11688:
11683:
11678:
11673:
11668:
11663:
11658:
11653:
11648:
11643:
11638:
11633:
11628:
11623:
11618:
11613:
11608:
11603:
11598:
11593:
11588:
11582:
11580:
11572:
11571:
11569:
11568:
11563:
11558:
11553:
11548:
11543:
11538:
11533:
11528:
11523:
11518:
11513:
11508:
11503:
11498:
11493:
11488:
11483:
11478:
11473:
11468:
11463:
11458:
11453:
11448:
11443:
11438:
11433:
11428:
11423:
11418:
11413:
11408:
11403:
11398:
11393:
11388:
11383:
11378:
11373:
11368:
11363:
11358:
11353:
11348:
11343:
11338:
11333:
11328:
11323:
11318:
11313:
11308:
11303:
11298:
11293:
11288:
11283:
11278:
11273:
11268:
11263:
11258:
11253:
11248:
11243:
11238:
11233:
11228:
11223:
11218:
11213:
11208:
11203:
11198:
11193:
11188:
11183:
11178:
11173:
11171:Banert cascade
11168:
11163:
11158:
11153:
11148:
11143:
11138:
11133:
11128:
11123:
11118:
11113:
11108:
11103:
11097:
11095:
11091:Rearrangement
11087:
11086:
11084:
11083:
11081:Zinin reaction
11078:
11073:
11068:
11063:
11058:
11053:
11051:Wacker process
11048:
11043:
11038:
11033:
11028:
11023:
11018:
11013:
11008:
11003:
10998:
10993:
10988:
10983:
10978:
10973:
10968:
10963:
10958:
10953:
10948:
10943:
10938:
10933:
10928:
10923:
10918:
10913:
10908:
10903:
10898:
10893:
10888:
10883:
10878:
10873:
10868:
10863:
10858:
10853:
10848:
10843:
10838:
10833:
10828:
10826:Hydrogenolysis
10823:
10818:
10813:
10808:
10803:
10798:
10793:
10788:
10783:
10778:
10776:Ătard reaction
10773:
10768:
10763:
10758:
10753:
10748:
10743:
10738:
10733:
10728:
10723:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10703:
10698:
10693:
10688:
10683:
10681:Bosch reaction
10678:
10673:
10668:
10663:
10658:
10653:
10648:
10643:
10638:
10633:
10628:
10623:
10618:
10613:
10608:
10603:
10598:
10592:
10590:
10586:Organic redox
10582:
10581:
10579:
10578:
10573:
10568:
10563:
10558:
10553:
10548:
10543:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10523:
10518:
10513:
10507:
10505:
10499:
10498:
10496:
10495:
10490:
10485:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10465:
10460:
10455:
10450:
10445:
10440:
10435:
10430:
10425:
10420:
10418:Esterification
10415:
10410:
10405:
10400:
10395:
10389:
10387:
10379:
10378:
10375:
10374:
10372:
10371:
10366:
10361:
10356:
10351:
10346:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10326:
10321:
10316:
10311:
10306:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10286:
10281:
10276:
10271:
10265:
10263:
10259:
10258:
10256:
10255:
10250:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10230:
10225:
10219:
10217:
10208:
10207:
10202:
10197:
10195:Wurtz reaction
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10172:
10167:
10162:
10157:
10152:
10147:
10142:
10137:
10132:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10112:
10107:
10102:
10097:
10092:
10087:
10082:
10077:
10072:
10067:
10065:Prins reaction
10062:
10057:
10052:
10047:
10042:
10037:
10032:
10027:
10022:
10017:
10012:
10007:
10002:
9997:
9992:
9987:
9982:
9977:
9972:
9967:
9962:
9957:
9952:
9947:
9942:
9937:
9932:
9927:
9922:
9917:
9912:
9907:
9902:
9897:
9892:
9887:
9882:
9880:Hydrocyanation
9877:
9872:
9867:
9862:
9857:
9852:
9850:Henry reaction
9847:
9842:
9837:
9832:
9827:
9822:
9817:
9812:
9807:
9802:
9797:
9792:
9787:
9782:
9777:
9772:
9767:
9762:
9757:
9752:
9747:
9742:
9737:
9732:
9727:
9722:
9717:
9712:
9707:
9702:
9697:
9692:
9687:
9682:
9677:
9672:
9667:
9662:
9657:
9652:
9647:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9617:
9612:
9607:
9602:
9597:
9592:
9587:
9582:
9577:
9572:
9567:
9562:
9557:
9552:
9550:Aldol reaction
9547:
9542:
9537:
9531:
9529:
9524:Carbon-carbon
9521:
9520:
9509:
9508:
9503:
9501:Zaitsev's rule
9498:
9493:
9488:
9483:
9478:
9473:
9468:
9463:
9458:
9453:
9448:
9446:Steric effects
9443:
9438:
9433:
9428:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9408:
9403:
9398:
9393:
9388:
9383:
9378:
9373:
9368:
9363:
9358:
9353:
9348:
9343:
9338:
9333:
9328:
9323:
9318:
9313:
9308:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9288:
9283:
9278:
9273:
9268:
9263:
9258:
9253:
9248:
9243:
9238:
9233:
9228:
9223:
9218:
9213:
9208:
9203:
9198:
9193:
9188:
9183:
9178:
9173:
9168:
9163:
9158:
9153:
9148:
9143:
9138:
9133:
9127:
9124:
9123:
9121:
9120:
9115:
9110:
9105:
9100:
9098:Redox reaction
9095:
9090:
9085:
9083:Polymerization
9080:
9075:
9069:
9066:
9065:
9057:
9056:
9049:
9042:
9034:
9028:
9027:
9011:
8991:
8983:Academic Press
8972:
8966:
8953:
8947:
8928:
8922:
8903:
8900:
8897:
8896:
8884:
8877:
8853:
8810:
8803:
8781:
8752:
8745:
8721:
8710:(2): 395â397.
8694:
8682:
8655:
8648:
8624:
8617:
8595:
8583:
8568:
8561:
8535:
8528:
8506:
8494:
8465:
8453:
8441:
8429:
8417:
8405:
8393:
8381:
8357:
8350:
8326:
8312:
8286:
8279:
8257:
8228:
8199:
8192:
8168:
8156:
8121:
8078:
8071:
8047:
8028:
7999:
7970:
7958:
7946:
7934:
7927:
7919:Academic Press
7903:
7896:
7888:Academic Press
7869:
7862:
7844:
7819:
7794:
7769:
7741:
7716:
7690:
7678:
7666:
7645:
7633:
7621:
7614:
7608:. p. 56.
7587:
7568:
7539:
7512:
7483:
7476:
7470:. p. 55.
7452:
7440:
7428:
7421:
7397:
7377:
7368:ChemickĂŠ listy
7354:
7338:
7313:
7306:
7284:
7273:(6): 177â181.
