Great Purge - Knowledge

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Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army. It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity. Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.

4424: 3873: 3884: 4524: 4291: 1908:. The assassination, in December 1934, led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals. Many of those arrested after Kirov's murder, high-ranking party officials among them, also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself. The validity of these confessions is debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint at which Stalin decided to take action and begin the purges. Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion. Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The 4456: 569: 4239:

sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!" Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot, this was 7.4% of those executed legally. While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the

4184: 4338:, Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated: 4208: 1788: 4476: 6618:"Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'" 4512: 4092: 1877: 2446:) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts". Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators. 4436: 3432:

red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.

12822: 1445: 2184: 2735: 2723: 12834: 11647: 4571:"The present purge draws between Bolshevism and Stalinism not simply a bloody line but a whole river of blood. The annihilation of all the older generation of Bolsheviks, an important part of the middle generation which participated in the civil war, and that part of the youth that took up most seriously the Bolshevik traditions, shows not only a political but a thoroughly physical incompatibility between Bolshevism and Stalinism. How can this not be seen?". 1735: 3819: 4111:

confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents. Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("

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point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions." According to historian Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested. Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.

3657: 2810: 2410: 1784:, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies." 10188: 3086: 2635: 2286: 3074: 120: 2909:, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union were liquidated during the Stalinist terror, and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than had died in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, the majority of whom were Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo from Stalin's administration. Many Jewish figures such as 36: 3474:. (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the 4261:

begun. Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov. Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former

4144:, and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings; whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein. There were also 2210:, is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials, it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the 1761:(USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. By 1928, Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, had triumphed over his opponents and gained control of the party. Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary, Trotsky, was forced into exile in 1929, and Stalin's doctrine of " 2495: 2518:. The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years. Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families. 1924:, participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists. Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies. 2168:

friends, and intellectual friendship is stronger than other friendships. I knew that Bukharin was in the same state of upheaval as myself. That is why I did not want to deliver him bound hand and foot to the People's Commissariat of Home Affairs. Just as in relation to our other cadres, I wanted Bukharin himself to lay down his arms.

1998: 2277:, the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually. To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation. 4042:

also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost

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Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000

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In early 1937, poet Pavel Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations

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At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely

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The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily

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and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his

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In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through

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According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by Conquest and others. His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to

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should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin,

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to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and Trotsky,

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and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion. Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged

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By 1929, Stalin had defeated his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture escalated, which prompted Stalin to increase

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It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process. Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had

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and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this

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for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities". On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok. Pasternak himself was

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After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were

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On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these

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I feel guilty of one thing more: even after admitting my guilt and exposing the organisation, I stubbornly refused to give evidence about Bukharin. I knew that Bukharin's situation was just as hopeless as my own, because our guilt, if not juridically, then in essence, was the same. But we are close

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testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through school," as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism,

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The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the

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The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command). The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in

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However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the

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Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were

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elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses,

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Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on

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Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast,

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Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories. Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to

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made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders. Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.

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minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed, (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).

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A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens, prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges. The purge of the Party was

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So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders

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was flexibility: first, the numbers—the so-called limit—could be easily increased; second, it was left entirely to the NKVD officers whether a particular prisoner was to be shot or sent to the prison camps; third, the time-limits set for the completion of single operations were extended time and

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Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited

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to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many were subsequently shot dead at

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The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document

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states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record". Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin

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the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of

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Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36% of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6% of the Soviet Union's population. 74% of ethnic

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was the largest of this kind. The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles. The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without

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and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and

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congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false

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Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity,

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and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.

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The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the

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The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols. Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of

3417:, and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward. 1712:, who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million. Despite the end of the Great Purge, the widespread surveillance and atmosphere of mistrust continued for decades. Similar purges took place 1697:, and Soviet citizens of Polish origin, who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. Throughout the purge, the NKVD sought to strengthen control over civilians through fear, and frequently used imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and executions during its 4275:

posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler". Wheatcroft elaborates:

2328:. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further. 2311:

young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.

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The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and

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Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin,

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Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".

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and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to

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took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged. A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.

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demolish the whole case." He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:

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On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.

2678:(then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts), 50 of 57 army 2133:

That while confessions are necessarily entitled to the most serious consideration, the confessions themselves contain such inherent improbabilities as to convince the Commission that they do not represent the truth, irrespective of any means used to obtain

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Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and

1861:, as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before 4046:

Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the

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wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.

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That Trotsky never instructed any of the accused or witnesses in the Moscow trials to enter into agreements with foreign powers against the Soviet Union that Trotsky never recommended, plotted, or attempted the restoration of capitalism in the

4523: 4423: 3456:, shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union. He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When 2406:

fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."

2402:, participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements". 2034:

that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated. Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and

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establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution:

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the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.

1806:. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. 1936:. As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928, the mass repression – including incarceration in the Gulag system – dropped significantly. 10310: 4167:

were of individuals who had received this sentence. Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of

2050:, and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting and the rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died. 2526:. The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian. 1899:

By 1934, several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his control over the party. In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, the popular high-ranking official

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Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast

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broke out amid the purge. Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General

2100:. Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true. 2096:, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator 4322:. They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky 2990:

While being the most visible part, the trials and executions of the former Bolshevik leaders were only a minor aspect of the purges. A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by

1720:. While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin. 3385:(Stalin jotted down in Bukharin's letter with feigned indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to 2248:

The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder

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In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.

2261:. No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing. For some prominent communists such as 1931:

onward, Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the

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development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the

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he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.

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highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences:

4043:

technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 ... died at once, or within a few years."

2592:

wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the earlier Soviet political repressions in Ukraine. There was also deadly persecution of Ukrainian cultural elites, who are referred to as the

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was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer

2382:

The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "

3565:

was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer

2424:, including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" ( 2431:

Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the

1944:. The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government. The food shortage led to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan. 3249:, was a Soviet economist, chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and Professor of the Agricultural Academy in Moscow but was eventually executed on fabricated charges in 1938. 3627:, an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky. 1825:

This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The

4373:("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there. 1948:

accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period:

10203: – Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79 4347:

Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"

2379:, former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas. 11102: 9075:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gabor T.; Zemskov, Viktor N. (October 1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence".

2428:) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror. 4199:

saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".

2207: 2178: 1975: 11741: 2600:

sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338). Some scholars have called the national operations of the NKVD

4006:, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably 10589: 2022:

The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936, at which the chief defendants were

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immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.

2453:

The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.

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reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.

4387:

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites. Some, such as the

2608:

called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal". However, he does not consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.

638: 9697: 5371: 12145: 12128: 10273: 2565:, ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed. 1565: 1162: 4603:, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by 1845:

participated, and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending

12175: 10441: 10406: 10402: 1909: 4881: 3749:, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings". Buddhist 8944: 603: 3973:

When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "

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communists that perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists that were handed over from Stalin to the Gestapo after the signing of the

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Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.

2529:

The Polish Operation of the NKVD served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the

2061:

It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants. From the accounts of former

11203: 11161: 10604: 10340: 10279: 4651: 4104: 2629: 1632:. Soviet politicians who opposed or criticized Stalin were removed from office and imprisoned or executed by the NKVD. Eventually, the purges were expanded to the 535: 4681: 4610:

Valentin Berezhkov, who became Stalin's interpreter in 1941, suggests parallels in his memoir between Hitler's inner party purge and Stalin's mass repressions of

3268:, founder of the Computing Institute in 1919 and was noted for his specialism in applied celestial mechanics before the Second World War. He was executed in 1941. 1809:

The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by

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report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses; according to Robert Conquest,

4475: 12638: 12138: 11342: 2561:. Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to 11605: 3951:, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public. 3852:

Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.

2874:

argued that Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective countries. He referenced 600 active

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viewed the excessive violence characteristic of the mass purges as an ideological differentiation between Stalinism and Bolshevism. He summarised his view:

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in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place. Another defendant,

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hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.

3554:

was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.

2971:

who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive. Four of the other five were executed; the fifth,

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police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks (i.e., wealthy peasants that owned farmland) in a policy called

409: 2343:

and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in

1765:" became enshrined party policy. However, in the early 1930s, party officials began to lose faith in his leadership, largely due to the human cost of the 12123: 12075: 2580:

Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian "kulaks" who had survived

4511: 4298:

At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich,

11620: 11600: 11074: 3518:, was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature. 3731:

executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.

12893: 12372: 11610: 10694: 6584: 1729: 386: 371: 111: 4554:, much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time. 3441:

was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet

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was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with

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Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692, in addition to 116,000 deaths in the

4062: 877: 4865:

According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials

4032:. While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably 2438:

To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and

568: 2245:, said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership. 900: 9825: 3958:, arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander 3954:

In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union

12070: 11683: 11595: 10659: 10520: 7158: 7131: 6329:

Dyck, Kirsten (2022). "Holodomor and Holocaust memory in competition and cooperation". In Cox, John M.; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.).

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campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003). According to an October 1993 study published in

2611:

Some scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space

434: 429: 3858:

Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.

3255:, Soviet economist and ranked among the most influential contributors to the classical Marxist tradition. He is noted for his seminal work, 1636:

and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military. The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society:

11736: 11085: 10365: 10361: 6355:"The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4676: 4156: 3974: 2115:, confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year. 528: 509: 424: 419: 414: 3977:" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked 2979:

in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (

12255: 12225: 10717: 10320: 6083:"The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n°00447 (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 5027: 4666: 1102: 938: 843: 699: 216: 186: 6853: 6772: 4384:

in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917.

12512: 12472: 12382: 12193: 11709: 11143: 10967: 1089: 395: 7324: 6226:

Sundström, Olle; Kotljarchuk, Andrej (2017). "Introduction: the problem of ethnic and religious minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union".

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Anti-Soviet 'Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites' Heard before the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the U.S.S.R., Verbatim Report

2130:

That the conduct of the Moscow Trials was such as to convince any unprejudiced person that no attempt was made to ascertain the truth.

1704:

In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges, criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions, and oversaw the execution of

12500: 12395: 12267: 12053: 10727: 10699: 7703: 1746: 1466: 686: 681: 456: 7405: 3872: 3470:, philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's 1966: 12948: 12405: 12322: 12215: 11372: 11029: 10669: 10335: 8687: 830: 466: 357: 7757: 6745: 5233: 12345: 12152: 12019: 10942: 10891: 10253: 4435: 4356: 3609:

executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the

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lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.

800: 741: 521: 499: 7351: 2314:

Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel

12958: 12888: 12043: 11888: 11120: 10987: 10946: 10599: 10525: 10436: 10330: 7969: 7676: 6905:"Kurapaty (1937–1941): NKVD Mass Killings in Soviet Belarus | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network" 4656: 4545: 4380:

in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former

3883: 2596:. Statistics of Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicate that about 200,000 victims of the Great Purge were Ukrainians. 2383: 1286: 1281: 1008: 598: 7476: 7449: 6826: 6048: 4290: 3478:

which was led by Leon Trotsky. In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "

12530: 12031: 11997: 11985: 11980: 11871: 10152: 10115:—— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." 10034: 10013: 9992: 9970: 9948: 9929: 9907: 9885: 9838: 9805: 9784: 9765: 9743: 9720: 9208: 9121: 8724: 8697: 8670: 7979: 7952: 7767: 7740: 7730: 7713: 7686: 7641: 7567: 7540: 7513: 7503: 7486: 7459: 7432: 7388: 7361: 7334: 7307: 7280: 7168: 7141: 7114: 7087: 6863: 6836: 6809: 6799: 6782: 6755: 6728: 6701: 6674: 6647: 6338: 5243: 5216: 4686: 1155: 910: 736: 12457: 8948: 8112: 7557: 7297: 6431: 6372:"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study" 6129: 2705:

disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge.

