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1308:"In Fiji the physical peculiarities of an island with only one small patch of fertile soil are explained by a myth telling how Mberewalaki, a culture hero, flew into a passion at the misbehavior of the people of the island and hurled all the soil he was bringing them in a heap, instead of laying it out properly. Hocart points out that the myth is used aetiologically to explain the nature of the island, but did not originate in that attempt. The adventures of Mberewalaki originated, like all mythology, in ritual performance, and most of the lore of Hocart's Fijian informants consisted of such ritual myths. When they get interested in the topology of the island or are asked about it, Hocart argues, they do precisely what we would do, which is ransack their lore for an answer."
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argues that the ritual, although "performed annually, was exclusively initiatory"; it was performed on people to initiate them into their roles as full-standing members of society. At this early point, the "god" was simply "the projection of the euphoria produced by the ritual." Later, however, this euphoria became personified as a distinct god, and this god later became the god of vegetation, for "just as the initiates symbolically died and were reborn as fully fledged members of society, so the god of vegetation and in turn crops literally died and were reborn." In time, people forgot the ritual's initiatory function and only remembered its status as a commemoration of the Adonis myth.
1296:. Worshipers mourned Adonis's mythical death in a ritual that coincided with the annual withering of the vegetation. According to Smith, the ritual mourning originally had a nonmythical explanation: with the annual withering of plants, "the worshippers lament out of natural sympathy just as modern man is touched with melancholy at the falling of autumn leaves." Once worshipers forgot the original, nonmythical reason for the mourning ritual, they created "the myth of Adonis as the dying and rising god of vegetation to account for the ritual."
1316:) of natural phenomena. If true, the etiological interpretation would make myth older than, or at least independent of, ritualâas E.B. Tylor believes it is. But Hyman argues that people use myth for etiological purposes only after myth is already in place: in short, myths didn't originate as explanations of natural phenomena. Further, Hyman argues, myth originated from ritual performance. Thus, ritual came before myth, and myth depends on ritual for its existence until it gains an independent status as an etiological story.
1289:(1889), Smith draws a distinction between ancient and modern religion: in modern religion, doctrine is central; in ancient religion, ritual is central. On the whole, Smith argues, ancients tended to be conservative with regard to rituals, making sure to pass them down faithfully. In contrast, the myths that justified those rituals could change. In fact, according to Smith, many of the myths that have come down to us arose "after the original, nonmythic reason for the ritual had somehow been forgotten."
1418:(1926) that myths function as fictitious accounts of the origin of rituals, thereby providing a justification for those rituals: myth "gives rituals a hoary past and thereby sanctions them." However, Malinowski also points out that many cultural practices besides ritual have related myths: for Malinowski, "myth and ritual are therefore not coextensive." In other words, not all myths are outgrowths of ritual, and not all rituals are outgrowths of myth.
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emergence of agriculture some ten thousand years ago. But hunting ritual had become so important that it could not be given up." By performing the ritual of hunting together, an ancient society bonded itself together as a group, and also provided a way for its members to vent their anxieties over their own aggressiveness and mortality.
1218:, has supported a connection between myth and ritual. However, it has not supported the notion that one preceded and produced the other, as supporters of the "primacy of ritual" hypothesis would claim. According to the currently dominant scholarly view, the link between myth and ritual is that they share common
1350:"myth changes while custom remains constant; men continue to do what their fathers did before them, though the reasons on which their fathers acted have been long forgotten. The history of religion is a long attempt to reconcile old custom with new reason, to find a sound theory for an absurd practice."