7257:
7227:
7226:
7224:
7221:
7217:
7216:
7214:
7213:
7201:
7189:
7177:
7164:
7161:
7160:
7158:
7157:
7152:
7150:Jevons paradox
7147:
7141:
7139:
7135:
7134:
7132:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7074:Energy storage
7071:
7066:
7065:
7064:
7054:
7049:
7044:
7043:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7021:
7019:
7011:
7010:
7008:
7007:
7006:
7005:
7000:
6990:
6989:
6988:
6983:
6973:
6972:
6971:
6966:
6956:
6951:
6950:
6949:
6944:
6934:
6933:
6932:
6927:
6922:
6912:
6907:
6906:
6905:
6900:
6890:
6885:
6880:
6878:Electric power
6875:
6869:
6867:
6859:
6858:
6856:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6839:
6838:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6807:
6806:
6801:
6796:
6786:
6780:
6778:
6776:Primary energy
6772:
6771:
6769:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6747:
6746:
6736:
6735:
6734:
6724:
6723:
6722:
6717:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6686:
6684:
6678:
6677:
6675:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6654:
6649:
6644:
6639:
6634:
6629:
6624:
6619:
6614:
6609:
6604:
6599:
6594:
6589:
6584:
6579:
6574:
6573:
6572:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6536:
6535:
6524:
6522:
6518:
6517:
6515:
6514:
6513:
6512:
6507:
6502:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6412:
6410:Entropic force
6407:
6400:Thermodynamics
6397:
6392:
6391:
6390:
6385:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6350:
6349:
6348:
6338:
6333:
6327:
6325:
6319:
6318:
6316:
6315:
6310:
6305:
6299:
6296:
6295:
6288:
6287:
6280:
6273:
6265:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6252:
6240:
6228:
6216:
6203:
6200:
6199:
6197:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6150:
6149:
6139:
6132:
6131:
6130:
6120:
6115:
6109:
6107:
6103:
6102:
6100:
6099:
6098:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6077:
6076:
6075:
6065:
6064:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6038:
6037:
6036:
6025:
6024:
6023:
6022:
6017:
6007:
6002:
6001:
6000:
5995:
5984:
5983:
5982:
5981:
5979:Soil chemistry
5971:
5970:
5969:
5964:
5957:Food chemistry
5954:
5952:Carbochemistry
5949:
5947:Clay chemistry
5944:
5943:
5942:
5937:
5926:
5925:
5924:
5923:
5918:
5908:
5902:Astrochemistry
5898:Cosmochemistry
5895:
5894:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5881:Radiochemistry
5872:
5870:
5864:
5863:
5861:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5838:Neurochemistry
5835:
5830:
5829:
5828:
5818:
5817:
5816:
5806:
5805:
5804:
5799:
5788:
5786:
5780:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5771:
5769:Petrochemistry
5766:
5761:
5756:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5721:
5720:
5709:
5707:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5681:
5680:
5670:
5665:
5659:
5657:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5630:Spin chemistry
5627:
5625:Photochemistry
5622:
5617:
5612:
5610:Femtochemistry
5607:
5606:
5605:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5579:
5578:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5552:
5551:
5546:
5535:
5533:
5527:
5526:
5524:
5523:
5522:
5521:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5495:
5494:
5484:
5478:
5476:
5470:
5469:
5467:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5435:
5434:
5429:
5422:Chromatography
5419:
5414:
5413:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5392:
5391:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5365:
5360:
5354:
5352:
5346:
5345:
5343:
5342:
5340:Periodic table
5337:
5332:
5327:
5321:
5318:
5317:
5309:
5308:
5301:
5294:
5286:
5280:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5223:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5199:
5193:
5192:
5176:
5173:
5151:
5148:
5084:
5081:
5057:photosynthesis
4985:
4982:
4974:stereoisomeric
4942:cycloadditions
4889:
4882:
4881:
4880:
4875:
4868:
4867:
4866:
4865:
4864:
4854:
4851:
4745:
4739:E2 elimination
4727:
4720:
4719:
4716:E1 elimination
4715:
4708:
4707:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4683:multiple bonds
4670:
4667:
4666:
4665:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4646:
4640:
4633:
4626:
4618:
4610:
4607:
4593:
4581:
4575:
4568:
4561:
4554:
4547:
4544:
4524:chain reaction
4504:
4500:
4470:
4454:
4446:
4431:
4420:
4418:
4411:
4410:
4409:
4400:
4396:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4385:
4374:
4366:
4325:partial charge
4309:
4307:
4300:
4299:
4298:
4291:
4289:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4249:
4246:
4238:polymerisation
4226:oil refineries
4211:name reactions
4199:covalent bonds
4187:Main article:
4184:
4181:
4161:hydrogenations
4157:platinum group
4090:Main article:
4087:
4084:
4048:carbon dioxide
4044:photosynthesis
4007:, yielding an
3992:
3989:
3976:
3973:
3963:
3960:
3928:
3925:
3924:
3923:
3917:
3914:BrønstedâLowry
3911:
3907:
3890:neutralization
3885:
3878:
3841:
3831:
3813:
3797:
3790:
3779:
3772:
3753:
3731:conjugate acid
3727:conjugate base
3702:
3699:
3675:valence shells
3636:
3632:
3621:
3618:
3567:
3553:
3544:
3530:
3516:
3502:
3493:
3476:reducing agent
3458:
3452:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3422:
3414:
3410:
3404:
3396:
3350:) to another (
3348:reducing agent
3321:
3318:
3304:
3298:
3289:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3262:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3218:
3212:
3204:
3201:
3193:
3185:
3181:
3175:
3167:
3130:
3124:
3112:
3103:
3100:
3092:
3083:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3061:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3033:
3024:
3011:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2957:
2917:
2899:
2892:
2891:
2884:Photosynthesis
2881:
2857:
2854:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2819:
2808:
2799:
2786:
2773:
2765:
2764:
2761:hydronium ions
2755:in water into
2748:
2747:
2740:
2728:
2716:
2708:
2707:
2687:
2684:
2668:
2665:
2652:
2649:
2631:
2622:
2619:
2615:
2606:
2598:
2591:
2588:
2580:
2575:
2567:
2559:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2480:
2474:
2468:
2448:
2445:
2431:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2401:
2396:
2390:
2382:
2371:
2362:
2359:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2289:
2286:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2243:
2240:
2229:
2220:
2181:
2175:
2156:Main article:
2153:
2150:
2130:
2127:
2119:
2111:
2104:
2065:
2059:
2040:Main article:
2037:
