324:
363:
3652:
3540:
2747:
2703:
2654:
388:
339:
3948:
Mähl, S. (2012). Low German texts from late medieval Sweden. In L. Elmevik and E. H. Jahr (eds), Contact between Low German and
Scandinavian in the Late Middle Ages: 25 Years of Research, Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi, 121. Uppsala: Kungl. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur. 113–22
2255:
was a fricative. Its exact articulation probably differed by dialect. Broadly, there seem to have been dialects that distinguished a voiced palatal and a voiced velar , depending on surrounding vowels (: word-initially before front vowels, word-internally after front vowels; in those positions, but
1270:
It has to be noted that it is not rare to find the same word in MLG affected by one of the following phonological processes in one text and unaffected by it in another text because the lack of a written standard, the dialectal variation and ongoing linguistic change during the Middle Low German (MLG)
4020:
Wenn Aken, Dessau, Köthen, Wittenberg, Walkenried, Eisleben, Merseburg, Halle mit ihren
Umgebungen heute mitteldeutsche Mundarten haben, so ist das erst das Ergebnis einer großen sprachlichen Umlagerung, sie haben mit ihrer niederdeutschen Vergangenheit gebrochen. Aber ganz können sie sie nicht
1000:
Beginning in the 15th century, Middle Low German fell out of favour compared to Early Modern High German, which was first used by elites as a written and, later, a spoken language. Reasons for this loss of prestige include the decline of the
Hanseatic League, followed by political heteronomy of
2786:
Lasch distinguished the following large dialect groups, emphasising that she based it strictly on the orthography, which may often omit strongly dialectal phenomena in favour of more prestigious/"standard" forms. Nevertheless, the dialect groups broadly correspond with modern ones.
367:
Der
Keyserliken Stadt Lübeck Christlike Ordeninge/ tho denste dem hilgen Evangelio/ Christliker leve/ tucht/ frede unde enicheyt/ vor de yöget yn eyner guden Schole tho lerende. Unde de Kercken denere und rechten armen Christlick tho vorsorgende. Dorch Jo. Bugen. Pom. beschreven.
1506:
appeared sporadically after consonants already in Old Saxon. Its use greatly increased in MLG, first at the end of a word, when it often marked the preceding vowel as long, but it later appears largely randomly. In very late times, the use of
1376:: A sound becoming more similar to a (usually) neighbouring sound, usually in place or manner of articulation, is very common across all languages. Early MLG did mark assimilation much more often in writing than later periods, e.g.
1932:
was voiced intervocalically as . Whether it was voiced word-initially is not fully clear. There seems to have been dialectal variation, with voiceless more likely for
Westphalian and voiced more likely for East Elbian dialects.
1779:
was originally an approximant but seems to have later shifted towards a fricative. Its exact articulation likely differed from dialect to dialect, and many of them merged word-internally with , an allophone of
3907:
Lexikologie. Ein internationales
Handbuch zur Natur und Struktur von Wörtern und Wortschätzen. 2. Halbband / Lexicology. An international handbook on the nature and structure of words and vocabularies. Volume
378:
at the service of the Holy Gospel of
Christian life, discipline, peace and unity, to teach the youth in a good school, and to provide Christianly for the church servants and the righteous poor. Written by
3662: with: several small samples with translations, preferably from different dialects and periods, to be taken e.g. from Lübben's (1882) chrestomathy (see links). Cf. also how it was done for
2292:. It did not indicate a different pronunciation but was part of an orthographic pattern seen in many other parts of Europe. Furthermore, in early western traditions of MLG, sometimes
1472:, were no longer pronounced as such. Instead, geminate spelling marks the preceding vowel as short. Many variants exist, like combinations of voiced and voiceless consonants (e.g.
1328:), some words had different sounds in different grammatical forms. In MLG, there were only fossilised remnants of the "grammatischer wechsel" (grammatical change), namely for
2605:
was. During the MLG era, it seems to have shifted to a "clear l" in many dialects and tended to be dropped in some usually unstressed words, especially in
Westphalian, e.g.,
2601:
was originally probably velarised, i.e. a "dark l" , at least in the coda, judging from its influence on surrounding vowels, but it was never extensively vocalised as Dutch
2927:
was usually written, though probably only spoken in the
Southwest. Lexically, strong connections with adjacent dialects further north (East Frisian and Oldenburgish), e.g.
1301:(with) might remain voiced before a vowel because they are perceived as one phonological unit with the following word. Also, as can already be seen in Old Saxon, lenited
1017:
The description is based on Lasch (1914) which continues to be the authoritative comprehensive grammar of the language but is not necessarily up-to-date in every detail.
2079:. The palatalisation, perhaps as or , persisted until the High Middle Ages but was later mostly reversed. Thus, for instance, the old affricate in the Slavic placename
950:) for an emergent spoken and written standard, but more recent work has established that there is no evidence for this and that Middle Low German was non-standardised.
1424:(garlic). Both forms frequently co-existed. The complete loss of a sound in proximity to an identical sound can also be explained in such a way, e.g. the loss of
792:), even if native speakers of Low German were mostly confined to the cities where they formed colonies of merchants and craftsmen. It was an official language of
602:('Eastlings'). This appellation was later expanded to other German Hanseatic cities and it was a general name for Hanseatic merchants in the Netherlands, e.g. in
683:
is today usually excluded from MLG (although very closely related), it is sometimes, especially in older literature, included in MLG, which then encompasses the
534:
2256:
with back vowels), and dialects that always used word-initially and word-internally (Eastphalian, Brandenburgian, e.g. word-internally after a back vowel:
4662:
3715:
6085:
1961:
is difficult to determine because of the extremely irregular orthography. Its status likely differed between the dialects, with early MLG having
483:(the Saxon language). In contrast to Latin as the primary written language, speakers also referred to discourse in Saxon as speaking/writing
5037:
4115:
354:
Translation: "All the world's magnificence is like a flower that grows today and vanishes tomorrow; the Lord's word remains in eternity." (
3208:(early times). The area within the Elbe's drainage was established by colonisation and is in many ways special. The southern part of this
4835:
2634:) to help the modern reader, but original MLG texts marked vowel length not by accents but by doubling vowels, by adding a lengthening
1266:
Round brackets indicate phonemes that do not have phoneme status in the whole language area or are marginal in the phonological system.
17:
1926:(that, the (neut.)), the change also happened very early. The changes happened earliest in Westphalian and latest in North Low Saxon.
6075:
3378:. A colonial dialect strongly influenced by settlers speaking Low Franconian. Also strongly influenced by High German early on.
1763:) is used in modern dictionaries, in grammars and in this article simply for better readability. Thus, in the manuscripts, e.g.
1484:
Sundays). Late MLG tended to use clusters of similar consonants after short as well as long vowels for no apparent reason, e.g.
3968:
4082:
3550: with: overview of writings in MLG, e.g. Bible translations and other religious/spiritual literature, legal texts (e.g.
957:
to languages spoken around the Baltic Sea as a result of the activities of
Hanseatic traders. Its traces can be seen in the
4652:
3120:. While the Eastern dialects are today clearly distinguished from the West by their uniform present plural verb ending in
5564:
3933:
3760:
1747:
It has to be noted that in MLG (like in other medieval) texts, there is usually no clear graphic distinction between
3614:
3146:, due to the diverse regional origins of its chivalric elite, therefore MLG written culture was neglected early on.
846:. The language border then ran eastwards across the plain of the middle Elbe until it met the (then more extensive)
4108:
665:) seems to have been introduced later on by High German speakers and at first applied especially to Netherlanders.
626:
2587:
was likely an alveolar trill or flap , like in most traditional Low German dialects until recently. Post-vocalic
1230:
4077:
3618:
3587:
352:
Alle der warlde herlicheyt is alse ene blome de huete wasset un morge vorgheit. Des here wort blift y ewicheit.
874:
rivers, Low German began to retreat in favour of High German dialects already during Late Medieval times (cf.
5931:
4090:. Still under construction, but the website contains a very concise sketch of MLG grammar also based on Lasch
4055:
2969:
in the East. Its orthographic habits come closest to what was traditionally perceived as a MLG standard (the
3635:
2049:
before front vowels is strongly palatalised in Old Saxon (note the similar situation in the closely related
471:(MLG) is a scholarly term developed in hindsight, speakers in their time referred to the language mainly as
5961:
5131:
5093:
5078:
3726:
3405:
1601:
439:
period (from about 1300 to about 1600), Middle Low German was the leading written language in the north of
4405:
3401:
3297:
3293:
3265:
3261:
2981:
2977:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2872:
2868:
2602:
2598:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2557:
2553:
2501:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2466:
2452:
2444:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2383:
2361:
2345:
2321:
2312:
2304:
2297:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2252:
2228:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2172:
2162:
2122:
2046:
2027:
2019:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1937:
1929:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1852:
1848:
1835:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1792:
1781:
1776:
1672:
1668:
1660:
1629:
1597:
1582:
1572:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1549:
1541:
1526:
1522:
1449:
1445:
1425:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1349:
1345:
1333:
1329:
1302:
1238:
1217:
1209:
1204:
1192:
1187:
1177:
1170:
1164:
1139:
1119:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1073:
1068:
6080:
5941:
5801:
5151:
5110:
5100:
4101:
3667:
3567:
3143:
2762:
2718:
2669:
4317:
2626:
Modern renderings of MLG (like this article) often use circumflex or macron to mark vowel length (e.g.