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Eliade goes beyond
Malinowski by giving an explanation for why myth can confer such an importance upon ritual: according to Eliade, "when enacted myth acts as a time machine, carrying one back to the time of the myth and thereby bringing one closer to god." But, again, for Eliade myth and ritual are
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regarded myth as intimately connected to ritual. However, "against Smith," they "vigorously deny" that myth's main purpose is to justify a ritual by giving an account of how it first arose (e.g., justifying the Adonis worshipers' ritual mourning by attributing it to Adonis's mythical death). Instead,
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Man starts out with a reflexive belief in a natural law. He thinks he can influence nature by correctly applying this law: "In magic man depends on his own strength to meet the difficulties and dangers that beset him on every side. He believes in a certain established order of nature on which he can
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is the classic exponent of this view. He saw myth as an attempt to explain the world: for him, myth was a sort of proto-science. Ritual is secondary: just as technology is an application of science, so ritual is an application of mythâan attempt to produce certain effects, given the supposed nature
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Furthermore, Burkert argues that myth and ritual together serve a "socializing function." As an example, Burkert gives the example of hunting rituals. Hunting, Burkert argues, took on a sacred, ritualistic aura once it ceased to be necessary for survival: "Hunting lost its basic function with the
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However, the natural law man imaginesânamely, magicâdoes not work. When he sees that his pretended natural law is false, man gives up the idea of a knowable natural law and "throws himself humbly on the mercy of certain great invisible beings behind the veil of nature, to whom he now ascribes all
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believes myths and rituals were originally independent. When myths and rituals do come together, he argues, they do so to reinforce each other. A myth that tells how the gods established a ritual reinforces that ritual by giving it divine status: "Do this because the gods did or do it." A ritual
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Not all students of mythology think ritual emerged from myth or myth emerged from ritual: some allow myths and rituals a greater degree of freedom from one another. Although myths and rituals often appear together, these scholars do not think every myth has or had a corresponding ritual, or vice
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Like Frazer, Harrison believed that myths could arise as the initial reason a ritual was forgotten or became diluted. As an example, she cited rituals that center on the annual renewal of vegetation. Such rituals often involve a participant who undergoes a staged death and resurrection. Harrison
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thinks one important function of myth is to provide an explanation for ritual. Eliade notes that, in many societies, rituals are considered important precisely because they were established by the mythical gods or heroes. Eliade approvingly quotes
Malinowski's claim that a myth is "a narrative
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of
Supernatural Beings it becomes the exemplary model for all significant human actions." Traditional man sees mythical figures as models to be imitated. Therefore, societies claim that many of their rituals were established by mythical figures, thereby making the rituals seem all the more
252:
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Harrison and Hooke gave an explanation for why ancients would feel the need to describe the ritual in a narrative form. They suggest that the spoken word, like the acted ritual, was considered to have magical potency: "The spoken word had the efficacy of an act."
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Against the intuitive idea that ritual reenacts myth or applies mythical theories, many 19th-century anthropologists supported the opposite position: that myth and religious doctrine result from ritual. This is known as the "primacy of ritual" hypothesis.
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not coextensive: the same return to the mythical age can be achieved simply by retelling a myth, without any ritual reenactment. According to Eliade, traditional man sees both myths and rituals as vehicles for "eternal return" to the mythical age (see
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those far-reaching powers which he once arrogated to himself." In other words, when man loses his belief in magic, he justifies his formerly magical rituals by saying that they reenact myths or honor mythical beings. According to Frazer,
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of the world: "For Tylor, myth functions to explain the world as an end in itself. Ritual applies that explanation to control the world." A ritual always presupposes a preexisting myth: in short, myth gives rise to ritual.
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Leaving the sphere of historical religions, the ritual-from-myth approach often sees the relationship between myth and ritual as analogous to the relationship between science and technology. The pioneering anthropologist
1368:
these scholars think a myth is largely just a narrative description of a corresponding ritual: according to
Harrison, "the primary meaning of myth ... is the spoken correlative of the acted rite, the thing done."
1085:, the exact relationship between them has been a matter of controversy among scholars. One of the approaches to this problem is "the myth and ritual, or myth-ritualist, theory," held notably by the so-called
1436:
important. However, also like
Malinowski, Eliade notes that societies use myths to sanction many kinds of activities, not just rituals: "For him, too, then, myth and ritual are not coextensive."
1338:(1890; 1906â1915), Frazer famously argues that man progresses from belief in magic (and rituals based on magic), through belief in religion, to science. His argument is as follows.
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based on a mythical event makes the story of that event more than a mere myth: the myth becomes more important because it narrates an event whose imitation is considered sacred.
1897:
1452:, or simply by recounting their adventures, the man of an archaic society detaches himself from profane time and magically re-enters the Great Time, the sacred time."
1089:, which holds that "myth does not stand by itself but is tied to ritual." This theory is still disputed; many scholars now believe that myth and ritual share common
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Malinowski, "Myth in
Primitive Psychology" (1926; reprinted in "Magic, Science and Religion" , pp. 101, 108), quoted in Eliade, "Myth and Reality," p. 20
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Here Hyman argues against the etiological interpretation of myth, which says that myths originated from attempts to explain the origins (
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claimed that myth emerges from ritual during the natural process of religious evolution. Many of his ideas were inspired by those of
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1125:) supported the "primacy of ritual" hypothesis, which claimed that "every myth is derived from a particular ritual and that the
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1978:. The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 68, No. 270, Myth: A Symposium (Oct.âDec., 1955), pp. 454â461 doi 10.2307/536770
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Recital of myths and enactment of rituals serve a common purpose: they are two different means to remain in sacred time.