2034:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2018:Reaction types
2016:
1987:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1944:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1883:
1868:
1867:
1856:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1808:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1791:
1775:
1774:
1763:
1760:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1706:
1684:
1683:
1668:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1603:
1572:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1470:
1469:
1456:
1450:
1441:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1414:
1400:
1393:
1382:
1375:
1365:
1357:
1345:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1287:carbon dioxide
1283:
1282:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1222:
1216:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1190:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1159:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1133:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1058:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
991:thermodynamics
986:
985:Thermodynamics
983:
963:reaction rates
955:Main article:
952:
949:
948:
947:
934:
927:
919:
911:
903:
895:
877:
876:
861:
855:
849:
823:
822:
807:
801:
771:
770:
765:
750:
744:
726:polymerization
651:
648:
606:
605:
549:Main article:
532:
528:
524:
520:
510:
507:
506:
505:
499:
493:
487:
476:
475:
455:
453:
442:
439:
397:Regarding the
307:sodium sulfate
287:copper sulfate
212:
209:
140:thermal energy
63:chemical bonds
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12591:
12580:
12577:
12575:
12572:
12570:
12567:
12566:
12564:
12549:
12548:
12543:
12539:
12537:
12536:
12527:
12525:
12524:
12515:
12514:
12511:
12505:
12502:
12500:
12497:
12495:
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12484:Semisynthesis
12482:
12480:
12477:
12475:
12472:
12470:
12467:
12465:
12462:
12460:
12457:
12455:
12452:
12450:
12447:
12445:
12442:
12440:
12437:
12435:
12432:
12430:
12427:
12425:
12422:
12420:
12417:
12415:
12412:
12410:
12407:
12405:
12402:
12400:
12397:
12395:
12392:
12390:
12387:
12385:
12382:
12381:
12379:
12375:
12371:
12364:
12359:
12357:
12352:
12350:
12345:
12344:
12341:
12321:
12318:
12316:
12313:
12311:
12308:
12306:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12296:
12293:
12291:
12288:
12286:
12283:
12281:
12278:
12276:
12273:
12271:
12268:
12266:
12263:
12261:
12258:
12256:
12253:
12251:
12248:
12246:
12243:
12241:
12240:Herz reaction
12238:
12236:
12233:
12231:
12228:
12226:
12223:
12221:
12218:
12216:
12213:
12211:
12208:
12206:
12203:
12201:
12198:
12196:
12193:
12191:
12188:
12186:
12183:
12181:
12178:
12176:
12173:
12171:
12168:
12166:
12163:
12161:
12158:
12156:
12153:
12151:
12148:
12146:
12143:
12141:
12138:
12136:
12133:
12131:
12128:
12126:
12123:
12121:
12118:
12117:
12115:
12111:
12105:
12102:
12100:
12097:
12095:
12092:
12090:
12087:
12085:
12082:
12080:
12077:
12075:
12072:
12070:
12067:
12065:
12062:
12060:
12057:
12055:
12052:
12050:
12047:
12045:
12042:
12040:
12037:
12035:
12032:
12030:
12027:
12025:
12022:
12020:
12017:
12015:
12012:
12010:
12007:
12005:
12002:
12000:
11997:
11995:
11992:
11990:
11987:
11985:
11982:
11980:
11977:
11975:
11972:
11970:
11967:
11965:
11962:
11960:
11957:
11955:
11952:
11950:
11947:
11946:
11944:
11942:
11941:Cycloaddition
11938:
11932:
11929:
11927:
11924:
11922:
11919:
11917:
11914:
11912:
11909:
11907:
11904:
11902:
11899:
11897:
11894:
11892:
11889:
11887:
11884:
11882:
11879:
11877:
11874:
11872:
11869:
11867:
11864:
11862:
11859:
11857:
11854:
11852:
11849:
11847:
11844:
11842:
11839:
11837:
11834:
11832:
11829:
11827:
11824:
11822:
11819:
11817:
11814:
11812:
11809:
11807:
11804:
11802:
11799:
11797:
11794:
11792:
11789:
11787:
11786:Isay reaction
11784:
11782:
11779:
11777:
11774:
11772:
11769:
11767:
11764:
11762:
11759:
11757:
11754:
11752:
11749:
11747:
11744:
11742:
11739:
11737:
11734:
11732:
11729:
11727:
11724:
11722:
11719:
11717:
11714:
11712:
11709:
11707:
11704:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11692:
11689:
11687:
11684:
11682:
11681:Cycloaddition
11679:
11677:
11674:
11672:
11669:
11667:
11664:
11662:
11659:
11657:
11654:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11644:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11629:
11627:
11624:
11622:
11619:
11617:
11614:
11612:
11609:
11607:
11604:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11584:
11583:
11581:
11579:
11576:Ring forming
11573:
11567:
11564:
11562:
11559:
11557:
11554:
11552:
11549:
11547:
11544:
11542:
11539:
11537:
11534:
11532:
11529:
11527:
11524:
11522:
11519:
11517:
11514:
11512:
11509:
11507:
11504:
11502:
11499:
11497:
11494:
11492:
11489:
11487:
11484:
11482:
11479:
11477:
11476:Rupe reaction
11474:
11472:
11469:
11467:
11464:
11462:
11459:
11457:
11454:
11452:
11449:
11447:
11444:
11442:
11439:
11437:
11434:
11432:
11429:
11427:
11424:
11422:
11419:
11417:
11414:
11412:
11409:
11407:
11404:
11402:
11399:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11377:
11374:
11372:
11369:
11367:
11364:
11362:
11359:
11357:
11354:
11352:
11349:
11347:
11344:
11342:
11339:
11337:
11334:
11332:
11329:
11327:
11324:
11322:
11319:
11317:
11314:
11312:
11309:
11307:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11297:
11294:
11292:
11289:
11287:
11284:
11282:
11279:
11277:
11274:
11272:
11269:
11267:
11264:
11262:
11259:
11257:
11254:
11252:
11249:
11247:
11244:
11242:
11239:
11237:
11234:
11232:
11229:
11227:
11224:
11222:
11219:
11217:
11214:
11212:
11209:
11207:
11204:
11202:
11199:
11197:
11194:
11192:
11189:
11187:
11184:
11182:
11179:
11177:
11174:
11172:
11169:
11167:
11164:
11162:
11159:
11157:
11154:
11152:
11149:
11147:
11144:
11142:
11139:
11137:
11134:
11132:
11129:
11127:
11124:
11122:
11119:
11117:
11114:
11112:
11109:
11107:
11104:
11102:
11099:
11098:
11096:
11094:
11088:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11074:
11072:
11069:
11067:
11064:
11062:
11059:
11057:
11054:
11052:
11049:
11047:
11044:
11042:
11039:
11037:
11034:
11032:
11029:
11027:
11024:
11022:
11019:
11017:
11014:
11012:
11009:
11007:
11004:
11002:
10999:
10997:
10994:
10992:
10989:
10987:
10984:
10982:
10979:
10977:
10974:
10972:
10969:
10967:
10964:
10962:
10959:
10957:
10954:
10952:
10949:
10947:
10944:
10942:
10939:
10937:
10934:
10932:
10929:
10927:
10924:
10922:
10919:
10917:
10914:
10912:
10909:
