165:: that form of reductionism which concerns a program of replacing the facts or entities involved in one type of discourse with other facts or entities from another type, thereby providing a relationship between them. Richard Jones distinguishes ontological and epistemological reductionism, arguing that many ontological and epistemological reductionists affirm the need for different concepts for different degrees of complexity while affirming a reduction of theories.
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418:". In a general sense, a problem (or set) is said to be reducible to another problem (or set), if there is a computable/feasible method to translate the questions of the former into the latter, so that, if one knows how to computably/feasibly solve the latter problem, then one can computably/feasibly solve the former. Thus, the latter can only be at least as "
488:, who distinguished between the causal deterministic framework the mind imposes on the worldâthe phenomenal realmâand the world as it exists for itself, the noumenal realm, which, as he believed, included free will. To insulate theology from reductionism, 19th century post-Enlightenment German theologians, especially
195:
has claimed that there are two species of ontological reductionism: one that claims that wholes are nothing more than their parts; and atomist reductionism, claiming that wholes are not "really real". She admits that the phrase "really real" is apparently senseless but she has tried to explicate the
188:
Richard Jones divides ontological reductionism into two: the reductionism of substances (e.g., the reduction of mind to matter) and the reduction of the number of structures operating in nature (e.g., the reduction of one physical force to another). This permits scientists and philosophers to affirm
168:
The idea of reductionism can be expressed by "levels" of explanation, with higher levels reducible if need be to lower levels. This use of levels of understanding in part expresses our human limitations in remembering detail. However, "most philosophers would insist that our role in conceptualizing
142:
and others speak of 'psychophysical reductionism' (the attempted reduction of psychological phenomena to physics and chemistry), and 'physico-chemical reductionism' (the attempted reduction of biology to physics and chemistry). In a very simplified and sometimes contested form, reductionism is said
137:
For the sciences, application of methodological reductionism attempts explanation of entire systems in terms of their individual, constituent parts and their interactions. For example, the temperature of a gas is reduced to nothing beyond the average kinetic energy of its molecules in motion.
221:
Token ontological reductionism is the idea that every item that exists is a sum item. For perceivable items, it affirms that every perceivable item is a sum of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Token ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is generally accepted.
335:, published in 1931, caused doubt about the attainability of an axiomatic foundation for all of mathematics. Any such foundation would have to include axioms powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (a subset of all mathematics). Yet Gödel proved that, for any
225:
Type ontological reductionism is the idea that every type of item is a sum type of item, and that every perceivable type of item is a sum of types of items with a lesser degree of complexity. Type ontological reduction of biological things to chemical things is often rejected.
560:
says that science must develop techniques to study ways in which larger scales of organization influence smaller ones, and also ways in which feedback loops create structure at a given level, independently of details at a lower level of organization. He advocates and uses
284:'s theories of motion formulated for terrestrial objects are reducible to Newtonian theories of mechanics because all the explanatory power of the former are contained within the latter. Furthermore, the reduction is considered beneficial because
114:: the suggestion that a newer theory does not replace or absorb an older one, but reduces it to more basic terms. Theory reduction itself is divisible into three parts: translation, derivation, and explanation.
555:
of the exterior world, rather than the accumulation of independent "nuggets of truth". Others argue that inappropriate use of reductionism limits our understanding of complex systems. In particular, ecologist
288:
is a more general theoryâthat is, it explains more events than
Galileo's or Kepler's. Besides scientific theories, theory reduction more generally can be the process by which one explanation subsumes another.
176:, but it does imply the ability to understand those phenomena completely in terms of the processes from which they are composed. This reductionist understanding is very different from ontological or strong
512:
involve reducing it to some collection of non-causal facts. Opponents of these reductionist views have given arguments that the non-causal facts in question are insufficient to determine the causal facts.
261:
180:, which intends that what emerges in "emergence" is more than the sum of the processes from which it emerges, respectively either in the ontological sense or in the epistemological sense.
