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749:"sheep to the slaughter" myth, one must consider the lived experience of survivors who had no opportunity to fight back against their oppressors. Rosenberg argues that survival and the effort to rebuild lives, communities, and the Jewish state after the Holocaust was a form of fighting back, as is preserving Jewish tradition today. Orthodox Rabbi and author
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during roundups and the Jewish masses' passivity. Ringelblum asked, "why have we allowed ourselves to be led like sheep to the slaughter", and concluded that Jews were ashamed and disgraced because their "docility" did not save their lives. He concluded that the only option was armed resistance, even
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says she is frequently asked "Why did Jews go like sheep to the slaughter?", which she calls "a blatantly false assumption" because the opportunity to resist was not often present, and many Jews employed creative survival strategies. Tec strongly criticizes the idea that "the victims themselves were
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of the facts of the
Holocaust because "it is more comfortable to blame the victim". Rabbi Yisrael Rutman argued that the "true meaning" of the phrase is the spiritual strength of Jews who had no opportunity to resist their murder. Rabbi Bernard Rosenberg writes that to understand the fallacy of the
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for asking survivors why they had not resisted, she also described Jews as obeying Nazi orders with "submissive meekness" and "arriving on time at the transportation points, walking under their own power to the places of execution, digging their own graves, undressing and making neat piles of their
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went beyond proving
Eichmann's guilt. He attempted to educate Israelis about Nazi crimes, "assumed the role of defense attorney for the dead and the living Jewish people", and called many survivors as witnesses. The public questioned whether resistance was an option for the masses, and the activity
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explicitly rejected the idea that Jewish victims had gone "like sheep to the slaughter", because all victims of Nazi persecution had behaved similarly. She argued that
Bettelheim expected that Jews would somehow divine Nazi intentions better than other victims and privately criticized Hilberg for
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leaders used the phrase to exhort Jews to fight back. In postwar Israel, some demonized
Holocaust survivors as having gone "like sheep to the slaughter" while armed resistance was glorified. The phrase was taken to mean that Jews had not tried to save their own lives, and consequently were partly
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Kovner's speech of
October 1945 was not available to the public for four decades, and many falsely attributed the accusation against Israeli Holocaust survivors to him. Disturbed by this, Kovner said in 1947 that one who had not witnessed the events of the Holocaust could not use the phrase
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wrote, "the fact that did not open his mouth in complaint was therefore the more remarkable, and made the merit of his sufferings the greater". He considered Isaiah 53 prophetic typology that had been "fulfilled in the life of the Lord Jesus", a typology that would continue as part of
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characterized Jewish resistance as an extremely marginal phenomenon. However, he evaluated the resistance solely by the number of
Germans killed. Instead, he argued that Jews had "speeded the process of destruction" by obedience to German orders conditioned by the passivity of
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Look from heaven and perceive that we have become an object of scorn and derision among the nations; we are regarded as the sheep led to slaughter, to be killed, destroyed, beaten, and humiliated. But despite all this we have not forgotten Your Name—we beg You not to forget
108:, a virtuous servant is murdered but does not protest: "Like a sheep being led to the slaughter or a lamb that is silent before her shearers, he did not open his mouth" (Isaiah 53:7). His silence is praised because there was no "deceit in his mouth" (Isaiah 53:9). But Rabbi
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Yehuda Bauer has argued that "those who use it are identifying, even unconsciously, with the killers", who denied their victims' humanity. He notes that "Jews were not sheep. Jews were Jews, Jews were human beings" who were murdered, not slaughtered. American sociologist
673:, about a Nazi war criminal who taunts and escapes from his Jewish captors, as a recent example of a work perpetuating the perception that Jews passively acquiesced to their fate, because the Nazi's claims to that effect are not rebutted. Israeli settlers protesting
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argues that the victim-blaming tendency stems from the desire to "avoid confronting the question: What would I have done? And would I have survived?" According to
Fogelman, "Blaming the victims not only distorts history; it also perpetuates their victimization."
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have also criticized the tendency to blame Jews for their plight during the
Holocaust, which Wiesel called "The height of irony and cruelty: the dead victims needed to be defended, while the killers, dead and alive, were left alone." Psychologist
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is that the sheep metaphor enabled
Israelis to downplay the suffering of Jews during the Holocaust as a defense mechanism against cultural trauma. Initially, little was known about the Holocaust, leading to over-generalization. According to the
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We will not be led like sheep to slaughter. True we are weak and helpless, but the only response to the murders is revolt. Brethren, it is better to die fighting like free men than to live at the mercy of the murderers. Arise, Arise with last
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photograph. The claim that Jewish concentration camp prisoners were more passive than non-Jewish prisoners often obscured historical fact, such as the fact that Jews launched six of the seven uprisings in concentration or death camps.
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appropriately; "like sheep to the slaughter" meant something different in Israel than it had in the Vilna Ghetto in 1942. Meanwhile, he continued to claim authorship of the inversion of the statement despite the previous precedent.