10907:
10904:
10902:
10899:
10897:
10894:
10892:
10889:
10887:
10884:
10882:
10879:
10877:
10874:
10872:
10869:
10867:
10866:Ley oxidation
10864:
10862:
10859:
10857:
10854:
10852:
10849:
10847:
10844:
10842:
10839:
10837:
10834:
10832:
10831:Hydroxylation
10829:
10827:
10824:
10822:
10821:Hydrogenation
10819:
10817:
10814:
10812:
10809:
10807:
10804:
10802:
10799:
10797:
10794:
10792:
10789:
10787:
10784:
10782:
10779:
10777:
10774:
10772:
10769:
10767:
10764:
10762:
10759:
10757:
10756:DNA oxidation
10754:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10746:Deoxygenation
10744:
10742:
10739:
10737:
10734:
10732:
10729:
10727:
10724:
10722:
10719:
10717:
10714:
10712:
10709:
10707:
10704:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10692:
10689:
10687:
10684:
10682:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10662:
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10636:Aromatization
10634:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10622:
10619:
10617:
10614:
10612:
10609:
10607:
10604:
10602:
10599:
10597:
10594:
10593:
10591:
10589:
10583:
10577:
10574:
10572:
10569:
10567:
10564:
10562:
10559:
10557:
10554:
10552:
10549:
10547:
10544:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10512:
10509:
10508:
10506:
10500:
10494:
10491:
10489:
10486:
10484:
10481:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10473:Reed reaction
10471:
10469:
10466:
10464:
10461:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10444:
10441:
10439:
10436:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10419:
10416:
10414:
10411:
10409:
10406:
10404:
10401:
10399:
10396:
10394:
10391:
10390:
10388:
10384:bond forming
10380:
10370:
10367:
10365:
10362:
10360:
10357:
10355:
10352:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10320:
10317:
10315:
10312:
10310:
10307:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10295:
10292:
10290:
10289:Cope reaction
10287:
10285:
10282:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10266:
10264:
10260:
10254:
10251:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10239:
10236:
10234:
10231:
10229:
10226:
10224:
10221:
10220:
10218:
10216:
10212:
10206:
10203:
10201:
10198:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10166:
10163:
10161:
10158:
10156:
10153:
10151:
10148:
10146:
10143:
10141:
10138:
10136:
10133:
10131:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10101:
10098:
10096:
10093:
10091:
10088:
10086:
10083:
10081:
10078:
10076:
10073:
10071:
10068:
10066:
10063:
10061:
10058:
10056:
10053:
10051:
10048:
10046:
10043:
10041:
10038:
10036:
10033:
10031:
10028:
10026:
10023:
10021:
10018:
10016:
10013:
10011:
10008:
10006:
10003:
10001:
10000:Nef synthesis
9998:
9996:
9993:
9991:
9988:
9986:
9983:
9981:
9978:
9976:
9975:Methylenation
9973:
9971:
9968:
9966:
9963:
9961:
9958:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9946:
9943:
9941:
9938:
9936:
9933:
9931:
9928:
9926:
9923:
9921:
9918:
9916:
9913:
9911:
9908:
9906:
9903:
9901:
9898:
9896:
9893:
9891:
9888:
9886:
9883:
9881:
9878:
9876:
9873:
9871:
9868:
9866:
9863:
9861:
9858:
9856:
9853:
9851:
9848:
9846:
9845:Heck reaction
9843:
9841:
9838:
9836:
9833:
9831:
9828:
9826:
9823:
9821:
9818:
9816:
9813:
9811:
9808:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9796:
9793:
9791:
9788:
9786:
9783:
9781:
9778:
9776:
9773:
9771:
9768:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9756:
9753:
9751:
9748:
9746:
9743:
9741:
9738:
9736:
9733:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9688:
9686:
9683:
9681:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9666:
9663:
9661:
9658:
9656:
9653:
9651:
9648:
9646:
9643:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9623:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9613:
9611:
9608:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9588:
9586:
9583:
9581:
9578:
9576:
9573:
9571:
9568:
9566:
9563:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9553:
9551:
9548:
9546:
9543:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9533:
9532:
9530:
9526:bond forming
9522:
9518:
9513:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9499:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9491:Y-aromaticity
9489:
9487:
9484:
9482:
9479:
9477:
9476:Walsh diagram
9474:
9472:
9469:
9467:
9464:
9462:
9461:Taft equation
9459:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9447:
9444:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9431:ÎŁ-aromaticity
9429:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9417:
9414:
9412:
9409:
9407:
9404:
9402:
9399:
9397:
9394:
9392:
9389:
9387:
9384:
9382:
9379:
9377:
9374:
9372:
9369:
9367:
9364:
9362:
9359:
9357:
9356:Marcus theory
9354:
9352:
9349:
9347:
9344:
9342:
9339:
9337:
9334:
9332:
9331:HĂźckel's rule
9329:
9327:
9324:
9322:
9319:
9317:
9314:
9312:
9309:
9307:
9304:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9287:
9286:Evelyn effect
9284:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9272:
9269:
9267:
9266:Electron-rich
9264:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9244:
9242:
9239:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9227:
9224:
9222:
9219:
9217:
9214:
9212:
9209:
9207:
9204:
9202:
9199:
9197:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9187:
9184:
9182:
9181:Bema Hapothle
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9142:
9139:
9137:
9134:
9132:
9129:
9128:
9125:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9070:
9067:
9063:
9055:
9050:
9048:
9043:
9041:
9036:
9035:
9032:
9024:
9023:
9017:
9012:
9008:
9002:
8994:
8988:
8984:
8980:
8979:
8973:
8969:
8963:
8959:
8954:
8950:
8944:
8940:
8936:
8935:
8929:
8925:
8919:
8915:
8911:
8906:
8905:
8893:
8888:
8880:
8874:
8870:
8866:
8865:
8857:
8849:
8845:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8829:
8825:
8821:
8814:
8806:
8800:
8796:
8792:
8785:
8779:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8766:
8761:
8756:
8748:
8742:
8738:
8734:
8733:
8725:
8717:
8713:
8709:
8705:
8698:
8692:, pp. 637â647
8691:
8686:
8678:
8674:
8670:
8666:
8659:
8651:
8645:
8641:
8637:
8636:
8628:
8620:
8614:
8610:
8606:
8599:
8592:
8587:
8579:
8572:
8564:
8558:
8554:
8550:
8546:
8539:
8531:
8525:
8521:
8517:
8510:
8503:
8498:
8492:
8488:
8484:
8480:
8479:
8474:
8469:
8462:
8457:
8450:
8445:
8438:
8433:
8426:
8421:
8414:
8409:
8403:, pp. 203â206
8402:
8397:
8390:
8385:
8377:
8373:
8369:
8361:
8353:
8347:
8344:. p. 1.
