305:– the scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of common interest not specifically stated in the treaties. The article runs: "In order to consolidate the intimate tie which unites the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the High Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals, either under their own auspices or by their respective ministers, meetings consecrated to great common objects and to the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of the nations and the maintenance of the tranquility of Europe".
220:
impossible to find a clear case of entrapment actually occurring." Abandonment means that allies do not come to the rescue of a fellow ally. Strong commitments to an alliance can reduce the bargaining power of that ally vis-a-vis the other allies. However, an ally whose commitment to the alliance is in doubt has greater bargaining leverage. Weak alliance commitments can make it easier for the ally to realign the alliance if a fellow ally is considered unsatisfactory. Strong alliance commitments may strengthen the adversary's alliance, as the adversary may face a greater threat.
49:
20:
216:'s classic study of alliances, small states frequently free-ride on the large state's contributions to an alliance. Small allies that are militarily vulnerable are less likely to free-ride, whereas strategically important small allies are most likely to free-ride. Alliances may also lead to moral hazard whereby allies behave more aggressively and recklessly if they believe that the alliance will aid them in any conflict. On the whole, alliances do deter aggression on net.
330:
1574:
308:
It was this article of the treaty of the 20 November 1815, rather than the Holy
Alliance, that formed the basis of the serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 and 1822, to govern Europe in concert. In general it proved that an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly defined as to its
196:
During peace-time, according to a 2019 study, almost all alliances from 1870 to 1916 may have been covert or implied. In other time periods, covert alliances have been rare. The study argues that from 1870 to 1916, the unusual amount of covert alliances was incentivized by other covert alliances. The
119:
explained the difference by noting that historically, alliances "were designed to advance the respective nationalistic interests of the parties, and provided for joint military action if one of the parties in pursuit of such objectives became involved in war." A collective security arrangement "is
223:
The failure of a strong ally to come to the rescue of a weaker ally (abandonment) may jeopardize the strong ally's other alliances. However, it may also strengthen the other alliances, as the other allies may sometimes prefer that the strong ally abandons a weak ally if it is likely to raise the
219:
Within alliances, actors may fear entrapment or abandonment. Entrapment means that allies get dragged into a conflict over one ally's interests that the other allies do not share. Scholars have disputed the prevalence of entrapment, with
Stephen Brooks and William Wohlforth writing "it is nearly
317:
called it, though it failed to secure the permanent harmony of the powers, was an effective instrument for peace during the years immediately following the downfall of
Napoleon; and it set the precedent for those periodical meetings of the representatives of the powers, for the discussion and
94:
According to a 2002 dataset of military alliances, there have been 538 alliance treaties from 1815 to 2003. The vast majority of the alliances involve commitments to come to the military support of one ally involved in war. The vast majority are defensive in nature. Since the end of the
161:, neorealism is one of the two most influential contemporary approaches to the study of military alliances in international relations; the two perspectives dominated international relations theory from the 1960s to the 1990s. Neorealism emerged from the North American discipline of
123:
The obvious motivation in states engaging in military alliances is to protect themselves against threats from other countries. However, states have also entered into alliances to improve ties with a particular nation or to manage conflict with a particular nation.
686:
232:
In the
European historical context, a military alliance can be viewed as a league between independent states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action, defensive or offensive, or both. The oldest such alliance in the world today is the
658:
318:
settlement of questions of international importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient for constructive work, contributed much to the preservation of the general peace during much of the nineteenth century.
281:
between
Germany, Austria and Italy was ostensibly directed to the preservation of European peace against any possible aggressive action of France or Russia; and this led in turn, some ten years later, to the
197:
creation of public alliances would signal to the covert ally that the public alliance was more valuable. According to Ronald Krebs, pre-WWII alliances were generally "relatively simple, short-lived affairs."
297:, to find in the "sacred precepts of the Gospel", a common basis for a general league of the European governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of peace. So, too, by Article VI of the
1067:
79:. In the event a nation is attacked, members of the alliance are often obligated to come to their defense regardless if attacked directly. Military alliances can be classified into
257:, and the two have never fought against each other in any military campaign. Alliances have often been directed to specific objects carefully defined in the treaties. Thus the
127:
The nature of alliances, including their formation and cohesiveness (or lack thereof), is a subject of much academic study past and present. Influential works include those by
120:
directed against no one; it is directed solely against aggression. It seeks not to influence any shifting 'balance of power' but to strengthen the 'balance of principle'."