402:
is an allegorical epic that was popular in medieval Europe. This is from the 1498 edition published in
714:
language of the preceding period, due to expansion to the East and, to a lesser degree, to the North.
6070:
5658:
1619:(geese) was quite common. Non-shifted forms have been common in the more innovative Eastern dialects.
880:
whose name is Low German but whose inhabitants already spoke mostly/exclusively High German when the
2273:
became a dorsal fricative (palatal or velar , depending on the preceding sound), thus merging with
6065:
5936:
5890:
5885:
5809:
5419:
5403:
5282:
5141:
5032:
5027:
2336:
word-initially as a stop is likely a comparatively recent innovation under High German influence.
2022:
is at best a marginal role as a phoneme and appears in loans or develops because of compounding or
1440:
1372:
958:
312:
4072:
3362:): Roughly between the middle Elbe and the middle Oder, and along the middle Havel, bordering old
5875:
5819:
5814:
5734:
5407:
5357:
4657:
4475:
4231:
4159:
4147:
2098:
1609:
1310:
530:
245:
170:
160:
5997:
5717:
5115:
3563:
3130:), in MLG times, both endings competed against each other in West and East. Main towns: Lübeck,
1511:
directly after the vowel is sometimes adopted from Modern High German as a sign of vowel length.
5880:
5362:
5328:
4946:
4762:
4622:
4462:
4357:
1041:
1002:
781:
558:
355:
230:
3629:
3623:
6038:
6002:
5270:
5263:
5215:
4985:
4956:
4925:
4888:
4813:
4570:
4483:
4344:
4306:
2939:. Westphalian was and is often thought to be altogether the most conservative dialect group.
2849:) belonged to this group. Dutch influence on them strongly increased since the 15th century.
2093:. A few words and placenames completely palatalised and shifted their velar into a sibilant (
1320:
1199:
676:
638:
630:
139:
5503:
4378:
3663:
6007:
5987:
5956:
5829:
5689:
5435:
5253:
4845:
4672:
4634:
4629:
4503:
4450:
4208:
4021:
verleugnen, einige Reste sind auch im Bereich der Lautverschiebung unangetastet geblieben.
2534:
2332:"pennies". In contrast to modern varieties, it remained audible after a nasal. Pronouncing
881:
801:
691:
570:
215:
5663:
1001:
Northern Germany and the cultural predominance of Central and Southern Germany during the
8:
6060:
5946:
5182:
5136:
5070:
4823:
4470:
4383:
4181:
3483:
2004:. Orthographic variants and some modern dialects seem to point to a more retracted, more
1469:
1159:
1130:
562:
380:
220:
5493:
5338:
4585:
4063:
4036:
5992:
5916:
5844:
5834:
5789:
5551:
5478:
5375:
5220:
5195:
5190:
5083:
4911:
4796:
4617:
4395:
4390:
4369:
4330:
4134:
4124:
3205:
3030:
substrate. As can be expected, there is much Westphalian, Dutch and Frisian influence (
1648:
ebb, low tide). Its allophones in other cases are word-internal and word-final (e.g.
1036:
990:
827:. In earlier times, these were sometimes included in the modern definition of MLG (cf.
695:
672:
225:
175:
165:
103:
91:
5146:
1671:, see above), otherwise between short vowels and nasals/liquids (also from historical
304:
5966:
5765:
5681:
5674:
5629:
5573:
5333:
5323:
5306:
5301:
5205:
5088:
4967:
4767:
4728:
4708:
4438:
4420:
4272:
3964:
3929:
3756:
3027:
1604:), but there were many exceptions and restorations through analogy: the shifted form
1293:(gift). The change took place early in MLG but is not always represented in writing.
1056:
1046:
982:
855:
847:
761:
747:
tribes. Some pockets of these native peoples persisted for quite some time, e.g. the
684:
4045:
2758:
2714:
2665:
2353:
1600:
had been deleted in certain coda positions several centuries earlier (the so-called
1581:(we have), cf. Modern Dutch for a similar process. Similarly, it often dropped from
671:
is a modern term used with varying degrees of inclusivity. It is distinguished from
5921:
5712:
5646:
5602:
5597:
5557:
5546:
5538:
5343:
5311:
5258:
5247:
5160:
4869:
4808:
4598:
4580:
4415:
4176:
4168:
4040:
2519:
was used for other purposes than its actual sound value: to mark vowel length (see
2500:(bright, famous). In unstressed syllables, it could also occur between a vowel and
1031:
994:
986:
974:
966:
962:
929:
688:
583:
436:
375:
329:
5758:
5951:
5911:
5744:
5651:
5634:
5619:
5614:
5607:
5316:
5225:
5210:
5165:
5017:
4980:
4972:
4951:
4938:
4918:
4904:
4667:
4644:
4575:
4565:
4557:
4337:
3509:
3457:
3355:
3343:
3227:
3213:
3177:
3153:
2946:
2794:
2209:
1325:
1281:
1051:
978:
970:
777:
634:
566:
501:
395:
152:
4037:
A grammar and chrestomathy of Middle Low German by Heinrich August Lübben (1882)
3443:
3437:
2855:: In the West, strong influence from Low Franconian orthographic patterns (e.g.
2556:
was a palatal approximant and remained separate from , the palatal allophone of
323:
6032:
5926:
5906:
5858:
5750:
5624:
5294:
5061:
5000:
4779:
4736:
4693:
4610:
4605:
4494:
4444:
4295:
4246:
4201:
4194:
3594:
3517:
3371:
2954:
2802:
2240:
2008:-like pronunciation (perhaps ), especially if there was no need to distinguish
1091:
854:
that separated it from High German. The border was never a sharp one, rather a
820:
797:
749:
744:
740:
526:
506:
448:
440:
431:
362:
343:
256:
143:
83:
656:
remained the most widespread term within MLG. The equivalent of 'Low German' (
6054:
5982:
5824:
5580:
5531:
5348:
5287:
5200:
5105:
5043:
4990:
4874:
4801:
4058:: A Middle Low German to German dictionary by Schiller/Lübben (1875–1881) at
1388:
925:
851:
657:
444:
3554:, Hanseatic documents), chronicles/histories, popular tales/chapbooks (e.g.
510:
5851:
5275:
5239:
5172:
4995:
4818:
4791:
4774:
4718:
4677:
4259:
4238:
4049:
3189:
2966:
2075:
2062:
1006:
824:
764:-speaking areas along the North Sea diminished in favour of Saxon, esp. in
680:
522:
263:
5498:
3197:
2984:
in open syllables are stretched into a -like vowel. The personal suffixes
2834:
515:
288:
5668:
5641:
5459:
5367:
5049:
5010:
4593:
4288:
4252:
4187:
3448:. In East Anhaltish, distinction of dative and accusative pronouns (e.g.
3109:
3105:
3097:
2838:
2642:, by doubling the following consonants (after short vowels) or by adding
2369:
2133:(after historically short vowels and consonants) continued to be written
2050:
1684:
835:
816:
793:
765:
736:
728:
724:
723:(settlement of the East) in the 12th to 14th century and came to include
719:
647:
496:
426:
407:
95:
5513:
3928:] (in German) (9th ed.). München: C.H. Beck Verlag. p. 7.
3651:
3539:
3239:
3125:
3078:
2934:
2928:
2746:
2702:
2653:
2612:
2606:
2528:
2495:
2460:
2386:
was often epenthetised between a stressed and an unstressed vowel, e.g.
2339:
2257:
1695:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1468:: In MLG, geminate consonants, which came into being by assimilation or
641:
387:
5508:
5488:
4853:
4523:
4224:
3185:
2846:
2842:
2288:
or word-finally but began to spread to other positions, notably before
2066:
2023:
1464:
1063:
937:
876:
768:
which largely switched to MLG since the mid-14th century. North of the
754:
587:
542:
418:
135:
2818:
1444:: Some sounds tended to switch their places, especially the "liquids"
338:
5694:
5442:
5005:
4786:
4741:
4713:
4539:
4093:
3201:
3139:
3101:
2962:
2830:
2822:
2523:-spelling under "General Notes" above), to "strengthen" short words (
2364:
was frequently dropped between sonorants (except after nasals), e.g.
2053:) and at least some of early MLG, as can be seen from spellings like
1294:
1260:
933:
843:
808:
732:
711:
541:"of the people"; 'popular, vernacular') which could also be used for
452:
422:
406:, one of the major Hanseatic cities. The typeface is typical for the
297:
281:
202:
5518:
4087:
3963:(in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Edition. pp. 30–31.
3093:
2089:
941:
403:
371:
5483:
4831:
3332:). Lexically, close connections with Nordalbingian. Unusual plural
3181:
2871:). The "breaking" of old short vowels in open syllables and before
2826:
2416:
in the onset was a glottal fricative , and it merged with historic
1585:-clusters after unstressed vowels, especially in Westphalian, e.g.
954:
773:
717:
In the East, the MLG-speaking area expanded greatly as part of the
699:
4059:
1575:
often dropped out in unstressed position before consonants, e.g.,
944:
was dominant enough to become a normative standard (the so-called
545:
if the context was clear. Compare also the modern colloquial term
5524:
5120:
5022:
4078:
A Middle Low German to German dictionary by Gerhard Köbler (2010)
4068:
3604:
3424:, similar to High German. The past participle retains the prefix
3173:
3135:
3113:
3070:
2239:
can be seen a sign of lengthening of the preceding vowel, not of
785:
637:
to the south. It became dominant in the High German dialects (as
267:
123:
107:
87:
2713: with: description of the nominal system, possibly based on
2061:(child) and the variation of placename spellings, especially in
1940:(for example in loans from Romance or Slavic) was often written
858:. The modern convention is to use the pronunciation of northern
4827:
3436:('to show'); instead of them, forms close to High German, i.e.