1271: 12567: 12335: 10431: 10426: 10370: 9111: 7942: 7657: 6718: 6191: 5517: 5206: 4886: 3962:, arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor 3533: 1953: 1777: 1459: 712: 552: 326: 7223: 6150:О фашистско-повстанческой, шпионской, диверсионной, пораженческой и террористической деятельности польской разведки в СССР 3547:, considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937. 2122:. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote 12963: 12447: 12113: 12060: 12048: 11137: 10881: 10799: 10664: 10483: 9705:

Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s

9039: 7631: 6371: 4696: 4671: 4107: 3424:

was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress

3390:

nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."

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began affecting civilian life. The purge reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of

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The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included

12863: 12495: 12490: 12210: 12158: 11284: 10957: 10922: 10864: 9636: 9598: 9579: 9560: 9525: 9493: 9470: 9448: 9429: 9407: 9383: 9362: 9341: 8789: 8759: 8517: 8406: 8355: 8164: 7808: 7270: 6984: 6888: 6472: 6313: 6240: 5866: 5567: 4989: 4103:

The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the

3978: 3313:, who oversaw Soviet construction projects and nationalization of the chemical industry. Bogdanov was executed in 1939. 3117: 2895: 1276: 1194: 1130: 676: 7422: 7077: 6462: 12878: 12873: 12868: 12747: 12698: 12631: 12442: 12170: 11772: 11676: 11322: 11053: 8714: 7658:"Yuri Gastev, Russian dissident and human rights activist; at 65 – The Boston Globe (Boston, MA) | HighBeam Research" 5859:

Not guilty : report of the Commission of Inquiry Into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

3740: 2853: 2791: 2416:, one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later. 1713: 1110: 449: 72: 7104: 5140: 4922: 3905:

In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed.

2835: 12908: 12777: 12765: 12589: 12579: 12535: 12350: 12026: 11975: 11858: 11327: 10844: 10325: 8962: 8154: 7378: 6389: 4234:

Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian

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At Stalin's side : his interpreter's memoirs from the October Revolution to the fall of the dictator's empire

7326:

An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations

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demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.

2070:

charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.

12782: 12770: 12626: 12611: 12525: 12427: 12009: 11829: 11347: 10834: 10829: 10809: 10757: 10473: 9648:"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest" 8601: 8594: 7187:

Sharma, Hari Prasad; Sen, Subir K. (2006). "Shubnikov: A case of non-recognition in superconductivity research".

5670: 4183: 3678: 2519: 2479:

was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of

1211: 778: 298:

Elimination of political opponents, consolidation of power, fear of counterrevolution, fear of party infiltration

9922:

Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences – Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR

9198: 3370:

had futilely pleaded for his case prior to his eventual execution due to accusations of working as a German spy.

3216:

considered the "Soviet founding father of Soviet low-temperature physics" He was known for the discovery of the

3201:. He was removed from his formal positions in 1935 and perished in prison in 1943 following his conflicts with 2253:

by poison, partition the USSR and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.

12723: 12703: 12400: 12014: 11839: 11767: 11392: 11296: 10937: 10804: 10123: 8582: 8557: 7908: 7854: 6964: 6948: 6273: 5633: 4550: 4172:, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million". 3746: 3686: 3562: 2820: 2773: 1781: 1689:. Many died at the penal labor camps of starvation, disease, exposure, and overwork. The NKVD targeted certain 1358: 1067: 1030: 461: 346: 336: 149: 6354: 4155:, a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence " 3705:

Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the

2975:, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent 12918: 12913: 12903: 12794: 12621: 12485: 12437: 12198: 11992: 11866: 11849: 10917: 10814: 8436:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" 4898: 4600: 3624: 1905: 1426: 1396: 1391: 94: 6093: 6082: 5259: 12938: 12933: 12898: 12390: 12065: 11960: 11761: 11669: 11572: 11337: 10999: 10849: 10762: 10488: 10478: 10451: 10192: 8143:

Allen S. Whiting and General Sheng Shicai. "Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot?" Michigan State University Press, 1958

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regarded the Moscow trials "as the prelude to the destruction of an entire generation of revolutionaries".

4207: 3955: 3595: 3511: 3359: 3217: 2922: 2910: 2769: 2690:

expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.

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was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the

2066: 1690: 1411: 1261: 1077: 1072: 1052: 895: 890: 851: 805: 793: 768: 758: 727: 717: 404: 54: 17: 3928:

Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s.

1776:

From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of

12943: 12671: 12653: 12419: 12277: 12238: 12205: 11895: 11883: 11799: 11701: 11019: 10674: 10446: 10421: 10397: 10305: 10246: 10103: 9397: 4661: 4414: 3922: 3810: 3321: 3019: 2932:, in which the NKVD oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements in the Spanish Republican forces including 2879: 2675: 2659: 2639: 2476: 2462: 1787: 1698: 1401: 1386: 1381: 1020: 1015: 956: 763: 560: 494: 46: 8918: 3925:

and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges.

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headed by Stalin. Hundreds of thousands of victims were accused of various political crimes (espionage,

12666: 12643: 12616: 11632: 11362: 11352: 11317: 10854: 10510: 10225: 10212: 10043:

Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited."

8745: 8443: 6997: 3475: 2887: 2234: 2031: 1834: 1251: 1221: 6691: 5340:

Shearer, David. 2003. "Social Disorder, Mass Repression and the NKVD During the 1930s." pp. 85–117 in

2053:

There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including

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as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.

3056: 2899: 2891: 2875: 439: 12676: 6904: 6018:

Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938

12789: 11357: 11193: 11109: 11046: 10839: 10722: 10679: 10639: 9844: 8574: 7900: 7871: 6976: 2344: 1762: 1650:)—and professionals. As the scope of the purge widened, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and 1617: 1040: 707: 8156:

Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

8026: 7783: 2925:, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937. 12038: 11567: 11171: 11060: 10927: 10794: 9485: 9155: 9137: 8833: 8188: 7106:

Covariant Loop Quantum Gravity: An Elementary Introduction to Quantum Gravity and Spinfoam Theory

4429:"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988 4112: 4074: 3967: 3801:

were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.

3280: 2831: 2762: 2616: 2421: 2352: 2211: 1671: 1593: 1504: 1184: 861: 656: 8995: 8598: 7011: 5890: 5385: 4020:, who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason"; and 3428:, was murdered in her apartment. In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote: 3302:. Gerasimovich was arrested along with 13 other astronomers and was personally executed in 1938. 1916:

Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war.

12718: 12310: 12248: 11650: 11559: 10654: 10540: 10239: 9608: 7995: 4961:

James Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941,"

4646: 3929: 3898:. He was posthumously removed from pictures, such as here where he stood next to Joseph Stalin. 3674: 3221: 2918: 2443: 2395: 10198: 8749: 8345: 6103: 5814: 1682:, conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were executed by shooting or sent to the 12837: 11809: 11546: 11091: 11080: 11014: 10594: 10315: 10051: 9552: 8549: 8509: 8055:

American Communists and Radicals Executed by Soviet Political Police and Buried at Sandarmokh

7451:

Automation and Autonomy: Labour, Capital and Machines in the Artificial Intelligence Industry

6992: 6529: 6134:["The Polish operation" NKVD 1937–1938] (in Russian). НИПЦ «Мемориал». Archived from 5235:

Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia

4775: 4734: 4272: 3934: 3493: 3325: 3152: 2321: 1846: 1679: 1651: 1057: 856: 10226:"Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38" 9703:

A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev.

4409:

In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in

4159:" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at 4091: 3780:

province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The

2159:

By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the

12923: 12858: 12599: 12462: 12282: 12080: 11794: 11498: 11426: 11367: 11278: 11233: 10910: 10411: 10392: 9242: 7235: 7042: 7033:

Bronstein, Matvei (2011). "Republication of: Quantum theory of weak gravitational fields".

6923: 5413: 3944: 3932:(a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in 3635: 3610: 3194: 3044: 3007: 2643: 2593: 2515: 2372: 2054: 1854: 1766: 1739: 1663: 1348: 1204: 1062: 1035: 925: 920: 905: 773: 12686: 9393: 3966:, arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously 2241:

asserts that Bukharin was not involved. Differently from Broué, one of his former allies,

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as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in

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Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38."

10080: 9678: 9624: 9092: 9034: 8980: 8885: 8460: 8193: 7612: 7204: 7058: 6412: 5741: 5345: 5328: 5323:

Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. "Socially Harmful Elements and the Great Terror." pp. 286–307 in

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about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.

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This article is about the 1936–1938 Soviet purge. For political purges in general, see

9859: 9166: 8095: 6494:

Cahiers du monde russe. Russie – Empire russe – Union soviétique et États indépendants

5299: 3018:, or their deputies) those arrested along national lines. A characteristic of all the 12801: 12741: 12520: 12306: 12002: 11804: 11789: 11731: 11577: 11208: 11009: 10932: 10649: 10493: 10416: 10387: 10148: 10055: 10030: 10024: 10009: 9988: 9980: 9966: 9958: 9944: 9925: 9903: 9881: 9834: 9801: 9780: 9761: 9739: 9716: 9682: 9670: 9632: 9613: 9594: 9575: 9556: 9521: 9489: 9466: 9444: 9425: 9403: 9379: 9358: 9352: 9337: 9204: 9117: 9003: 8893: 8785: 8755: 8720: 8693: 8666: 8642: 8578: 8553: 8513: 8435: 8402: 8351: 8160: 7975: 7948: 7904: 7850: 7763: 7736: 7709: 7682: 7637: 7604: 7563: 7536: 7509: 7482: 7455: 7428: 7384: 7357: 7330: 7303: 7276: 7251: 7196: 7164: 7137: 7110: 7083: 7062: 6980: 6960: 6944: 6927:

article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including:

6884: 6859: 6832: 6805: 6778: 6751: 6724: 6697: 6670: 6643: 6624: 6511: 6468: 6334: 6309: 6269: 6236: 5872: 5862: 5745: 5733: 5629: 5563: 5523: 5239: 5212: 5179: 5088: 4985: 4844: 4592: 4576: 4366: 4243: 3914: 3890: 3714:. In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at 3590: 3573: 3566: 3140: 3129: 2999: 2992: 2963:, or in Lenin's Soviet government, were executed. Out of six members of the original 2883: 2827: 2356: 2274: 2183: 2094:

Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials

1818: 1602: 1421: 1353: 1333: 1298: 1293: 1189: 1025: 976: 951: 946: 915: 651: 489: 201: 10824: 6416: 6229:

Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research

5208:

Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat

4802: 4330:

The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("

3840:

Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.

3507:

was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.

2976: 2890:

became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the

1866: 11522: 11514: 11332: 11290: 11264: 11153: 11024: 11004: 10977: 10737: 10498: 10072: 9662: 9507: 9458: 9084: 8452: 8046: 7596: 7243: 7050: 6936: 6501: 6489: 6404: 6049:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5725: 5709: 5515: 5372:"Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)" 5171: 5068: 4836: 4790: 4641: 4362: 4307: 4254: 4224: 4120: 4017: 3991: 3719: 3706: 3634:

was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of

3617: 3602: 3515: 3483: 3355: 3240: 3172: 3015: 2952:, a left-wing academic and translator along with many members of the POUM faction. 2914: 2726: 2573: 2499: 2362: 2316: 2289: 2199: 2160: 2087: 2030:, two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a 2023: 2011: 1921: 1880: 1870: 1842: 1830: 1814: 1541: 1495: 1266: 1236: 885: 871: 788: 593: 473: 279: 275: 9698:

Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag

8122: 8100:

Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe

5729: 5645: 4501:

A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of

3921:) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria cancelled most of the 3398: 12713: 11926: 11878: 11784: 11466: 11258: 11176: 10972: 10901: 10732: 10577: 10567: 10356: 10221:

Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)

10056:"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45" 10003: 9795: 9753: 9535: 9517: 9373: 9334:

The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB

9061: 8779: 8660: 8605: 6928: 6303: 6135: 5557: 4979: 4975: 4584: 4558: 4188: 4152: 3999: 3906: 3797:, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and 3786: 3586:, seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939. 3457: 3445:

as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities. He was executed on 16 December 1937.