8343:
8339:
8338:
8330:
8323:
8319:
8315:
8313:9780471854722
8309:
8305:
8304:
8299:
8293:
8291:
8282:
8276:
8272:
8268:
8261:
8255:
8251:
8247:
8243:
8242:
8237:
8232:
8226:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8213:
8208:
8203:
8195:
8189:
8185:
8181:
8180:
8179:Insect clocks
8172:
8166:, pp. 937â950
8165:
8160:
8152:
8148:
8144:
8140:
8136:
8132:
8125:
8117:
8113:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8097:
8093:
8089:
8082:
8074:
8068:
8064:
8060:
8059:
8051:
8043:
8039:
8032:
8026:
8022:
8018:
8017:precipitation
8014:
8013:
8008:
8003:
7997:
7993:
7989:
7985:
7984:
7979:
7974:
7967:
7962:
7955:
7950:
7944:, pp. 289â290
7943:
7938:
7930:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7915:
7907:
7899:
7893:
7890:. p. 7.
7889:
7885:
7884:
7879:
7873:
7865:
7863:9780132525763
7859:
7855:
7848:
7833:
7829:
7823:
7808:
7804:
7798:
7783:
7779:
7773:
7758:
7754:
7748:
7746:
7730:
7726:
7720:
7713:
7709:
7706:
7701:
7699:
7697:
7695:
7687:
7682:
7675:
7670:
7662:
7658:
7652:
7650:
7643:, pp. 106â108
7642:
7637:
7630:
7625:
7617:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7602:
7594:
7592:
7583:
7579:
7572:
7566:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7553:
7548:
7543:
7535:
7531:
7527:
7523:
7516:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7479:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7464:
7456:
7450:, pp. 104â107
7449:
7444:
7437:
7432:
7424:
7418:
7414:
7410:
7409:
7401:
7390:
7389:
7381:
7373:
7369:
7365:
7358:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7339:9783487091150
7335:
7331:
7327:
7324:(1942â1943).
7323:
7317:
7309:
7307:9780226575247
7303:
7299:
7295:
7288:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7261:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7243:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7228:
7212:
7211:
7202:
7200:
7199:
7194:
7190:
7188:
7187:
7178:
7176:
7175:
7166:
7165:
7162:
7156:
7153:
7151:
7148:
7146:
7143:
7142:
7140:
7136:
7130:
7129:United States
7127:
7125:
7124:South America
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7067:
7063:
7060:
7059:
7058:
7057:Energy policy
7055:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7026:
7023:
7022:
7020:
7018:
7012:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6995:
6994:
6991:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6981:Solar furnace
6979:
6978:
6977:
6974:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6961:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6939:
6938:
6937:Nuclear power
6935:
6931:
6928:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6918:
6917:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6895:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6879:
6876:
6874:
6871:
6870:
6868:
6864:
6863:Energy system
6860:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6837:
6834:
6833:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6816:Gravitational
6814:
6812:
6809:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6781:
6779:
6777:
6773:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6745:
6744:Hydrogen fuel
6742:
6741:
6740:
6737:
6733:
6730:
6729:
6728:
6725:
6721:
6718:
6716:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6701:
6698:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6687:
6685:
6683:
6679:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6658:
6655:
6653:
6650:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6640:
6638:
6635:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6620:
6618:
6615:
6613:
6610:
6608:
6605:
6603:
6600:
6598:
6595:
6593:
6590:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6571:
6568:
6567:
6566:
6565:Gravitational
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6534:
6531:
6530:
6529:
6526:
6525:
6523:
6519:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6441:
6438:
6436:
6435:Heat transfer
6433:
6431:
6430:Heat capacity
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6402:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6383:Negative mass
6381:
6380:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6363:Energy system
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6347:
6344:
6343:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6328:
6326:
6320:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6293:
6286:
6281:
6279:
6274:
6272:
6267:
6266:
6263:
6251:
6250:
6241:
6239:
6238:
6233:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6217:
6215:
6214:
6205:
6204:
6201:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6184:Chemical bond
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6148:
6145:
6144:
6143:
6140:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6114:
6111:
6110:
6108:
6104:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6082:
6081:
6078:
6074:
6073:Stoichiometry
6071:
6070:
6069:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6043:
6042:
6039:
6035:
6032:
6031:
6030:
6029:Nanochemistry
6027:
6026:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5989:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5977:
5976:
5975:
5972:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5959:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5932:
5931:
5928:
5927:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5896:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5877:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5865:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5822:
5819:
5815:
5812:
5811:
5810:
5807:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5794:
5793:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5781:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5754:Semisynthesis
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5719:
5716:
5715:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5708:
5706:
5702:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5679:
5676:
5675:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5656:
5652:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5588:Sonochemistry
5586:
5584:
5583:Cryochemistry
5581:
5577:
5576:Micromeritics
5574:
5573:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5541:
5540:
5537:
5536:
5534:
5532:
5528:
5520:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5493:
5490:
5489:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5477:
5475:
5471:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5454:Wet chemistry
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5401:
5398:
5397:
5396:
5393:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5351:
5347:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5322:
5319:
5315:
5307:
5302:
5300:
5295:
5293:
5288:
5287:
5284:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5202:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5194:
5190:
5179:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5163:
5158:
5147:
5145:
5144:flash welding
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5120:
5118:
5117:reaction rate
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5089:
5080:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5045:Bioenergetics
5042:
5041:carbohydrates
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5021:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4990:
4981:
4979:
4975:
4970:
4969:wave function
4965:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4938:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4911:hydride shift
4908:
4904:
4900:
4886:
4872:
4859:
4850:
4848:
4844:
4839:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4809:
4805:
4802:
4797:
4795:
4791:
4790:hydroperoxide
4787:
4783:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4753:
4749:
4737:
4724:
4712:
4703:
4697:
4696:deprotonation
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4659:
4644:
4638:
4631:
4616:
4608:
4605:
4594:
4579:
4573:
4566:
4552:
4545:
4542:
4531:
4530:
4529:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4512:
4508:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4473:2 mechanism.