1852:
Lopez, F., Il pensiero olistico di
Ippocrate. Riduzionismo, antiriduzionismo, scienza della complessitĂ nel trattato sull'Antica Medicina, vol. IIA, Ed. Pubblisfera, Cosenza Italy 2008.
146:
However, a more nuanced opinion is that a system is composed entirely of its parts, but the system will have features that none of the parts have (which, in essence is the basis of
309:
was one of the major advocates of such an opinion; he also developed much of axiomatic set theory. It has been argued that the generally accepted method of justifying mathematical
272:
Theory reduction is the process by which a more general theory absorbs a special theory. It can be further divided into translation, derivation, and explanation. For example, both
387:
in particular is seen as a reductionist framework. For instance, we understand the solar system in terms of its components (the sun and the planets) and their interactions.
244:
In a biological context, methodological reductionism means attempting to explain all biological phenomena in terms of their underlying biochemical and molecular processes.
870:
859:, reductionist "belief that each meaningful statement is equivalent to some logical construct upon terms which refer to immediate experience" as an intractable problem.
1889:
The Anti-Realist Side of the Debate: A Theory's
Predictive Success does not Warrant Belief in the Unobservable Entities it Postulates Andre Kukla and Joel Walmsley.
301:, reductionism can be interpreted as the philosophy that all mathematics can (or ought to) be based on a common foundation, which for modern mathematics is usually
1870:
1194:
Strenski, Ivan. "Classic
Twentieth-Century Theorist of the Study of Religion: Defending the Inner Sanctum of Religious Experience or Storming It." pp. 176â209 in
78:
which can be described in terms of simpler or more fundamental phenomena. It is also described as an intellectual and philosophical position that interprets a
932:
1686:
Clayton, P; Davies, P, eds. (2006). "The Re-emergence of
Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion". New York: Oxford University Press.
1817:
Eric Scerri The reduction of chemistry to physics has become a central aspect of the philosophy of chemistry. See several articles by this author.
3708:
1884:
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method of basing religion on the human spirit, so that it is a person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.
1935:
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in natural systems. The limits of the application of reductionism are claimed to be especially evident at levels of organization with greater
433:. More specifically, reduction is a foundational and central concept, not only in the realm of mathematical logic and abstract computation in
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and an alternative to what he considered "accumulative fragmentalism". For this theory, knowledge is seen as the construction of successful
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separated the material world of mechanical necessity from the world of mental free will. German philosophers introduced the concept of the "
339:
recursively enumerable axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers, there are (model-theoretically)
441:, but also in the realm of real-world computation in time (or space) complexity analysis of algorithms, where it assumes the form of e.g.
95:
suggests that reductionism is "one of the most used and abused terms in the philosophical lexicon" and suggests a three-part division:
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propositions about the natural numbers that cannot be proved from the axioms. Such propositions are known as formally
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484:" nature, where every event is completely determined by chains of causality. The most influential formulation was by
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reality does not change the fact that different levels of organization in reality do have different 'properties'."
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150:). "The point of mechanistic explanations is usually showing how the higher level features arise from the parts."
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4527:
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Pope ML, Watts M (1988). "Constructivist
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phenomenon that only exists through analysis or description of a system, and does not exist fundamentally.
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components, although it has been argued that reduction in physics 'never goes all the way in practice'.
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523:". His scheme was to frame a rational, general understanding of phenomena, derived from our reality.
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can be thought as a precise and unambiguous mathematical formalization of the philosophical idea of "
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Getting It Right in
Science and Medicine: Can Science Progress through Errors? Fallacies and Facts
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Mind and Cosmos: Why the
Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature is Almost Certainly False
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Reductionist thinking and methods form the basis for many of the well-developed topics of modern
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is pervasive in both: the mathematical abstract foundations of computation; and in real-world
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by their usefulness in common practice can potentially weaken
Zermelo's reductionist claim.