3438: 3382: 3374: 3367: 3272: 3182: 3176: 3102: 3066: 2984: 2655: 2647: 2523: 2307: 2270: 2258: 2143:

The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."

2112: 2104: 1959:

1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."

1606: 1588: 1338: 1328: 1226: 866: 815: 263: 90: 9985:

Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine

9713:

Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939

9237: 8859: 8506:

The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939

8251: 7661: 6195: 5949:

De Lenine à Staline. Dix ans au service de l'Internationale communiste 1921–1931

5861:. 1859–1952. New York: Sam Sloan and Ishi Press International. pp. 154–55. 5175: 5054:"The Impact of the Great Purges on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs" 5012: 4794: 4406:, an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime. 2238: 12733: 12661: 11941: 11931: 11590: 11582: 11387: 11312: 11228: 11188: 10747: 10742: 10684: 9895: 7971:

Russian Academicians and the Revolution: Combining Professionalism and Politics

6968: 6333:. Routledge studies in modern history. London New York: Routledge. p. 31. 6299: 6255: 5559:

Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938

5113:

Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign".

4611: 4403: 4315: 4311: 4299: 4235: 4228: 4125: 4007: 3948: 3895: 3583: 3525: 3504: 3489: 3449: 3403: 3378: 3317: 3310: 3287: 3202: 3198: 3028: 3011: 2980: 2605: 2581: 2562: 2480: 2413: 2391: 2376: 2340: 2227: 2195: 1941: 1750: 1709: 1705: 1655: 1637: 1629: 1621: 1557: 1318: 1256: 998: 991: 981: 615: 331: 259: 255: 10206: 10076: 9666: 9238:"Historian James Harris says Russian archives show we've misunderstood Stalin" 7600: 7054: 6666:

Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State

6063:

L'ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d'un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938

2738: 12883: 12852: 12594: 11482: 11442: 11238: 11131: 11126: 10982: 10905: 10871: 10634: 10629: 10515: 10262: 10217: 9917: 9735: 9511: 9417: 9007: 8897: 8775: 7608: 7255: 7200: 6515: 6044: 5876: 5737: 5367: 5183: 4848: 4740: 4588: 4319: 4216: 4176: 4021: 3963: 3822: 3631: 3425: 3410: 3381:

to his circle of friends in 1934. After intervention by Nikolai Bukharin and

3343: 3333: 3265: 3213: 2906: 2871: 2514:

The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the

2351:, was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously 2266: 2262: 2191: 2043: 1988: 1888: 1826: 1694: 1625: 1568: 1416: 1343: 1323: 1231: 1003: 751: 666: 321: 247: 8054: 6506: 3414: 2118:

The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled

12477: 12298: 11692: 11538: 11434: 11253: 10994: 10779: 10689: 10550: 10173: 9855: 9674: 9503: 8050: 6619: 4564: 4466: 4417:. The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge. 4116: 4084: 4053: 4034: 3773: 3767: 3682: 3497: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3179:

was arrested, accused of fictional "terroristic" activity and shot in 1938.

3113: 2972: 2698: 2215: 2003: 1901: 1884: 1838: 1810: 1791: 1758: 1754: 1580: 287: 141: 9441:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

8399:

On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics

4840: 4682:

Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945

3452:, having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the 12302: 12294: 11916: 11900: 11814: 11271: 11097: 8372: 7532:

Soviet Atomic Project, The: How The Soviet Union Obtained The Atomic Bomb

6265: 4604: 4266: 4096: 4025: 3529: 3521: 3394: 3329: 3252: 3078: 3048: 3003: 2949: 2917:

were arrested in 1937 by the NKVD and turned over to the German Gestapo.

2671: 2589: 2558: 2348: 2250: 2027: 2007: 1241: 1120: 971: 961: 620: 211: 10093:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

9265:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

8966: 7208: 6192:"Zapomniane ludobójstwo stalinowskie (The forgotten Stalinist genocide)" 5712:

The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military

4856: 4824: 3919:

Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation

1858: 12330: 11248: 10896: 10582: 10461: 9096: 8571:

Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940

8464: 6260: 5527: 5342:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union,

5080: 4691: 4530: 4262: 3959: 3815:

The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:

3798: 3715: 3576:

was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.

3544: 3479: 3291: 3186: 2956: 2941: 2933: 2867: 2776: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2542: 2399: 2152: 2097: 2039: 1933: 1734: 1686: 1145: 820: 661: 588: 366: 267: 174: 11661: 10084: 9572:

Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union

9197:

Berezhkov, V. M. (Valentin Mikhaĭlovich); Mikheyev, Sergei M. (1994).

7616: 7584: 7247: 5910:

British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937

5191: 5159: 3593:, responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet 1962:

1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."

1869:

was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent

1620:

and secret police of the USSR. Starting in 1936, the NKVD under chief

1616:(People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which functioned as the 966: 12550: 12545: 12367: 12260: 12090: 11751: 10876: 10767: 10624: 10562: 10108:—— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." 8881: 8612: 4882:"The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region" 4701: 4294:

Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990

3910: 3818: 3794: 3790: 3558: 3471: 3169: 3052: 2937: 2683: 2585: 2538: 2503: 2293: 1216: 722: 583: 341: 125: 9088: 8456: 8117: 7299:

Managing Technological Innovation: Competitive Advantage from Change

5646:"Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives" 5072: 4825:"Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges" 3097: 2838:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 2751: 2347:

in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife,

2190:

chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right):

12540: 12085: 11819: 11779: 10819: 10530: 7559:

Hammer and Rifle: The Militarization of the Soviet Union, 1926–1933

6640:

Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years

6408: 6359:

nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html

4442: 4388: 4377: 4370: 4247: 4164: 3777: 3690: 3467: 3206: 3136: 2667: 2601: 2550: 2546: 2534: 2439: 1675: 1633: 1598: 1115: 810: 221: 206: 178: 145: 7759:

Ensnared between Hitler and Stalin: Refugee Scientists in the USSR

7585:"Alexei Gastev and the Soviet Controversy over Taylorism, 1918-24" 7407:

The Official Record of the United States Department of Agriculture

3620:

was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.

3124: 3061: 2568: 1802:" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression 12432: 11936: 10555: 10380: 10375: 10135: 9827:

Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review

8834:"Pictorial essay: Death trenches bear witness to Stalin's purges" 7996:"In memory of the scientist : Durnovo, Nikolai Nikolayevich" 7633:

The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927–1932

6087:

nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html

4596: 4502: 3667: 3642: 3537: 3156: 2409: 2387: 10231: 8945:"Jewish Cemeteries, Synagogues, and Mass Grave Sites in Ukraine" 7847:

A Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror

5689: 5446: 4587:, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the 3745:

During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the

3656: 2697:

The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in

10187: 7383:. (Cottons Gardens, E2 8DN), Pluto Press Limited. p. 239. 5095: 4533:

burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia

4413:, Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of 4365:

and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of

4240: 3579: 3442: 3276: 3190: 3109: 3085: 2702: 2634: 2615:

neighboring capitalistic enemy states. They stress the role of

2588:

famine that had been used to kill millions in the early 1930s.

2554: 2285: 182: 8803: 8801: 7424:

The Reception of David Ricardo in Continental Europe and Japan

6308:(4th revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 5891:"The Case of Leon Trotsky (Report of Dewey Commission – 1937)" 4517:

A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia

3909:

succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of

3205:. The controversy would also contribute to a wider decline in 2682:

commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army

1794:, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union 238:

system (official figures) 700,000 to 1.2 million (estimated)

12355: 12233: 10774: 9900:

Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)

8325: 7079:

Advances in the Interplay Between Quantum and Gravity Physics

5960: 5958: 5581: 5579: 5414:"The "Bloc" of the Oppositions against Stalin (January 1980)" 4860: 4486: 4446: 4410: 4141: 3826: 3073: 2929: 2679: 2530: 2202:. All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed. 1799: 1683: 1645: 1641: 1576: 381: 235: 119: 86: 10274:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

9878:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

8434:

Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (1993).

8347:

Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind

7732:

Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences

6957:

Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia

4146:

16,500 to 50,000 deaths in the deportation of Soviet Koreans

3350:

in 1934. He was also the sibling of prominent mathematician

2620:

prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.

12467: 12243: 9030:"Critics Scoff as Kremlin Erects Monument to the Repressed" 8798: 8289: 8279: 8277: 8262: 8064: 6883:. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 364–72. 6114: 6112: 4392: 4250: 3829: 3750: 3144: 2945: 2187: 2179:

Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"

2108: 2062: 1613: 251: 10228:

by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999

9549:

The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s

8996:"Former Killing Ground Becomes Shrine to Stalin's Victims" 8713:

Dashpu̇rėv, Danzankhorloogiĭn; Soni, Sharad Kumar (1992).

8686:

Kotkin, Stephen; Elleman, Bruce Allen (12 February 2015).

8492:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8479:

The Great Terror: A Reassessment: 40th Anniversary Edition

8401:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 244–45. 6747:

On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War

6600: 6029:

Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet

6000: 5955: 5576: 2701:: many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but 165:(2 years, 3 months, 4 weeks and 1 day) 12452: 12272: 8616: 8220: 6909:

kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html

6855:

Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century

6693:

Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History

2494: 2398:), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the 2126:

Independent of extrinsic evidence, the Commission finds:

10311:

Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War

10280:

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

9463:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

9289:

For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review,

9178: 8415: 8313: 8301: 8274: 8006: 7913: 7678:

Comprehending the Complexity of Countries: The Way Ahead

6941:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

6109: 5626:

Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe

5608: 5606: 5516:

People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. (1938).

5120: 4923:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge" 4652:

Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin

4402:

On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the

4130:

Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s

3832:(1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939 2662:. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge. 2630:

Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

9399:

The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression

9309: 9074: 8433: 7869: 7735:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 3460. 7421:

Faccarello, Gilbert; Izumo, Masashi (3 February 2014).

6559: 6547: 5988: 5976: 5913: 5794: 5782: 5770: 5344:

edited by B. McLaughlin and K. McDermott. Basingstoke:

3031:

to kill the victims during their transportation to the

2206:

The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the

1913:

including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage.

1757:

opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the

11343:

List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin

9217: 9156:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 9138:"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)" 8232: 8208: 8076: 7836:

The Independent, "The History of Hell", 8 January 1995

7082:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 440. 7076:

Bergmann, Peter G.; Sabbata, V. de (6 December 2012).

5829: 4942: 4940: 4253:

in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader

3482:

idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in

3377:

was arrested for reciting his famous anti-Stalin poem

3197:

such as the law of homologous series in variation and

8186: 6127: 5973:

Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10

5841: 5603: 5260:"Leon Trotsky – Exile and assassination | Britannica" 4195:

The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with

3685:, who both organized large-scale murderous purges in 2237:

led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed,

2156:

from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."

1525: 1509: 784:

Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina

10790:

Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

10026:

The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia

9203:. Secaucus, NJ : Carol Pub. Group. p. 10. 6225: 6202: 5591: 5028:"Rethinking Stalin's Purge of the Red Army, 1937–38" 4246:

got rid of? No one." Stalin had ordered for 100,000

2456: 2435:

were charged with a non-political criminal offence.

