148:
342:
Broadly speaking, the changes that characterise the
Ingvaeonic languages can be divided into two groups, those being changes that occurred after the split from Proto-Northwest-Germanic (Ingvaeonic B) and those preceding it (Ingvaeonic A). Linguistic evidence for Ingvaeonic B observed in Old Frisian,
650:
Several, but not all, characteristics are also found in Dutch, which did not generally undergo the nasal spirant law (except for a few words), retained the three distinct plural endings (only to merge them in a later, unrelated change), and exhibits the
655:
plural in only a limited number of words. However, it lost the reflexive pronoun (even though it did later regain it via borrowing) and had the same four relic weak verbs in Class III.
870:(West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013,
1598:
3006:
1973:
1051:
17:
3011:
1771:
979:
950:
875:
857:
1588:
2500:
868:
Das
Westgermanische – von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert – Analyse und Rekonstruktion
3026:
934:
919:
267:
3016:
1044:
912:
Grundzüge deutscher
Sprachgeschichte. Diachronie des Sprachsystems. Band I: Einführung – Genealogie – Konstanten
3021:
2867:
2897:
2067:
2029:
2014:
348:
1341:
998:
3001:
2996:
2877:
2737:
2087:
2046:
2036:
1037:
884:
1253:
452:
2594:
2872:
2826:
2821:
2745:
2355:
2339:
2218:
2077:
1968:
1963:
188:
169:
695:
2811:
2755:
2750:
2670:
2343:
2293:
1593:
1411:
1167:
1095:
1083:
403:
280:
208:
95:
85:
2933:
2653:
2051:
2816:
2298:
2264:
1882:
1698:
1558:
1398:
1293:
999:"The Pan-West Germanic Isoglosses and the Subrelationships of West Germanic to Other Branches"
2974:
2938:
2206:
2199:
2151:
1921:
1892:
1861:
1824:
1749:
1506:
1419:
1280:
1242:
700:
2439:
1314:
2943:
2923:
2892:
2765:
2625:
2371:
2189:
1781:
1608:
1570:
1565:
1439:
1386:
1144:
961:
288:
2599:
577:
Elimination of the weak stem -in- in n-stem noun paradigms. For example, OHG gen/dat. sg.
8:
2882:
2118:
2072:
2006:
1759:
1406:
1319:
1117:
2429:
2274:
1521:
2928:
2852:
2780:
2725:
2487:
2414:
2311:
2156:
2131:
2126:
2019:
1847:
1732:
1553:
1331:
1326:
1305:
1266:
1070:
1060:
985:
893:: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde
376:
153:
90:
2082:
138:
2902:
2701:
2617:
2610:
2565:
2509:
2269:
2259:
2242:
2237:
2141:
1903:
1703:
1664:
1644:
1482:
1374:
1356:
1208:
1018:
989:
975:
946:
930:
915:
871:
853:
370:
3031:
2857:
2648:
2582:
2538:
2533:
2493:
2482:
2474:
2279:
2247:
2194:
2183:
2096:
1805:
1744:
1534:
1516:
1351:
1112:
1104:
1010:
967:
229:
2694:
2887:
2847:
2680:
2587:
2570:
2555:
2550:
2543:
2252:
2161:
2146:
2101:
1953:
1916:
1908:
1887:
1874:
1854:
1840:
1603:
1580:
1511:
1501:
1493:
1273:
539:
535:
311:
80:
2968:
2862:
2842:
2794:
2686:
2560:
2230:
1997:
1936:
1715:
1672:
1629:
1546:
1541:
1430:
1380:
1231:
1182:
1137:
1130:
327:
1014:
604:
Shortening of pronominal and adjectival non-feminine dative singulars like ON
546:
Dative plurals and first person plural forms in numerous paradigms reduced to
2990:
2918:
2760:
2516:
2467:
2284:
2223:
2136:
2041:
1979:
1926:
1810:
1737:
1022:
863:
705:
198:
147:
118:
2787:
2211:
2175:
2108:
1931:
1754:
1727:
1710:
1654:
1613:
1195:
1174:
406:
languages further develop these palatal consonants into continuants as in
331:
2434:
2604:
2577:
2395:
2303:
1985:
1946:
1529:
1224:
1188:
1123:
901:
The
Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
360:
284:
2449:
2444:
2424:
1789:
1459:
1160:
434:
299:
123:
2630:
2378:
2024:
1941:
1722:
1677:
1649:
1475:
1029:
890:
531:
303:
292:
132:
55:
51:
2454:
444:
2419:
1767:
971:
410:, Old Saxon did undergo palatalisation as evidenced by forms like
402:
Palatalisation of velar consonants before front vowels; while the
330:
but as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several
314:(the latter also mentioning that tribes in the group included the
2460:
2056:
1958:
319:
307:
59:
966:. Studies in Germanic Linguistics. Vol. 3. John Benjamins.