3375:
3367:
3220:) area switched to High German already in Late Medieval times.
3193:
3131:
3074:
2757: with: description of the verbal system, possibly based on
2087:
could be reinterpreted as a velar stop, giving the modern name
812:
613:
603:
489:, i.e. 'clearly, intelligibly'. This contains the same root as
347:
119:
115:
111:
99:
4016:
Sprache und Geschichte an der mittleren Elbe und unteren Saale
3894:
Sprache und Geschichte an der mittleren Elbe und unteren Saale
3892:
Bischoff, Karl (1967). "Der Anschluss an das Mitteldeutsche".
3753:
Handbuch zur niederdeutschen Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft
2664: with: description of the vowel system, possibly based on
1969:, and e.g. East Elbian and in general many later dialects had
866:('to make') for determining an exact border. Along the middle
4745:
3961:
Die niederdeutsche Sprachgeschichte und das Deutsch von heute
3363:
3264:
is rarely marked as such, contrary to other dialects. Before
3161:
3058:
3023:
2814:
2810:
2106:
977:. It is considered the largest single source of loanwords in
871:
839:
2033:
In writing, it was often marked by copious clustering, e.g.
1965:(Westphalian keeping it until modern times) and no phonemic
1285:: Voiced obstruents in the syllable coda are devoiced, e.g.
3169:
3165:
3082:
3066:
3062:
2424:
after consonant or long vowel was frequently dropped, e.g.
2262:
867:
769:
456:
1795:
was kept strictly separate from at first, but the use of
4083:
Middle Low German influence on the Scandinavian languages
2432:(high). In a compound or phrase, it often became silent (
3608:
2961:): Spoken in a long stretch of coastal regions from the
1305:
is devoiced to before syllabic nasals or liquids, e.g.
447:
in the northern half of Europe. It was used parallel to
429:
and has been documented in writing since about 1225/34 (
3276:
are frequently interchanged for each other. Unstressed
1576:
651:
620:
607:
597:
591:
577:
490:
484:
478:
472:
2406:. In Westphalian, this sound could harden into , e.g.
3412:'goose'. Present plural of verbs features the suffix
788:. MLG exerted a huge influence upon Scandinavia (cf.
3878:
The following section based on Agathe Lasch (1914):
3304:). The past participle's prefix was commonly spoken
2129:
small), which later became rarer. However, geminate
1636:
flower, bloom), at the onset of stressed syllables (
582:(lit. 'East-ish') which was at first applied to the
3328:. Unusually, there is also a dative pronoun (1.sg.
3065:, and also Holstein on the right bank of the lower
1855:tended to drop out between unstressed vowels, e.g.
1755:. The distinction between both (consonant value as
675:, spoken to the south, which was later replaced by
328:Northern Europe in 1400, showing the extent of the
3852:The Northern Lands: Germanic Europe, c.1270–c.1500
3180:forms something of a natural border. Main cities:
1324:: Because of sound changes in Proto-Germanic (cf.
138:; gradually superseded as an official language by
3012:(2.pl.) are used for both dative and accusative.
2809:): Broadly speaking, the area between the middle
1914:, it was the case already in late Old Saxon. For
392:Eyne vorrede ouer dyt boek van reynken deme vosse
6052:
3503:
3497:
3491:
710:Middle Low German covered a wider area than the
896:Early Middle Low German (Standard High German:
838:dialects roughly along the northern borders of
590:(the 'East Sea'), their territory being called
3292:). The modal verb for 'shall/should' features
2567:before front vowels and was not confused with
1830:brother-in-law) but later mostly shifted to a
1667:father), word-finally (merged with historical
4109:
3316:('I' (pron. 1.sg.)) competed with "standard"
3312:under prescriptive influence. The local form
3176:region. In the north, the sparsely populated
2265:). Nevertheless, was kept separate from old
2016:. This is consistent with modern Westphalian.
1720:would be too similar graphically) and before
1712:as mentioned earlier and sporadically before
953:Middle Low German provided a large number of
940:. It used to be thought that the language of
753:along the lower Elbe until about 1700 or the
629:') gained ground, contrasting Saxon with the
3896:(in German). Köln: Böhlau. pp. 219–280.
2284:was at first used almost exclusively before
1012:
945:
915:
906:
897:
660:
552:
546:
3958:
3854:. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 180–198.
2311:because it completely merged with historic
2200:, e.g. in the frequent derivational suffix
1548:whether or not it developed from Old Saxon
823:dialects whose written language was mainly
538:
4116:
4102:
4018:(in German). Köln: Böhlau. p. 236 f.
3750:
3142:. High German influence was strong in the
322:
3366:territory to the Southeast. Main cities:
2490:(a first name) with the common component
784:, although the whole region was ruled by
757:of Eastern Pomerania up to modern times.
6086:Languages attested from the 12th century
4013:
4003:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. pp. 12–20.
3891:
2465:and the like because of its merger with
386:
361:
337:
3919:
3566:might be a good basis. You can help by
3392:were diphthongised into and , written
3244:'Saxon, Low German') and shifting also
3160:): Roughly the area east of the middle
2915:). The native present plural verbs was
1700:in the coda. Exceptions include loans (
1518:(Indented notes refer to orthography.)
796:, whose population consisted mostly of
646:, which could also refer to the modern
14:
6053:
4123:
3820:
3790:
3751:Cordes, Gerhard; Möhn, Dieter (1983).
3015:Three subgroups can be distinguished:
2300:in all positions, even word-initially.
2155:otherwise appeared often after nasal (
1663:usually appeared word-initially (e.g.
1644:barber) and (historically) geminated (
1624:Specific notes on stops and fricatives
1392:: In MLG, it frequently happened with
892:Sub-periods of Middle Low German are:
394:, i.e. "A prologue about this book of
98:, Northwestern/North-central (modern)
5787:
5401:
4145:
4097:
4046:A grammar of Middle Low German (1914)
3998:
3983:
3863:
3835:
3821:Köbler, Gerhard (2014). "ōsterisch".
3805:
3775:
3755:. Erich Schmidt Verlag. p. 119.
3699:
3230:is more productive, occurring before
3026:, in the North including dialects on
2919:but the written norm often impressed
2591:sometimes dropped, especially before
1632:as a stop is always word-initially (
342:A Middle Low German inscription on a
134:13th to 16th centuries; evolved into
4052:(in German), at the Internet Archive
3791:Köbler, Gerhard (2014). "düde (1)".
3646:
3534:
3320:; in a similar way the oblique form
2837:. Some Saxon dialects in the modern
2741:
2697:
2648:
2420:in the coda (see above). Word-final
1936:Because of the variation, voiceless
4678:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
3926:Middle High German: An introduction
3868:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 1.
3840:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 6.
3810:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 5.
3780:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 5.
3704:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer. p. 5.
3617:in Low German as catalogued in the
3022:, i.e. the areas west of the lower
2923:. Similarly, the participle prefix
1818:were originally often written with
739:, which were hitherto dominated by
702:in the West to the eastern Baltic.
24:
6037:Languages between parentheses are
5402:
3922:Mittelhochdeutsch: eine Einführung
2875:was often marked in writing (e.g.
1863:, and in word-final clusters like
819:, MLG bordered on closely related
25:
6097:
4030:
3096:and the areas further east, like
2899:(sometimes reversed in writing);
2527:to go), to mark a vocalic onset (
2000:is the manner of articulation of
1007:Luther's translation of the Bible
596:('East-land'), their inhabitants
27:Developmental stage of Low German
3910:Walter de Gruyter, 2005, p. 1180
3882:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer, p. 1-2.
3823:Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch
3793:Mittelniederdeutsches Wörterbuch
3650:
3538:
3108:(Prignitz, Uckermark, Altmark),
2745:
2701:
2652:
2646:after the following consonants.
2320:After nasals and as a geminate,
2220:(him-/her-/itself, themselves).
1452:. Both forms may co-exist, e.g.
4007:
3992:
3977:
3952:
3942:
3913:
3900:
3885:
3872:
3857:
3844:
3642:
3168:mountains, reaching the middle
3164:, north and partly west of the
908:klassisches Mittelniederdeutsch
850:-speaking area along the upper
533:
6076:History of the German language
6041:of the language on their left.
4001:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3986:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3880:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3866:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3838:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3829:
3814:
3808:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3799:
3784:
3778:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3769:
3744:
3708:
3702:Mittelniederdeutsche Grammatik
3693:
3619:Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke
3588:Bible translations into German
3477:
3416:. Lack of negative determiner
3260:'place'). Diphthongised short
2548:Specific notes on approximants
2478:= frequently dropped between
2227:was used for a syllable-final
2188:Furthermore, after unstressed
1560:assimilated to before velars
834:In the South, MLG bordered on
619:In the 16th century, the term
462:
13:
1:
5932:Germanic substrate hypothesis
5788:
3725:. p. 219. Archived from
3686:
3530:
3020:East Frisian and Oldenburgish
2688:
2402:(lady, woman) < Old Saxon
1996:Connected with the status of
1922:and some frequent words like
1360:(to take hold, to catch) but
1020:
905:Classical Middle Low German (
370:, i.e. "The Imperial City of
5962:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
4653:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
3959:Stellmacher, Dieter (2017).