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In his essay "The Ritual View of Myth and the Mythic", (1955) Stanley Edgar Hyman makes an argument similar to Smith's:
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One possibility immediately presents itself: perhaps ritual arose from myth. Many religious ritualsânotably
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1857:(Translated by Guy Lanoue and Alexandre Sadetsky, foreword by Guy Lanoue) 2000 Routledge
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among
Muslimsâcommemorate, or involve commemoration of, events in religious literature.
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Talismans and Trojan Horses: Guardian
Statues in Ancient Greek Myth and Ritual
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1971:. The Harvard Theological Review, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Jan., 1942), pp. 45â79
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1818:. Sather classical lectures, v. 47. Berkeley: University of California Press
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resurrection of a primeval reality." Eliade adds: "Because myth relates the
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1993:
The
Ravenous Hyenas and the Wounded Sun: Myth and Ritual in Ancient India
1915:
1364:
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studies on the "ritual purposes of myths." Some of these scholars (e.g.,
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Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to
Political Authority in Ancient China
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Wise, R. Todd, The Great Vision of Black Elk as Literary Ritual, in
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quality of myth is a reproduction of the succession of ritual act."
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1105:" is the name given to a series of authors who have focused their
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1920:, trans. Peter Bing, Berkeley: University of California Press.
1918:: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth
1885:. First Series, 1st edition. Edinburgh: Black, 1889. Lecture 1.
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notes that Smith introduced the concept "dogmatically." In his
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This view was asserted for the first time by the bible scholar
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311:
172:
152:
72:
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Savage energies: lessons of myth and ritual in ancient Greece
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surely count, and which he can manipulate for his own ends."
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212:
1827:. Trans. Willard R. Trask. New York: Harper & Row, 1963.
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are two central components of religious practice. Although
642:
301:
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1833:. Trans. Philip Mairet. New York: Harper & Row, 1967.
1698:
Harrison; quoted in Segal (no specific text cited), p. 72
1448:"In imitating the exemplary acts of a god or of a mythic
756:
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1132:
Historically, the important approaches to the study of
1707:
Hooke; quoted in Segal (no specific text cited), p. 72
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2129:
2035:(Paladin, 1972, London) translated by Annette Lavers
1815:
Structure and history in Greek mythology and ritual
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2017:The Myth and Ritual Pattern of the Ancient East
2012:. University of Georgia Press Athens, Ga., 1982
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1543:
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1539:
1871:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1958.
1610:
1608:
1606:
2061:
1093:, but not that one developed from the other.
1051:
47:Two ancient anthropomorphic figures from Peru
1800:Eliade, "Myths, Dreams and Mysteries," p. 23
1751:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1536:
1191:, "grounded the study of myth and ritual in
16:Two central components of religious practice
1983:Mythography: The Study of Myths and Rituals
1603:
1568:Guy Lanoue, Foreword to Meletinsky, p. viii
2068:
2054:
2024:Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual
1900:: J.G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists
1717:
1715:
1713:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
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1292:As an example, Smith gives the worship of
1272:
1210:study of myth and ritual, particularly by
1058:
1044:
1651:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1529:
1527:
1175:In the 1930s, Soviet researchers such as
1952:The myth and ritual theory: an anthology
566:Anthropological Perspectives on Religion
2958:
2042:, Syracuse University Press, June 2000.
1937:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1883:Lectures on the Religion of the Semites
1710:
1674:
1426:Like Malinowski, the religious scholar
1410:Like William Smith, the anthropologist
1405:
1287:Lectures on the Religion of the Semites
3632:
1580:
1524:
1299:
3599:Christianization of saints and feasts
3356:European Congress of Ethnic Religions
3310:
3101:
2957:
2864:
2755:
2409:
2137:
2049:
1985:. University of Alabama Press, 1986.
1264:Myth from ritual (primacy of ritual)
255:Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants
1969:Myths and Rituals: A General Theory
1556:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica entries on
1355:Jane Ellen Harrison and S. H. Hooke
1225:
13:
1889:
1380:Myth and ritual as non-coextensive
1172:, and the Myth and Ritual School.