620:, all of which have eliminated the final vowel; contrast Gothic
438:
1763:
380:
323:
315:
814:
802:
511:
Development of numerous new words, such as the replacement of
244:
1681:
730:
384:
238:
302:, a West Germanic cultural group or proto-tribe along the
250:
790:
256:
235:
927:
Early
Germanic Grammar: Pre-, Proto-, and Post-Germanic
826:
679:
Democratic' and 'elitist' trends and a
Frisian standard
963:
A Comparative
Grammar of the Early Germanic Languages
754:
742:
268:
259:
253:
232:
903:. United States of America: Oxford University Press.
683:
Standardization: Studies from the
Germanic Languages
496:
489:
482:
475:
241:
778:
718:
247:
766:
387:, which reduced three forms into one form: merged
1003:NOWELE: North-Western European Language Evolution
670:
668:
2988:
681:, in: Andrew R. Linn, Nicola McLelland (eds.),
665:
1045:
455:into a relic class consisting of four verbs (
898:
820:
808:
796:
736:
1052:
1038:
530:Changes originating in Ingvaeonic A, like
474:The split of the Class II weak verb ending
343:Old English and Old Saxon is as follows:
437:in s/z-stem plurals; compare Anglian OE
326:). It is thought of as not a monolithic
940:
760:
748:
40:Ingvaeonic, Ingveonic, coastal Germanic
14:
2989:
1059:
996:
914:. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter.
832:
784:
724:
3007:Archaeological terminology (Germanic)
2723:
2337:
1081:
1033:
959:
772:
1614:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
899:Ringe, Donald; Taylor, Ann (2014).
24:
3012:Linguistic theories and hypotheses
2973:Languages between parentheses are
2338:
842:
337:
25:
3043:
997:Stiles, Patrick V. (2013-01-01).
852:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V.
306:coast that was mentioned by both
550:. Compare an-stem dative plural
228:
152:The distribution of the primary
146:
27:Group of West Germanic languages
685:, 2002, p. 205 ff., here p. 205
504:Development of a plural ending
2977:of the language on their left.
945:. Cambridge University Press.
850:An Introduction to Old Frisian
688:
298:Ingvaeonic is named after the
279:), refers to a subgrouping of
13:
1:
2868:Germanic substrate hypothesis
2724:
929:. San Diego: Academic Press.
658:
157:
2898:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
1589:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
910:Sonderegger, Stefan (1979).
349:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
18:North Sea Germanic languages
7:
2878:High German consonant shift
418:"emperor" (contrast German
10:
3048:
1416:Westlauwers–Terschellings
1069:According to contemporary
960:Fulk, R. D. (2018-09-15).
925:Voyles, Joseph B. (1992).
426:"pay", similar to English
2960:
2911:
2835:
2804:
2736:
2732:
2719:
2668:
2641:
2595:Southern Schleswig Danish
2526:
2407:
2363:
2354:
2350:
2333:
2174:
2117:
2005:
1996:
1901:
1873:
1832:
1823:
1798:
1780:
1691:
1663:
1637:
1628:
1579:
1492:
1467:
1458:
1397:
1292:
1241:
1216:
1207:
1103:
1094:
1090:
1077:
1067:
1015:10.1075/nowele.66.1.02sti
848:Bremmer, Rolf H. (2009).
395:"you (plural) have" with
369:Loss of the third-person
295:, and their descendants.
145:
131:
112:
81:Linguistic classification
79:
66:
44:
39:
34:
3027:History of the North Sea
2873:West Germanic gemination
2827:Ancient Belgian language
2822:Germanic parent language
2766:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
1888:Austrian Standard German
1082:
895:, Strasbourg: Hüneburg.
3017:West Germanic languages
941:Harbert, Wayne (2006).