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1043:. Edited by Nancey Murphy, and Christopher C. Knight. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2010. P. 82.
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827:. Advanced School for Interdisciplinary Research; Pontifical University of the Holy Cross.
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Huber, F; Schnauss, J; Roenicke, S; Rauch, P; Mueller, K; Fuetterer, C; Kaes, J (2013).
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Analysis & the
Fullness of Reality: An Introduction to Reductionism & Emergence
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as a foundation for mathematics instead of set theory, whereas others have argued for
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Lawvere, F. W. (1966). "The Category of Categories as a Foundation for Mathematics".
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108:: the scientific attempt to provide an explanation in terms of ever-smaller entities.
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International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Reports: Gender Equity. 23: 15â17.
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Awodey, S. (1996). "Structure in Mathematics and Logic: A Categorical Perspective".
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terms 'conceptual' or 'epistemological' reductionism is the definition provided by
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1833:(2002) describes what he terms the culture war among physicists in his review of
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Perceptual Diversity: Is Polyphasic Consciousness Necessary for Global Survival?
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Dreams of a Final Theory: The Scientist's Search for the Ultimate Laws of Nature
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with the reductionist method of explaining macroscopic properties in terms of
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Proceedings of the Conference on Categorical Algebra (La Jolla, Calif., 1965)
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Thinking About Religion: An Historical Introduction to Theories of Religion
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1929:âan interview at the Galilean Library covering criticisms of reductionism.
1628:"Emergent complexity of the cytoskeleton: from single filaments to tissue"
1255:
VÀÀnÀnen, J. (2001). "Second-Order Logic and Foundations of Mathematics".
210:
In some scientific disciplines, ontological reductionism takes two forms:
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Darwinian Reductionism or How to Stop Worrying and Love Molecular Biology
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55:(1662), claimed that non-human animals could be explained reductively as
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Nancey Murphy, "Reductionism and Emergence. A Critical Perspective." In
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has criticized ontological reductionism as an improper argument against
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1481:
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1369:. In Austin, Christopher J.; Marmodoro, Anna; Roselli, Andrea (eds.).
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1373:. Synthese Library. Vol. 451. Synthese Library. pp. 17â50.
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173:
172:
Reductionism does not preclude the existence of what might be termed
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59:; meaning essentially as more mechanically complex versions of this
34:
For term used phenomenological tradition in Western philosophy, see
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1410:(Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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233:
1903:
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368:
44:
1342:
Dynamics of Markets: The New Financial Economics, Second Edition
189:
the former while being anti-reductionists regarding the latter.
3944:
2405:
1954:
1778:
A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down.
842:
519:'s metaphysics opposed reductionism. He refers to this as the "
310:
277:
153:
Other definitions are used by other authors. For example, what
131:
41:
Philosophical view explaining systems in terms of smaller parts
1881:
Monocultures, Monopolies and the Masculinisation of Knowledge.
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1030:, pp. 24â26, 29â31. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press.
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Pope ML (1982). "Personal construction of formal knowledge".
1365:
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143:
to imply that a system is nothing but the sum of its parts.
3823:
1724:
Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind-Brain
480:" realm that is not governed by the deterministic laws of "
1625:
1224:"Zermelo, Reductionism, and the Philosophy of Mathematics"
1209:"Reductionism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"
218:. In this case, "token" refers to a biological process.
199:
Ontological reductionism denies the idea of ontological
1736:. Oxford University Press; 2nd edition, December 1989.
1344:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 241.
1117:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2022.
1099:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2019.
997:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 794.
825:
Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science
760:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 793.
600:
547:
developed "constructive alternativism" as a form of
531:
An alternative term for ontological reductionism is
324:
as a foundation for certain aspects of mathematics.
1053:Silberstein, Michael; McGeever, John (April 1999).