385:Archaeology of religion and ritual
14:
3661:
1558:Myth and Ritual School (religion)
1388:
2757:Middle-Eastern and North African
1791:Eliade, "Myth and Reality," p. 6
1773:Eliade, "Myth and Reality," p. 7
1642:The Journal of American Folklore
1421:
1081:are commonly united as parts of
41:
1961:Myth and ritual in Christianity
1876:Myth: A Very Short Introduction
1794:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1742:
1733:
1724:
1701:
1692:
1665:
1635:
1626:
1319:
98:Evolutionary origin of religion
3371:Polytheistic reconstructionism
2010:Evil in modern myth and ritual
1850:Meletinsky, Eleazar Moiseevich
1617:
1594:
1571:
1562:
1550:
1249:
253:Treatise on the Apparitions of
1:
2866:Oceanian and Pacific Islander
1806:
703:Traditional African religions
248:Coral Gardens and Their Magic
2410:
1867:Sebeok, Thomas A. (Editor).
1846:. New York: Macmillan, 1922.
1416:Myth in Primitive Psychology
1206:Following World War II, the
1136:thinking have been those of
7:
1831:Myths, Dreams and Mysteries
1459:
1096:
10:
3666:
3102:
1955:. Malden, Mass: Blackwell.
1898:The Myth and Ritual School
1881:Smith, William Robertson.
1878:. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004.
1324:The famous anthropologist
1242:among Christians, and the
18:
3594:Christianity and paganism
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1949:Segal, Robert A. (1998).
1363:and the biblical scholar
781:Armenian Apostolic Church
3640:Anthropology of religion
2019:. Myth and Ritual, 1933.
1895:Ackerman, Robert (2002)
1518:
1501:Anthropology of religion
673:Native American religion
328:Revitalization movements
183:Sacredâprofane dichotomy
35:Anthropology of religion
19:Not to be confused with
1964:. Boston: Beacon Press.
1577:Meletinsky, pp. 109â110
1442:Eternal return (Eliade)
1326:Sir James George Frazer
1279:William Robertson Smith
1273:William Robertson Smith
587:The Journal of Religion
208:Theories about religion
3502:Religion and mythology
3428:Dying and rising deity
3408:Veneration of the dead
3142:Native American Church
1999:Christopher A. Faraone
1486:Religion and mythology
1454:
1352:
1310:
1103:myth and ritual school
633:Alaska Native religion
628:Afro-American religion
223:Veneration of the dead
21:Religion and mythology
1739:Burkert (1979), p. 55
1471:Comparative mythology
1446:
1348:
1306:
1034:cultural anthropology
653:Chinese folk religion
545:Anthony F. C. Wallace
540:Daniel Martin Varisco
465:E. E. Evans-Pritchard
367:of the Religious Life
2771:Ancient Near Eastern
2558:Hellenistic religion
1931:Burkert, W. (2001).
1812:Burkert, W. (1979).
1644:, Vol. 68, No. 270,
1614:Meletinsky pp. 19â20
1414:argued in his essay
1412:BronisĆaw Malinowski
1406:BronisĆaw Malinowski
1257:Edward Burnett Tylor
1087:Cambridge Ritualists
688:Shamanism in Siberia
535:Edward Burnett Tylor
365:The Elementary Forms
133:Magic (supernatural)
83:Comparative religion
3604:Constantinian shift
3326:Neopagan witchcraft
2960:Sub-Saharan African
1989:Stephanie W Jamison
1913:Burkert, W. (1983)
1854:The Poetics of Myth
1361:Jane Ellen Harrison
1300:Stanley Edgar Hyman
1177:Jakov E. Golosovker
1119:Jane Ellen Harrison
1115:James George Frazer
870:Hindu denominations
811:Ethiopian Orthodoxy
580:The Hibbert Journal
490:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
475:Fustel de Coulanges
29:Part of a series on
3544:Trees in mythology
3539:Supernatural magic
3448:Magic and religion
1958:Watts, A. (1968).
1940:Kwang-chih Chang,
1547:Meletinsky, p. 117
1491:Magic and religion
1111:W. Robertson-Smith
924:Non-denominational
836:Oriental Orthodoxy
390:Poles in mythology
123:Laying on of hands
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2397:
2396:
2029:Barthes, Roland,
1967:Clyde Kluckhohn,
1874:Segal, Robert A.