716:, "nothing in the literature on the Shoah is more unseemly than the blame cast by some writers on an almost completely unarmed, isolated, terrified, tortured, and enervated people for allegedly failing to respond adequately".
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argues that the "sheep to slaughter" trope "insinuat that millions of Jews who perished in the
Holocaust did not measure up" and, if they had fought back, Jewish national honor would have been preserved. Israeli historian
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of Jewish people persecuted for their religion is presented favorably: "Nay, but for Thy sake are we killed all the day; / We are accounted as sheep to be slaughtered" (Psalms 44:23). Jewish liturgy uses the phrase in
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was essential to surviving the camps. Consequently, he implied that those who died had given up. Historians have concluded that there was little connection between attitude and survival. In 1960, Jewish psychoanalyst
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We should ask forgiveness from countless numbers for having judged them in our hearts... We often generalized categorically and arbitrarily that these poor souls "as sheep to the slaughter." Now we know
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Bar-On, Daniel (2004). "A socially and historically contextualised psychoanalytic perspective: Holocaust survival and suffering". In Prue, Chamberlayne; Joanna, Bornat; Apitzsch, Ursula (eds.).
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read that "the heroic stand of the Ghetto Jews also compensated for the humiliating surrender of those led to the death camps" and that Holocaust victims had gone "as sheep to the slaughter".
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The phrase became so widespread and widely believed that historians of Jewish resistance during the Holocaust used it as the title of works challenging perceptions of Jewish passivitity.
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229:, as saying, "Be strong and let us be strengthened and let us die fighting and not die as sheep led to slaughter". In a different context, the phrase was used by United States founder
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responsible for their own suffering and death. This myth, which has become less prominent over time, is frequently criticized by historians, theologians, and survivors as a form of
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stereotypes of Jews as "the dishonorable antithesis of all the 'virile' qualities deemed necessary by modern nationalism". An alternate explanation advanced by Israeli historian
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featured a protagonist who asked, "Were the Jews like sheep to be slaughtered?" but immediately rejected the idea. By 1910, the second version of the phrase, invented in
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295:, a 1911 book memorializing Jews killed by Arabs, the inverse was attributed to Ya'akov Plotkin, the leader of a Jewish self-defense organization in Ukraine, who had
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During the Holocaust, Abba Kovner was the first to use the phrase as a call for action in a 1 January 1942 pamphlet in which he argued that "Hitler is plotting the
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said, "For three lines in history that will be written about the youth who fought and did not go like sheep to the slaughter it is even worth dying." During the
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Instead of viewing Jews as sheep, Kovner instead attempted "to cause a rebellion against the very use of that term", according to Holocaust historian
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criticizes this perception, arguing that Holocaust survivors shaped Israeli memory. Feldman describes the myth as deriving from traditional European
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Rosenberg, Bernhard H. (1999). "They Went Like Sheep to the Slaughter and Other Myths". In Rosenberg, Bernhard H.; Rozwaski, Chaim Z. (eds.).
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calls the phrase a "double insult to the martyred six million" because it both accuses them of cowardice and blames them for their fate.
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were often the only source of footage, their use in postwar documentaries supported the idea of Jewish passivity, as did the iconic
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for collaborating with the Nazis, an assessment not commonly accepted today. Despite her more nuanced portrayal, her arguments in
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The inverse of the phrase, contrary to what was previously believed, was coined by the writer of the 10th-century Jewish history
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After the war, the idea that Jewish Holocaust victims and survivors had been passive was reinforced by photographs of liberated
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457:(native Israelis), and other survivors never mentioned their experience. Armed resistance was glorified, partly because the
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criticized the "maddening, oft-heard phrase 'like sheep to slaughter'" as a "misconception" in his blurb for the 1994 book
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said, "It is a crime to say that, in the time of Hitler, Diaspora Jewry could have gone to their deaths differently." The
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opens by debunking the "false assumptions" behind questions such as "Why did the Jews go like sheep to the slaughter?"
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1841:(2003). "The Development of Holocaust Consciousness in Israel: The Nuremberg, Kapos, Kastner, and Eichmann Trials".
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British historian Tom Lawson argues that the idea of Jewish passivity during the Holocaust confirmed stereotypes of
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Ofer, Dalia (2000). "The Strength of Remembrance: Commemorating the Holocaust during the First Decade of Israel".
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In the immediate postwar period in Israel, before the Eichmann trial, survivors who had not fought with the
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1601:""Not as Sheep Led to Slaughter"?: On Trauma, Selective Memory, and the Making of Historical Consciousness"
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311:, later Israel's second president, Plotkin had previously used the phrase in regard to defense against the
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in both the Jewish and Christian religious traditions. Opposition to the phrase became associated with
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The pamphlet was smuggled to other ghettos, where it inspired similar calls for resistance. In the
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clothing, and lying down side by side to be shot", a characterization American Holocaust scholar
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had gone "like sheep to the slaughter" and attributed that interpretation to non-Jews, such as a
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The Israeli attitude toward Holocaust survivors was revolutionized by the highly publicized
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Middleton-Kaplan, Richard (2014). "The Myth of Jewish Passivity". In Henry, Patrick (ed.).