9591:

The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953

9569: 8343: 8152: 7160:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

7133:

The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography

6027:Tucker, Robert. "Block of Rights and Trotskyites." 5695: 4957: 4955: 4937: 4285: 3163:Those who perished during the Great Purge include: 1624:began the removal of the central party leadership, 11075:Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia 9824:Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). 9823: 9615:The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes 9612: 8886:"Wary of its past, Russia ignores mass grave site" 8632:. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470 8337: 6921:This information was published first in 1990 in a 5522:. People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. 5374:. Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network. 5141:"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge" 2940:factions. Notable cases involved the execution of 1662:. The campaigns were carried out according to the 957:50th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide protests 10132:Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s 10128:Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов 9196: 8599:Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited 8547:Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. 7404:Agriculture, United States Department of (1925). 6487: 3239:and developed the business cycle theory known as 2882:. Rogovin also noted that sixteen members of the 2163:, led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying: 1993: 1730:Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1579:also sought to remove the remaining influence of 112:purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union 12954:Persecution of intellectuals in the Soviet Union 12850: 12541:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 9758:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 9332:Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) . 6194:. Gliwicki klub Fondy. Czytelnia. Archived from 6077: 6075: 6073: 6071: 5556:Getty, John Arch; Getty, John Archibald (1987). 4952: 4128:, was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book 4004:The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties 11183:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9513:In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage 9422:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia 9331: 9302:Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army." 7762:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 1–376. 7705:Groups and Analysis: The Legacy of Hermann Weyl 7420: 7353:Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography 7075: 6801:The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939 6189: 5452: 4974: 4879: 4769: 4767: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4581:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 2355:a half-century later by the Soviet state under 2146: 1644:—especially those lending out money or wealth ( 89:. For the period of the French Revolution, see 49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling 8712: 8189:"«Большой террор»: 1937–1938. Краткая хроника" 8059:In Denial: Historians, Communism and Espionage 8024: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7102: 6851: 6488:Kuromiya, Hiroaki; Pepłoński, Andrzej (2009). 6198:on 23 March 2012 – via Internet Archive. 5815:"The British Stalinists and the Moscow Trials" 5492:"Who Killed Kirov? 'The Crime of the Century'" 4016:, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador, 3725: 3151:. He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and 11677: 10758:Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour 10660:Aggravation of class struggle under socialism 10521:Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance 10247: 9902:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 9629:Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 8685: 8159:. Cambridge: CUP Archive. pp. 151, 376. 7410:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3. 7182: 7180: 6387: 6068: 5906: 5904: 5160:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4776:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 4538: 4395:, are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses. 4361:In the late 1980s, with the formation of the 1535: 1519: 1467: 529: 234:681,692 executions and 116,000 deaths in the 128:searching through the exhumed victims of the 10208:Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial 10170:Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror 10005:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 9607: 9570:McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002). 9482:The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s 9175:, p. 121 which cites his secret speech. 8919:"Stalin-era mass grave yields tons of bones" 8226: 8191:["Great Terror": Brief Chronology]. 8113:"RTÉ News: Mass grave uncovered in Mongolia" 7109:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7. 6261:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 6174:Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin 4920: 4880:François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009). 4758: 4677:Family members of traitors to the Motherland 4350: 4157:10 years without the right of correspondence 4135: 3975:10 years without the right of correspondence 2363:"Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" 10718:1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi 9502: 9438: 9402:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 9027: 8503: 8494:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. xvi 8481:, Oxford University Press, US, 2007. p. 287 8396: 8370: 8350:. Reynal & Hitchcock. pp. 133–34. 8070: 7870:Tarkhan-Mouravi, George (19 January 1997). 7825: 7822:Robert C. Tucker, "Stalin in Power", p. 445 7776: 7728: 7708:. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. 7403: 7103:Rovelli, Carlo; Vidotto, Francesca (2015). 6852:Kocho-Williams, Alastair (4 January 2013). 6743: 6669:. Princeton University Press. p. 280. 6039: 6037: 4529:The monumental slab at the entrance to the 4087:on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union 3448:Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet, 2739:Nikita Khrushchev speech during Great purge 1853:the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including 1628:, government officials, and regional party 1546: 11684: 11670: 11144:Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR 10254: 10240: 10050: 10022: 9957: 9732:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 9645: 8993: 8807: 8784:. Cambridge University Press. p. 51. 7636:. Princeton University Press. p. 47. 7562:. University Press of Kansas. p. 72. 7221: 7177: 6973:Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis 6456: 6454: 6452: 6235:. Södertörn Academic Studies. p. 16. 5901: 5555: 4614:, military commanders and intellectuals. 4376:In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at 4095:Monument to victims of the repressions in 3336:, emigre and eventual political dissident. 3261:. Rubin was arrested and executed in 1937. 3002:and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the 2983:) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and 2959:who had played prominent roles during the 2727:Soviet woman speech during the Great purge 1571:'s campaign to consolidate power over the 1474: 1460: 536: 522: 118: 10728:National delimitation in the Soviet Union 10700:Backwardness brings on beatings by others 9872: 9457: 9443:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 9109: 8880: 8860:"Mass grave found at Ukrainian monastery" 8754:. Harvard University Press. p. 369. 7940: 7931:Roy Medvedev, "Let history judge", p. 438 7755: 7447: 7186: 7032: 6831:. Harvard University Press. p. 212. 6797: 6716: 6505: 6185: 6183: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6161: 6159: 5612: 5025: 4115:") in 1957. The former Politburo members 3700: 3105:'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest 2854:Learn how and when to remove this message 2792:Learn how and when to remove this message 1829:seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions. 1612:The purges were largely conducted by the 73:Learn how and when to remove this message 12894:Political repression in the Soviet Union 10670:Great Construction Projects of Communism 10147:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 10142: 10122: 9987:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9752: 9715:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9631:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 9623: 9546: 9534: 9392: 9371: 9350: 9315: 9184: 9172: 9062:"Stalin-era mass grave found in Ukraine" 8823:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, pp. 276, 294 8569:Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov. 8504:Getty, J. Arch; Naumov, Oleg V. (2010). 8421: 8331: 8319: 8307: 8295: 8283: 8268: 8082: 8012: 7919: 7865: 7863: 7784:"Biography of Osip Emilevich Mandelstam" 7756:Zimmerman, David K. (21 December 2022). 7474: 7224:"On seven decades of antiferromagnetism" 6606: 6590: 6565: 6553: 6432:"The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact" 6390:"The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing" 6298: 6208: 6121: 6034: 6006: 5994: 5982: 5946: 5919: 5835: 5800: 5788: 5776: 5585: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5283: 5101: 5051: 4968: 4904: 4875: 4873: 4289: 4206: 4182: 4090: 4078: 3817: 3734: 3328:of labour in the Soviet Union. His son, 3135: 3123: 3108: 3096: 3084: 3072: 3060: 2633: 2567: 2493: 2408: 2386:" in inhospitable parts of the country ( 2284: 2280: 2182: 1997: 1875: 1833:was working with the even larger secret 1786: 1733: 11691: 11086:Alleged 19 August 1939 speech 9938: 9916: 9894: 9793: 9760:(Revised ed.). London: Macmillan. 9588: 8744: 8238: 8214: 7674: 7528: 7501: 7268: 6828:Comrades!: A History of World Communism 6824: 6689: 6637: 6460: 6449: 5707: 5238:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. 5205:Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). 5204: 4981:Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion 4667:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) 4357:Mass graves from Soviet mass executions 3757: 3307:Supreme Council of the National Economy 3224:. He also one of the first to discover 3199:centres of origins of cultivated plants 3120:politician, later arrested and executed 3010:and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar 2928:External purges were also conducted in 2522:were conducted on a quota system using 2230:, recently disgraced head of the NKVD. 1873:, under the personal orders of Stalin. 14: 12851: 11710:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 11121:Dialectical and Historical Materialism 10145:A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia 10001: 9979: 9729: 9479: 9235: 9223: 8740: 8738: 8736: 8719:. South Asian Publishers. p. 44. 8716:Reign of Terror in Mongolia, 1920-1990 8658: 8615:. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. 8000:National academy of Science of Belarus 7629: 7582: 7376: 7349: 7156: 7129: 6878: 6429: 6374:by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve 6180: 6171: 6156: 6131:"Польская операция" НКВД 1937–1938 гг. 5812: 5806: 5718:The Journal of Slavic Military Studies 5540: 5470:The National WWII Museum | New Orleans 5231: 5157: 5138: 4946: 4818: 4816: 4773: 4657:Index of Soviet Union-related articles 4211:A list from the Great Purge signed by 3492:, Soviet historian and founder of the 2686:, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars. 1009:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 599:Russian Social Democratic Labour Party 27:1936–1938 campaign in the Soviet Union 11665: 10235: 9854: 9777:The Red Army and the Second World War 9710: 9416: 9357:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9113:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 9028:MacFarquhar, Neil (30 October 2017). 8774: 7944:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 7860: 7555: 7478:History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia 7302:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. 6804:. Pen and Sword History. p. 81. 6770: 6720:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 6662: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6099: 5934:Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution 5856: 5671:"The First Five Year Plan, 1928–1932" 5597: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5366: 5351: 5211:. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. 5126: 4870: 4687:Mass killings under communist regimes 3543:Ukrainian theater and movie director 3275:who among the key founders of Soviet 3006:sentenced indigenous "enemies" under 2172: 1540: 911:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 11204:22nd Congress of the Communist Party 11162:20th Congress of the Communist Party 10605:19th Congress of the Communist Party 10442:18th Congress of the Communist Party 10407:17th Congress of the Communist Party 9814: 9774: 9021: 8963:"Bykivnia between Hitler and Stalin" 7967: 7701: 7630:Graham, Loren R. (8 December 2015). 7296:Betz, Frederick (22 February 2011). 7295: 6798:Whitehead, Jonathan (4 April 2024). 6328: 5440:Stalin: Paradoxes of Power 1878–1928 4887:Paris Institute of Political Studies 4822: 4030:Soviet Communism: A New Civilization 3984: 3947:of 1928–1933's collectivization and 3923:NKVD orders of systematic repression 3500:. Arrested and put to death in 1938. 3305:Soviet engineer and chairman of the 2803: 2774:adding citations to reliable sources 2745: 2623: 29: 11138:Marxism and Problems of Linguistics 10362:Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928) 10100:Slavonic & East European Review 9574:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9378:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9110:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 8733: 8563: 8180: 8027:"Nightmare in the workers paradise" 7941:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 7660:. 18 September 2017. Archived from 7322: 7222:Kharchenko, N. F. (1 August 2005). 7014:(in Finnish). Parliament of Finland 6771:Sakwa, Richard (12 November 2012). 6750:. Simon and Schuster. p. 395. 6717:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 6690:Sheehan, Helena (23 January 2018). 6638:Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021). 6331:Denial: the final stage of genocide 6190:Michał Jasiński (27 October 2010). 5813:Redman, Joseph (March–April 1958). 5466:"Trotsky's Struggle against Stalin" 5232:Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). 4813: 4697:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 4672:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 4269:which "would be a bigger victory". 3599:, was executed on 21 November 1937. 3193:that made several contributions to 3116:; (1885–1937) Finnish educator and 3065:1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet 2471:Armenian victims of the Great Purge 2467:Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan 2081: 1778:forced collectivization of peasants 1573:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 24: 11285:Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism 11104:The History of the Communist Party 10923:Soviet offensive plans controversy 10888:Ideological repression in science 10432:1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang 10045:Journal of Soviet Military Studies 9819:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 9691: 8994:Kishkovsky, Sophia (8 June 2007). 8781:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives 8536:. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993, p. 285 7535:(109 ed.). World Scientific. 7350:Krausz, Tamás (27 February 2015). 7035:General Relativity and Gravitation 6593:, pp. 198–89 (a Soviet book, 6430:Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). 6214: 5761: 5675:Special Collections & Archives 5437: 5396: 5277: 4601:Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code 4599:, and on loose interpretations of 3496:. He had been an old associate of 3354:who made various contributions to 3283:. Kleymyonov was executed in 1938. 3243:. Kondratiev was executed in 1938. 1131:Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan 677:Treaty on the Creation of the USSR 25: 12975: 11323:Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 11054:Marxism and the National Question 10261: 10180: 9797:Stalinism: The Essential Readings 8689:Mongolia in the Twentieth Century 7897:The Making of the Georgian Nation 7729:Ben-Menahem, Ari (6 March 2009). 7675:Kuijper, Hans (18 January 2022). 7502:Chertok, Boris Evseevich (2005). 7448:Steinhoff, James (21 June 2021). 7323:Guo, Rongxing (6 February 2017). 7269:Shifman, Misha (28 August 2015). 7163:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 7136:. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. 6744:Wasserstein, Bernard (May 2012). 6696:. Verso Books. pp. 416–417. 6597:by Nikulin, pp. 189–94 is cited). 6579:European Dictatorships 1918–1945, 6043: 5931: 5411: 5026:Whitewood, Peter (13 June 2016). 4707: 4485:victims of Stalinist repression, 4343:Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov.... 4068: 3741:Stalinist repressions in Mongolia 3722:were also shot and buried there. 3228:. Shubnikov was executed in 1937. 3038: 2457:Campaigns targeting nationalities 1587:was popularized by the historian 12833: 12832: 12820: 11646: 11645: 10963:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 10427:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 10186: 9800:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. 9375:The Great Terror: A Reassessment 9296: 9283: 9270: 9257: 9229: 9190: 9148: 9130: 9103: 9068: 9054: 8987: 8973: 8955: 8937: 8911: 8874: 8852: 8826: 8813: 8768: 8706: 8679: 8652: 8635: 8622: 8588: 8539: 8526: 8497: 8484: 8471: 8427: 8390: 8373:"On Leaving the Communist Party" 8371:Howard Fast (16 November 1957). 8364: 8244: 8146: 8137: 8105: 8088: 8040: 8025:Tim Tzouliadis (2 August 2008). 8018: 7988: 7961: 7934: 7925: 7889: 7839: 7816: 7801: 7749: 7722: 7702:Tent, Katrin (16 October 2008). 7695: 7681:. Springer Nature. p. 164. 7668: 7650: 7623: 7576: 7549: 7529:Pondrom, Lee G. (25 July 2018). 7522: 7495: 7468: 7441: 7414: 7397: 7370: 7343: 7316: 7289: 7275:. World Scientific. p. 19. 7262: 7215: 7157:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7150: 7130:Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). 7123: 7096: 7069: 7026: 7004: 6915: 6897: 6663:Weitz, Eric D. (13 April 2021). 6289:, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12 4893:translated in Werth, 2006: 143). 4522: 4510: 4494: 4474: 4454: 4434: 4422: 4286:Soviet investigation commissions 4202: 3882: 3871: 3666: 3655: 3572:Playwright and avant-garde poet 3258:Essays on Marx's Theory of Value 2948:and former government minister, 2808: 2750: 2733: 2721: 1982: 1666:, often by direct orders of the 1443: 1195:End of communist rule in Hungary 1141:Estonian Sovereignty Declaration 567: 34: 12949:Persecution by the Soviet Union 11348:Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin 10484:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact 10474:Occupation of the Baltic states 9794:Hoffman, David L., ed. (2003). 9593:. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. 7475:Lankford, John (7 March 2013). 7454:. Springer Nature. p. 55. 7427:. Routledge. pp. 203–204. 6872: 6845: 6818: 6791: 6774:Soviet Politics: In Perspective 6764: 6737: 6710: 6683: 6656: 6631: 6612: 6571: 6522: 6481: 6423: 6381: 6365: 6347: 6322: 6292: 6279: 6249: 6055: 6021: 6012: 5967: 5940: 5925: 5883: 5850: 5752: 5701: 5696:McLoughlin & McDermott 2002 5663: 5638: 5618: 5549: 5534: 5509: 5484: 5458: 5431: 5378: 5334: 5317: 5292: 5252: 5225: 5198: 5151: 5132: 5107: 5045: 5032:University Press of Kansas Blog 5019: 4148:which correspond to the purge. 3679:National University of Mongolia 3569:was executed on 3 October 1938. 2761:needs additional citations for 2520:National operations of the NKVD 2414:Yevgeny-Ludvig Karlovich Miller 2107:testified that he had flown to 1771:collectivization of agriculture 1212:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 779:Occupation of the Baltic states 187:religious activists and leaders 163:19 July 1936 – 17 November 1938 9779:, Cambridge University Press, 9236:Harris, James (26 July 2016). 9077:The American Historical Review 8121:. 14 June 2003. Archived from 7968:Tolz, Vera (13 October 1997). 6642:. Mehring Books. p. 380. 5708:Harward, Grant (2 July 2016). 5562:. Cambridge University Press. 5115:The American Historical Review 5005: 4914: 4551:The American Historical Review 2708: 2498:Polish-born Soviet politician 1994:First and second Moscow trials 1865:him in Mexico; the NKVD agent 1817:, respectively. Following the 1031:Mozambican War of Independence 728:Kazakhstan famine of 1932–1933 510:Ukrainian language suppression 13: 1: 12959:Massacres in the Soviet Union 12889:Political and cultural purges 12373:Political abuse of psychiatry 12165:Congress of People's Deputies 11189:Gomulka thaw (Polish October) 11000:1946–1947 Soviet famine 10573:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 9941:1937: Stalin's Year of Terror 9116:. Verso Books. p. 1370. 8665:. Monsudar Pub. p. 322. 8659:Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn (1999). 8512:. pp. xiv, 243, 590–91. 8187:N.G. Okhotin; A.B. Roginsky. 7947:. Verso Books. p. 1206. 6933:KGB: The State Within a State 6723:. Verso Books. p. 1443. 6397:The Journal of Modern History 6118:Snyder 2010, pp. 103–04. 5730:10.1080/13518046.2016.1200397 5015:– via Internet Archive. 4747: 4057:, who, following the lead of 3271:Soviet engineer and inventor 3209:research in the Soviet Union. 3128:Paleontologist and geologist 2955:Eventually almost all of the 1723: 1090:Death and funeral of Brezhnev 372:Purges of the Communist Party 95:Great Terror (disambiguation) 11338:1956 Georgian demonstrations 10117:Journal of Strategic Studies 9833:. Forum for Living History. 9439:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 9276:Ronald Grigor Suny, review, 8397:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). 