1869:Myth: A Symposium
1764:Segal 2004, p. 73
1721:Segal 2004, p. 76
1689:Segal 2004, p. 71
1646:Myth: A Symposium
1591:Segal 2004, p. 63
1533:Segal 2004, p. 61
1158:Lucien LĂ©vy-Bruhl
1068:
1067:
856:Russian Orthodoxy
806:Eastern Orthodoxy
455:Arnold van Gennep
374:Purity and Danger
3657:
3586:Christianization
3376:Secular paganism
3361:Goddess movement
3331:Cochrane's Craft
3319:
3318:
3308:
3307:
3112:
3111:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3094:
2968:
2967:
2955:
2954:
2873:
2872:
2862:
2861:
2764:
2763:
2753:
2752:
2568:Sacred mysteries
2418:
2417:
2407:
2406:
2146:
2145:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2130:
2120:ethnic religions
2070:
2063:
2056:
2047:
2046:
2040:Black Elk Reader
1843:The Golden Bough
1839:Frazer, James G.
1825:Myth and Reality
1821:Eliade, Mircea:
1801:
1798:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1774:
1771:
1765:
1762:
1749:
1746:
1740:
1737:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1719:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1690:
1687:
1672:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1649:
1639:
1633:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1615:
1612:
1601:
1598:
1592:
1589:
1578:
1575:
1569:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1548:
1545:
1534:
1531:
1335:The Golden Bough
1226:Ritual from myth
1185:Olga Freidenberg
1060:
1053:
1046:
801:Coptic Orthodoxy
515:Marshall Sahlins
357:Related articles
45:
26:
25:
3665:
3664:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3654:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3580:
3480:Myth and ritual
3400:Myth and ritual
3394:
3393:
3380:
3313:
3294:
3247:Turko-Mongolic
3106:
3087:
3080:
3079:
3066:
2962:
2941:
2867:
2848:
2758:
2739:
2412:
2393:
2262:Hindu mythology
2140:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2084:
2081:modern paganism
2074:
1976:Myth and Ritual
1892:
1890:Further reading
1809:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1652:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1604:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1581:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1537:
1532:
1525:
1521:
1462:
1424:
1408:
1393:The classicist
1391:
1382:
1359:The classicist
1357:
1330:Robertson Smith
1322:
1302:
1275:
1266:
1252:
1228:
1201:popular culture
1189:Mikhail Bakhtin
1181:Frank-Kamenecky
1099:
1071:Myth and ritual
1064:
1024:
1023:
816:Greek Orthodoxy
796:Catholic Church
612:
611:
600:
599:
560:
559:
550:
549:
525:Stanley Tambiah
480:Clifford Geertz
435:Joseph Campbell
420:Augustin Calmet
415:
414:
413:Major theorists
405:
404:
380:Myth and ritual
366:
359:
358:
349:
348:
254:
238:
237:
228:
227:
178:Sacred language
168:Rite of passage
93:Divine language
58:
57:
48:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3663:
3653:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3621:
3619:Virtuous pagan
3616:
3614:Religio licita
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3590:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3576:Animal worship
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3541:
3536:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3482:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3404:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3336:Feri Tradition
3333:
3328:
3322:
3315:
3314:
3304:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3151:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3139:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3115:
3108:
3107:
3092:
3090:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3072:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2977:
2971:
2964:
2963:
2951:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2869:
2868:
2858:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2773:
2767:
2760:
2759:
2749:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2616:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2565:
2560:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2523:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2454:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2427:
2421:
2414:
2413:
2403:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2334:Tibeto-Burmese
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2149:
2142:
2141:
2128:
2126:
2123:(existing and
2114:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2073:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2036:
2027:
2026:. Brill, 1993.
2020:
2013:
2006:
1996:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1965:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1929:
1911:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1872:
1865:
1847:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1828:
1819:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1793:
1784:
1775:
1766:
1750:
1741:
1732:
1723:
1709:
1700:
1691:
1673:
1671:Frazer, p. 477
1664:
1662:Frazer, p. 711
1650:
1648:(1955), p. 91.