3444:
3438:
1906:in the early MLG era. After
1602:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
1228:
1197:
1157:
1128:
1089:
1061:
417:is a developmental stage of
7:
5942:High German consonant shift
3621:, including the Low German
3615:Low German Incunable prints
3470:
2781:
2208:friendly (infl.)) or, with
1615:) with an unshifted plural
1525:had a tendency to shift to
772:, MLG advanced slowly into
569:in contrast to the written
10:
6102:
4480:Westlauwers–Terschellings
4133:According to contemporary
3284:) frequently changes into
2863:as a sign of length, like
2324:appeared as a stop , e.g.
2117:Early MLG frequently used
924:Middle Low German was the
920:): 1500–1600, or 1530–1650
911:): 1350–1500, or 1370–1530
902:): 1200–1350, or 1200–1370
887:
557:'plain, simple') denoting
18:Middle Low German language
6024:
5975:
5899:
5868:
5800:
5796:
5783:
5732:
5705:
5659:Southern Schleswig Danish
5590:
5471:
5427:
5418:
5414:
5397:
5238:
5181:
5069:
5060:
4965:
4937:
4896:
4887:
4862:
4844:
4755:
4727:
4701:
4692:
4643:
4556:
4531:
4522:
4461:
4356:
4305:
4280:
4271:
4167:
4158:
4154:
4141:
4131:
3920:Weddige, Hilkert (2015).
3723:The Linguasphere Register
3420:('no' (attr.)), instead:
3404:is restored, contrary to
3124:(against Western uniform
2933:('Wednesday') instead of
2621:
2179:, under Latin influence (
2169:, especially in the West.
1679:fork) and in loans (e.g.
1259:Square brackets indicate
1013:Phonology and orthography
705:
576:Another medieval term is
350:, Lower Saxony, Germany:
321:
311:
295:
279:
274:
253:
209:
195:
149:
130:
78:
74:; since the 16th century)
58:
37:
32:
5937:West Germanic gemination
5891:Ancient Belgian language
5886:Germanic parent language
5830:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
4952:Austrian Standard German
4146:
4088:Middle Low German corpus
3988:. Halle/Saale: Niemeyer.
3406:Ingvaeonic sound changes
2394:(to sew) < Old Saxon
2269:. In the coda position,
1799:later also expanded to .
1516:Specific notes on nasals
1368:(taken hold of, caught).
1344:((they) chose), and for
932:, spoken all around the
914:Late Middle Low German (
421:. It developed from the
4064:at the Internet Archive
4014:Bischoff, Karl (1967).
3504:
3498:
3492:
3487:
3324:('me') with "standard"
3240:
3126:
2935:
2929:
2737:
2693:
2613:
2607:
2529:
2496:
2461:
2340:
2258:
2026:. Note the palatalised
1977:. If there is phonemic
1957:The phonemic status of
1696:
1694:in the syllable onset,
1577:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
917:Spätmittelniederdeutsch
899:Frühmittelniederdeutsch
652:
642:
621:
608:
598:
592:
578:
491:
485:
479:
473:
106:, also sporadically in
5998:Preterite-present verb
5881:Proto-Germanic grammar
5835:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
4947:German Standard German
4623:East Frisian Low Saxon
3999:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3984:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3864:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3836:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3806:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3776:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3700:Lasch, Agathe (1914).
3521:
3513:
3340:(South) Brandenburgish
3172:, but leaving out the
2973:, nowadays disputed).
2895:frequently shifted to
2533:our (infl.)) or vowel
2455:= was mostly written
1894:Remnants of Old Saxon
1834:-spelling, except for
1704:), some proper names (
1690:It was mostly written
1003:Protestant Reformation
946:
916:
907:
898:
661:
553:
547:
509:
500:
411:
384:
383:the Pomeranian, 1531."
359:
142:and (in the far West)
68:nedderlendische sprâke
6003:Grammatischer Wechsel
4986:Namibian Black German
4957:Swiss Standard German
4926:Early New High German
4484:Mainland West Frisian
4345:Harlingerland Frisian
4071:, including texts in
3348:(Süd-)Brandenburgisch
2976:Some features: Short
2563:It was often spelled
2508:(not) < Old Saxon
2097:beetle, chafer, from
1842:from Latin influence.
1544:is sometimes spelled
1321:Grammatischer Wechsel
811:, the forests of the
677:Early New High German
606:where they had their
451:also for purposes of
410:used in MLG printing.
390:
365:
341:
72:nederlendesche sprake
6008:Indo-European ablaut
5988:Germanic strong verb
5957:Germanic spirant law
5094:Southeast Limburgish
4590:Gelders-Overijssels
4219:Irish Middle English
4209:Early Modern English
4039:(in German), at the
3400:. Old Germanic coda
3057:, between the lower
2891:was hardened into ;
2575:was sometimes used (
2175:usually appeared as
1981:, it often replaces
1859:(either) instead of
971:Standard High German
807:In the West, at the
692:Continental Germanic
625:(lit. 'Lowland-ish,
523:contemporary version
126:(confined to cities)
5976:Synchronic features
5947:Germanic a-mutation
5900:Diachronic features
5250:in the broad sense
5183:East Central German
5137:Lorraine Franconian
5111:Transylvanian Saxon
5071:West Central German
4846:East Low Franconian
4756:West Low Franconian
3850:D. Nicholas, 2009.
3564:This digitised book
3514:Mittelniederdeutsch
3308:but mostly written
2959:Noord-Nedersaksisch
2951:Nordniedersächsisch
2348:in older MLG, e.g.
2307:was mostly spelled
2196:often changed into
2141:bell), more rarely
1759:, vocalic value as
1537:(the (dat.sg.m.)).
1456:vs. (metathesised)
480:de sassische sprâke
381:Johannes Bugenhagen
376:Christian Ordinance
344:half-timbered house
6081:Medieval languages
5993:Germanic weak verb
5802:Language subgroups
5152:Pennsylvania Dutch
5101:Moselle Franconian
5079:Central Franconian
4912:Middle High German
4663:Central Pomeranian
4618:Northern Low Saxon
4331:Wangerooge Frisian
4125:Germanic languages
3666:. You can help by
3505:Middelneaderdüütsk
3499:Middelnedderdüüsch
3432:('to gather') and
3280:(as in the suffix
3038:'him'; plurals in
2761:. You can help by
2717:. You can help by
2668:. You can help by
2344:could be used for
2247:-spelling" below).
2165:was often written
2159:ring, (ice) rink).
1891:((he/she) writes).
1791:for word-internal
1529:in the coda, e.g.
760:In the North, the
673:Middle High German
412:
385:
360:
176:North Sea Germanic
104:Kaliningrad Oblast
6048:
6047:
6033:extinct languages
6020:
6019:
6016:
6015:
5967:Great Vowel Shift
5779:
5778:
5775:
5774:
5728:
5727:
5574:Greenlandic Norse
5393:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5324:Southern Bavarian
5307:Northern Bavarian
5283:Highest Alemannic
5234:
5233:
4968:standard variants
4883:
4882:
4729:Standard variants
4688:
4687:
4547:Middle Low German
4518:
4517:
4514:
4513:
4318:Saterland Frisian
4073:Middle Low German
3970:978-3-631-67548-9
3732:on 27 August 2014
3684:
3683:
3584:
3583:
2883:). Old geminated
2779:
2778:
2735:
2734:
2686:
2685:
1985:in clusters like
1952:etc. for clarity.