1589:
585:
1302:
963:
1638:
1370:
1526:
1043:
1598:
1021:
154:
313:'s somewhat cynical dictum – "be reinforced by the interests" of the parties concerned. Yet the "moral alliance" of Europe, as Count
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and burden-sharing. Members of an alliance have incentives not to contribute to the alliance while simultaneously benefiting on the
158:
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853:
777:
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841:
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461:"Do Alliances Deter Aggression? The Influence of Military Alliances on the Initiation of Militarized Interstate Disputes"
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between the Holy Roman Empire, Holland, England, Spain and Saxony, were both directed against the power of
1737:
1090:"Unpacking Alliances: Deterrent and Compellent Alliances and Their Relationship with Conflict, 1816–2000"
301:
signed at Paris on 20 November 1815 – which renewed that of
Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at
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1089:
343:
88:
616:
802:
298:
234:
289:
Occasionally, however, attempts have been made to give alliances a more general character. Thus the
1659:
376:
Kuo, Raymond (2019). "Secrecy among
Friends: Covert Military Alliances and Portfolio Consistency".
1554:
1324:
283:
205:
1623:
928:"The Price of Protection: Explaining Success and Failure of US Alliance Burden-Sharing Pressure"
309:
objects, and that in the long run the treaty in which these objects are defined must – to quote
1585:
529:
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201:
41:
1460:
Reliability and
Alliance Interdependence: The United States and Its Allies in Asia, 1949–1969
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48:
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273:, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, had for its object the overthrow of
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of 26 September 1815 was an attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the
Emperor
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1684:
1652:
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1412:
1366:
1354:
1298:
1286:
1267:"Tangled up in rose? Theories of alliance entrapment and the 2008 Russo-Georgian War"
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100:
76:
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1208:"What Allies Want: Reconsidering Loyalty, Reliability, and Alliance Interdependence"
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741:
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612:
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and his dynasty, and the confining of France within her traditional boundaries. The
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pledged to "perpetual friendship" between the two countries. This remains in action
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544:
335:
314:
174:
1266:
927:
250:
32:
19:
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674:
604:
445:
99:, military alliances have usually behaved less aggressively and act more as a
1731:
1593:
1580:
1416:
1358:
1290:
1243:
1165:
1113:
1053:
1009:
1001:
951:
893:
826:
725:
659:"Anarchy in International Relations Theory: The Neorealist-Neoliberal Debate"
484:
397:
389:
290:
178:
140:
136:
1045:
Constructing
International Security: Alliances, Deterrence, and Moral Hazard
717:
165:, and reformulates the understanding of military alliances in the classical
1679:
985:
581:
425:
209:
132:
128:
96:
80:
1537:
Ethics and weapons of Mass Destruction: Religious and Secular Perspectives
16:
Alliance between different states with the purpose to cooperate militarily
1522:
1408:
1224:
1207:
57:
24:
1424:
1392:
329:
286:, for mutual support in case of any hostile action of the other powers.
91:. Alliances may be covert (as was common from 1870 to 1916) or public.
1602:. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 695.
1527:"Realist Perspectives on Ethical Norms and Weapons of Mass Destruction"
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1234:
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901:
869:
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701:
492:
460:
170:
1391:
Brooks, Stephen G.; Ikenberry, G. John; Wohlforth, William C. (2012).
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The Burden-Sharing Dilemma: Coercive Diplomacy in US Alliance Politics
115:
systems but can differ in nature. An early 1950s memorandum from the
1157:
885:
476:
274:
254:
72:
61:
1616:
Why Allies Rebel: Defiant Local Partners in Counterinsurgency Wars
1579:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
524:
The Imperial Temptation: The New World Order and America's Purpose
984:
Benson, Brett V.; Meirowitz, Adam; Ramsay, Kristopher W. (2014).
986:"Inducing Deterrence through Moral Hazard in Alliance Contracts"
702:"Perverse Institutionalism: NATO and the Greco-Turkish Conflict"
302:
1654:
Warring Friends: Alliance Restraint in International Politics
261:
between Great Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands, and the
53:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
269:. The Quadruple or Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the
1393:"Don't Come Home, America: The Case against Retrenchment"
1710:
Dangerous Alliances: Proponents of Peace, Weapons of War
1390:
647:, Waltz's book remains "the seminal text of neorealism".
546:
Dangerous Alliances: Proponents of Peace, Weapons of War
1488:
153:
theory of international politics where he argued that
1722:
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies
983:
427:
World Politics: Interests, Interactions, Institutions
325:
224:risks of military escalation for the other allies.
1683:
1651:
803:"Managing the Dilemmas of Alliance Burden Sharing"
521:
1325:"Why Alliances Entangle But Seldom Entrap States"
516:
237:, dating back to 1373 where the then Kingdoms of
1729:
1624:The Defense Cooperation Agreement Dataset (DCAD)
867:
848:, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 369–384,
586:"Remaking Alliances for the War on Terrorism"
549:. Stanford University Press. pp. 18–19.
200:Common problems for alliances revolve around
75:that specifies mutual obligations regarding
1142:"The Security Dilemma in Alliance Politics"
925:
868:Olson, Mancur; Zeckhauser, Richard (1966).
800:
765:
227:
157:tend to form in world politics. Alongside
1348:
1233:
1223:
1048:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
528:. Council on Foreign Relations. pp.