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was viewed more favorably. Public opinion shifted to blaming the perpetrators exclusively.
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Porat, Dan A. (1 October 2004). "From the Scandal to the Holocaust in Israeli Education".
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were stigmatized for having allegedly gone like sheep to the slaughter. In response, some
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after arriving in Israel in October 1945, he explained that his phrase had not meant that
160:, ke-tson le-tivhah), is distinct from the later variant "like sheep to (the) slaughter" (
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culture. In the 1985 edition, Hilberg quoted Ringelblum to support this argument.
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reported that "The Jews were taken wholly unaware and slaughtered like sheep".
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and her family were partly to blame for not owning firearms. In his 1961 book
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claimed that "Like lemmings, marched themselves to their own death" and that
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writes that Holocaust survivors were blamed for not choosing Zionism in time.
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The inversion of the phrase was revived by Jewish self-defense leagues in the
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wrote that "the loose talk about 'sheep to slaughter' and 'collaborationist'
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partly to blame for their own destruction". According to Holocaust historian
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said "we will not go as sheep to slaughter", which was considered hyperbole.
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Biographical Methods and Professional Practice: An International Perspective
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After the first three decades, the trope became less of a driving force in
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were equated with those of Hilberg and Bettelheim and harshly criticized.
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Saving Israel: How the Jewish People Can Win a War That May Never End
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The Hebrew phrase in the Bible, "like sheep to be slaughtered" (
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suggests that this is the probable source for the verbiage
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in 1783 to warn of the dangers of removing the right to
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pointed out that the context is more ambiguous, because
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Ordinary Jews: Choice and Survival During the Holocaust
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killed by their former allies, and Polish officers.
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1957:"'Let Us Not Die as Sheep Led to the Slaughter'"
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286:heroes will not be led as sheep to slaughter."
278:, argued against negotiating with the British
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3581:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
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1947:
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379:. In a speech Kovner gave to members of the
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3739:World War II-related historical negationism
3280:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
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327:used in his declaration of 1 January 1942.
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2004:"Did Jews Go Like Sheep to the Slaughter?"
369:Let us not go like lambs to the slaughter!
205:Christian interpretations of the Holocaust
37:. It derives from a similar phrase in the
2038:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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423:beginning 22 July 1942, Jewish archivist
282:authorities because "The brothers of the
1977:Rutman, Rabbi Yisrael (10 August 2002).
1849:(3). Translated by Moshe, Tlamim: 1–24.
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765: – Parable by Jesus in Matthew 25
695:Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
648:found "disturbing". Arendt blamed the
342:Jewish resistance during the Holocaust
16:Proverb regarding the Jewish Holocaust
3769:Metaphors referring to sheep or goats
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1575:20th Century Jewish Religious Thought
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2868:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
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1720:Catholic University of America Press
1693:Holocaust: An American Understanding
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620:The Destruction of the European Jews
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459:establishment of the State of Israel
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3673:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1998:
1716:Jewish Resistance Against the Nazis
1673:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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594:In 1946, survivor and psychologist
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13:
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14:
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1823:. Jason Aronson. pp. 17–21.
3236:Polish leaders and intellectuals
2726:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
1900:""Like Sheep To The Slaughter"?"
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427:criticized the brutality of the
1776:Journal of Contemporary History
1508:
3164:Attack on the twentieth convoy
2977:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
1930:"Like Sheep to the Slaughter?"
1887:
1516:"Like Sheep to the Slaughter?"
348:annihilation of European Jewry
315:. The book was widely read by
190:; Jesus was symbolized as the
1:
1979:"Like Sheep To The Slaughter"
1620:10.2979/jewisocistud.19.3.139
802:Cohen & Mendes-Flohr 2010
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533:of rescue groups such as the
313:pogroms in the Russian Empire
75:
3501:Jewish war conspiracy theory
2692:Extermination through labour
1905:(Interview). Interviewed by
1579:University of Nebraska Press
774:
684:
440:
350:". Kovner urged Jews in the
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7:
3683:Righteous Among the Nations
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2369:Righteous Among the Nations
1821:Contemplating the Holocaust
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598:wrote the bestselling book
23:Like sheep to the slaughter
10:
3805:
3789:Cultural history of Israel
3420:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
3390:Lithuanian Security Police
3309:Reich Security Main Office
2276:Evidence and documentation
700:The Holocaust Encyclopedia
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299:and was killed during the
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1547:. Policy Press. pp.
893:Feldman & Bowman 2007
3226:People with disabilities
3159:Aid and Rescue Committee
1788:10.1177/0022009404046757
1697:Rutgers University Press
1671:Debates on the Holocaust
665:Holocaust historiography
601:Man's Search for Meaning
580:Nazi concentration camps
535:Aid and Rescue Committee
331:In the Holocaust context
244:in the wake of the 1903
59:. During the Holocaust,
3744:Holocaust commemoration
3367:Order Police battalions
2008:Reform Judaism Magazine
1751:10.2979/JSS.2000.6.2.24
763:The Sheep and the Goats
432:as a symbolic gesture.