4468:
4464:
4460:
4452:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4436:leaving group
4415:
4404:
4393:
4384:
4382:
4381:kinetic order
4378:
4370:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4329:leaving group
4326:
4322:
4304:
4286:
4277:
4275:
4271:
4270:electrophilic
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4245:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4190:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4153:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4137:heterogeneous
4134:
4130:
4122:
4118:
4113:
4104:
4099:
4093:
4083:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4025:excited state
4022:
4018:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3988:
3986:
3982:
3972:
3969:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3940:Precipitation
3935:Precipitation
3933:
3927:Precipitation
3921:
3918:
3915:
3912:
3905:
3902:
3901:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3891:
3884:
3877:
3873:
3868:
3839:
3829:
3811:
3788:
3777:
3751:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3663:dipolar bonds
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3641:
3630:
3626:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3595:
3590:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3572:
3558:
3535:
3521:
3507:
3484:
3479:
3477:
3471:
3442:
3420:
3412:
3394:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3370:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3338:
3334:
3326:
3317:
3287:
3260:
3252:
3202:
3191:
3183:
3165:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3110:
3101:
3098:
3090:
3081:
3059:
3049:
3046:
3041:
3022:
3009:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2855:
2844:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2701:
2685:
2674:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2655:According to
2648:
2629:
2620:
2617:
2604:
2589:
2586:
2578:
2565:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2508:
2500:
2495:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2444:
2420:
2412:
2399:
2369:
2360:
2357:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2319:
2307:
2295:
2285:
2266:
2258:
2250:
2241:
2227:
2218:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2196:
2179:
2159:
2152:Decomposition
2149:
2146:
2128:
2117:
2109:
2102:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2057:
2043:
2029:
2015:
2013:
2009:
2008:Marcus theory
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1979:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1854:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1809:
1803:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1761:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1732:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1601:
1573:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1477:
1439:
1431:
1412:
1391:
1380:
1343:
1335:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1302:
1297:° is zero at
1296:
1292:
1288:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1207:
1188:
1179:
1157:
1149:
1131:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1116:reduction of
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1101:precipitation
1098:
1094:
1090:
1059:
1044:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
982:
978:
976:
972:
968:
964:
958:
925:
917:
901:
893:
882:
881:
880:
859:
847:
836:
835:
834:
832:
828:
799:
788:
787:
786:
784:
780:
776:
766:
748:
731:
730:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
692:In a typical
690:
688:
687:isomerization
685:
681:
673:
668:
664:
662:
657:
647:
644:
638:
634:
630:
626:
621:
617:
615:
611:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
585:
584:
582:
578:
574:
573:stoichiometry
570:
565:
561:
557:
552:
544:
540:
515:
504:
500:
498:
494:
492:
488:
486:
483:
482:
481:
472:
469:November 2020
463:
459:
456:This section
454:
451:
447:
446:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
403:synthetically
400:
395:
393:
389:
388:stoichiometry
385:
381:
380:Joseph Proust
377:
373:
369:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
331:Haber process
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
275:mineral acids
272:
268:
264:
259:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
221:
217:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
124:reaction rate
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
91:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
51:energy change
48:
44:
40:
36:
28:
23:
19:
12545:
12533:
12521:
12399:Biosynthesis
11281:Ene reaction
10641:Autoxidation
10502:Degradation
10393:Azo coupling
10170:Ugi reaction
9770:Ene reaction
9570:Alkynylation
9421:Polyfluorene
9416:Polar effect
9281:Electrophile
9196:Bredt's rule
9166:Baird's rule
9136:Alpha effect
9020:
8977:
8957:
8933:
8909:
8902:Bibliography
8887:
8863:
8856:
8823:
8819:
8813:
8790:
8784:
8763:
8755:
8731:
8724:
8707:
8703:
8697:
8685:
8668:
8664:
8658:
8634:
8627:
8604:
8598:
8586:
8571:
8544:
8538:
8515:
8509:
8497:
8476:
8468:
8456:
8444:
8432:
8420:
8408:
8396:
8384:
8367:
8360:
8336:
8329:
8302:
8298:March, Jerry
8266:
8260:
8239:
8231:
8210:
8202:
8178:
8171:
8159:
8134:
8130:
8124:
8091:
8087:
8081:
8057:
8050:
8037:
8031:
8010:
8002:
7981:
7973:
7961:
7949:
7937:
7913:
7906:
7882:
7872:
7853:
7847:
7836:. Retrieved
7834:. 2016-05-26
7831:
7822:
7811:. Retrieved
7809:. 2013-10-02
7806:
7797:
7786:. Retrieved
7784:. 2016-06-27
7781:
7772:
7761:. Retrieved
7759:. 2016-08-05
7756:
7733:. Retrieved
7731:. 2016-08-05
7728:
7719:
7681:
7669:
7660:
7636:
7624:
7600:
7577:
7571:
7550:
7542:
7525:
7521:
7515:
7494:
7486:
7462:
7455:
7443:
7431:
7407:
7400:
7387:
7380:
7371:
7367:
7357:
7325:
7316:
7297:
7287:
7270:
7266:
7260:
7239:
7231:
7208:
7196:
7184:
7172:
6954:Oil refinery
6898:Cogeneration
6831:Nuclear fuel
6637:Quintessence
6425:Free entropy
6358:Energy level
6322:Fundamental
6247:
6235:
6223:
6211:
6141:
6061:Biosynthesis
5911:Geochemistry
5826:Pharmacology
5802:Cell biology
5792:Biochemistry
5620:Spectroscopy
5519:VSEPR theory
5368:Spectroscopy
5312:Branches of
5257:Mass balance
5153:
5128:pyrotechnics
5121:
5094:
5083:Applications
5077:biochemistry
5022:
4995:
4966:
4939:
4933:such as the
4896:
4840:
4814:
4798:
4778:
4758:
4742:
4691:triple bonds
4672:
4517:
4481:electrophile
4475:
4462:
4444:
4429:
4318:
4266:nucleophilic
4251:
4248:Substitution
4242:halogenation
4222:hydrocarbons
4215:
4192:
4154:
4126:
4041:
4014:
3978:
3965:
3938:
3898:
3882:
3875:
3869:
3704:
3644:
3620:Complexation
3598:
3591:
3576:
3480:
3475:
3472:
3373:
3359:
3355:
3342:
3144:
2975:
2947:carbohydrate
2937:light energy
2840:
2670:
2654:
2527:
2496:
2450:
2337:
2291:
2200:electrolysis
2197:
2161:
2147:
2081:
2045:
1984:
1977:
1975:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1869:
1776:
1687:
1685:
1636:Surface area
1625:
1612:
1586:: pressure,
1478:
1471:
1306:
1294:
1284:
1092:
1086:
1068:: enthalpy,
988:
979:
960:
879:for example
878:
824:
772:
697:
694:dissociation
691:
680:dissociation
677:
653:
641:
607:
600:
596:
592:
588:
580:
576:
554:
479:
466:
462:adding to it
457:
396:
370:
350:Isaac Newton
346:Robert Boyle
339:
283:nitric acids
260:
228:fermentation
225:
190:
166:biochemistry
159:
144:
121:
94:
34:
32:
18:
9780:Ethenolysis
9426:Ring strain
9396:Nucleophile
9221:Clar's rule
9161:Aromaticity
8576:Hunt, Ian.
8391:, pp. 63â77
7528:: 111â133.