8344:Knickerbocker, H.R. (1941). 8153:Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). 7895:Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), 7872:"70 years of Soviet Georgia" 6376:Journal of International Law 4963:Journal of Strategic Studies 4752: 4083:Posthumously rehabilitated, 3938:his view of the timeline of 3837:October 1936 – February 1937 3550:Russian writer and explorer 3358:. He had contributed to the 3147:in the USSR and co-invented 2923:Communist Party of Palestine 2911:Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski 2640:Marshals of the Soviet Union 2488:Polish Operation of the NKVD 2147:Implication of the Rightists 896:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 891:1956 Georgian demonstrations 852:East German uprising of 1953 794:Soviet invasion of Manchuria 7: 12536:Academy of Medical Sciences 11353:Stalin Monument in Budapest 11020:Night of the Murdered Poets 10938:Allegations of antisemitism 10675:Engineers of the human soul 10422:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang 10398:Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) 9815:Ilic, Melanie, ed. (2006). 9730:Colton, Timothy J. (1998). 9619:. New York: Harper and Row. 9354:Stalin and the Kirov Murder 9267:(2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276. 8647:Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy 7583:Bailes, Kendall E. (1977). 6467:. Oxford University Press. 6461:Naimark, Norman M. (2016). 6176:. Basic Books. p. 104. 6128:Н.В.Петров, А.Б.Рогинский. 5453:Andrew & Mitrokhin 2000 5176:10.1080/0966813022000017177 5052:Uldricks, Teddy J. (1977). 4795:10.1080/0966813022000017177 4662:Timeline of the Great Purge 4635: 4415:Odesa International Airport 3811:Timeline of the Great Purge 3804: 3747:Mongolian People's Republic 3726:Executions of Gulag inmates 3324:and pioneering theorist of 3322:Central Institute of Labour 3020:mass operations of the NKVD 2998:The victims were convicted 2834:the claims made and adding 2477:mass operations of the NKVD 2463:Mass operations of the NKVD 2320:and philosophical essay by 1526: 1510: 1021:Angolan War of Independence 878:"On the Cult of Personality 831:Death and funeral of Stalin 561:History of the Soviet Union 150:Mongolian People's Republic 10: 12980: 12964:Ethnic cleansing in Europe 11393:Stalin Bloc – For the USSR 11363:Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori 10511:Soviet atomic bomb project 9866:Harcourt Brace and Company 9711:Chase, William J. (2001). 9695: 9609:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. 9547:Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007). 9324: 9304:Military History Quarterly 9291:American Historical Review 8692:. Routledge. p. 112. 8490:Robert Conquest, Preface, 8444:American Historical Review 8102:, London, 2002, pp. 155–68 7876:rolfgross.dreamhosters.com 7508:. NASA. pp. 164–165. 7481:. Routledge. p. 365. 7356:. NYU Press. p. 417. 6998:Two Hundred Years Together 5964:Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96 4539:Historical interpretations 4354: 4072: 4038:. The American journalist 3808: 3761: 3738: 3476:Bloc of Soviet Oppositions 3346:had fled persecution from 3332:became a prominent Soviet 3069:, who died in a labor camp 3042: 3014:and Main State Prosecutor 2888:Communist Party of Germany 2627: 2460: 2176: 2085: 2002:Bolshevik revolutionaries 1986: 1727: 1222:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 806:Soviet famine of 1946–1947 718:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 687:Death and funeral of Lenin 337:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 84: 12864:1930s in the Soviet Union 12814: 12758: 12732: 12652: 12575: 12566: 12511: 12418: 12381: 12321: 12224: 12186: 12106: 11968: 11959: 11909: 11857: 11848: 11700: 11641: 11558: 11419: 11401: 11373:Places named after Stalin 11358:Stalin Monument in Prague 11305: 11217: 11152: 11038: 10882:Repressions in Azerbaijan 10708: 10617: 10600:1950 legislative election 10526:1946 legislative election 10437:1937 legislative election 10349: 10298: 10289: 10269: 10168:Pultz, David, dir. 1997. 10077:10.1080/09668139608412415 10018:– via Google Books. 10008:. New York: Basic Books. 9817:Stalin's Terror Revisited 9667:10.1080/09668130050143860 9589:Parrish, Michael (1996). 9336:. New York: Basic Books. 9293:(2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14. 8890:Christian Science Monitor 8649:(New York, 1991), p. 210. 7601:10.1080/09668137708411134 7329:. Springer. p. 164. 7055:10.1007/s10714-011-1285-4 6858:. Routledge. p. 60. 6777:. Routledge. p. 43. 6464:Genocide: A World History 5847:Snyder 2010, p. 137. 5767:Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38 5758:Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18 5325:Stalinism: New Directions 4984:. ABC-CLIO. p. 110. 4595:, often obtained through 4351:Mass graves and memorials 4136:Number of people executed 3532:on 11 November 1937. The 3222:type-II superconductivity 3093:at the time of his arrest 3077:The NKVD photo of writer 2732: 2720: 2715: 2642:in November 1935. (l–r): 2504:1932–33 famine in Ukraine 1971:1937, the military purge. 1664:general line of the party 1536: 1520: 1499: 294: 243: 230: 192: 169: 155: 137: 117: 109: 104: 12879:1938 in the Soviet Union 12874:1937 in the Soviet Union 12869:1936 in the Soviet Union 11194:Soviet Nonconformist Art 11110:1936 Soviet Constitution 10763:Soviet famine of 1932–33 10723:1907 Tiflis bank robbery 10695:Transformation of nature 10680:1936 Soviet Constitution 10640:Socialism in One Country 10479:German–Soviet Axis talks 10143:—— (2004) . 10023:Tzouliadis, Tim (2008). 9775:Hill, Alexander (2017), 9372:—— (2008) . 8575:Hoover Institution Press 8094:Christopher Kaplonski, " 7974:. Springer. p. 48. 7901:Indiana University Press 7556:Stone, David R. (2000). 6977:Harvard University Press 6879:Freeze, Gregory (2009). 6825:Service, Robert (2007). 6172:Snyder, Timothy (2010). 6130: 5286:Behind the Moscow Trials 5158:Ellman, Michael (2002). 4774:Ellman, Michael (2002). 3849:July 1937 – October 1938 3360:Herglotz–Noether theorem 3298:who was director of the 3235:was a proponent for the 3218:Shubnikov–de Haas effect 3185:was a prominent Russian 3153:extrajudicially executed 1804:purge of the Party ranks 1763:socialism in one country 1566:Soviet General Secretary 1282:independence declaration 1053:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 1041:South African Border War 708:Socialism in one country 12909:Massacres in Uzbekistan 12827:Soviet Union portal 11318:Iosif Stalin locomotive 11061:Foundations of Leninism 11047:Anarchism or Socialism? 10928:Hitler Youth Conspiracy 10795:NKVD prisoner massacres 10447:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 10336:Death and state funeral 10162: 10002:—— (2010). 9939:—— (1998). 9646:—— (2000). 9486:Oxford University Press 9351:—— (1987). 8604:14 October 2007 at the 8252:"Московский мартиролог" 8096:Thirty thousand bullets 8071:Haynes & Klehr 2003 7377:Rosmer, Alfred (1971). 7228:Low Temperature Physics 6507:10.4000/monderusse.9736 5628:, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp. 5145:McNair Scholars Journal 5104:, pp. 250, 257–58. 5013:"Tokaev Comrade X 1956" 4927:McNair Scholars Journal 4465:memorial cemetery near 4075:Rehabilitation (Soviet) 4035:The Manchester Guardian 3825:; (1896–1939) chief of 3630:Ukrainian drama writer 3540:is named after Chavain. 3281:Gas Dynamics Laboratory 3212:Experimental physicist 2905:According to historian 2672:Military Maritime Fleet 2617:international relations 2502:, a contributor to the 2345:NKVD prisoner massacres 2212:Communist International 2208:Trial of the Twenty-One 1652:counter-revolutionaries 1542:[(j)ɪˈʐofɕːɪnə] 1450:Soviet Union portal 1185:Fall of the Berlin Wall 1151:Lithuanian independence 862:1954 transfer of Crimea 764:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 657:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 12719:Stalinist architecture 12473:Science and technology 12383:Ideological repression 12311:Soviet Airborne Forces 12249:Destruction battalions 11526:(second father-in-law) 10780:Murder of Sergey Kirov 10655:Stalinist architecture 10541:Turkish Straits crisis 10124:Yakovlev, Alexander N. 10102:93.2 (2015): 286–314. 9480:Harris, James (2017). 9424:. London: Allen Lane. 9064:. BBC. 26 August 2021. 7849:. Enigma Books, 2003. 7272:Physics In A Mad World 6388:Martin, Terry (1998). 6061:Werth, Nicolas. 2009. 5284:Schatman, Max (1938). 5139:Homkes, Brett (2004). 4829:Cahiers du Monde russe 4823:Kuhr, Corinna (1998). 4647:Anti-Rightist Campaign 4625: 4573: 4345: 4295: 4283: 4231: 4192: 4100: 4088: 3930:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 3862: 3833: 3772:The pro-Soviet leader 3701:Western émigré victims 3675:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 3561:writer and translator 3434: 3160: 3133: 3121: 3106: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3035:has been documented. 2919:Joseph Berger-Barzilai 2674:removed three of five 2663: 2577: 2507: 2444:Young Communist League 2417: 2394:, Kazakhstan, and the 2338: 2300: 2203: 2170: 2141: 2014: 1896: 1795: 1742: 1575:and Soviet state. The 1105:: Decline and collapse 396:Ideological repression 93:. For other uses, see 12501:List of metro systems 12054:Collective leadership 11547:William Wesley Peters 11092:Falsifiers of History 11015:Rootless cosmopolitan 10321:Rule as Soviet leader 9965:. London: Routledge. 9553:Yale University Press 8969:on 23 September 2020. 8951:on 23 September 2020. 8776:Getty, John Archibald 8550:Yale University Press 8510:Yale University Press 7810:Collecting Mandelstam 7664:on 18 September 2017. 6993:Alexandr Solzhenitsyn 6595:Marshal Tukhachevskiy 5947:Humbert-Droz, Jules. 4921:Brett Homkes (2004). 4841:10.3406/cmr.1998.2520 4735:30 September killings 4620: 4569: 4445:mass grave site near 4340: 4293: 4278: 4273:Stephen G. Wheatcroft 4210: 4186: 4094: 4082: 3935:The Gulag Archipelago 3821: 3735:Mongolian Great Purge 3494:Marx-Engels Institute 3454:enemies of the people 3429: 3326:scientific management 3139: 3127: 3112: 3100: 3088: 3081:made after his arrest 3076: 3064: 3057:Korets–Landau leaflet 2637: 2628:Further information: 2571: 2497: 2412: 2371:On 30 July 1937, the 2334: 2322:Maurice Merleau-Ponty 2288: 2281:Bukharin's confession 2186: 2165: 2151:In the second trial, 2124: 2001: 1879: 1847:democratic centralism 1790: 1737: 1680:anti-Soviet agitation 1597:, whose title was an 1527:Tridtsat' sed'moy god 1514:), also known as the 857:Virgin Lands campaign 682:National delimitation 173:Political opponents, 12919:Massacres in Armenia 12914:Massacres in Belarus 12904:Massacres in Ukraine 12463:Net material product 12406:Censorship of images 12323:Political repression 12283:Soviet Border Troops 12216:First Deputy Premier 11800:1965 economic reform 11795:Soviet space program 11568:Stalin's house, Gori 11499:Yevgeny Dzhugashvili 11427:Besarion Jughashvili 11368:Batumi Stalin Museum 11279:Nineteen Eighty-Four 11030:Censorship of images 10709:Crimes, repressions, 10412:1931 Menshevik Trial 10393:First five-year plan 10200:The Case of Bukharin 10195:at Wikimedia Commons 10112:67.1 (2015): 102–22. 