396:Soviet prisoners of war
354:to resist the Germans:
297:immigrated to Palestine
186:allowing himself to be
41:that favorably depicts
3216:Soviet urban residents
2307:International response
2281:Contemporary knowledge
1855:10.2979/ISR.2003.8.3.1
575:
560:
467:Warsaw Ghetto uprising
373:
301:intercommunal conflict
152:
3749:Holocaust terminology
3663:Memorials and museums
3601:Reparations Agreement
3596:Holocaust restitution
3174:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
2697:Human experimentation
2536:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
1739:Jewish Social Studies
1652:John Wiley & Sons
1608:Jewish Social Studies
1521:The New York Observer
1479:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1467:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1455:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1443:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1431:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1419:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1395:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1371:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1341:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1329:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1317:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1305:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1293:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1091:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1067:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
1023:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
910:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
866:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
842:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
818:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
790:Middleton-Kaplan 2014
657:Eichmann in Jerusalem
584:Nazi propaganda films
570:
555:
471:Ministry of Education
356:
340:Further information:
166:, ke-tson la-tevah).
147:
120:'s punishment of the
85:Further information:
2863:Jewish Ghetto Police
2732:Politische Abteilung
2627:Risiera di San Sabba
2488:Natzweiler-Struthof
1718:. Washington, D.C.:
1689:Lipstadt, Deborah E.
1669:Lawson, Tom (2010).
856:, pp. 147, 151.
719:Survivors including
429:Jewish Ghetto Police
336:During the Holocaust
3641:Days of remembrance
3554:Holocaust survivors
3549:Depopulated shtetls
3400:Rollkommando Hamann
3246:Jehovah's Witnesses
3064:Kamianets-Podilskyi
2126:Bohemia and Moravia
1955:(6 December 2007).
1928:(3 February 2014).
1898:(18 January 1998).
1271:, pp. 623–624.
1205:, pp. 107–108.
1081:, pp. 235–236.
1054:, pp. 145–146.
991:, pp. 143–145.
939:, pp. 156–157.
539:Revisionist Zionist
511:just world falllacy
319:in Eastern Europe.
280:Mandatory Palestine
276:president of Israel
145:(morning prayers):
104:, a chapter in the
3624:History and memory
3528:Forced euthanasia
3476:Nazi racial policy
3179:Danish underground
3026:Operation Reinhard
3021:Wannsee Conference
1571:Mendes-Flohr, Paul
1524:. 3 February 2014.
576:
496:Israeli historian
425:Emanuel Ringelblum
416:Grossaktion Warsaw
400:Nazi collaborators
274:, later the third
270:into a Kishinev?"
258:'s Hebrew novella
256:Yosef Haim Brenner
225:, a leader of the
49:due to its use in
47:Jewish nationalism
3716:
3715:
3712:
3711:
3708:
3707:
3559:Sh'erit ha-Pletah
3506:Jewish emigration
3496:Hitler's prophecy
3491:Haavara Agreement
3437:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3425:Ypatingasis būrys
3322:Sicherheitsdienst
3258:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3197:
3196:
3117:Bielski partisans
2889:
2888:
2885:
2884:
2881:
2880:
2720:Totenkopfverbände
2379:
2378:
1722:. pp. 3–26.
1695:. New Brunswick:
1505:, pp. 20–21.
1493:, pp. 18–20.
1469:, pp. 21–22.
1433:, pp. 22–23.
1397:, pp. 24–25.
1343:, pp. 11–12.
1283:, pp. 17–18.
746:willful ignorance
606:positive attitude
588:Warsaw Ghetto boy
573:Warsaw Ghetto boy
563:Outside of Israel
543:Uri Zvi Greenberg
385:Holocaust victims
235:freedom of speech
231:George Washington
116:himself protests
65:Jewish resistance
3796:
3729:Biblical phrases
3608:Holocaust denial
3586:Nuremberg trials
3576:Postwar violence
3531:
3466:
3465:
3443:
3442:
3405:Special Brigades
3395:Nederlandsche SS
3362:Police Regiments
3286:
3285:
3264:
3263:
3124:Ghetto uprisings
3112:Jewish partisans
3059:Harvest Festival
3031:Holocaust trains
2917:
2916:
2908:
2907:
2895:
2894:
2760:
2759:
2656:
2634:
2616:
2597:
2579:
2402:
2401:
2385:
2384:
2093:
2092:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2018:
2016:
2014:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1926:Boteach, Shmuley
1921:
1919:
1917:
1904:
1882:
1834:
1815:
1770:
1733:
1710:
1684:
1665:
1639:
1605:
1597:Feldman, Yael S.
1592:
1567:Cohen, Arthur A.