1052:
898:
1795:The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature
1028:Reductionism: Analysis and the Fullness of Reality
937:Reductionism: Analysis and the Fullness of Reality
818:
696:Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions
4563:
1933:Monica Anderson: Reductionism Considered Harmful
1762:Galison, Peter and David J. Stump, eds. (1996),
930:
431:performance or capability analysis of algorithms
1177:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
959:
1439:
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814:
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810:
239:
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2618:
1970:
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688:
682:
1621:
1619:
1168:
968:. Oxford University Press, UK. p. 311.
939:. Bucknell University Press. pp. 19â .
868:
751:
508:Most common philosophical understandings of
1885:Gender and Equity (v. 23, no. 2, July 1995)
1679:
1428:The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science
1329:. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 1â20.
988:
889:
807:
726:
183:
3709:
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2625:
2611:
1977:
1963:
1857:Personal construction of formal knowledge,
905:. Princeton University Press. p. 16.
4365:
4328:Relationship between religion and science
3716:
1659:
1616:
1558:
1426:Philip Clayton and Zachary Simpson, eds.
1239:
1017:Axelrod and Cohen "Harnessing Complexity"
953:
875:. Oxford University Press. pp. 4â5.
391:can be considered as a reconciliation of
74:ideas regarding the associations between
1460:. Oxford Handbooks Online. p. 292.
1339:
1254:
43:
2901:
2632:
1921:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1523:
1480:
1433:
1408:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1324:
1115:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1097:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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924:
922:
14:
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1297:
1221:
1055:"The Search for Ontological Emergence"
783:
405:
267:
3690:
2606:
1958:
1401:
779:
777:
521:fallacy of the misplaced concreteness
196:supposed difference between the two.
1945:Reduction and Emergence in Chemistry
1605:, Columbia University Press (1997) (
1127:
919:
862:
722:
720:
437:, where it assumes the form of e.g.
1949:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1927:John Dupré: The Disunity of Science
1909:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1175:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1169:Brigandt, Ingo; Love, Alan (2017).
982:
793:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
745:
435:computability (or recursive) theory
118:Reductionism can be applied to any
24:
1715:
1603:Ecology: The Ascendant Perspective
1228:Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic
995:The Oxford Companion to Philosophy
774:
758:The Oxford Companion to Philosophy
203:, and claims that emergence is an
92:The Oxford Companion to Philosophy
25:
4623:
4348:Sociology of scientific knowledge
4343:Sociology of scientific ignorance
4296:History and philosophy of science
1893:
991:"Entry for 'mental reductionism'"
717:
292:
4545:
4533:
3670:
3661:
3660:
1984:
1458:The Oxford Handbook of Causation
1404:"18th Century German Aesthetics"
617:
603:
262:religious reductionist arguments
1595:
1552:
1517:
1474:
1442:"Chapter 13: Anti-reductionism"
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966:Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
526:
3737:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
2873:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
2401:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
1814:. University of Chicago Press.
933:"Clarification of terminology"
831:
795:. IEP, University of Tennessee
731:. Cham: Springer. p. 63.
316:Jouko VÀÀnÀnen has argued for
247:
85:
13:
1:
1915:Ingo Brigandt and Alan Love,
1721:Churchland, Patricia (1986),
1406:, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),
1173:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
837:For reductionism referred to
727:Kricheldorf, Hans R. (2016).
675:
549:personal construct psychology
362:
1766:. Stanford University Press.
1652:10.1080/00018732.2013.771509
1340:McCauley, Joseph L. (2009).
899:Peter Godfrey-Smith (2013).
503:
453:
448:
427:theoretical computer science
27:Not to be confused with the
7:
4070:Hypothetico-deductive model
4045:Deductive-nomological model
4030:Constructivist epistemology
2446:Internalism and externalism
1759:. Harvard University Press.
1379:10.1007/978-3-030-92486-7_2
1222:Taylor, R. Gregory (1993).