821:Ringe & Taylor 2014
809:Ringe & Taylor 2014
797:Ringe & Taylor 2014
737:Ringe & Taylor 2014
498:
491:
484:
477:
445:
439:
281:West Germanic languages
2934:Preterite-present verb
2817:Proto-Germanic grammar
2771:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
1883:German Standard German
1559:East Frisian Low Saxon
943:The Germanic Languages
2939:Grammatischer Wechsel
1922:Namibian Black German
1893:Swiss Standard German
1862:Early New High German
1420:Mainland West Frisian
1281:Harlingerland Frisian
701:CollinsDictionary.com
523:"less" (adverb) with
3022:History of Friesland
2944:Indo-European ablaut
2924:Germanic strong verb
2893:Germanic spirant law
2030:Southeast Limburgish
1526:Gelders-Overijssels
1155:Irish Middle English
1145:Early Modern English
453:Class III weak verbs
334:in relative unison.
189:Weser–Rhine Germanic
2912:Synchronic features
2883:Germanic a-mutation
2836:Diachronic features
2186:in the broad sense
2119:East Central German
2073:Lorraine Franconian
2047:Transylvanian Saxon
2007:West Central German
1782:East Low Franconian
1692:West Low Franconian
823:, pp. 165–166.
811:, pp. 162–163.
739:, pp. 139–141.
451:The development of
3002:1942 introductions
2997:North Sea Germanic
2929:Germanic weak verb
2738:Language subgroups
2088:Pennsylvania Dutch
2037:Moselle Franconian
2015:Central Franconian
1848:Middle High German
1599:Central Pomeranian
1554:Northern Low Saxon
1267:Wangerooge Frisian
1061:Germanic languages
674:Anthonia Feitsma,
371:reflexive pronouns
220:North Sea Germanic
179:North Sea Germanic
154:Germanic languages
101:North Sea Germanic
62:; today, worldwide
35:North Sea Germanic
2984:
2983:
2969:extinct languages
2956:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2903:Great Vowel Shift
2715:
2714:
2711:
2710:
2664:
2663:
2510:Greenlandic Norse
2329:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2260:Southern Bavarian
2243:Northern Bavarian
2219:Highest Alemannic
2170:
2169:
1904:standard variants
1819:
1818:
1665:Standard variants
1624:
1623:
1483:Middle Low German
1454:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1254:Saterland Frisian
981:978-90-272-6313-1
952:978-0-521-80825-5
889:Nordgermanen und
885:Maurer, Friedrich
876:978-3-9812110-7-8
858:978-90-272-3255-7
835:, pp. 21–23.
443:"lambs" with OHG
283:that consists of
217:
216:
75:
16:(Redirected from
3039:
2761:Elbe (Irminonic)
2734:
2733:
2721:
2720:
2649:Mainland Gutnish
2539:Swedish dialects
2501:Middle Icelandic
2475:Middle Norwegian
2364:Historical forms
2361:
2360:
2352:
2351:
2335:
2334:
2294:South Franconian
2280:Hutterite German
2248:Central Bavarian
2068:Rhine Franconian
2003:
2002:
1833:Historical forms
1830:
1829:
1745:Surinamese Dutch
1638:Historical forms
1635:
1634:
1468:Historical forms
1465:
1464:
1217:Historical forms
1214:
1213:
1101:
1100:
1092:
1091:
1079:
1078:
1054:
1047:
1040:
1031:
1030:
1026:
993:
956:
909:
904:
883:
836:
830:
824:
818:
812:
806:
800:
794:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
734:
728:
722:
716:
715:
713:
712:
692:
686:
678:
672:
508:in a-stem nouns.
501:
494:
487:
480:
448:
442:
379:distinctions in
275:
271:
266:
265:
262:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
222:, also known as
206:
196:
186:
176:
167:
162:
159:
150:
141:
73:
32:
31:
21:
3047:
3046:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3036:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2980:
2948:
2907:
2888:Germanic umlaut
2853:Holtzmann's law
2831:
2800:
2728:
2707:
2660:
2637:
2571:South Jutlandic
2556:Danish dialects
2522:
2403:
2346:
2317:
2299:East Franconian
2253:Viennese German
2166:
2147:Silesian German
2113:
2102:Central Hessian
1992:
1917:Namibian German
1906:
1897:
1875:Standard German
1869:
1855:New High German
1841:Old High German
1815:
1794:
1776:
1687:
1659:
1620:
1604:East Pomeranian
1594:Brandenburgisch
1581:East Low German
1575:
1502:Dutch Low Saxon
1494:West Low German
1488:
1446:
1412:Schiermonnikoog
1393:
1288:
1274:Wursten Frisian
1237:
1203:
1086:
1073:
1063:
1058:
982:
953:
907:
881:
845:
843:Further reading
840:
839:
831:
827:
819:
815:
807:
803:
795:
791:
783:
779:
771:
767:
763:, pp. 7–8.