1562:
1546:
1526:
1525:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1422:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1368:
1359:
1353:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1307:, pp. 9–10.
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1254:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1227:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1176:
1165:
1159:
1150:
1144:
1135:
1129:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1064:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1026:
1020:
1011:
1005:
992:
986:
980:
974:
968:
962:
956:
946:
940:
934:
928:
922:
913:
907:
896:
890:
881:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
833:
827:
821:
815:
809:
799:
793:
787:
691:Daniel Goldhagen
646:Deborah Lipstadt
611:Bruno Bettelheim
453:pretended to be
411:Dolek Liebeskind
371:
260:Around the Point
227:Maccabean Revolt
165:
164:
159:
158:
32:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3793:
3754:Jewish folklore
3719:
3718:
3717:
3704:
3619:
3535:
3529:
3518:Madagascar Plan
3511:Kindertransport
3460:
3459:
3429:
3371:
3343:
3328:Ordnungspolizei
3284:
3271:
3250:
3193:
3145:
3098:
3069:Maly Trostenets
3040:Mass executions
3035:
3005:
2943:
2902:
2877:
2847:
2806:
2744:
2706:
2665:
2654:
2632:
2614:
2595:
2577:
2565:
2522:
2396:
2375:
2295:
2286:Hidden children
2264:
2122:Czechoslovakia
2087:
2082:
2052:
2046:
2026:
2024:Further reading
2021:
2012:
2010:
2002:(Winter 2013).
1989:
1987:
1967:
1965:
1938:
1936:
1915:
1913:
1902:
1890:
1885:
1839:Yablonka, Hanna
1831:
1730:
1707:
1681:
1662:
1603:
1589:
1559:
1534:
1529:
1514:
1513:
1509:
1501:
1497:
1489:
1485:
1477:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1441:
1437:
1429:
1425:
1417:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1393:
1389:
1381:
1377:
1369:
1362:
1354:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1287:
1279:
1275:
1267:
1263:
1255:
1248:
1240:
1236:
1228:
1221:
1213:
1209:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1185:
1177:
1168:
1160:
1153:
1145:
1138:
1130:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1069:, pp. 6–7.
1065:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1038:
1029:
1021:
1014:
1006:
995:
987:
983:
975:
971:
963:
959:
947:
943:
935:
931:
923:
916:
908:
899:
891:
884:
876:
872:
868:, pp. 5–6.
864:
860:
852:
848:
844:, pp. 4–5.
840:
836:
828:
824:
816:
812:
800:
796:
792:, pp. 3–4.
788:
781:
777:
772:
759:
751:Shmuley Boteach
744:" is caused by
738:Emil Fackenheim
687:
630:Jewish diaspora
565:
451:child survivors
443:
438:
389:Soviet partisan
372:
363:
344:
338:
333:
309:Yitzhak Ben-Zvi
307:. According to
246:Kishinev pogrom
221:, which quoted
213:
157:כְּצֹאן טִבְחָה
110:Abraham Heschel
93:
83:
78:
57:Kishinev pogrom
17:
12:
11:
5:
3802:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3759:Jewish martyrs
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3734:Book of Isaiah
3731:
3714:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3613:trivialization
3605:
3604:
3603:
3593:
3591:Eichmann trial
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3551:
3545:
3543:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3486:Nuremberg Laws
3483:
3478:
3472:
3470:
3469:Early elements
3462:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3450:Early elements
3447:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3385:Arajs Kommando
3381:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3356:Einsatzgruppen
3351:
3349:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3306:
3298:
3292:
3290:
3283:
3282:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3269:Responsibility
3260:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3207:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3108:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3048:Einsatzgruppen
3043:
3041:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3017:
3015:
3012:Final Solution
3007:
3006:
3004:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2925:
2923:
2914:
2904:
2903:
2891:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2876:
2875:
2873:Ústredňa Židov
2870:
2865:
2859:
2857:
2849:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2838:Theresienstadt
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2768:
2766:
2757:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2723:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2677:Einsatzgruppen
2673:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2658:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2573:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2483:Mittelbau-Dora
2480:
2471:
2466:
2464:Kraków-Płaszów
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2408:
2398:
2397:
2381:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2354:Rescue of Jews
2351:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2177:
2172:
2171:
2170:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2088:
2081:
2080:
2073:
2066:
2058:
2051:
2050:
2044:
2032:Finkel, Evgeny
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2019:
1996:
1974:
1953:Bowman, Steven
1945:
1922:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1843:Israel Studies
1835:
1829:
1816:
1782:(4): 619–636.
1771:
1734:
1728:
1711:
1705:
1685:
1679:
1666:
1660:
1644:Gordis, Daniel
1640:
1614:(3): 139–169.
1593:
1587:
1563:
1557:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1527:
1507:
1503:Rosenberg 1999
1495:
1491:Rosenberg 1999
1483:
1471:
1459:
1447:
1435:
1423:
1411:
1409:, p. 152.