1059:The Philosophical Quarterly
699:. Merriam-Webster. p.
689:Wendy Doniger, ed. (1999).
596:
353:ZermeloâFraenkel set theory
240:Methodological reductionism
106:Methodological reductionism
10:
4628:
2772:Causal theory of reference
1769:Jones, Richard H. (2013),
1739:Dennett, Daniel C. (1995)
1371:Powers, Time and Free Will
1257:Bulletin of Symbolic Logic
1198:. Malden: Blackwell, 2006.
993:. In Ted Honderich (ed.).
819:John Polkinghorne (2002).
756:. In Ted Honderich (ed.).
754:"Entry for "reductionism""
457:
422:" to solve as the former.
415:
276:laws of the motion of the
70:is any of several related
36:phenomenological reduction
33:
26:
4524:
4356:
4258:
4188:
4131:Semantic view of theories
4050:Epistemological anarchism
4002:
3987:dependent and independent
3724:
3656:
3631:
3593:
3567:
3541:
3513:
3457:
3429:
3366:
3345:
3284:
3242:
3219:
3196:
3098:
3042:
3004:
2948:
2855:
2759:
2709:
2683:
2647:
2640:
2572:
2521:
2370:
2277:Evolutionary epistemology
2247:
1992:
1917:"Reductionism in Biology"
1776:Laughlin, Robert (2005),
1730:Dawkins, Richard (1976),
1581:10.1088/0143-0807/9/2/004
1171:"Reductionism in Biology"
1111:"Reductionism in Biology"
1026:Richard H. Jones (2000),
962:"Entry on 'reductionism'"
931:Richard H. Jones (2000).
669:Technological determinism
579:neural networks (biology)
468:worked to insulate human
443:polynomial-time reduction
410:The role of reduction in
82:as the sum of its parts.
31:experimental music genre.
4607:Epistemological theories
3873:Intertheoretic reduction
3862:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
3839:Functional contextualism
2832:Scientific structuralism
2549:Philosophy of perception
2352:Representational realism
2322:Naturalized epistemology
1785:The Structure of Science
1241:10.1305/ndjfl/1093633905
960:Simon Blackburn (2005).
855:. Quine objected to the
852:Two Dogmas of Empiricism
565:as a framework to study
490:Friedrich Schleiermacher
345:undecidable propositions
184:Ontological reductionism
100:Ontological reductionism
4597:Epistemology of science
4358:Philosophers of science
4136:Scientific essentialism
4085:Model-dependent realism
4020:Constructive empiricism
3913:Evidence-based practice
2529:Outline of epistemology
2362:Transcendental idealism
1773:. Jackson Square Books.
1743:. Simon & Schuster.
1741:Darwin's Dangerous Idea
1440:John W Carroll (2009).
1312:10.1093/philmat/4.3.209
1071:10.1111/1467-9213.00136
847:Willard Van Orman Quine
639:Eliminative materialism
329:incompleteness theorems
4441:Alfred North Whitehead
4431:Charles Sanders Peirce
2888:Reflective equilibrium
2476:Problem of other minds
1868:bioregionalanimism.com
1800:Ruse, Michael (1988),
1783:Nagel, Ernest (1961),
1756:The Disorder of Things
1699:Cite journal requires
1128:Ruse, Michael (1989).
1093:"Scientific Reduction"
659:Multiple realizability
517:Alfred North Whitehead
351:is undecidable in the
64:
4587:Sociological theories
4582:Metaphysical theories
4577:Metatheory of science
4540:Philosophy portal
4291:Hard and soft science
4286:Faith and rationality
4155:Scientific skepticism
3935:Scientific Revolution
3718:Philosophy of science
3559:Nicholas Wolterstorff
3014:David Malet Armstrong
2554:Philosophy of science
2534:Faith and rationality
2416:Descriptive knowledge
2287:Feminist epistemology
2227:Nicholas Wolterstorff
1879:Vandana Shiva, 1995,
1836:A New Kind of Science
1802:Philosophy of Biology
1483:Philosophy of Science
1450:Christopher Hitchcock
1391:– via Springer.