1683:to tighten, from
1256:
1255:
815:and close to the
694:dialects outside
685:dialect continuum
669:Middle Low German
469:Middle Low German
415:Middle Low German
336:
335:
181:Middle Low German
136:Modern Low German
92:Northern lowlands
70:(or unnormalised
62:(or unnormalised
33:Middle Low German
16:(Redirected from
6093:
6071:Hanseatic League
5825:Elbe (Irminonic)
5798:
5797:
5785:
5784:
5713:Mainland Gutnish
5603:Swedish dialects
5565:Middle Icelandic
5539:Middle Norwegian
5428:Historical forms
5425:
5424:
5416:
5415:
5399:
5398:
5358:South Franconian
5344:Hutterite German
5312:Central Bavarian
5132:Rhine Franconian
5067:
5066:
4897:Historical forms
4894:
4893:
4809:Surinamese Dutch
4702:Historical forms
4699:
4698:
4532:Historical forms
4529:
4528:
4281:Historical forms
4278:
4277:
4165:
4164:
4156:
4155:
4143:
4142:
4118:
4111:
4104:
4095:
4094:
4041:Internet Archive
4024:
4023:
4011:
4005:
4004:
3996:
3990:
3989:
3981:
3975:
3974:
3956:
3950:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3917:
3911:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3889:
3883:
3876:
3870:
3869:
3861:
3855:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3773:
3767:
3766:
3748:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3731:
3720:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3697:
3679:
3676:
3654:
3647:
3636:Paris und Vienne
3579:
3576:
3542:
3535:
3524:
3522:Middelnederduits
3507:
3501:
3495:
3481:
3447:
3441:
3403:
3299:
3295:
3267:
3263:
3243:
3210:Elbe Eastphalian
3129:
3116:. Very close to
2983:
2979:
2938:
2932:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2874:
2870:
2774:
2771:
2749:
2742:
2730:
2727:
2705:
2698:
2681:
2678:
2656:
2649:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2571:= . The variant
2559:
2555:
2532:
2503:
2499:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2446:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2385:
2363:
2352:for the town of
2347:
2343:
2323:
2314:
2306:
2299:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2254:
2235:also, too). The
2230:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2174:
2164:
2124:
2048:
2029:
2021:
2015:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1939:
1931:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1854:
1850:
1837:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1794:
1783:
1778:
1699:
1674:
1670:
1662:
1631:
1599:
1589:(annually) <
1584:
1580:
1574:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1551:
1543:
1528:
1524:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1451:
1447:
1427:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1351:
1347:
1340:(to choose) but
1335:
1331:
1304:
1240:
1219:
1211:
1206:
1194:
1189:
1179:
1172:
1166:
1141:
1121:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1075:
1070:
1025:
1024:
967:Baltic languages
949:
930:Hanseatic League
919:
910:
901:
664:
655:
645:
633:dialects in the
624:
611:
601:
595:
581:
556:
550:
540:
519:N(i)ederduytsche
494:
488:
482:
476:
443:and served as a
425:language in the
330:Hanseatic League
326:
307:
291:
284:
259:
155:
94:), Northeastern
86:, viz. Northern
60:sassesche sprâke
30:
29:
21:
6101:
6100:
6096:
6095:
6094:
6092:
6091:
6090:
6066:German dialects
6051:
6050:
6049:
6044:
6012:
5971:
5952:Germanic umlaut
5917:Holtzmann's law
5895:
5864:
5792:
5771:
5724:
5701:
5635:South Jutlandic
5620:Danish dialects
5586:
5467:
5410:
5381:
5363:East Franconian
5317:Viennese German
5230:
5211:Silesian German
5177:
5166:Central Hessian
5056:
4981:Namibian German
4970:
4961:
4939:Standard German
4933:
4919:New High German
4905:Old High German
4879:
4858:
4840:
4751:
4723:
4684:
4668:East Pomeranian
4658:Brandenburgisch
4645:East Low German
4639:
4566:Dutch Low Saxon
4558:West Low German
4552:
4510:
4476:Schiermonnikoog
4457:
4352:
4338:Wursten Frisian
4301:
4267:
4150:
4137:
4127:
4122:
4056:Schiller-Lübben
4033:
4028:
4027:
4012:
4008:
3997:
3993:
3982:
3978:
3971:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3918:
3914:
3905:
3901:
3890:
3886:
3877:
3873:
3862:
3858:
3849:
3845:
3834:
3830:
3825:(3rd ed.).
3819:
3815:
3804:
3800:
3795:(3rd ed.).
3789:
3785:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3749:
3745:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3718:
3714:
3713:
3709:
3698:
3694:
3689:
3680:
3674:
3671:
3660:needs expansion
3645:
3603:, a version of
3580:
3574:
3571:
3560:Dat Narrenschyp
3548:needs expansion
3533:
3528:
3527:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3178:Lunenburg Heath
3000:. The pronouns
2971:Lübeck standard
2965:in the West to
2943:North Low Saxon
2817:. Main cities:
2784:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2755:needs expansion
2740:
2731:
2725:
2722:
2711:needs expansion
2696:
2691:
2682:
2676:
2673:
2662:needs expansion
2624:
2541:(of the) lake).
2512:(not a thing).
2494:< Old Saxon
2210:final devoicing
2110:< Old Saxon
1432:(William) <
1282:Final devoicing
1023:
1015:
890:
708:
567:German dialects
465:
400:Reynard the Fox
396:Reynard the Fox
332:
303:
287:
280:
260:
255:
226:North Low Saxon
205:
198:
191:
156:
153:Language family
151:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6099:
6089:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6068:
6063:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6042:
6035:
6025:
6022:
6021:
6018:
6017:
6014:
6013:
6011:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5979:
5977:
5973:
5972:
5970:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5903:
5901:
5897:
5896:
5894:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5876:Proto-Germanic
5872:
5870:
5866:
5865:
5863:
5862:
5855:
5848:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5817:
5812:
5806:
5804:
5794:
5793:
5781:
5780:
5777:
5776:
5773:
5772:
5770:
5769:
5762:
5755:
5751:Crimean Gothic
5740:
5738:
5730:
5729:
5726:
5725:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5720:
5715:
5706:
5703:
5702:
5700:
5699:
5698:
5697:
5687:
5686:
5685:
5678:
5671:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5655:
5654:
5649:
5639:
5638:
5637:
5627:
5625:Insular Danish
5622:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5608:Rinkebysvenska
5605:
5594:
5592:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5577:
5570:
5569:
5568:
5561:
5549:
5544:
5543:
5542:
5535:
5528:
5522:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5475:
5473:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5464:
5463:
5456:
5454:Old East Norse
5451:
5449:Old West Norse
5439:
5431:
5429:
5422:
5412:
5411:
5395:
5394:
5391:
5390:
5387:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5380:
5379:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5360:
5355:
5354:
5353:
5352:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5329:South Tyrolean
5321:
5320:
5319:
5309:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5292:
5291:
5290:
5280:
5279:
5278:
5271:High Alemannic
5268:
5267:
5266:
5261:
5244:
5242:
5236:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5229:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5187:
5185:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5175:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5158:
5157:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5149:
5139:
5129:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5125:
5124:
5123:
5113:
5108:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5091:
5075:
5073:
5064:
5062:Central German
5058:
5057:
5055:
5054:
5053:
5052:
5047:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5020:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5003:
5001:Barossa German
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4977:
4975:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4943:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4915:
4908:
4900:
4898:
4891:
4885:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4877:
4872:
4866:
4864:
4860:
4859:
4857:
4856:
4850:
4848:
4842:
4841:
4839:
4838:
4821:
4816:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4780:French Flemish
4772:
4771:
4770:
4759:
4757:
4753:
4752:
4750:
4749:
4739:
4733:
4731:
4725:
4724:
4722:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4705:
4703:
4696:
4694:Low Franconian
4690:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4680:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4649:
4647:
4641:
4640:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4626:
4625:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4596:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4562:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4550:
4543:
4535:
4533:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4506:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4497:
4495:Westereendersk
4489:
4478:
4473:
4467:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4448:
4441:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4429:
4426:
4418:
4413:
4412:
4411:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4373:
4362:
4360:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4348:
4341:
4334:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4311:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4299:
4296:Middle Frisian
4292:
4284:
4282:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4256:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4235:
4228:
4216:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4202:Modern English
4198:
4195:Middle English
4191:
4184:
4173:
4171:
4162:
4152:
4151:
4139:
4138:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4121:
4120:
4113:
4106:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4066:
4053:
4043:
4032:
4031:External links
4029:
4026:
4025:
4006:
3991:
3976:
3969:
3951:
3941:
3934:
3912:
3899:
3884:
3871:
3856:
3843:
3828:
3813:
3798:
3783:
3768:
3761:
3743:
3707:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3664:Middle English
3657:
3655:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3633:and the novel
3612:
3598:
3595:Sachsenspiegel
3590:
3582:
3581:
3552:Sachsenspiegel
3545:
3543:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3525:
3493:Middelsassisch
3475:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3372:Frankfurt/Oder
3352:East Anhaltish
3144:Teutonic Order
3069:. main towns:
3061:and the lower
2887:and sometimes
2783:
2780:
2777:
2776:
2752:
2750:
2739:
2736:
2733:
2732:
2708:
2706:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2659:
2657:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2596:
2582:
2581:
2580:
2545:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2411:
2381:
2372:, mayor) <
2359:
2358:
2357:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2301:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2241:spirantisation
2186:
2185:
2184:
2170:
2160:
2150:
2104:; the city of
2071:Tzellingehusen
2044:
2043:
2042:
2030:(next point).
2017:
1994:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1927:
1892:
1883:(law, right),
1845:
1844:
1843:
1800:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1745:
1708:), cases like
1657:
1652:to drive, vs.
1621:
1620:
1594:
1569:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1513:
1512:
1497:
1461:
1437:
1385:
1369:
1317:
1289:(to give) but
1268:
1267:
1264:
1254:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1236:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1215:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1103:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1022:
1019:
1014:
1011:
922:
921:
912:
903:
889:
886:
821:Low Franconian
707:
704:
622:nedderlendisch
586:cities of the
531:Proto-Germanic
527:Dutch language
495:'German' (cf.