1399:
1387:
1375:
1360:
1345:
1333:
1321:
1309:
1297:
1285:
1273:
1261:
1246:
1234:
1232:, p. 146.
1219:
1217:, p. 108.
1207:
1195:
1193:, p. 143.
1183:
1166:
1164:, p. 236.
1151:
1149:, p. 622.
1136:
1119:
1117:, p. 107.
1107:
1105:, p. 106.
1095:
1083:
1071:
1056:
1044:
1027:
1012:
993:
981:
979:, p. 158.
969:
967:, p. 157.
957:
941:
929:
914:
897:
882:
880:, p. 155.
870:
858:
846:
834:
832:, p. 147.
822:
810:
794:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
767:
766:
758:
755:
686:
683:
641:Gideon Hausner
564:
561:
530:Gideon Hausner
526:Adolf Eichmann
498:Hanna Yablonka
463:armed conflict
461:also required
442:
439:
437:
434:
361:
337:
334:
332:
329:
251:New York Times
242:Russian Empire
212:
209:
172:
171:
98:
97:
82:
79:
77:
74:
70:victim blaming
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3801:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3779:Jewish ethics
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3700:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3481:Nazi eugenics
3479:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3410:Topf and Sons
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3377:Collaborators
3374:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3315:Referat IV B4
3313:
3312:
3311: (RSHA)
3310:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3302:Schutzstaffel
3299:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3289:Organizations
3287:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3231:Romani people
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3184:Working Group
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3169:Kastner train
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
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2956:Kristallnacht
2953:
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2747:
2741:
2740:
2739:Sanitätswesen
2736:
2734:
2733:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2702:Death marches
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2672:
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2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2529:
2528:Extermination
2525:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2503:Sachsenhausen
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2444:Herzogenbusch
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2419:Bergen-Belsen
2417:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2406:Concentration
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2382:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2355:
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2345:
2343:
2342:United States
2340:
2338:
2335:
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2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
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2279:
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2267:
2259:
2256:
2254:
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2250:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2239:
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2234:
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2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2182:and colonies
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
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2141:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2085:The Holocaust
2079:
2074:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2060:
2059:
2056:
2047:
2045:9780691172576
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1986:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1949:Feldman, Yael
1946:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1912:
1908:
1907:Amos Goldberg
1901:
1897:
1896:Bauer, Yehuda
1893:
1892:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1830:9780765761118
1826:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1729:9780813225890
1725:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1706:9780813564777
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1680:9780719074486
1676:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1661:9780470643907
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
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1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1588:9780827609716
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1558:9781861344939
1554:
1550:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1536:
1532:Print sources
1523:
1522:
1517:
1511:
1504:
1499:
1492:
1487:
1481:, p. 21.
1480:
1475:
1468:
1463:
1457:, p. 17.
1456:
1451:
1445:, p. 25.
1444:
1439:
1432:
1427:
1421:, p. 15.
1420:
1415:
1408:
1403:
1396:
1391:
1385:, p. 54.
1384:
1383:Lipstadt 2016
1379:
1373:, p. 14.
1372:
1367:
1365:
1358:, p. 53.
1357:
1356:Lipstadt 2016
1352:
1350:
1342:
1337:
1331:, p. 11.
1330:
1325:
1319:, p. 10.
1318:
1313:
1306:
1301:
1294:
1289:
1282:
1281:Yablonka 2003
1277:
1270:
1265:
1259:, p. 17.
1258:
1257:Yablonka 2003
1253:
1251:
1244:, p. 43.
1243:
1238:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1216:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1187:
1181:, p. 10.
1180:
1179:Yablonka 2003
1175:
1173:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1156:
1148:
1143:
1141:
1133:
1132:Yablonka 2003
1128:
1126:
1124:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1080:
1075:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1053:
1048:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1009:
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
990:
985:
978:
973:
966:
961:
954:
950:
945:
938:
933:
926:
921:
919:
911:
906:
904:
902:
894:
889:
887:
879:
874:
867:
862:
855:
850:
843:
838:
831:
826:
819:
814:
807:
803:
798:
791:
786:
784:
779:
764:
761:
760:
754:
752:
747:
743:
739:
734:
731:
726:
722:
717:
715:
710:
704:
702:
701:
696:
692:
682:
680:
676:
672:
671:
666:
661:
659:
658:
653:
652:
647:
642:
637:
636:Hannah Arendt
633:
631:
626:
622:
621:
616:
612:
607:
603:
602:
597:
596:Viktor Frankl
592:
589:
585:
581:
574:
569:
559:
554:
552:
548:
547:Labor Zionist
544:
540:
536:
531:
527:
523:
518:
514:
512:
507:
503:
499:
494:
492:
487:
486:Yechiam Weitz
483:
479:
478:diaspora Jews
474:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
436:After the war
433:
430:
426:
422:
421:Warsaw Ghetto
418:
417:
412:
408:
407:Kraków Ghetto
403:
401:
397:
393:
390:
386:
382:
378:
370:
366:
360:
355:
353:
349:
343:
328:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:
287:
285:
281:
277:
273:
272:Zalman Shazar
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
252:
247:
243:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
219:
208:
206:
201:
200:Albert Barnes
197:
193:
189:
185:
182:, related to
181:
177:
169:
168:
167:
151:
146:
144:
143:
138:
137:
131:
127:
123:
122:Jewish people
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
95:
94:
92:
88:
73:
71:
66:
62:
58:
54:
53:
48:
44:
40:
36:
28:
24:
19:
3693:Yizkor books
3354:
3301:
3046:
2994:in Lithuania
2954:
2852:
2737:
2730:
2719:
2653:
2631:
2612:
2593:
2576:
2359:by Catholics
2228:Soviet Union
2096:By territory
2035:
2011:. Retrieved
2007:
2000:Tec, Nechama
1988:. Retrieved
1984:Aish HaTorah
1982:
1966:. Retrieved
1960:
1937:. Retrieved
1933:
1914:. Retrieved
1846:
1842:
1820:
1779:
1775:
1745:(2): 24–55.