1149:10.1093/icb/29.3.1061
1130:"Do Organisms Exist?"
902:Philosophy of Biology
869:Thomas Nagel (2012).
752:Michael Ruse (2005).
389:Statistical mechanics
212:token-identity theory
47:
4266:Criticism of science
4141:Scientific formalism
4025:Constructive realism
3930:Scientific pluralism
3903:Problem of induction
2486:Procedural knowledge
2471:Problem of induction
1808:Rosenberg, Alexander
1753:Dupre, John (1993),
1402:Guyer, Paul (2020),
989:Jaegwon Kim (2005).
845:, and meanings, see
541:cognitive psychology
464:Philosophers of the
371:, including much of
349:continuum hypothesis
303:axiomatic set theory
254:Edward Burnett Tylor
216:type-identity theory
4592:Analytic philosophy
4333:Rhetoric of science
4271:Descriptive science
4015:Confirmation holism
3908:Scientific evidence
3868:Inductive reasoning
3797:Demarcation problem
3381:Patricia Churchland
3312:Christine Korsgaard
3198:Logical positivists
3090:Ludwig Wittgenstein
2867:paradox of analysis
2634:Analytic philosophy
2564:Virtue epistemology
2559:Social epistemology
2539:Formal epistemology
2426:Epistemic injustice
2421:Exploratory thought
2222:Ludwig Wittgenstein
1866:December 28, 2006,
1644:2013AdPhy..62....1H
1632:Advances in Physics
1573:1988EJPh....9..101P
573:, including living
472:from reductionism.
416:theory reductionism
406:In computer science
385:Classical mechanics
347:. For example, the
286:Newtonian mechanics
268:Theory reductionism
258:James George Frazer
112:Theory reductionism
4552:Science portal
4481:Carl Gustav Hempel
4436:Wilhelm Windelband
4323:Questionable cause
4146:Scientific realism
3967:Underdetermination
3802:Empirical evidence
3792:Creative synthesis
3554:William Lane Craig
3272:Friedrich Waismann
3229:Carl Gustav Hempel
3188:Timothy Williamson
3148:Alasdair MacIntyre
3006:Australian realism
2986:Russ Shafer-Landau
2847:Analytical Thomism
2802:Logical positivism
2217:Timothy Williamson
2007:Augustine of Hippo
1938:2019-04-16 at the
1873:2016-04-10 at the
1746:Descartes (1637),
1538:10.1007/BF01191417
563:information theory
535:, often used in a
396:thermodynamic laws
318:second-order logic
174:emergent phenomena
65:
4559:
4558:
4401:
4400:
4313:Normative science
4170:Uniformitarianism
3925:Scientific method
3819:Explanatory power
3684:
3683:
3652:
3651:
3368:Pittsburgh School
3358:Peter van Inwagen
3292:Roderick Chisholm
3280:
3279:
3173:Richard Swinburne
3108:G. E. M. Anscombe
2944:
2943:
2842:Analytic theology
2817:Ordinary language
2755:
2754:
2600:
2599:
2466:Privileged access
2102:SĂžren Kierkegaard
1862:Tara W. Lumpkin,
1847:The Turning Point
1827:, Pantheon Books.
1797:. Viking Penguin.
625:Psychology portal
611:Philosophy portal
381:molecular biology
155:John Polkinghorne
16:(Redirected from
4619:
4550:
4549:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4511:Bas van Fraassen
4466:Hans Reichenbach
4446:Bertrand Russell
4363:
4362:
4189:Philosophy of...