759:
755:
747:
743:
735:
731:
723:
719:
710:
708:
694:
693:
689:
676:
673:
666:
661:
627:as well as OHG
540:Old High German
495:"to make" into
340:
338:Characteristics
312:Pliny the Elder
273:
269:
231:
227:
213:
212:
204:
202:
194:
192:
191:, or Istvaeonic
184:
182:
181:, or Ingvaeonic
174:
172:
165:
160:
137:
69:
68:Native speakers
50:Originally the
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3045:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2982:
2981:
2979:
2978:
2971:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2954:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2837:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2812:Proto-Germanic
2808:
2806:
2802:
2801:
2799:
2798:
2791:
2784:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2740:
2730:
2729:
2717:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2698:
2691:
2687:Crimean Gothic
2676:
2674:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2651:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2614:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2563:
2561:Insular Danish
2558:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2544:Rinkebysvenska
2541:
2530:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2520:
2513:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2497:
2485:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2471:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2390:Old East Norse
2387:
2385:Old West Norse
2375:
2367:
2365:
2358:
2348:
2347:
2331:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2296:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2265:South Tyrolean
2257:
2256:
2255:
2245:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2207:High Alemannic
2204:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2180:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2123:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2085:
2075:
2065:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2049:
2044:
2034:
2033:
2032:
2027:
2011:
2009:
2000:
1998:Central German
1994:
1993:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1956:
1951:
1950:
1949:
1939:
1937:Barossa German
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1899:
1898:
1896:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1879:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1851:
1844:
1836:
1834:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1774:
1757:
1752:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1716:French Flemish
1708:
1707:
1706:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1675:
1669:
1667:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1632:
1630:Low Franconian
1626:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1585:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1538:
1537:
1532:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1498:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1469:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1433:
1431:Westereendersk
1425:
1414:
1409:
1403:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1362:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1309:
1298:
1296:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1277:
1270:
1258:
1257:
1256:
1247:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1235:
1232:Middle Frisian
1228:
1220:
1218:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1192:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1152:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1138:Modern English
1134:
1131:Middle English
1127:
1120:
1109:
1107:
1098:
1088:
1087:
1075:
1074:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1057:
1056:
1049:
1042:
1034:
1028:
1027:
994:
980:
972:10.1075/sigl.3
957:
951:
938:
923:
905:
896:
879:
864:Euler, Wolfram
861:
844:
841:
838:
837:
825:
813:
801:
799:, p. 161.
789:
777:
775:, p. 133.
765:
753:
751:, p. 179.
741:
729:
717:
687:
663:
662:
660:
657:
648:
647:
602:
575:
562:(Gothic) with
528:
527:
509:
502:
472:
449:
431:
420:kennen, Kaiser
400:
391:"we have" and
373:
367:
347:The so-called
339:
336:
328:proto-language
215:
214:
203:
201:, or Irminonic
193:
183:
173:
170:North Germanic
164:
151:
143:
142:
135:
129:
128:
127:
126:
121:
114:
110:
109:
108:
107:
106:
105:
104:
103:
83:
77:
76:
70:
67:
64:
63:
48:
42:
41:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3044:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2976:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2959:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2919:Germanic verb
2917:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2858:Sievers's law
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2805:Reconstructed
2803:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2672:
2667:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2618:Middle Danish
2615:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2496:
2495:
2494:Old Icelandic
2491:
2490:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2468:Old Norwegian
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2314:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2286:
2285:Gottscheerish
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2224:Walser German
2222:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2190:Low Alemannic
2188:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2152:High Prussian
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:Erzgebirgisch
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2042:Luxembourgish
2040:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1980:Klezmer-loshn
1977:
1975:
1974:Scots Yiddish
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1845:
1843:
1842:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1811:Meuse-Rhenish
1809:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1739:
1738:Kleverlandish
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1699:Central Dutch
1697:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1578:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1507:Stellingwarfs
1505:
1504:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1427:Wood Frisian
1426:
1423:
1422:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1396:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1294:North Frisian
1291:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1096:Anglo-Frisian
1093:
1089:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1050:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
995:
991:
987:
983:
977:
973:
969:
965:
964:
958:
954:
948:
944:
939:
936:
935:0-12-728270-X
932:
928:
924:
921:
920:3-11-003570-7
917:
913:
906:
902:
897:
894:
892:
886:
880:
877:
873:
869:
865:
862:
859:
855:
851:
847:
846:
834:
829:
822:
817:
810:
805:
798:
793:
787:, p. 18.