464:
461:
449:medieval Latin
441:Central Europe
435:). During the
432:Sachsenspiegel
334:
333:
327:
319:
318:
315:
309:
308:
301:
293:
292:
285:
277:
276:
275:Language codes
272:
271:
261:
257:Writing system
254:
251:
250:
249:
248:
246:Brandenburgish
243:
223:
218:
211:
207:
206:
201:
199:
196:
193:
192:
190:
189:
188:
187:
186:
185:
184:
183:
159:
157:
150:
147:
146:
132:
128:
127:
84:Central Europe
80:
76:
75:
64:sassche sprake
56:
55:
49:Nedderlendisch
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6098:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6058:
6056:
6040:
6036:
6034:
6030:
6027:
6026:
6023:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5983:Germanic verb
5981:
5980:
5978:
5974:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5945:
5943:
5940:
5938:
5935:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5925:
5923:
5922:Sievers's law
5920:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5910:
5908:
5905:
5904:
5902:
5898:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:Reconstructed
5867:
5861:
5860:
5856:
5854:
5853:
5849:
5847:
5846:
5842:
5841:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5822:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5786:
5782:
5768:
5767:
5763:
5761:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5752:
5747:
5746:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5737:
5736:
5731:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5708:
5707:
5704:
5696:
5693:
5692:
5691:
5688:
5684:
5683:
5682:Middle Danish
5679:
5677:
5676:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5665:
5662:
5660:
5657:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5644:
5643:
5640:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5616:
5613:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5589:
5583:
5582:
5578:
5576:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5566:
5562:
5560:
5559:
5558:Old Icelandic
5555:
5554:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5541:
5540:
5536:
5534:
5533:
5532:Old Norwegian
5529:
5526:
5523:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5481:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5470:
5462:
5461:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5446:
5445:
5444:
5440:
5438:
5437:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5400:
5396:
5378:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5366:
5365:
5364:
5361:
5359:
5356:
5350:
5349:Gottscheerish
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5325:
5322:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5300:
5296:
5293:
5289:
5288:Walser German
5286:
5285:
5284:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5269:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5256:
5255:
5254:Low Alemannic
5252:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5245:
5243:
5241:
5237:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5216:High Prussian
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5201:Erzgebirgisch
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5186:
5184:
5180:
5174:
5171:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5162:
5159:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5144:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5134:
5133:
5130:
5122:
5119:
5118:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5106:Luxembourgish
5104:
5103:
5102:
5099:
5095:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5086:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5059:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5045:
5044:Klezmer-loshn
5041:
5039:
5038:Scots Yiddish
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5012:
5009:
5008:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4978:
4976:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4942:
4940:
4936:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4922:
4921:
4920:
4916:
4914:
4913:
4909:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4886:
4876:
4875:Meuse-Rhenish
4873:
4871:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4843:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4803:
4802:Kleverlandish
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4769:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4763:Central Dutch
4761:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4747:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4691:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4642:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4571:Stellingwarfs
4569:
4568:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4559:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4537:
4536:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4521:
4505:
4502:
4496:
4493:
4492:
4491:Wood Frisian
4490:
4487:
4486:
4485:
4482:
4481:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4423:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4409:
4408:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4371:
4367:
4366:
4364:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4358:North Frisian
4355:
4347:
4346:
4342:
4340:
4339:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4323:
4319:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4304:
4298:
4297:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4270:
4262:
4261:
4257:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4241:
4240:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4229:
4227:
4226:
4222:
4221:
4220:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4206:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4178:
4175:
4174:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4160:Anglo-Frisian
4157:
4153:
4149:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4114:
4112:
4107:
4105:
4100:
4099:
4096:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4070:
4069:Project TITUS
4067:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4054:
4051:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4035:
4034:
4022:
4017:
4010:
4002:
3995:
3987:
3980:
3972:
3966:
3962:
3955:
3945:
3937:
3935:9783406684388
3931:
3927:
3923:
3916:
3909:
3903:
3895:
3888:
3881:
3875:
3867:
3860:
3853:
3847:
3839:
3832:
3824:
3817:
3809:
3802:
3794:
3787:
3779:
3772:
3764:
3762:3-503-01645-7
3758:
3754:
3747:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3711:
3703:
3696:
3692:
3678:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3658:This section
3656:
3653:
3649:
3648:
3638:
3637:
3632:
3631:
3630:Danse Macabre
3626:
3625:
3624:Ship of Fools
3620:
3616:
3613:
3610:
3609:at wikisource
3606:
3602:
3601:Reynke de Vos
3599:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3578:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3556:Reynke de Vos
3553:
3549:
3546:This section
3544:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3489:
3488:Middelsassisk
3485:
3480:
3476:
3468:
3466:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3382:Some features
3379:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3360:Ostanhaltisch
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3224:Some features
3221:
3219:
3218:Elbostfälisch
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3118:Nordalbingian
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3055:Nordalbingian
3051:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2937:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2882:
2878:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2853:Some features
2850:
2848:
2844:
2841:(esp. modern
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2773:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2753:This section
2751:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2729:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2709:This section
2707:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2680:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2660:This section
2658:
2655:
2651:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2615:
2611:, instead of
2609:
2597:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2561:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2473:
2463:
2458:
2451:, while coda
2450:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2342:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2319:
2310:
2302:
2296:was used for
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2280:The spelling
2279:
2278:
2264:
2260:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2063:Nordalbingian
2060:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2041:(archbishop).
2040:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2025:
2018:
2007:
1995:
1973:from earlier
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1935:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1918:, word-final
1893:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1875:, e.g. often
1862:
1858:
1846:
1841:
1838:, which kept
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1802:The clusters
1801:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1785:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1728:. Sometimes,
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1666:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1641:
1635:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1618:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:Furthermore,
1595:
1592:
1588:
1579:
1570:
1556:
1547:
1540:Intervocalic
1539:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1521:
1520:
1519:
1517:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1416:(barber), or
1415:
1411:
1391:
1390:
1389:Dissimilation
1386:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1343:
1339:
1327:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1276:
1275:General notes
1272:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1257:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1191:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1104:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1018:
1010:
1008:
1004:
998:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
969:, as well as
968:
964:
960:
956:
951:
948:
947:Lübecker Norm
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
926:lingua franca
918:
913:
909:
904:
900:
895:
894:
893:
885:
883:
879:
878:
873:
869:
865:
862:vs. southern
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
832:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
782:North Frisian
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
758:
756:
752:
751:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
721:
715:
713:
703:
701:
697:
693:
690:
689:high-medieval
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
663:
662:niederdeutsch
659:
654:
649:
644:
643:niderländisch
640:
636:
632:
628:
627:Netherlandish
623:
617:
615:
612:(office; see
610:
605:
600:
594:
589:
585:
580:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
549:
548:Platt(dütsch)
544:
537:
536:
532:
529:) both from
528:
524:
520:
517:
513:
512:
508:
504:
503:
498:
493:
487:
481:
475:
470:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
445:lingua franca
442:
438:
434:
433:
428:
424:
420:
416:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
382:
377:
373:
369:
364:
357:
353:
349:
345:
340:
331:
325:
320:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
300:
299:
294:
290:
286:
283:
278:
273:
269:
265:
262:
258:
252:
247:
244:
242:
238:
237:Nordalbingian
234:
233:—Oldenburgish
232:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
213:
212:
208:
204:
200:
194:
182:
179:
178:
177:
174:
173:
172:
171:West Germanic
169:
168:
167:
164:
163:
162:
161:Indo-European
158:
154:
148:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
90:(roughly the
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
54:
50:
46:
42:
41:
36:
31:
19:
6028:
5912:Verner's law
5857:
5852:Gotho-Nordic
5850:
5843:
5764:
5757:
5749:
5743:
5733:
5718:Fårö Gutnish
5680:
5673:
5579:
5572:
5563:
5556:
5537:
5530:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5441:
5434:
5374:
5276:Swiss German
5240:Upper German
5173:Amana German
5147:Volga German
5116:Hunsrückisch
5042:
4996:Unserdeutsch
4991:Berlinerisch
4924:
4917:
4910:
4903:
4863:Cover groups
4819:Mohawk Dutch
4814:Jersey Dutch
4792:East Flemish
4775:West Flemish
4719:Middle Dutch
4673:Low Prussian
4546:
4545:
4538:
4504:Terschelling
4488:Clay Frisian
4463:West Frisian
4451:Wiedingharde
4443:
4431:
4391:Heligolandic
4368:
4343:
4336:
4329:
4324:
4307:East Frisian
4294:
4287:
4260:Middle Scots
4258:
4251:
4237:
4230:
4223:
4218:
4207:
4200:
4193:
4186:
4060:Mediaevum.de
4050:Agathe Lasch
4019:
4015:
4009:
4000:
3994:
3985:
3979:
3960:
3954:
3949:(at p. 118).
3944:
3925:
3921:
3915:
3906:
3902:
3893:
3887:
3879:
3874:
3865:
3859:
3851:
3846:
3837:
3831:
3822:
3816:
3807:
3801:
3792:
3786:
3777:
3771:
3752:
3746:
3734:. Retrieved
3727:the original
3722:
3710:
3701:
3695:
3672:
3668:adding to it
3659:
3643:Sample texts
3634:
3628:
3622:
3600:
3593:
3572:
3568:adding to it
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3479:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3449:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3380:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3339:
3338:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3235:
3231:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3209:
3157:
3149:
3148:
3121:
3117:
3092:, including
3089:
3087:
3054:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3009:
3008:(2.sg.) and
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2975:
2970:
2967:East Prussia
2958:
2950:
2942:
2941:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2880:
2876:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2806:
2798:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2767:
2763:adding to it
2759:Lasch (1914)
2754:
2723:
2719:adding to it
2715:Lasch (1914)
2710:
2674:
2670:adding to it
2666:Lasch (1914)
2661:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2625:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2547:
2546:
2538:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2509:
2505:
2491:
2487:
2456:
2448:
2447:was written
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2375:
2373:
2365:
2349:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2315:(see below).