1704:
1649:
1584:
1505:
1264:
542:
47:
18:
430:(4 ed.). W W NORTON. p. 190.
423:
284:Dual Alliance between Russia and France
208:provided by the alliance. According to
1730:
1666:
1535:In Sohail Hashmi and Steven Lee, eds.,
1139:
1087:
1041:
874:The Review of Economics and Statistics
689:from the original on 24 December 2022.
656:
1637:
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1456:
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1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
699:
640:
580:
465:American Journal of Political Science
458:
23:European military alliances prior to
1690:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
1678:
1674:. Ithaca: SCornell University Press.
839:
419:
417:
415:
371:
369:
1322:
375:
13:
1607:
1120:
354:Coercion (international relations)
111:Military alliances are related to
106:
54:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
14:
1749:
1645:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
870:"An Economic Theory of Alliances"
412:
366:
117:United States Department of State
1572:
593:The Journal of Strategic Studies
520:; Hendrickson, David C. (1992).
328:
185:. Neorealism is subdivided into
146:Theory of International Politics
1477:from the original on 2023-03-26
1450:
1439:from the original on 2023-07-19
1384:
1373:from the original on 2023-07-19
1316:
1305:from the original on 2023-11-07
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1199:
1188:from the original on 2023-03-26
1081:
1070:from the original on 2023-03-29
1035:
1024:from the original on 2023-11-07
977:
966:from the original on 2023-11-07
919:
908:from the original on 2023-03-15
861:
833:
794:
759:
748:from the original on 2022-09-23
563:from the original on 2023-11-07
499:from the original on 2022-09-23
1628:Journal of Conflict Resolution
990:Journal of Conflict Resolution
766:Blankenship, Brian D. (2023).
693:
650:
633:
574:
543:Weitsman, Patricia A. (2004).
536:
510:
452:
378:Journal of Conflict Resolution
1:
1716:Weitsman, Patricia A. 2010. "
1643:Alliances and the Third World
1619:. Cambridge University Press.
1515:
1283:10.1080/13523260.2017.1392102
944:10.1080/09636412.2021.2018624
819:10.1080/0163660X.2024.2323898
1712:. Stanford University Press.
1463:. Cornell University Press.
1341:10.1080/09636412.2011.599201
1271:Contemporary Security Policy
1265:Lanoszka, Alexander (2018).
772:. Cornell University Press.
459:Leeds, Brett Ashley (2003).
52:Two military alliances (The
7:
1622:Kinne, Brandon J. (2020). "
926:Blankenship, Brian (2022).
801:Blankenship, Brian (2024).
424:Frieden, Jeffry A. (2018).
321:
10:
1754:
1541:Cambridge University Press
706:International Organization
663:International Organization
344:List of military alliances
143:outlined in his 1979 book
1650:Pressman, Jeremy (2008).
1140:Snyder, Glenn H. (1984).
1106:10.1017/s0022381611000867
1088:Benson, Brett V. (2011).
1042:Benson, Brett V. (2012).
846:Research Handbook on NATO
700:Krebs, Ronald R. (1999).
675:10.1017/s0020818300028204
605:10.1080/01402390600900887
235:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
73:agreement between nations
1686:The Origins of Alliances
1660:Cornell University Press
1054:10.1017/cbo9781139225694
1002:10.1177/0022002712467936
807:The Washington Quarterly
390:10.1177/0022002719849676
359:
1599:Encyclopædia Britannica
1586:Phillips, Walter Alison
1457:Henry, Iain D. (2022).
1206:Henry, Iain D. (2020).
1094:The Journal of Politics
840:Zyla, Benjamin (2023),
718:10.1162/002081899550904
657:Powell, Robert (1994).
279:Triple Alliance of 1882
259:Triple Alliance of 1668
228:European historiography
60:) in Europe during the
1613:Elias, Barbara. 2020.
1397:International Security
1212:International Security
263:Grand Alliance of 1689
64:
45:
1706:Weitsman, Patricia A.
1539:. New York, NY:
295:Alexander I of Russia
51:
22:
1409:10.1162/ISEC_a_00107
1323:Kim, Tongfi (2011).
1225:10.1162/isec_a_00375
249:between the current
191:offensive neorealism
85:non-aggression pacts
349:Multinational force
267:Louis XIV of France
113:collective security
1738:Military alliances
1543:. pp. 73–95.
271:Treaty of Chaumont
214:Richard Zeckhauser
65:
46:
1718:Alliances and War
1672:Alliance Politics
1550:978-0-521-83671-5
1470:978-1-5017-6305-2
1063:978-1-107-02724-4
855:978-1-83910-339-1
788:10.7591/jj.130890
779:978-1-5017-7247-4
556:978-0-8047-4866-7
437:978-0-393-67510-8
311:Otto von Bismarck
163:political science
155:balances of power
77:national security
69:military alliance
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1553:. Archived from
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1581:public domain
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