786:
781:
774:
769:
762:
757:
750:
745:
738:
733:
727:, p. 24.
726:
721:
707:
706:HarperCollins
703:
702:
697:
691:
684:
680:
671:
669:
664:
656:
654:
646:and the like.
645:
644:
640:
636:
632:
626:
625:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
544:
543:
541:
537:
533:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
507:
503:
500:
493:
486:
479:
473:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
447:
441:
436:
432:
429:
425:
422:) as well as
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
404:Anglo-Frisian
401:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
372:
368:
365:
362:
358:
355:"mouth" into
354:
350:
346:
345:
344:
335:
333:
332:areal changes
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
277:
264:
225:
221:
210:
209:East Germanic
200:
199:Elbe Germanic
190:
180:
171:
155:
149:
144:
140:
136:
134:
130:
125:
122:
120:
119:Anglo-Frisian
117:
116:
115:
111:
102:
99:
98:
97:
96:West Germanic
94:
93:
92:
89:
88:
87:
86:Indo-European
84:
82:
78:
71:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
2964:
2848:Verner's law
2793:
2788:Gotho-Nordic
2786:
2779:
2770:
2700:
2693:
2685:
2679:
2669:
2654:Fårö Gutnish
2616:
2609:
2515:
2508:
2499:
2492:
2473:
2466:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2310:
2212:Swiss German
2176:Upper German
2109:Amana German
2083:Volga German
2052:Hunsrückisch
1978:
1932:Unserdeutsch
1927:Berlinerisch
1860:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1799:Cover groups
1755:Mohawk Dutch
1750:Jersey Dutch
1728:East Flemish
1711:West Flemish
1655:Middle Dutch
1609:Low Prussian
1481:
1474:
1440:Terschelling
1424:Clay Frisian
1399:West Frisian
1387:Wiedingharde
1379:
1367:
1327:Heligolandic
1304:
1279:
1272:
1265:
1260:
1243:East Frisian
1230:
1223:
1196:Middle Scots
1194:
1187:
1173:
1166:
1159:
1154:
1143:
1136:
1129:
1122:
1006:
1002:
962:
942:
926:
911:
900:
888:
867:
849:
828:
816:
804:
792:
780:
768:
761:Harbert 2006
756:
749:Harbert 2006
744:
732:
720:
709:. Retrieved
699:
696:"Ingvaeonic"
690:
682:
675:
652:
649:
642:
638:
634:
630:
628:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
571:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
529:
524:
520:
516:
515:"nine" with
512:
505:
488:: converted
468:
464:
463:"to think",
460:
456:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
396:
392:
388:
375:The loss of
363:
356:
352:
351:: converted
341:
297:
223:
219:
218:
178:
113:Subdivisions
100:
72:325 million
47:distribution
29:
2863:Kluge's law
2843:Grimm's law
2626:Dalecarlian
2605:Perkerdansk
2578:East Danish
2396:Old Gutnish
2372:Proto-Norse
2312:Langobardic
2304:Vogtlandian
2132:Upper Saxon
1986:Lachoudisch
1947:Lotegorisch
1825:High German
1571:Westphalian
1566:Eastphalian
1530:Achterhooks
1407:Hindeloopen
1342:Bökingharde
1311:Föhr–Amrum
1225:Old Frisian
1189:Early Scots
1124:Old English
1009:(1): 5–38.