1742:
1738:
1715:
1692:
1670:
1647:
1611:
1607:
1574:
1542:
1519:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1474:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1414:
1407:Feldman 2013
1402:
1390:
1378:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1300:
1295:, p. 8.
1288:
1276:
1264:
1237:
1230:Feldman 2013
1210:
1198:
1191:Feldman 2013
1186:
1134:, p. 5.
1110:
1098:
1093:, p. 9.
1086:
1074:
1052:Feldman 2013
1047:
1025:, p. 7.
989:Feldman 2013
984:
977:Feldman 2013
972:
965:Feldman 2013
960:
944:
937:Feldman 2013
932:
912:, p. 6.
878:Feldman 2013
873:
861:
854:Feldman 2013
849:
837:
830:Feldman 2013
825:
820:, p. 4.
813:
797:
735:
730:Eva Fogelman
718:
705:
698:
694:
688:
668:
662:
655:
649:
634:
625:Raul Hilberg
623:, historian
618:
599:
593:
577:
556:
519:
515:
495:
480:held by the
475:
444:
414:
404:
377:Yehuda Bauer
374:
368:
357:
352:Vilna Ghetto
345:
321:Yael Feldman
290:
288:
263:
259:
249:
239:
216:
214:
196:Presbyterian
176:Christianity
173:
170:Christianity
153:
148:
140:
134:
106:Hebrew Bible
99:
50:
39:Hebrew Bible
22:
20:
18:
3784:Victimology
3699:Never again
3530:(Action T4)
3456:Remembrance
3241:Homosexuals
3211:Soviet POWs
3139:Częstochowa
2687:Gas chamber
2498:Ravensbrück
2439:Gross-Rosen
2434:Flossenbürg
2317:Philippines
2249:Yugoslavia
2208:Netherlands
2136:Sudetenland
1888:Web sources
1650:. Hoboken:
1577:. Lincoln:
1215:Bar-On 2004
1203:Bar-On 2004
1162:Lawson 2010
1115:Bar-On 2004
1103:Bar-On 2004
1079:Lawson 2010
949:Gordis 2010
925:Rutman 2002
721:Elie Wiesel
714:Peter Hayes
709:Nechama Tec
502:antisemitic
491:Idit Zertal
365:Abba Kovner
325:Abba Kovner
198:theologian
192:Lamb of God
61:Abba Kovner
3723:Categories
3688:Yad Vashem
3668:Uniqueness
3523:Nisko Plan
3296:Nazi Party
3104:Resistance
3074:Ninth Fort
2939:Vel' d'Hiv
2711:Nazi units
2649:Westerbork
2639:Amersfoort
2493:Neuengamme
2474:Mauthausen
2454:Kaiserwald
2424:Buchenwald
2203:Luxembourg
2013:5 December
1990:5 December
1968:7 December
1939:5 December
1916:5 December
1911:Yad Vashem
1269:Porat 2004
1147:Porat 2004
1040:Bauer 1998
951:, p.
804:, p.
770:References
725:Primo Levi
679:Gaza Strip
675:evacuation
615:Anne Frank
223:Mattathias
76:Background
63:and other
3646:Education
3541:Aftermath
3453:Aftermath
3415:Trawnikis
3339:Wehrmacht
3334:Waffen-SS
3134:Białystok
2962:Bucharest
2934:Marseille
2811:Elsewhere
2772:Białystok
2584:Breendonk
2561:Treblinka
2414:Auschwitz
2198:Lithuania
1879:144360613
1863:1527-201X
1812:143465966
1796:0022-0094
1767:162298293
1636:162015828
1628:1527-2028
1242:Ofer 2000
775:Citations
742:Judenräte
685:Criticism
677:from the
551:Haim Guri
506:Tom Segev
447:partisans
441:In Israel
392:commissar
305:Palestine
268:Jerusalem
188:crucified
163:כצאן לטבח
142:Shacharis
130:martyrdom
102:Isaiah 53
87:Isaiah 53
81:Religious
43:martyrdom
35:Holocaust
31:כצאן לטבח
3631:Academia
3084:Piaśnica
3054:Babi Yar
2982:Jedwabne
2921:Roundups
2854:Judenrat
2818:Budapest
2589:Mechelen
2551:Majdanek
2508:Stutthof
2469:Majdanek
2364:by Poles
2322:Portugal
2300:Response
2291:Timeline
2269:Overview
2131:Slovakia
2118:Bulgaria
2034:(2017).