3972:Unity of science
3765:Commensurability
3711:
3704:
3697:
3688:
3687:
3674:
3673:
3664:
3663:
3603:Nancy Cartwright
3444:Nicholas Rescher
3421:Bas van Fraassen
3411:Nicholas Rescher
3234:Hans Reichenbach
3217:
3216:
3183:Bernard Williams
3080:Bertrand Russell
3002:
3001:
2936:Rigid designator
2899:
2898:
2645:
2644:
2641:Related articles
2627:
2620:
2613:
2604:
2603:
2544:Metaepistemology
2522:Related articles
2496:Regress argument
2431:Epistemic virtue
2182:Bertrand Russell
2157:Duncan Pritchard
2117:Hilary Kornblith
2032:Laurence BonJour
1979:
1972:
1965:
1956:
1955:
1855:Maureen L Pope,
1831:Weinberg, Steven
1821:Weinberg, Steven
1733:The Selfish Gene
1709:
1708:
1702:
1697:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1677:
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1614:
1601:R.E. Ulanowicz,
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1489:(1): S298âS305.
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1143:(3): 1061â1066.
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634:Antireductionism
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558:Robert Ulanowicz
494:Albrecht Ritschl
439:Turing reduction
412:computer science
252:Anthropologists
134:, and meanings.
21:
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4461:Michael Polanyi
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4352:
4338:Science studies
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4175:Verificationism
4080:Instrumentalism
4065:Foundationalism
4040:Conventionalism
3998:
3834:Feminist method
3720:
3715:
3685:
3680:
3671:
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3639:Jan Ćukasiewicz
3627:
3595:Stanford School
3589:
3575:Paul Feyerabend
3563:
3549:Alvin Plantinga
3537:
3523:James F. Conant
3509:
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3416:Wilfrid Sellars
3406:Alexander Pruss
3386:Paul Churchland
3362:
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3297:Donald Davidson
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3118:Michael Dummett
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3085:Frank P. Ramsey
3038:
3000:
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2961:Keith Donnellan
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2812:Neurophilosophy
2797:Logical atomism
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2436:Gettier problem
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2243:
2192:Wilfrid Sellars
2147:Alvin Plantinga
2027:George Berkeley
1994:Epistemologists
1988:
1983:
1940:Wayback Machine
1896:
1875:Wayback Machine
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3376:Robert Brandom
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3332:W. V. O. Quine
3329:
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3307:Nelson Goodman
3304:
3302:Daniel Dennett
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3034:J. J. C. Smart
3031:
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3019:David Chalmers
3016:
3010:
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2988:
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2981:Giuseppe Peano
2978:
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2971:Edmund Gettier
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2737:Paraconsistent
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2262:Constructivism
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2245:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2212:Baruch Spinoza
2209:
2207:P. F. Strawson
2204:
2199:
2197:Susanna Siegel
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2172:W. V. O. Quine
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2072:Nelson Goodman
2069:
2064:
2062:Edmund Gettier
2059:
2054:
2049:
2047:René Descartes
2044:
2039:
2037:Gilles Deleuze
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2012:William Alston
2009:
2004:
2002:Thomas Aquinas
1998:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1982:
1981:
1974:
1967:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1930:
1924:
1913:
1904:"Reductionism"
1895:
1894:External links
1892:
1891:
1890:
1887:
1877:
1860:
1853:
1850:
1843:Capra, Fritjof
1840:
1828:
1818:
1815:
1805:
1798:
1791:Pinker, Steven
1788:
1781:
1774:
1767:
1760:
1751:
1744:
1737:
1728:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1701:|journal=
1678:
1615:
1594:
1567:(2): 101â109.
1551:
1516:
1495:10.1086/289964
1473:
1467:978-0199279739
1466:
1432:
1419:
1394:
1387:
1357:
1351:978-0521429627
1350:
1332:
1317:
1306:(3): 209â237.
1302:. Series III.
1290:
1263:(4): 504â520.
1247:
1234:(4): 539â563.
1214:
1200:
1187:
1161:
1158:on 2008-10-02.