908:(in German)
882:(in German)
833:Stiles 2013
785:Stiles 2013
725:Stiles 2013
581:and Gothic
542:, include:
534:but unlike
467:"to have",
414:"know" and
399:"they have"
361:Old English
289:Old English
285:Old Frisian
161: AD 1
54:coast from
2991:Categories
2695:Burgundian
2611:Old Danish
2600:Gøtudanskt
2583:Bornholmsk
2445:Vestlandsk
2425:Kebabnorsk
2162:Halcnovian
2127:Thuringian
1790:Limburgish
1760:Stadsfries
1733:Brabantian
1460:Low German
1306:Eiderstedt
1161:Fingallian
711:2024-03-24
659:References
585:versus OE
558:(OHG) and
471:"to live")
459:"to say",
435:i-mutation
300:Ingaevones
224:Ingvaeonic
156:in Europe
124:Low German
45:Geographic
2975:varieties
2967:indicate
2781:Northwest
2726:Philology
2631:Elfdalian
2566:Jutlandic
2488:Icelandic
2463:(written)
2457:(written)
2435:Trøndersk
2415:Norwegian
2379:Old Norse
2200:Coloniero
2184:Alemannic
2157:Wymysorys
2025:Colognian
2020:Ripuarian
1942:Rotwelsch
1772:Midslands
1723:Zeelandic
1704:Hollandic
1678:Afrikaans
1650:Old Dutch
1476:Old Saxon
1375:Karrharde
1357:Goesharde
1338:Mainland
1071:philology
1023:0108-8416
990:165765984
891:Alemannen
773:Fulk 2018
616:, and OS
597:, and ON
591:han-an/on
583:han-in(s)
570:(OS) and
568:han-um/un
532:Old Norse
383:forms of
359:(compare
304:North Sea
293:Old Saxon
133:Glottolog
56:Friesland
52:North Sea
2702:Vandalic
2645:Gutnish
2450:Vikværsk
2430:Sognamål
2420:Bergensk
2270:Cimbrian
2238:Bavarian
2195:Alsatian
2142:Lusatian
2078:Palatine
1768:Amelands
1645:Frankish
1535:Sallaans
1517:Gronings
1368:Southern
1361:Northern
1352:Halligen
1301:Insular
1118:dialects
866:(2013).
610:þǣm~þām,
433:Lack of
397:*habją̄þ
322:and the
139:nort3175
91:Germanic
3032:Jutland
2965:Italics
2588:Scanian
2534:Swedish
2483:Faroese
2461:Nynorsk
2440:Valdris
2275:Mòcheno
2231:Swabian
2097:Hessian
2057:Hunsrik
1969:Western
1964:Eastern
1959:Yiddish
1909:creoles
1806:Bergish
1522:Drèents
1512:Tweants
1364:Central
1346:Mooring
1209:Frisian
1168:Kildare
1113:English
887:(1942)
548:-um/-un
499:makōjan
469:*libjan
465:*habjan
461:*hugjan
457:*sagjan
412:kiennan
389:*habjum
320:Teutoni
308:Tacitus
60:Jutland
2681:Gothic
2551:Danish
2455:Bokmål
1954:Yenish
1764:Bildts
1547:Veluws
1542:Urkers
1381:Strand
1105:Anglic
1021:
988:
978:
949:
933:
918:
874:
856:
641:, thëm
637:, thëm
587:han-an
579:han-en
572:han-um
566:(ON),
564:hǫn-um
560:han-am
552:han-ōm
536:Gothic
525:*laisi
521:*minni
517:*nigun
513:*newun
446:lembir
440:lombur
424:ieldan
416:kiesur
408:church
393:*habēþ
381:plural
377:person
324:Chauci
318:, the
316:Cimbri
291:, and
207:
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197:
195:
187:
185:
177:
175:
168:
166:
74:(2004)
2795:South
2746:North
2356:North
2340:North
1682:Kaaps
1673:Dutch
1320:Amrum
1261:Weser
1183:Scots
986:S2CID
677:'
633:, dëm
608:, OE
599:han-a
595:hon-a
593:, OF
589:, OS
574:(OE).
497:*
492:makōn
490:*
485:-ōjan
483:*
481:into
476:*
428:yield
385:verbs
357:*mų̄þ
353:*munþ
272:-vee-
2756:West
2751:East
2671:East
2527:East
2517:Norn
2408:West
2344:East
2342:and
1907:and
1902:Non-
1332:Sylt
1315:Föhr
1250:Ems
1175:Yola
1084:West
1019:ISSN
976:ISBN
947:ISBN
931:ISBN
916:ISBN
872:ISBN
854:ISBN
622:þamm
618:thēm
614:thām
606:þeim
538:and
519:and
506:*-ōs
310:and
1011:doi
968:doi
629:dëm
612:OF
478:-ōn
364:mūþ
276:-ik
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257:ɪ
254:n
251:ɒ
248:ˈ
242:v
239:ŋ
236:ɪ
233:ˌ
230:/
226:(
211:†
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