9874:Merridale, Catherine 9861:Assignment in Utopia 9280:(2018) 80#1: 177–79. 9243:History News Network 8981:"War Stats Redirect" 8628:Getty & Naumov, 8334:, pp. 465, 467. 6953:Merridale, Catherine 6924:Komsomolskaya Pravda 6065:. Paris: Tallandier. 5857:Dewey, John (2008). 5541:Knight, Amy (1999). 5496:www.wilsoncenter.org 5331:. London: Routledge. 4729:Khmer Rouge genocide 4724:Hungarian Revolution 4583:", and to historian 4391:killing fields near 4257:resisted the order. 3945:first five-year plan 3943:purges, such as the 3855:November 1938 – 1939 3758:Xinjiang Great Purge 3636:Executed Renaissance 3611:Soviet film industry 3524:poet and playwright 3516:Durnovo noble family 3195:agricultural science 3045:Executed Renaissance 3008:NKVD Order No. 00447 2921:, co-founder of the 2770:improve this article 2644:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 2594:Executed Renaissance 2516:NKVD Order No. 00486 2373:NKVD Order No. 00447 2055:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1855:Mikhail Tukhachevsky 1767:first five-year plan 1740:NKVD Order No. 00447 1277:Ukrainian revolution 1205:German reunification 1163:Latvian independence 1078:1984 Olympic boycott 1073:1980 Olympic boycott 1063:1980 Summer Olympics 1036:Mozambican Civil War 926:Cuban Missile Crisis 906:Peaceful coexistence 774:Operation Barbarossa 505:Repressions of Poles 500:Population transfers 358:Political repression 12939:Mass murder in 1938 12934:Mass murder in 1937 12899:Massacres in Russia 12531:Academy of Sciences 12346:Population transfer 12290:Soviet Armed Forces 12153:Congress of Soviets 12134:Presidium/Politburo 12098:Soviet anti-Zionism 11947:West Siberian Plain 11825:Revolutions of 1989 11762:Great Patriotic War 11747:New Economic Policy 11560:Stalin's residences 11507:Galina Dzhugashvili 11491:Svetlana Alliluyeva 11475:Nadezhda Alliluyeva 11402:Cultural depictions 11244:Anti-Stalinist left 11199:Shvernik Commission 11167:Pospelov Commission 10943:Population transfer 10918:1941 Red Army purge 10892:Suppressed research 10546:First Indochina War 10489:Great Patriotic War 10467:Moscow Peace Treaty 10331:Cult of personality 10110:Europe-Asia Studies 10064:Europe-Asia Studies 10052:Wheatcroft, Stephen 10029:. London: Penguin. 9880:. London: Penguin. 9655:Europe-Asia Studies 9306:27.1 (2014): 38–45. 8884:(10 October 2002). 8751:Stalin: A Biography 8662:History of Mongolia 8609:Europe–Asia Studies 8545:Oleg V. Khlevniuk. 7899:(2nd ed.), p. 272. 7240:2005LTP....31..633K 7047:2012GReGr..44..267B 6138:on 15 February 2017 5710:"Whitewood, Peter, 5472:. 12 September 2018 5164:Europe-Asia Studies 5129:, pp. 227–315. 4783:Europe-Asia Studies 4714:Cultural Revolution 4382:Solovki prison camp 4332:Shvernik Commission 4187:Memorial events in 4049:Communist Party USA 4040:H. R. Knickerbocker 3782:Xinjiang War (1937) 3764:Xinjiang War (1937) 3712:Butovo firing range 3589:Russian dramaturge 3300:Pulkovo Observatory 3237:New Economic Policy 3132:, executed in 1938. 3033:Butovo firing range 2433:Butovo firing range 2384:special settlements 2326:Humanism and Terror 2032:Conspiratorial Bloc 1967:second Moscow trial 1910:1934 Party Congress 1782:famine of 1932–1933 1200:Romanian Revolution 1180:Peaceful Revolution 1175:Pan-European Picnic 1170:Revolutions of 1989 1111:Invasion of Grenada 987:Cambodian Civil War 941:: Era of Stagnation 826:First Indochina War 801:Soviet deportations 769:Great Patriotic War 742:Cultural Revolution 672:New Economic Policy 626:February Revolution 495:National operations 387:Punitive psychiatry 314:Economic repression 309:in the Soviet Union 12944:Soviet phraseology 12176:Military Collegium 12044:Capital punishment 11922:Caucasus Mountains 11835:Post-Soviet states 11715:Russian Revolution 11531:Alexander Svanidze 11459:Konstantin Kuzakov 11451:Yakov Dzhugashvili 11410:Apocalypse: Stalin 11383:Stalin Peace Prize 11378:State Stalin Prize 11081:"Ten Blows" speech 11068:Dizzy with Success 10978:Operation "Priboi" 10958:Operation "Lentil" 10911:1937 Soviet Census 10590:Sino-Soviet Treaty 10504:Potsdam Conference 10457:Invasion of Poland 10091:Whitewood, Peter. 10047:3.1 (1990): 46–65. 9959:Rosefielde, Steven 9896:Naimark, Norman M. 9850:on 24 August 2010. 9394:Courtois, Stéphane 9042:on 3 February 2024 9035:The New York Times 9000:The New York Times 8630:The Road to Terror 8298:, pp. 472–74. 8271:, pp. 472–73. 7505:Rockets and People 6969:Colton, Timothy J. 6500:(50/2–3): 647–70. 6490:"The Great Terror" 6305:Ukraine: A History 6089:. 19 January 2016. 6009:, pp. 364–35. 5624:Robert Gellately, 5588:, pp. 122–38. 5545:. Hill & Wang. 5346:Palgrave MacMillan 5264:www.britannica.com 4718:Great Leap Forward 4630:Robert W. Thurston 4593:forced confessions 4589:Moscow show trials 4546:social engineering 4296: 4232: 4197:Vyacheslav Molotov 4193: 4101: 4089: 4059:The New York Times 4013:The New York Times 3834: 3681:, and portrait of 3552:Maximilian Kravkov 3422:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3364:special relativity 3296:Boris Gerasimovich 3247:Valerian Obolensky 3233:Nikolai Kondratiev 3226:antiferromagnetism 3161: 3143:, who popularized 3134: 3122: 3107: 3095: 3091:Vsevolod Meyerhold 3083: 3071: 2969:October Revolution 2961:Russian Revolution 2880:German-Soviet Pact 2819:possibly contains 2664: 2652:Kliment Voroshilov 2578: 2576:, executed in 1938 2508: 2506:, executed in 1939 2418: 2301: 2243:Jules Humbert-Droz 2235:an Opposition Bloc 2224:Nikolai Krestinsky 2220:Christian Rakovsky 2204: 2173:Third Moscow trial 2076:Kliment Voroshilov 2048:Grigory Sokolnikov 2015: 1976:third Moscow trial 1954:first Moscow trial 1929:October Revolution 1918:Vyacheslav Molotov 1897: 1891:(and his daughter 1796: 1780:and the resulting 1743: 1432:Post-Soviet states 1136:Singing Revolution 1126:Chernobyl disaster 1046:Rhodesian Bush War 647:October Revolution 284:Kliment Voroshilov 272:Vyacheslav Molotov 202:Summary executions 130:Vinnytsia massacre 53:You can assist by 12846: 12845: 12810: 12809: 12802:Hammer and sickle 12744:and their groups 12742:Soviet dissidents 12521:Communist Academy 12438:Economic planning 12414: 12413: 12307:Soviet Air Forces 12226:Security services 12146:General Secretary 12129:Central Committee 12071:Political parties 12003:Brezhnev Doctrine 11998:Foreign relations 11955: 11954: 11896:Autonomous okrugs 11810:Soviet–Afghan War 11790:Sino-Soviet split 11732:Russian Civil War 11659: 11658: 11616:Kholodnaya Rechka 11313:Iosif Stalin tank 11234:Lenin's Testament 11209:Era of Stagnation 11010:Mingrelian Affair 10988:Forced settlement 10973:Operation "North" 10933:Soviet war crimes 10711:and controversies 10650:Socialist realism 10613: 10612: 10595:Tito–Stalin split 10494:Tehran Conference 10417:Spanish Civil War 10388:Chinese Civil War 10191:Media related to 10154:978-0-300-10322-9 10036:978-1-59420-168-4 10015:978-0-465-00239-9 9994:978-0-300-10670-1 9972:978-0-415-77757-5 9950:978-0-929087-77-1 9943:. Mehring Books. 9931:978-0-929087-83-2 9924:. Mehring books. 9909:978-0-691-14784-0 9887:978-0-14-200063-2 9840:978-91-977487-2-8 9807:978-0-631-22890-5 9786:978-1-1070-2079-5 9767:978-0-02-527560-7 9745:978-0-674-58749-6 9722:978-0-300-08242-5 9551:. New Haven, CT: 9504:Haynes, John Earl 9459:Gellately, Robert 9263:Peter Whitewood, 9210:978-1-55972-212-4 9123:978-1-78168-721-5 8821:Molotov Remembers 8726:978-1-881318-15-6 8699:978-1-317-46010-7 8672:978-99929-0-038-3 8643:Dmitri Volkogonov 8534:Molotov Remembers 8477:Robert Conquest, 8227:Solzhenitsyn 1973 7981:978-1-349-25840-6 7954:978-1-78168-721-5 7769:978-1-4875-4366-2 7742:978-3-540-68831-0 7715:978-0-521-71788-5 7688:978-981-16-4709-3 7643:978-1-4008-7551-1 7569:978-0-7006-1037-2 7542:978-981-323-557-1 7515:978-0-16-073239-3 7488:978-1-136-50834-9 7461:978-3-030-71689-9 7434:978-1-317-81995-0 7390:978-0-902818-11-8 7363:978-1-58367-449-9 7336:978-3-319-48772-4 7309:978-0-470-54782-3 7282:978-981-4619-31-8 7248:10.1063/1.2008126 7195:(11): 1576–1578. 7170:978-1-136-59369-7 7143:978-1-136-59369-7 7116:978-1-107-06962-6 7089:978-94-010-0347-6 6959:. Penguin Books. 6937:Gellately, Robert 6881:Russia: A History 6865:978-1-136-15747-9 6838:978-0-674-02530-1 6811:978-1-3990-6395-1 6784:978-1-134-90996-4 6757:978-1-4165-9427-7 6730:978-1-78168-721-5 6703:978-1-78663-426-9 6676:978-0-691-22812-9 6649:978-1-893638-97-6 6625:Let History Judge 6609:, p. 200–02. 6340:978-1-003-01070-8 5455:, pp. 86–87. 5438:Kotkin, Stephen, 5370:(15 April 2019). 5245:978-1-4985-9153-9 5218:978-1-000-95544-6 5117:, 110(5), 1427–53 4579:'s 1956 speech, " 4577:Nikita Khrushchev 4244:Ivan the Terrible 4236:Oleg V. Khlevniuk 4002:in his 1968 book 3985:Western reactions 3956:Alexander Yegorov 3915:Central Committee 3891:Damnatio memoriae 3843:March – June 1937 3720:Finnish Canadians 3623:Russian linguist 3591:Adrian Piotrovsky 3574:Nikolay Oleynikov 3567:Vladimir Varankin 3510:Russian linguist 3420:Theatre director 3231:Soviet economist 3141:Vasili Oshchepkov 3130:Dmitrii Mushketov 3118:Social Democratic 3089:Theatre director 2993:Vladimir Bukovsky 2884:Central committee 2864: 2863: 2856: 2821:original research 2802: 2801: 2794: 2744: 2743: 2666:The purge of the 2660:Alexander Yegorov 2624:Purge of the army 2491:further inquiry. 2426:spetzpereselentsy 2357:Mikhail Gorbachev 2275:Heinrich Brandler 2214:, former premier 2092:In May 1937, the 1691:ethnic minorities 1658:, hence the name 1618:interior ministry 1603:French Revolution 1591:in his 1968 book 1508: 1484: 1483: 1313:Soviet leadership 1299:Alma-Ata Protocol 1294:Belovezha Accords 1190:Velvet Revolution 1156:Economic blockade 1058:Soviet–Afghan War 1026:Angolan Civil War 977:Laotian Civil War 952:Era of Stagnation 947:Brezhnev Doctrine 916:Sino-Soviet split 846:: Khrushchev Thaw 737:Industrialization 652:Russian Civil War 546: 545: 490:De-Cossackization 482:Ethnic repression 302: 301: 83: 82: 75: 16:(Redirected from 12971: 12836: 12835: 12825: 12824: 12823: 12573: 12572: 12481: 12336:Collectivization 12081:Marxism–Leninism 11966: 11965: 11855: 11854: 11686: 11679: 11672: 11663: 11662: 11649: 11648: 11551: 11543: 11535: 11534:(brother-in-law) 11527: 11523:Sergei Alliluyev 11519: 11515:Joseph Alliluyev 11511: 11503: 11495: 11487: 11479: 11471: 11463: 11455: 11447: 11439: 11431: 11333:Pantheon, Moscow 11291:The Soviet Story 11265:Darkness at Noon 11154:De-Stalinization 11005:Leningrad Affair 10738:Decossackization 10536:1946 Iran crisis 10499:Yalta Conference 10371:Collectivization 10296: 10295: 10256: 10249: 10242: 10233: 10232: 10209: 10190: 10158: 10139: 10088: 10060: 10040: 10019: 9998: 9976: 9954: 9935: 9913: 9891: 9869: 9851: 9849: 9843:. Archived from 9832: 9820: 9811: 9789: 9771: 9754:Conquest, Robert 9749: 9726: 9686: 9652: 9642: 9625:Thurston, Robert 9620: 9618: 9604: 9585: 9566: 9543: 9540:Darkness at Noon 9536:Koestler, Arthur 9531: 9499: 9476: 9454: 9435: 9413: 9389: 9368: 9347: 9319: 9313: 9307: 9300: 9294: 9287: 9281: 9274: 9268: 9261: 9255: 9254: 9252: 9250: 9233: 9227: 9221: 9215: 9214: 9194: 9188: 9182: 9176: 9170: 9164: 9163: 9160:www.marxists.org 9152: 9146: 9145: 9142:www.marxists.org 9134: 9128: 9127: 9107: 9101: 9100: 9072: 9066: 9065: 9058: 9052: 9051: 9049: 9047: 9038:. Archived from 9025: 