1634:
1625:
1616:
1602:
1593:
1579:
1570:
1561:
1549:
1535:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1513:Walter Burkert
1504:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1461:
1458:
1423:
1420:
1407:
1404:
1395:Walter Burkert
1390:
1389:Walter Burkert
1387:
1381:
1378:
1356:
1353:
1321:
1318:
1301:
1298:
1281:. The scholar
1274:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1251:
1248:
1227:
1224:
1098:
1095:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1062:
1055:
1048:
1040:
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1036:
1026:
1025:
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1021:
1015:
1014:
1009:
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1002:
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985:
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952:
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946:
941:
936:
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926:
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916:
911:
905:
904:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
866:
865:
859:
858:
853:
848:
843:
841:Pentecostalism
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
767:
766:
760:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
713:
712:
706:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
624:
623:
621:folk religions
613:
607:
606:
605:
602:
601:
598:
597:
590:
583:
576:
569:
561:
557:
556:
555:
552:
551:
548:
547:
542:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
445:Ămile Durkheim
442:
437:
432:
427:
425:Akbar S. Ahmed
422:
416:
412:
411:
410:
407:
406:
403:
402:
400:Elite religion
397:
395:Lived religion
392:
387:
382:
377:
370:
360:
356:
355:
354:
351:
350:
347:
346:
341:
336:
330:
329:
325:
324:
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314:
309:
304:
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279:
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268:
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145:
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135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
59:
56:Basic concepts
55:
54:
53:
50:
49:
46:
38:
37:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3662:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3555:
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3547:
3546:
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3537:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3497:Reincarnation
3495:
3493:
3490:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3309:
3305:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3256:Vattisen Yaly
3254:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3116:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3091:
3089:
3083:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2910:Cook Islander
2908:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2863:
2859:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2754:
2750:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2718:Baltic Finnic
2716:
2715:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2686:Imperial cult
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2515:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2408:
2404:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2247:Sunda Wiwitan
2245:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2183:Austroasiatic
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1974:Lord Raglan,
1973:
1970:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1927:
1926:0-520-03650-6
1923:
1919:
1917:
1912:
1909:
1908:0-415-93963-1
1905:
1902:, Routledge,
1901:
1899:
1894:
1893:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1870:
1866:
1864:
1863:0-415-92898-2
1860:
1856:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1837:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1797:
1788:
1779:
1770:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1745:
1736:
1727:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1668:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1632:Smith, p. 392
1629:
1620:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1597:
1588:
1586:
1584:
1574:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1530:
1528:
1523:
1514:
1511:
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1499:
1497:
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1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
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1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1457:
1453:
1451:
1445:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1428:Mircea Eliade
1422:Mircea Eliade
1419:
1417:
1413:
1403:
1399:
1396:
1386:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1317:
1315:
1309:
1305:
1297:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1270:
1261:
1258:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1216:Victor Turner
1213:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1170:Soviet school
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1001:
998:
997:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
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969:
966:
964:
961:
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957:
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947:
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935:
932:
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927:
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922:
920:
917:
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910:
907:
906:
903:
900:
899:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
864:
861:
860:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
846:Protestantism
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