1934:Observer
1691:(2016).
1646:(2010).
1599:(2013).
1573:(2010).
1008:Tec 2013
757:See also
670:The Debt
651:Judenrat
362:—
317:Zionists
264:Josippon
218:Josippon
180:meekness
136:Tachanun
126:Psalm 44
91:Psalm 44
52:Josippon
3658:Lessons
3094:Rumbula
2967:Dorohoi
2948:Pogroms
2900:Victims
2750:Ghettos
2682:Gas van
2670:Methods
2644:Schoorl
2622:Bolzano
2570:Transit
2556:Sobibor
2546:Chełmno
2513:Vaivara
2449:Hinzert
2394:ghettos
2347:Vatican
2253:Croatia
2243:Ukraine
2233:Belarus
2223:Romania
2175:Hungary
2158:Germany
2148:Estonia
2143:Denmark
2113:Belgium
2108:Austria
2103:Albania
1962:Haaretz
1871:0245616
1759:4467575
558:better.
553:wrote:
549:writer
381:Palmach
359:breath.
284:Tel Hai
211:Secular
96:Judaism
3774:Psalms
3564:Bricha
3330:(Orpo)
3203:Others
3189:Żegota
3151:Rescue
3129:Warsaw
3089:Ponary
2999:Kaunas
2802:Warsaw
2787:Lublin
2777:Kraków
2764:Poland
2608:Drancy
2541:Belzec
2518:Warsaw
2429:Dachau
2337:Turkey
2332:Sweden
2258:Serbia
2238:Russia
2218:Poland
2213:Norway
2193:Latvia
2163:Greece
2153:France
2042:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1827:
1810:
1804:141413
1802:
1794:
1765:
1757:
1726:
1703:
1677:
1658:
1634:
1626:
1585:
1555:
1551:–113.
736:Rabbi
482:Yishuv
455:sabras
292:Yizkor
128:, the
114:Isaiah
27:Hebrew
3678:Humor
3651:Films
3348:Units
3079:Odesa
2929:Izieu
2843:Vilna
2828:Minsk
2823:Kovno
2797:Radom
2661:Sereď
2478:Gusen
2459:Kauen
2390:Camps
2327:Spain
2312:Japan
2186:Libya
2180:Italy
1903:(PDF)
1875:S2CID
1867:JSTOR
1808:S2CID
1800:JSTOR
1763:S2CID
1755:JSTOR
1632:S2CID
1604:(PDF)
541:poet
522:trial
184:Jesus
124:. In
3569:List
3324:(SD)
3304:(SS)
2987:Lviv
2972:Iași
2912:Jews
2833:Riga
2792:Lwów
2782:Łódź
2754:list
2603:Gurs
2476:and
2392:and
2040:ISBN
2015:2018
1992:2018
1970:2018
1941:2018
1918:2018
1859:ISSN
1825:ISBN
1792:ISSN
1724:ISBN
1701:ISBN
1675:ISBN
1656:ISBN
1624:ISSN
1583:ISBN
1553:ISBN
723:and
571:The
89:and
2718:SS-
1851:doi
1784:doi
1747:doi
1616:doi
1549:101
953:164
806:369
524:of
303:in
289:In
174:In
150:us.
118:God
100:In
25:" (
3725::
2655:sk
2633:nl
2615:it
2596:fr
2578:be
2006:.
1981:.
1959:.
1951:;
1932:.
1909:.
1873:.
1865:.
1857:.
1845:.
1806:.
1798:.
1790:.
1780:39
1778:.
1761:.
1753:.
1741:.
1699:.
1654:.
1630:.
1622:.
1612:19
1610:.
1606:.
1581:.
1569:;
1518:.
1363:^
1348:^
1249:^
1222:^
1169:^
1154:^
1139:^
1122:^
1059:^
1030:^
1015:^
996:^
917:^
900:^
885:^
782:^
409:,
398:,
367:,
207:.
194:.
72:.
29::
3701:"
3697:"
3014:"
3010:"
2756:)
2752:(
2077:e
2070:t
2063:v
2048:.
2017:.
1994:.
1972:.
1943:.
1920:.
1881:.
1853::
1847:8
1833:.
1814:.
1786::
1769:.
1749::
1743:6
1732:.
1709:.
1683:.
1664:.
1638:.
1618::
1591:.
1561:.
1042:.
1010:.
955:.
927:.
895:.
808:.
21:"
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