7438:, pp. 34â55
7322:Kraus, Paul
7210:WikiProject
7030:Agriculture
6959:Solar power
6925:Tidal power
6799:Natural gas
6789:Fossil fuel
6732:Latent heat
6700:Electricity
6249:WikiProject
5474:Theoretical
5459:Calorimetry
5166:femtosecond
5140:arc welding
5013:active site
4962:cyclohexene
4824:nucleophile
4822:or another
4792:or halogen
4770:carbocation
4679:elimination
4440:carbocation
4321:nucleophile
4312:2 mechanism
4294:1 mechanism
4234:methylation
4203:heteroatoms
4169:nitric acid
4141:homogeneous
4121:Peugeot 106
3667:Lewis bases
2994:hydrocarbon
2845:, that is,
2753:acetic acid
2675:, that is,
2661:equilibrium
1654:Temperature
1626:independent
1582:: entropy,
1474:1100 K
1269:kJ at 298 K
1109:endothermic
1076:: entropy,
775:bimolecular
728:reactions.
706:heterolytic
497:temperature
491:precipitate
376:John Dalton
337:synthesis.
240:Middle Ages
176:by protein
87:radioactive
12563:Categories
12064:Ozonolysis
11591:Annulation
10941:Ozonolysis
9060:Topics in
8671:: 98â122.
8609:Birkhäuser
8340:. London:
8063:de Gruyter
7838:2023-04-11
7813:2023-04-11
7788:2023-04-11
7763:2023-04-11
7735:2023-04-11
7223:References
6993:Wind power
6915:Hydropower
6866:components
6821:Hydropower
6811:Geothermal
6761:Sound wave
6672:Zero-point
6602:Mechanical
6587:Ionization
6560:Electrical
6455:Negentropy
6336:Energetics
6085:Metallurgy
5784:Biological
5350:Analytical
5242:Combustion
5150:Monitoring
5103:, mineral
5071:and other
5025:metabolism
5017:amino acid
4917:, where a
4403:2 reaction
3944:solubility
3846:conjugated
3818:conjugated
3655:lone pairs
2978:combustion
2972:Combustion
1489:activities
1299:1855
1291:molybdenum
1097:combustion
1089:exothermic
831:metathesis
720:, such as
672:azobenzene
501:Change in
495:Change in
362:combustion
244:alchemists
236:Empedocles
12574:Chemistry
11578:reactions
11093:reactions
10588:reactions
10504:reactions
10386:reactions
9528:reactions
9001:cite book
8914:Wiley-VCH
8869:CRC Press
8770:anabolism
8322:642506595
8246:inhibitor
7854:Chemistry
7631:, p. 114.
7606:Wiley-VCH
7348:468740510
7328:. Cairo:
7104:Australia
7040:Transport
7035:Computing
7003:Wind farm
6930:Wave farm
6804:Petroleum
6784:Bioenergy
6756:Radiation
6695:Capacitor
6617:Potential
6147:Catalysis
5655:Inorganic
5449:Titration
5314:chemistry
5237:Chemistry
5205:Substrate
5113:Catalysts
5101:petroleum
5029:anabolism
4820:carbanion
4645:⋅
4632:−
4625:⟶
4606:⋅
4580:⋅
4567:−
4560:⟶
4553:−
4543:⋅
4493:nitronium
4463:cis/trans
4337:alkoxides
4333:hydroxide
4220:of heavy
4177:carbonyls
4149:polymeric
4129:catalysis
4092:Catalysis
4086:Catalysis
4068:fireflies
4064:rhodopsin
3968:diffusion
3948:amorphous
3904:Arrhenius
3812:−
3796:⇀
3789:−
3778:−
3771:↽
3683:electrons
3629:Ferrocene
3614:batteries
3610:aluminium
3587:noble gas
3577:For some
3440:⟶
3280:⟶
3200:⟶
3151:magnesium
3079:⟶
2853:Δ
2759:ions and
2683:Δ
2614:↓
2597:⟶
2473:⟶
2430:↑
2409:↓
2381:⟶
2340:magnesium
2314:⟶
2239:⟶
2174:⟶
2126:⟶
2064:⟶
2036:Synthesis
1928:−
1889:half-life
1847:⋅
1841:−
1833:⋅
1748:⋅
1711:−
1552:⋅
1549:μ
1535:⋅
1529:−
1518:⋅
1399:⇀
1392:−
1381:−
1374:↽
1243:Δ
1177:⟶
1091:, where Î
1042:Δ
1039:⋅
1033:−
1027:Δ
1018:Δ
995:exergonic
933:↓
910:⟶
854:⟶
806:⟶
743:⟶
702:homolytic
684:cisâtrans
625:oxidation
509:Equations
423:synthesis
421:with his
301:produced
295:saltpeter
182:metabolic
174:catalyzed
155:reduction
151:oxidation
149:in which
59:electrons
12523:Category
9471:Vinylogy
9141:Annulene
9088:Reagents
8894:, p. 987
8795:Springer
8690:BrĂźckner
8593:, p. 580
8591:BrĂźckner
8520:Springer
8504:, p. 125
8502:BrĂźckner
8451:, p. 172
8449:BrĂźckner
8439:, p. 183
8437:BrĂźckner
8427:, p. 192
8425:BrĂźckner
8413:BrĂźckner
8401:BrĂźckner
8389:BrĂźckner
8300:(1985),
8217:catalyst
8184:Elsevier
8151:22571820
7956:, p. 409
7708:Archived
7688:, p. 963
7676:, p. 150
7296:(2004).
7174:Category
6739:Hydrogen
6705:Enthalpy
6607:Negative
6597:Magnetic
6582:Internal
6540:Chemical
6405:Enthalpy
6324:concepts
6213:Category
6169:Molecule
6106:See also
5531:Physical
5215:Catalyst
5175:See also
5124:thermite
5069:bacteria
5037:proteins
5009:catalyze
5001:proteins
4964:system.
4919:hydrogen
4903:molecule
4675:addition
4445:In the S
4230:gasoline
4218:cracking
4207:halogens
4133:catalyst
3999:In this
3952:crystals
3659:orbitals
3606:chlorine
3380:chlorine
3371:bonds).
3369:covalent
3356:oxidized
2536:to form
2521:and MgCl
2208:hydrogen
2090:to form
2010:and the
1680:radicals
1661:catalyst
1642:Pressure
1622:Reactant
1609:Kinetics
999:enthalpy
698:ruptures
614:catalyst
560:chemical
407:vitalism
279:sulfuric
277:such as
105:products
90:elements
83:unstable
65:between
55:chemical
39:chemical
27:thermite
12535:Commons
9131:A value
8848:1962206
8828:Bibcode
8820:Science
8415:, p. 16
8370:: 979.