2308:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2244:
2236:
2232:
2224:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2180:
2176:
2166:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2111:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2076:Kellinghusen
2074:
2070:
2058:
2054:
2036:
2034:
2005:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1923:
1898:shifted via
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1860:
1856:
1847:The dentals
1839:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1796:
1788:
1787:In writing,
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1732:is used for
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1691:
1680:
1676:
1664:
1656:drive (n.)).
1653:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1612:
1608:(goose <
1605:
1590:
1586:
1545:
1534:
1530:
1515:
1514:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1439:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1387:
1381:
1377:
1373:Assimilation
1371:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1341:
1337:
1326:Verner's law
1319:
1313:
1309:(fork) from
1306:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1186:
1108:
1099:
1016:
999:
959:Scandinavian
952:
923:
891:
875:
863:
859:
833:
828:
825:Middle Dutch
806:
789:
759:
748:
718:
716:
709:
681:Middle Dutch
668:
667:
618:
575:
563:West Central
521:to mean the
518:
468:
466:
430:
414:
413:
399:
391:
366:
351:
313:Linguasphere
296:
240:
236:
231:East Frisian
229:
180:
71:
67:
63:
59:
52:
48:
44:
39:
38:
5927:Kluge's law
5907:Grimm's law
5690:Dalecarlian
5669:Perkerdansk
5642:East Danish
5460:Old Gutnish
5436:Proto-Norse
5376:Langobardic
5368:Vogtlandian
5196:Upper Saxon
5050:Lachoudisch
5011:Lotegorisch
4889:High German
4635:Westphalian
4630:Eastphalian
4594:Achterhooks
4471:Hindeloopen
4406:Bökingharde
4375:Föhr–Amrum
4289:Old Frisian
4253:Early Scots
4188:Old English
3384:: Old long
3150:Eastphalian
3110:Old Prussia
3106:Brandenburg
3104:, northern
3098:Mecklenburg
3090:East Elbian
3050:'friend').
2903:instead of
2879:instead of
2839:Netherlands
2799:Westfälisch
2791:Westphalian
2370:burgomaster
2354:Düringerode
2350:Dudiggerode
2263:vogt, reeve
2223:Sometimes,
2216:instead of
2073:for modern
2067:Eastphalian
2051:Old English
1685:High German
1578:hebbe(n) wi
1500:h spellings
1380:instead of
1297:words like
1200:Approximant
882:Reformation
836:High German
829:Terminology
817:Lower Rhine
794:Old Livonia
766:East Frisia
729:Brandenburg
725:Mecklenburg
720:Ostsiedlung
648:Netherlands
516:archaically
497:High German
477:(Saxon) or
463:Terminology
427:Middle Ages
408:blackletter
241:East Elbian
221:Eastphalian
216:Westphalian
140:High German
96:Netherlands
6061:Low German
6055:Categories
5759:Burgundian
5675:Old Danish
5664:Gøtudanskt
5647:Bornholmsk
5509:Vestlandsk
5489:Kebabnorsk
5226:Halcnovian
5191:Thuringian
4854:Limburgish
4824:Stadsfries
4797:Brabantian
4524:Low German
4370:Eiderstedt
4225:Fingallian
3687:References
3675:March 2019
3575:March 2019
3531:Literature
3484:Low German
3428:. Lack of
3186:Hildesheim
3158:Ostfälisch
2992:appear as
2930:godensdach
2847:Overijssel
2843:Gelderland
2813:and lower
2770:March 2019
2726:March 2019
2689:Morphology
2677:March 2019
2440:William).
2328:"to say",
2206:vrüntligen
2024:epenthesis
1659:Voiceless
1465:Gemination
1460:(to burn).
1441:Metathesis
1261:allophones
1021:Consonants
938:Baltic Sea
877:Wittenberg
870:and lower
776:, against
755:Kashubians
735:and (Old)
599:Ôsterlinge
588:Baltic Sea
543:Low German
535:*þiudiskaz
419:Low German
197:Early form
6039:varieties
6031:indicate
5845:Northwest
5790:Philology
5695:Elfdalian
5630:Jutlandic
5552:Icelandic
5527:(written)
5521:(written)
5499:Trøndersk
5479:Norwegian
5443:Old Norse
5264:Coloniero
5248:Alemannic
5221:Wymysorys
5089:Colognian
5084:Ripuarian
5006:Rotwelsch
4836:Midslands
4787:Zeelandic
4768:Hollandic
4742:Afrikaans
4714:Old Dutch
4540:Old Saxon
4439:Karrharde
4421:Goesharde
4402:Mainland
4135:philology
3336:('men').
3202:Magdeburg
3198:Göttingen
3190:Brunswick
3140:Stralsund
3102:Pomerania
3079:Lunenburg
3004:(1.sg.),
2963:Zuiderzee
2936:middeweke
2835:Osnabrück
2831:Bielefeld
2823:Paderborn
2807:Westfaals
2497:-ber(a)ht
2488:Engelbert
2459:but also
2366:bormêster
2330:penninghe
2183:to come).
2039:ebischope
1502:: A mute
1478:letters,
1384:(of the).
1366:*fanganaz
1295:Proclitic
1160:Fricative
1131:Affricate
1042:Post-alv.
991:Norwegian
955:loanwords
934:North Sea
884:set in).
856:continuum
844:Thuringia
809:Zuiderzee
733:Pomerania
712:Old Saxon
679:. Though
650:), while
593:Ôsterlant
584:Hanseatic
453:diplomacy
437:Hanseatic
423:Old Saxon
317:52-ACB-ca
298:Glottolog
282:ISO 639-3
203:Old Saxon
102:, modern
82:Northern
5766:Vandalic
5709:Gutnish
5514:Vikværsk
5494:Sognamål
5484:Bergensk
5334:Cimbrian
5302:Bavarian
5259:Alsatian
5206:Lusatian
5142:Palatine
4832:Amelands
4709:Frankish
4599:Sallaans
4581:Gronings
4432:Southern
4425:Northern
4416:Halligen
4365:Insular
4182:dialects
3471:Endnotes
3241:sessisch
3046:next to
3034:next to
2827:Dortmund
2782:Dialects
1887:next to
1879:next to
1861:antwēder
1706:Frederik
1681:straffen
1591:jârlings
1481:sontdage
1414:barbêrer
1410:balbêrer
1382:van deme
1364:< PG
1362:gevangen
1358:*fanhaną
1356:< PG
1037:Alveolar
983:Estonian
936:and the
804:tribes.
774:Sleswick
700:Flanders
653:sassisch
579:ôstersch
571:standard
474:sassisch
455:and for
358:1:24–25)
305:midd1318
228:, incl.
210:Dialects
166:Germanic
53:Ôstersch
40:Sassisch
6029:Italics
5652:Scanian
5598:Swedish
5547:Faroese
5525:Nynorsk
5504:Valdris
5339:Mòcheno
5295:Swabian
5161:Hessian
5121:Hunsrik
5033:Western
5028:Eastern
5023:Yiddish
4973:creoles
4870:Bergish
4586:Drèents
4576:Tweants
4428:Central
4410:Mooring
4273:Frisian
4232:Kildare
4177:English
3736:1 March
3605:Reynard
3439:samenen
3430:gaderen
3408:, e.g.
3364:Sorbian
3182:Hanover
3174:Altmark
3136:Rostock
3114:Livonia
3071:Hamburg
3028:Frisian
2819:Münster
2579:youth).
2515:Often,
2510:niowiht
2504:, e.g.
2486:, e.g.
2438:Wilhelm
2410:(eggs).
2378:rmêster
2069:, e.g.
1889:schrîft
1716:(where
1675:, e.g.
1496:(time).
1475:breifve
1470:syncope
1454:brennen
1434:Wilhelm
1422:kluflôk
1418:knuflôk
1408:, e.g.
1352:, e.g.
1336:, e.g.
1314:*gabalō
1252:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1235:
1231:Lateral
1225:
1222:
1214:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1135:
1125:
1114:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1057:Glottal
1047:Palatal
1028:
995:Swedish
987:Latvian
975:English
928:of the
888:History
790:History
786:Denmark
762:Frisian
737:Prussia
698:, from
687:of all
635:uplands
609:komptôr
525:of the
502:deutsch
492:dǖdisch
486:to dǖde
356:1 Peter
268:Fraktur
124:Estonia
108:Denmark
88:Germany
45:Dǖdisch
5745:Gothic
5615:Danish
5519:Bokmål
5018:Yenish
4828:Bildts
4611:Veluws
4606:Urkers
4445:Strand
4169:Anglic
3967:
3932:
3759:
3510:German
3456:, cf.
3445:teigen
3376:Zerbst
3368:Berlin
3350:) and
3300:(i.e.
3296:, not
3290:-schup
3282:-schop
3254:stidde
3252:(e.g.
3238:(e.g.
3228:Umlaut
3194:Goslar
3132:Wismar
3094:Lübeck
3075:Bremen
2622:Vowels
2608:as(se)
2535:hiatus
2530:hvnsen
2443:Onset
2434:Willem
2408:eggere
2400:vrûghe
2396:*nāian
2326:seggen
2243:(see "
2181:quêmen
2139:klocke
2137:(e.g.
2112:Kiellu
2102:*kebrô
2090:Lübeck
1885:schrîf
1857:antwēr
1828:svager
1771:(but).