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782:
779:
777:
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769:
768:
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762:
761:
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753:
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748:
745:
743:
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733:
730:
728:
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723:
720:
718:
715:
714:
711:
708:
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639:
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634:
631:
629:
626:
625:
622:
618:
615:
614:
610:
604:
603:
596:
595:
591:
589:
588:
584:
582:
581:
577:
575:
574:
570:
568:
567:
563:
562:
554:
553:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
530:Victor Turner
528:
526:
523:
521:
520:Melford Spiro
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
505:Roy Rappaport
503:
501:
500:Steven Ozment
498:
496:
495:Robert Marett
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
450:Mircea Eliade
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
417:
409:
408:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
375:
371:
369:
368:
362:
361:
353:
352:
345:
344:Handsome Lake
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
331:
327:
326:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
269:
265:
264:
261:
258:
256:
251:
249:
246:
245:
241:
240:
232:
231:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
60:
52:
51:
44:
40:
39:
36:
33:
32:
28:
27:
22:
3609:Neoplatonism
3549:Tree of life
3512:Sacred grove
3479:
3413:Bear worship
3399:
3366:Neoshamanism
3228:Zalmoxianism
3181:Adyghe Habze
3086:Modern pagan
2793:Mesopotamian
2649:Paleo-Balkan
2583:Samothracian
2462:Old Prussian
2359:Bongthingism
2039:
2030:
2023:
2022:HS Versnel,
2016:
2009:
2002:
1992:
1982:
1975:
1968:
1959:
1950:
1941:
1932:
1914:
1896:
1882:
1875:
1868:
1852:
1841:
1830:
1824:
1813:
1796:
1787:
1778:
1769:
1748:Segal, p. 78
1744:
1735:
1730:Segal, p. 77
1726:
1703:
1694:
1667:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1628:
1623:Segal, p. 62
1619:
1600:Segal, p. 14
1596:
1573:
1564:
1552:
1506:
1505:
1464:
1463:
1455:
1447:
1438:
1432:
1425:
1415:
1409:
1400:
1392:
1383:
1374:
1370:
1358:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1323:
1320:James Frazer
1311:
1307:
1303:
1291:
1286:
1276:
1267:
1253:
1234:among Jews,
1229:
1212:Bill Stanner
1205:
1174:
1162:LĂ©vi-Strauss
1134:mythological
1131:
1107:philological
1100:
1070:
1069:
963:Conservative
831:Nestorianism
764:Christianity
592:
585:
578:
571:
564:
510:Saba Mahmood
485:Robin Horton
470:James Frazer
440:Mary Douglas
379:
372:
363:
260:Neo-Paganism
236:Case studies
203:Superstition
198:Soul dualism
108:Great Spirit
3650:Mythography
3218:Italo-Roman
3122:Ausar Auset
2890:Micronesian
2681:Gallo-Roman
2531:Anglo-Saxon
2329:Satsana Phi
2213:Momolianism
2117:Historical
2098:Panentheism
2032:Mythologies
2008:R Stivers,
1916:Homo necans
1365:S. H. Hooke
1250:E. B. Tylor
1195:and in the
1127:syntagmatic
1123:S. H. Hooke
890:Vaishnavism
821:Lutheranism
776:Anglicanism
460:René Girard
339:Ghost Dance
218:Transtheism
188:Sacred site
148:Nympholepsy
3634:Categories
3571:Witchcraft
3554:World tree
3492:Orthopraxy
3341:Stregheria
3288:Udmurt Vos
3251:Burkhanism
3159:Dievturība
3137:Mexicayotl
2905:Polynesian
2885:Melanesian
2880:Australian
2798:Babylonian
2612:Lusitanian
2607:Gallaecian
2597:Cantabrian
2573:Eleusinian
2487:Circassian
2483:Caucasian
2472:Lithuanian
2389:Sanamahism
2369:Donyi-Polo
2230:Philippine
2208:Kaharingan
2193:Vietnamese
2108:Polytheism
2015:SH Hooke,
1807:References
1314:etiologies
1283:Meletinsky
1197:world view
1012:ĆvetÄmbara
648:Böö mörgöl
430:Talal Asad
334:Cargo cult
163:Polytheism
158:Pilgrimage
143:Monotheism
128:Liminality
118:Initiation
113:Henotheism
88:Divination
78:Communitas
3522:Sacrifice
3517:Holy well
3485:Mythology
3468:Stone row
3278:Hungarian
3208:Hellenism
3203:Heathenry
3171:Caucasian
3133:American
3127:Godianism
3088:movements
2820:Canaanite
2723:Hungarian
2691:Mithraism
2622:Camunnian
2563:Hero cult
2430:Anatolian
2344:Benzhuism
2339:Bathouism
2267:Dravidian
2198:Indonesia
2168:Mongolian
2103:Pantheism
1981:WG Doty,
1476:Mythology
1236:Christmas
1220:paradigms
1142:Schelling
1091:paradigms
1007:Digambara
949:YazdĂąnism
929:Quranists
909:Ahmadiyya
895:Ayyavazhi
826:Methodism
791:Calvinism
771:Adventism
752:Vajrayana
737:Theravada
727:Pure Land
609:Religions
282:Bobohizan
193:Shamanism
103:Fetishism
63:Afterlife
3453:Megalith
3443:Idolatry
3438:Folklore
3268:Estonian
3223:Kemetism
3198:Canarian
3149:Armenian
3118:African
3037:Malagasy
3007:Dahomean
2985:Bushongo
2930:Tahitian
2925:Rapa Nui
2915:Hawaiian
2803:Sumerian
2781:Egyptian
2703:Scythian
2664:Thracian
2659:Illyrian
2627:Ligurian
2536:Frankish
2526:Germanic
2521:Etruscan
2497:Ossetian
2492:Georgian
2452:Armenian
2445:Phrygian
2425:Albanian
2411:European
2379:Kiratism
2299:Ryukyuan
2257:Hinduism
2203:Parmalim
2188:Sarnaism
2173:Tengrism
2125:extinct)
2077:Paganism
1496:Etiology
1481:Ritology
1460:See also
1232:Passover
1208:semantic
1193:folklore
1146:Schiller
1097:Overview
1083:religion
988:Orthodox
978:Haymanot
919:Mahdavia
885:Smartism
880:Shaktism
875:Shaivism
863:Hinduism
786:Baptists
722:Nichiren
717:Mahayana
710:Buddhism
698:Tengrism
573:Folklore
558:Journals
317:Slametan
277:Babaylan
272:Angakkuq
3423:Tumulus
3351:Druidry
3283:Mordvin
3273:Finnish
3238:Semitic
3186:Uatsdin
3047:Odinani
3027:Lugbara
2895:Nauruan
2832:Persian
2827:Iranian
2815:Arabian
2810:Semitic
2776:Hurrian
2644:Nuragic
2632:Umbrian
2618:Italic
2592:Iberian
2502:Vainakh
2467:Latvian
2435:Hittite
2364:Burmese
2349:Bimoism
2284:Punjabi
2252:Chinese
2235:Tagalog
2220:KejawĂšn
2093:Animism
2005:. 1992.