1120:
1102:
1084:
1045:
1032:
1019:
1010:
1004:978-0191037474
1003:
981:
975:978-0198610137
974:
952:
946:978-0838754399
945:
918:
912:978-1400850440
911:
888:
882:978-0199919758
881:
861:
830:
821:"Reductionism"
806:
789:"Reductionism"
773:
767:978-0191037474
766:
744:
738:978-3319303864
737:
716:
710:978-0877790440
709:
691:"Reductionism"
680:
679:
677:
674:
672:
671:
666:
661:
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
630:
629:
628:
614:
598:
595:
591:feedback loops
528:
525:
505:
502:
458:Main article:
455:
452:
450:
447:
407:
404:
364:
361:
294:
293:In mathematics
291:
269:
266:
260:employed some
249:
246:
241:
238:
185:
182:
116:
115:
109:
103:
87:
84:
80:complex system
61:Digesting Duck
49:René Descartes
40:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4624:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
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4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4471:Rudolf Carnap
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
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4409:
4407:
4406:Auguste Comte
4404:
4403:
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4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4378:Francis Bacon
4376:
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4364:
4361:
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4349:
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4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4307:
4306:Pseudoscience
4304:
4303:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
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4264:
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4194:
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4165:Structuralism
4163:
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4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4144:
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4139:
4137:
4134:
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4128:
4127:Received view
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4123:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4105:
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4035:Contextualism
4033:
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4026:
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4021:
4018:
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3644:Alfred Tarski
3642:
3640:
3637:
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3630:
3624:
3621:
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3613:Peter Galison
3611:
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3500:Nathan Salmon
3498:
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3495:Richard Rorty
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
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3478:
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3468:
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3465:Alonzo Church
3463:
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3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3401:Ruth Millikan
3399:
3397:
3396:John McDowell
3394:
3392:
3389:
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3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
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3371:
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3348:
3344:
3338:
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3333:
3330:
3328:
3327:Hilary Putnam
3325:
3323:
3322:Robert Nozick
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
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3298:
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3287:
3283:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3252:Rudolf Carnap
3250:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3244:Vienna Circle
3241:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3221:Berlin Circle
3218:
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3141:
3139:
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3128:Philippa Foot
3126:
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3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3097:
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3078:
3076:
3075:Graham Priest
3073:
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3068:
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3061:
3058:
3056:
3055:Charlie Broad
3053:
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2989:
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2966:Gottlob Frege
2964:
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2893:Supervenience
2891:
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2810:
2808:
2805:
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2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2792:Functionalism
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2777:Descriptivism
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2742:Philosophical
2740:
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2735:
2733:
2732:Non-classical
2730:
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2451:Justification
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2328:
2327:Phenomenalism
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2320:
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2317:NaĂŻve realism
2315:
2313:
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2267:Contextualism
2265:
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2260:
2258:
2255:
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2250:
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2167:Hilary Putnam
2165:
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2158:
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2145:
2143:
2142:Robert Nozick
2140:
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2137:John McDowell
2135:
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2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
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2105:
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2097:Immanuel Kant
2095:
2093:
2090:
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2067:Alvin Goldman
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1804:. Albany, NY.
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1454:Peter Menzies
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1430:(2006) p. 161
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649:Further facts
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553:mental models
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533:fragmentalism
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486:Immanuel Kant
483:
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475:
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467:
466:Enlightenment
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425:Reduction in
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307:Ernst Zermelo
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2087:Susan Haack
2017:Robert Audi
1787:. New York.
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654:Materialism
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1900:Alyssa Ney
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571:complexity
539:sense. In
537:pejorative
527:In science
482:phenomenal
363:In science
337:consistent
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120:phenomenon
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3775:Construct
3753:Causality
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3043:Cambridge
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470:free will
460:Free will
454:Free will
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1871:Archived
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4206:Physics
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3994:more...
3982:control
3878:Inquiry
3568:Science
3285:Harvard
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