1736:, and
1710:gaffel
1702:figûre
1677:gaffel
1650:drêven
1587:jârlix
1571:Final
1458:bernen
1430:Willem
1307:gaffel
1032:Labial
979:Danish
965:, and
963:Finnic
942:Lübeck
864:machen
813:Veluwe
802:Finnic
798:Baltic
778:Danish
745:Baltic
741:Slavic
706:Extent
631:German
614:Kontor
604:Bruges
551:(from
467:While
404:Lübeck
372:Lübeck
348:Hameln
120:Latvia
116:Norway
112:Sweden
100:Poland
79:Region
5859:South
5810:North
5420:North
5404:North
4746:Kaaps
4737:Dutch
4384:Amrum
4325:Weser
4247:Scots
3924:[
3730:(PDF)
3719:(PDF)
3518:Dutch
3434:tőgen
3334:menne
3302:schal
3258:stêde
3236:-isch
3206:Halle
3162:Weser
3127:-(e)t
3059:Weser
3048:vrünt
3044:vrent
3024:Weser
2955:Dutch
2913:schal
2815:Rhine
2811:Weser
2803:Dutch
2617:(as).
2577:yöget
2539:sêhes
2492:-bert
2474:Coda
2436:<
2398:, or
2341:gg(h)
2303:Coda
2259:voyet
2212:, in
2157:ringk
2127:cleyn
2107:Celle
2095:sever
2081:Liubi
2020:/t͡s/
1991:/sn-/
1987:/sl-/
1902:into
1881:recht
1873:/-st/
1869:/-xt/
1865:/-ft/
1836:/kw-/
1816:/kw-/
1812:/sw-/
1808:/tw-/
1804:/dw-/
1665:vader
1634:blôme
1617:gense
1613:*gans
1533:>
1487:tidth
1420:<
1412:<
1378:vamme
1342:koren
1338:kêsen
1287:geven
1271:era.
1064:Nasal
1052:Velar
872:Saale
860:maken
852:Spree
840:Hesse
750:Wends
554:platt
511:duits
507:Dutch
457:deeds
264:Latin
144:Dutch
5820:West
5815:East
5735:East
5591:East
5581:Norn
5472:West
5408:East
5406:and
4971:and
4966:Non-
4396:Sylt
4379:Föhr
4314:Ems
4239:Yola
4148:West
4062:and
3965:ISBN
3930:ISBN
3757:ISBN
3738:2013
3592:The
3465:mich
3463:and
3442:and
3422:keyn
3410:gans
3396:and
3388:and
3272:and
3256:for
3234:and
3232:-ich
3170:Elbe
3166:Harz
3088:(3)
3083:Kiel
3067:Elbe
3063:Elbe
3053:(2)
3018:(1)
2998:-old
2996:and
2990:-ald
2988:and
2980:and
2897:/xt/
2893:/ft/
2889:/ww/
2885:/jj/
2881:korn
2877:karn
2869:/oː/
2845:and
2738:Verb
2694:Noun
2614:alse
2525:ghân
2482:and
2462:g(h)
2426:hôch
2404:frūa
2346:/ŋɡ/
2214:sich
2202:-lik
2173:/kw/
2163:/ks/
2121:for
2065:and
2059:kint
2057:for
2055:zint
2012:and
1989:and
1975:/sk/
1963:/sk/
1920:/-θ/
1916:/rθ/
1910:and
1877:rech
1851:and
1769:aver
1765:auer
1751:and
1740:for
1724:and
1697:f(f)
1654:drêf
1646:ebbe
1642:êrer
1583:/nɡ/
1564:and
1550:/mb/
1490:for
1448:and
1404:vs.
1396:vs.
1348:and
1332:and
1291:gift
1092:Stop
1005:and
993:and
973:and
868:Elbe
848:Sorb
842:and
800:and
780:and
770:Elbe
743:and
639:ENHG
561:(or
539:lit.
368:1531
4048:by
3716:"m"
3670:.
3570:.
3562:).
3502:or
3467:).
3461:mir
3454:mik
3452:vs
3426:ge-
3418:nên
3414:-en
3402:/n/
3322:mik
3310:ge-
3298:/s/
3294:/ʃ/
3266:/r/
3262:/o/
3248:to
3122:-en
3032:hem
2994:-ar
2986:-er
2982:/i/
2978:/e/
2925:ge-
2921:-en
2917:-et
2911:vs
2909:sal
2905:/ʃ/
2901:/s/
2873:/r/
2859:or
2765:.
2721:.
2672:.
2638:or
2630:or
2603:/l/
2599:/l/
2593:/s/
2589:/r/
2585:/r/
2558:/ɣ/
2554:/j/
2506:nit
2502:/t/
2484:/t/
2480:/r/
2476:/h/
2467:/ɣ/
2453:/h/
2445:/h/
2428:or
2422:/h/
2418:/ɣ/
2414:/h/
2388:nei
2384:/ɣ/
2374:bor
2362:/ɣ/
2322:/ɣ/
2313:/h/
2305:/ɡ/
2298:/ɡ/
2275:/h/
2271:/ɣ/
2267:/j/
2253:/ɣ/
2233:ôch
2229:/k/
2218:sik
2198:/ɣ/
2194:/k/
2190:/ɪ/
2145:or
2123:/k/
2114:).
2047:/k/
2037:tzc
2028:/k/
2014:/ʃ/
2010:/s/
2002:/s/
1998:/ʃ/
1983:/s/
1979:/ʃ/
1971:/ʃ/
1967:/ʃ/
1959:/ʃ/
1938:/s/
1930:/s/
1924:dat
1912:/n/
1908:/l/
1904:/d/
1900:/ð/
1896:/θ/
1871:or
1853:/d/
1849:/t/
1793:/w/
1782:/b/
1777:/w/
1767:is
1687:).
1673:/b/
1669:/b/
1661:/f/
1638:bar
1630:/b/
1606:gôs
1598:/n/
1573:/n/
1566:/ɣ/
1562:/k/
1558:/n/
1542:/m/
1535:den
1531:dem
1527:/n/
1523:/m/
1493:tîd
1450:/r/
1446:/l/
1428:in
1426:/l/
1406:/n/
1402:/l/
1400:or
1398:/r/
1394:/l/
1354:vân
1350:/ɡ/
1346:/h/
1334:/r/
1330:/s/
1303:/b/
1299:mid
1140:t͡s
831:).
696:MHG
658:NHG
616:).
559:Low
398:".
374:'s
346:in
289:gml
131:Era
66:),
6057::
3908:2.
3721:.
3627:,
3558:,
3520::
3516:,
3512::
3508:,
3496:,
3490:,
3486::
3458:HG
3450:mi
3374:,
3370:,
3358::
3356:HG
3346::
3344:HG
3330:mê
3326:mî
3318:ik
3314:ek
3306:e-
3268:,
3226::
3216::
3214:HG
3204:,
3200:,
3196:,
3192:,
3188:,
3184:,
3156::
3154:HG
3138:,
3134:,
3112:,
3100:,
3085:.
3081:,
3077:,
3073:,
3042:;
3040:-s
3036:em
3010:jû
3006:dî
3002:mî
2957::
2953:,
2949::
2947:HG
2867:=
2865:oi
2833:,
2829:,
2825:,
2821:,
2805::
2801:,
2797::
2795:HG
2569:gh
2560:.
2457:ch
2430:hô
2392:en
2376:ge
2309:ch
2294:ch
2282:gh
2277:.
2225:ch
2192:,
2177:qu
2153:gk
2147:gk
2143:kk
2135:ck
2099:PG
2035:er
2006:sh
1948:,
1946:cz
1944:,
1942:tz
1867:,
1840:qu
1814:,
1810:,
1806:,
1784:.
1738:ph
1610:PG
1546:mb
1311:PG
1180:)
1142:)
1009:.
997:.
989:,
985:,
981:,
961:,
731:,
727:,
573:.
565:)
505:,
499::
459:.
239:,
235:,
122:,
118:,
114:,
110:,
51:,
47:,
43:,
5754:)
5748:(
4834:/
4830:/
4826:/
4748:)
4744:(
4117:e
4110:t
4103:v
3973:.
3938:.
3765:.
3740:.
3677:)
3673:(
3611:)
3607:(
3577:)
3573:(
3398:u
3394:i
3390:ô
3386:ê
3354:(
3342:(
3288:(
3286:u
3278:o
3274:a
3270:e
3250:i
3246:e
3212:(
3152:(
2945:(
2907:(
2861:i
2857:e
2793:(
2772:)
2768:(
2728:)
2724:(
2679:)
2675:(
2644:h
2640:i
2636:e
2632:ā
2628:â
2595:.
2573:y
2565:g
2537:(
2521:h
2517:h
2469:.
2449:h
2390:g
2380:.
2368:(
2356:.
2334:g
2290:i
2286:e
2245:h
2237:h
2231:(
2204:(
2167:x
2149:.
2131:k
2125:(
2119:c
2085:i
2083:c
1993:.
1950:c
1832:w
1826:(
1824:u
1822:/
1820:v
1797:w
1789:w
1761:u
1757:v
1753:u
1749:v
1744:.
1742:f
1734:v
1730:w
1726:r
1722:l
1718:v
1714:u
1692:v
1640:b
1593:.
1568:.
1552:.
1509:h
1504:h
1436:.
1316:.
1263:.
1239:l
1218:j
1210:r
1205:ʋ
1193:h
1188:ɣ
1178:ʃ
1176:(
1171:s
1165:f
1138:(
1120:k
1110:d
1106:t
1101:b
1097:p
1074:n
1069:m
514:(
270:)
266:(
20:)
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