1995:. 1991.
1946:. 1983.
1465:General
1385:versa.
1019:Sikhism
1000:Jainism
983:Karaite
973:Hasidic
956:Judaism
851:Quakers
747:Tibetan
742:Tiantai
732:Shingon
668:KejawĂšn
594:Oceania
68:Animism
3645:Ritual
3566:Virtue
3527:animal
3507:Ritual
3463:Menhir
3458:Dolmen
3263:Uralic
3243:Slavic
3233:Romani
3193:Celtic
3176:Abkhaz
3164:Romuva
3154:Baltic
3104:Ethnic
3062:Somali
3032:Maasai
2935:Tongan
2900:Papuan
2839:Berber
2786:Nubian
2713:Uralic
2708:Slavic
2676:Cybele
2654:Dacian
2639:Minoan
2602:Castro
2578:Orphic
2541:Gothic
2509:Celtic
2479:Basque
2457:Baltic
2440:Lydian
2374:Heraka
2304:Korean
2294:Shinto
2279:Kalash
2242:Marapu
2178:Turkic
2163:Manchu
2158:Altaic
1924:
1906:
1861:
1507:People
1294:Adonis
1240:Easter
1168:, the
1079:ritual
1030:Social
993:Reform
968:Haredi
939:Sufism
693:Shinto
683:Shindo
678:Noaidi
658:Hanitu
617:Ethnic
312:Pawang
307:JhÄkri
266:Ritual
173:Ritual
153:Oracle
73:Augury
3561:Totem
3532:human
3433:Ethos
3346:Wicca
3312:Other
3213:Hindu
3057:Serer
3042:Mbuti
3022:Hausa
3012:Dinka
2990:Kongo
2980:Bantu
2920:MÄori
2844:Punic
2671:Roman
2553:Greek
2546:Norse
2514:Irish
2384:Qiang
2289:Vedic
2272:Tamil
2225:Malay
2139:Asian
2079:(and
1519:Notes
1433:gesta
1332:. In
1154:Freud
1101:The "
944:Sunni
914:Ibadi
902:Islam
663:Hausa
638:Anito
297:Dukun
287:Bomoh
242:Magic
213:Totem
3475:Myth
3418:BlĂłt
3017:Efik
3000:Zulu
2995:Lozi
2975:Akan
2733:Sami
2728:Mari
2319:Ahom
2309:Miao
2153:Ainu
1922:ISBN
1904:ISBN
1859:ISBN
1450:hero
1244:Hajj
1238:and
1214:and
1166:Frye
1150:Jung
1138:Vico
1077:and
1075:myth
1032:and
934:Shia
643:Atua
619:and
302:Miko
292:Bora
138:Mana
3052:San
2354:Bon
2314:Tai
1444:):
1203:."
1199:of
757:Zen
3636::
2324:Mo
2001:,
1991:,
1753:^
1712:^
1676:^
1653:^
1605:^
1582:^
1538:^
1526:^
1222:.
1187:,
1183:,
1179:,
1164:,
1160:,
1156:,
1152:,
1148:,
1144:,
1140:,
1121:,
1117:,
1113:,
322:Wu
2083:)
2069:e
2062:t
2055:v
1928:.
1910:.
1059:e
1052:t
1045:v
23:.
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