8116:9395392
8096:Bibcode
8088:Science
7186:Commons
7014:Use and
6873:Biomass
6843:Radiant
6690:Battery
6662:Thermal
6657:Surface
6642:Radiant
6612:Phantom
6592:Kinetic
6570:Binding
6550:Elastic
6533:Nuclear
6528:Binding
6415:Entropy
6313:Outline
6303:History
6225:Commons
6189:Alchemy
5705:Organic
5232:Chemist
5220:Product
5210:Reagent
5132:welding
5049:glucose
5005:enzymes
5003:called
4520:radical
4503:1 and S
4345:halides
4173:ammonia
4123:S2 1100
4052:glucose
4021:photons
4009:oxetane
3715:protons
3705:In the
3647:ligands
3640:ligands
3360:reduced
2963:oxygen
2933:photons
2907:dioxide
2757:acetate
1990:is the
1003:entropy
710:radical
635:with a
629:ketones
577:a, b, c
335:ammonia
211:History
178:enzymes
12579:Change
12547:Portal
8989:
8964:
8945:
8939:Vieweg
8920:
8892:Atkins
8875:
8846:
8801:
8743:
8737:Thieme
8646:
8615:
8559:
8526:
8461:Wiberg
8348:
8320:
8310:
8277:
8190:
8164:Atkins
8149:
8114:
8069:
8042:Thieme
7966:Wiberg
7954:Wiberg
7942:Wiberg
7925:
7894:
7860:
7686:Atkins
7674:Atkins
7641:Atkins
7629:Atkins
7612:
7582:Thieme
7474:
7419:
7346:
7336:
7304:
7198:Portal
7119:Mexico
7114:Europe
7109:Canada
7094:Africa
7017:supply
6826:Marine
6715:Fossil
6667:Vacuum
6420:Exergy
6341:Energy
6292:Energy
6237:Portal
5383:UV-Vis
5169:lasers
5109:oxygen
5107:, and
5053:oxygen
4958:alkene
4687:Double
4489:sulfur
4341:amines
4145:coking
4072:enzyme
4060:vision
4056:oxygen
4005:olefin
3983:. Via
3849:
3821:
3376:sodium
3155:sulfur
3147:carbon
2982:oxygen
2924:water
2905:carbon
2505:) and
2204:oxygen
2088:sulfur
2006:, the
1976:where
1265:
781:or an
633:esters
595:B â
539:oxygen
427:ethers
348:, and
256:sulfur
71:nuclei
12449:LASiS
12377:Types
8760:IUPAC
8473:IUPAC
8236:IUPAC
8207:IUPAC
8007:IUPAC
7978:IUPAC
7547:IUPAC
7491:IUPAC
7448:Brock
7436:Brock
7392:(PDF)
7236:IUPAC
7138:Misc.
6848:Solar
6652:Sound
6521:Types
6395:Power
6346:Units
6308:Index
5410:MALDI
5378:Raman
5065:fungi
4954:diene
4923:alkyl
4897:In a
4818:of a
4794:anion
4786:boron
4430:The S
4335:ion,
4252:In a
4107:same.
4070:, an
4066:. In
3920:Lewis
3709:, an
3677:of a
3560:, or
3344:Redox
2990:light
2976:In a
2532:with
2509:(MgSO
2501:(BaCl
2451:In a
2292:In a
2210:gas:
1870:Here
1690:of a
1262:21.86
827:redox
543:water
531:+ 2 H
527:â CO
503:state
265:from
250:into
147:redox
67:atoms
47:atoms
9007:link
8987:ISBN
8962:ISBN
8943:ISBN
8918:ISBN
8873:ISBN
8844:PMID
8799:ISBN
8741:ISBN
8644:ISBN
8613:ISBN
8557:ISBN
8524:ISBN
8346:ISBN
8318:OCLC
8308:ISBN
8275:ISBN
8188:ISBN
8147:PMID
8112:PMID
8067:ISBN
7923:ISBN
7892:ISBN
7858:ISBN
7610:ISBN
7472:ISBN
7417:ISBN
7344:OCLC
7334:ISBN
7302:ISBN
7291:See
7099:Asia
6853:Wind
6794:Coal
6766:Work
6727:Heat
6710:Fuel
6647:Rest
6545:Dark
6510:Work
6378:Mass
6164:Atom
5432:HPLC
5142:and
5130:and
5105:ores
5051:and
5039:and
4927:aryl
4689:and
4673:The
4371:and
4343:and
4256:, a
4240:and
4171:and
4035:and
3894:salt
3881:and
3852:acid
3824:base
3760:base
3747:acid
3723:base
3719:acid
3689:and
3447:NaCl
2986:heat
2778:COOH
2540:and
2206:and
2086:and
2084:iron
1882:and
1289:and
1103:and
1001:and
929:AgCl
914:NaNO
898:AgNO
891:NaCl
773:For
714:ions
654:The
599:C +
591:A +
579:and
523:+ 2O
429:and
411:urea
390:and
305:and
293:and
291:alum
281:and
252:gold
248:lead
186:cell
153:and
128:heat
85:and
8836:doi
8824:254
8774:doi
8772:".
8712:doi
8673:doi
8669:460
8549:doi
8487:doi
8485:".
8372:doi
8250:doi
8248:".
8221:doi
8219:".
8139:doi
8135:134
8104:doi
8092:278
8021:doi
8019:".
7992:doi
7990:".
7561:doi
7559:".
7530:doi
7505:doi
7503:".
7275:doi
7250:doi
7248:".
6720:Oil
6174:Ion
5405:ICP
5388:NMR
5033:DNA
4925:or
4764:of
4491:or
4272:or
4244:).
4224:at
4193:In
4127:In
4015:In
3608:or
3563:OsO
3526:CrO
3512:MnO
3207:MgO
3153:or
2988:or
2804:COO
2626:KNO
2601:PbI
2133:FeS
1154:MoO
724:or
704:or
631:to
627:of
562:or
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234:of
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3170:Mg
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3087:CO
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2952:+
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2929:+
2912:+
2898:CO
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2780:+
2769:CH
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2712:2H
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2594:KI
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2553:Pb
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2525:.
2482:CB
2476:AD
2470:CD
2464:AB
2392:OH
2384:Mg
2355:Mg
2317:AC
2311:BC
2171:AB
2107:Fe
2094::
2067:AB
2014:.
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1476:.
1409:CO
1322:CO
1235:;
1211:Mo
1185:CO
1136:CO
1120::
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863:HB
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4609:+
4603:R
4577:R
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4505:E
4501:E
4471:N
4461:(
4455:N
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4432:N
4421:N
4419:S
4401:N
4399:S
4377:2
4375:N
4373:S
4369:1
4367:N
4365:S
4310:N
4308:S
4292:N
4290:S
4011:.
3908:3
3886:b
3883:K
3879:a
3876:K
3874:(
3840:+
3830:+
3808:A
3757:B
3752:+
3637:5
3635:H
3633:5
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3409:)
3406:s
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2323:B
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2110:+
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1988:B
1985:k
1981:a
1978:E
1958:T
1953:B
1949:k
1943:/
1936:a
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