9019: 9018: 9016: 9014: 8991: 8985: 8984: 8977: 8971: 8970: 8965:. Archived from 8959: 8953: 8952: 8947:. Archived from 8941: 8935: 8934: 8932: 8930: 8915: 8909: 8908: 8906: 8904: 8878: 8872: 8871: 8869: 8867: 8856: 8850: 8849: 8847: 8845: 8830: 8824: 8817: 8811: 8805: 8796: 8795: 8772: 8766: 8765: 8742: 8731: 8730: 8710: 8704: 8703: 8683: 8677: 8676: 8656: 8650: 8639: 8633: 8626: 8620: 8592: 8586: 8567: 8561: 8543: 8537: 8530: 8524: 8523: 8501: 8495: 8488: 8482: 8475: 8469: 8468: 8440: 8431: 8425: 8419: 8413: 8412: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8385: 8383: 8368: 8362: 8361: 8341: 8335: 8329: 8323: 8317: 8311: 8305: 8299: 8293: 8287: 8281: 8272: 8266: 8260: 8259: 8248: 8242: 8236: 8230: 8224: 8218: 8212: 8206: 8205: 8203: 8201: 8184: 8178: 8177: 8175: 8173: 8150: 8144: 8141: 8135: 8134: 8132: 8130: 8109: 8103: 8092: 8086: 8080: 8074: 8068: 8062: 8047:John Earl Haynes 8044: 8038: 8037: 8035: 8033: 8022: 8016: 8010: 8004: 8003: 7992: 7986: 7985: 7965: 7959: 7958: 7938: 7932: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7893: 7887: 7886: 7884: 7882: 7867: 7858: 7843: 7837: 7834: 7823: 7820: 7814: 7805: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7794: 7780: 7774: 7773: 7753: 7747: 7746: 7726: 7720: 7719: 7699: 7693: 7692: 7672: 7666: 7665: 7654: 7648: 7647: 7627: 7621: 7620: 7580: 7574: 7573: 7553: 7547: 7546: 7526: 7520: 7519: 7499: 7493: 7492: 7472: 7466: 7465: 7445: 7439: 7438: 7418: 7412: 7411: 7401: 7395: 7394: 7374: 7368: 7367: 7347: 7341: 7340: 7320: 7314: 7313: 7293: 7287: 7286: 7266: 7260: 7259: 7219: 7213: 7212: 7184: 7175: 7174: 7154: 7148: 7147: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7100: 7094: 7093: 7073: 7067: 7066: 7030: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7019: 7008: 7002: 6929:Albats, Yevgenia 6919: 6913: 6912: 6911:. 29 April 2019. 6901: 6895: 6894: 6876: 6870: 6869: 6849: 6843: 6842: 6822: 6816: 6815: 6795: 6789: 6788: 6768: 6762: 6761: 6741: 6735: 6734: 6714: 6708: 6707: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6635: 6629: 6616: 6610: 6604: 6598: 6588: 6582: 6575: 6569: 6563: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6540: 6526: 6520: 6519: 6509: 6485: 6479: 6478: 6458: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6442: 6427: 6421: 6420: 6394: 6385: 6379: 6369: 6363: 6362: 6361:. 15 April 2019. 6351: 6345: 6344: 6326: 6320: 6319: 6296: 6290: 6285:Timothy Snyder, 6283: 6277: 6253: 6247: 6246: 6234: 6223: 6212: 6206: 6200: 6199: 6187: 6178: 6177: 6169: 6154: 6153: 6148:Original title: 6145: 6143: 6125: 6119: 6116: 6107: 6097: 6091: 6090: 6079: 6066: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6041: 6032: 6025: 6019: 6016: 6010: 6004: 5998: 5992: 5986: 5980: 5974: 5971: 5965: 5962: 5953: 5952: 5944: 5938: 5937: 5932:Cohen, Stephen. 5929: 5923: 5917: 5911: 5908: 5899: 5898: 5895:www.marxists.org 5887: 5881: 5880: 5854: 5848: 5845: 5839: 5833: 5827: 5826: 5810: 5804: 5798: 5792: 5786: 5780: 5774: 5768: 5765: 5759: 5756: 5750: 5749: 5705: 5699: 5693: 5687: 5686: 5684: 5682: 5677:. 7 October 2015 5667: 5661: 5660: 5658: 5656: 5642: 5636: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5601: 5595: 5589: 5583: 5574: 5573: 5553: 5547: 5546: 5543:Who Killed Kirov 5538: 5532: 5531: 5513: 5507: 5506: 5504: 5502: 5488: 5482: 5481: 5479: 5477: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5444: 5442: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5418:www.marxists.org 5409: 5394: 5393: 5390:www.marxists.org 5382: 5376: 5375: 5364: 5349: 5338: 5332: 5321: 5315: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5281: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5229: 5223: 5222: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5170:(7): 1151–1172. 5155: 5149: 5148: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5111: 5105: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5058: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5023: 5017: 5016: 5009: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4998: 4972: 4966: 4959: 4950: 4944: 4935: 4934: 4918: 4912: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4877: 4868: 4867: 4820: 4811: 4810: 4780: 4771: 4743:(Czechoslovakia) 4642:Leningrad affair 4591:, were based on 4526: 4514: 4498: 4478: 4458: 4438: 4426: 4363:Memorial Society 4334:"). It included 4255:Peljidiin Genden 4170:The Great Terror 4121:Stanislav Kosior 4061:, published the 4018:Joseph E. Davies 3992:Jean-Paul Sartre 3886: 3875: 3787:Garegin Apresoff 3707:Great Depression 3677:in front of the 3670: 3659: 3618:Julian Shchutsky 3603:Boris Shumyatsky 3596:Romeo and Juliet 3563:Nikolai Nekrasov 3528:was executed in 3514:, born into the 3484:Lefortovo prison 3356:abstract algebra 3241:Kondratiev waves 3173:Matvei Bronstein 3016:Andrey Vyshinsky 2915:Fritz Houtermans 2900:Polish Communist 2859: 2852: 2848: 2845: 2839: 2836:inline citations 2812: 2811: 2804: 2797: 2790: 2786: 2783: 2777: 2754: 2746: 2737: 2736: 2725: 2724: 2713: 2712: 2574:Khadija Gayibova 2500:Stanislav Kosior 2317:Darkness at Noon 2299:executed in 1938 2290:Nikolai Bukharin 2200:Stanislav Redens 2088:Dewey Commission 2082:Dewey Commission 2024:Grigory Zinoviev 2012:Grigory Zinoviev 1922:Lazar Kaganovich 1871:Pavel Sudoplatov 1843:Grigori Zinoviev 1815:Nikolai Bukharin 1642:wealthy peasants 1594:The Great Terror 1563: 1560: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1538: 1529: 1523: 1522: 1513: 1503: 1501: 1476: 1469: 1462: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1427:Soviet republics 1267:New Union Treaty 1068:Olympic boycotts 886:We will bury you 872:De-Stalinization 789:Battle of Berlin 713:Collectivization 594:World revolution 571: 548: 547: 538: 531: 524: 327:Collectivization 304: 303: 280:Lazar Kaganovich 276:Andrey Vyshinsky 217:Ethnic cleansing 122: 102: 101: 78: 71: 67: 64: 58: 38: 37: 30: 21: 12979: 12978: 12974: 12973: 12972: 12970: 12969: 12968: 12849: 12848: 12847: 12842: 12821: 12819: 12806: 12754: 12728: 12648: 12562: 12507: 12479: 12453:Internet domain 12448:Five-year plans 12410: 12377: 12317: 12220: 12182: 12114:Communist Party 12102: 12061:Passport system 11951: 11927:European Russia 11905: 11844: 11785:Khrushchev Thaw 11764:(World War II) 11742:Creation treaty 11696: 11690: 11660: 11655: 11637: 11633:Stalin's bunker 11583:Room at Kremlin 11573:Tiflis Seminary 11554: 11549: 11541: 11533: 11525: 11517: 11510:(granddaughter) 11509: 11501: 11493: 11485: 11477: 11469: 11467:Artyom Sergeyev 11461: 11453: 11445: 11437: 11429: 11415: 11397: 11301: 11259:True Communists 11222: 11220: 11213: 11177:Khrushchev Thaw 11148: 11115:Stalin's poetry 11034: 10902:Japhetic theory 10840:Medvedev Forest 10733:Georgian Affair 10710: 10704: 10665:Five-year plans 10609: 10578:Berlin Blockade 10568:Greek Civil War 10357:August Uprising 10345: 10326:Political views 10291: 10285: 10265: 10260: 10207: 10183: 10165: 10155: 10134:]. 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Moscow, 2003. 9700: 9694: 9692:Further reading 9689: 9650: 9639: 9601: 9582: 9563: 9528: 9518:Encounter Books 9496: 9473: 9451: 9432: 9410: 9386: 9365: 9344: 9327: 9322: 9314: 9310: 9301: 9297: 9288: 9284: 9275: 9271: 9262: 9258: 9248: 9246: 9234: 9230: 9226:, pp. 2–4. 9222: 9218: 9211: 9195: 9191: 9183: 9179: 9171: 9167: 9154: 9153: 9149: 9136: 9135: 9131: 9124: 9108: 9104: 9089:10.2307/2166597 9073: 9069: 9060: 9059: 9055: 9045: 9043: 9026: 9022: 9012: 9010: 8992: 8988: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8961: 8960: 8956: 8943: 8942: 8938: 8928: 8926: 8917: 8916: 8912: 8902: 8900: 8879: 8875: 8865: 8863: 8858: 8857: 8853: 8843: 8841: 8832: 8831: 8827: 8819:Chuev, Feliks. 8818: 8814: 8810:, p. 1348. 8808:Wheatcroft 1996 8806: 8799: 8792: 8773: 8769: 8762: 8746:Service, Robert 8743: 8734: 8727: 8711: 8707: 8700: 8684: 8680: 8673: 8657: 8653: 8640: 8636: 8627: 8623: 8606:Wayback Machine 8593: 8589: 8568: 8564: 8544: 8540: 8532:Chuev, Feliks. 8531: 8527: 8520: 8502: 8498: 8489: 8485: 8476: 8472: 8457:10.2307/2166597 8438: 8432: 8428: 8420: 8416: 8409: 8395: 8391: 8381: 8379: 8377:www.trussel.com 8369: 8365: 8358: 8342: 8338: 8330: 8326: 8318: 8314: 8306: 8302: 8294: 8290: 8282: 8275: 8267: 8263: 8250: 8249: 8245: 8237: 8233: 8225: 8221: 8213: 8209: 8199: 8197: 8185: 8181: 8171: 8169: 8167: 8151: 8147: 8142: 8138: 8128: 8126: 8125:on 14 June 2003 8111: 8110: 8106: 8093: 8089: 8081: 8077: 8069: 8065: 8057:" (appendix to 8045: 8041: 8031: 8029: 8023: 8019: 8011: 8007: 7994: 7993: 7989: 7982: 7966: 7962: 7955: 7939: 7935: 7930: 7926: 7918: 7914: 7894: 7890: 7880: 7878: 7868: 7861: 7844: 7840: 7835: 7826: 7821: 7817: 7813:, November 2006 7806: 7802: 7792: 7790: 7782: 7781: 7777: 7770: 7754: 7750: 7743: 7727: 7723: 7716: 7700: 7696: 7689: 7673: 7669: 7656: 7655: 7651: 7644: 7628: 7624: 7581: 7577: 7570: 7554: 7550: 7543: 7527: 7523: 7516: 7500: 7496: 7489: 7473: 7469: 7462: 7446: 7442: 7435: 7419: 7415: 7402: 7398: 7391: 7375: 7371: 7364: 7348: 7344: 7337: 7321: 7317: 7310: 7294: 7290: 7283: 7267: 7263: 7220: 7216: 7189:Current Science 7185: 7178: 7171: 7155: 7151: 7144: 7128: 7124: 7117: 7101: 7097: 7090: 7074: 7070: 7031: 7027: 7017: 7015: 7010: 7009: 7005: 6920: 6916: 6903: 6902: 6898: 6891: 6877: 6873: 6866: 6850: 6846: 6839: 6823: 6819: 6812: 6796: 6792: 6785: 6769: 6765: 6758: 6742: 6738: 6731: 6715: 6711: 6704: 6688: 6684: 6677: 6661: 6657: 6650: 6636: 6632: 6617: 6613: 6605: 6601: 6589: 6585: 6576: 6572: 6564: 6560: 6552: 6548: 6538: 6536: 6528: 6527: 6523: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6459: 6450: 6440: 6438: 6428: 6424: 6392: 6386: 6382: 6378:, Vol. 45, 2013 6370: 6366: 6353: 6352: 6348: 6341: 6327: 6323: 6316: 6300:Subtelny, Orest 6297: 6293: 6284: 6280: 6276:. pp. 102, 107. 6256:Snyder, Timothy 6254: 6250: 6243: 6232: 6224: 6215: 6207: 6203: 6188: 6181: 6170: 6157: 6141: 6139: 6132: 6126: 6122: 6117: 6110: 6098: 6094: 6081: 6080: 6069: 6060: 6056: 6042: 6035: 6026: 6022: 6017: 6013: 6005: 6001: 5993: 5989: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5968: 5963: 5956: 5945: 5941: 5930: 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4559:Isaac Deutscher 4541: 4534: 4527: 4518: 4515: 4506: 4499: 4490: 4479: 4470: 4459: 4450: 4439: 4430: 4427: 4359: 4353: 4288: 4205: 4189:Bykivnia graves 4153:Robert Conquest 4138: 4077: 4071: 4051:newspaper, the 4000:Robert Conquest 3987: 3907:Lavrentiy Beria 3903: 3902: 3901: 3900: 3899: 3887: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3865: 3813: 3807: 3770: 3762:Main articles: 3760: 3743: 3737: 3728: 3703: 3698: 3697: 3696: 3695: 3694: 3671: 3662: 3661: 3660: 3649: 3512:Nikolai Durnovo 3458:Lavrentiy Beria 3439:Titsian Tabidze 3383:Boris Pasternak 3375:Osip Mandelstam 3368:Albert Einstein 3279:, chief of the 3273:Ivan Kleymyonov 3183:Nikolai Vavilov 3177:quantum gravity 3175:and pioneer of 3103:Nikolai Vavilov 3067:Osip Mandelstam 3059: 3041: 2860: 2849: 2843: 2840: 2825: 2813: 2809: 2798: 2787: 2781: 2778: 2767: 2755: 2734: 2722: 2716:External videos 2711: 2656:Vasily Blyukher 2648:Semyon Budyonny 2638:The first five 2632: 2626: 2524:album procedure 2473: 2461:Main articles: 2459: 2422:Orthodox clergy 2365: 2308:Anastas Mikoyan 2283: 2271:Arthur Koestler 2181: 2175: 2149: 2105:Georgy Pyatakov 2090: 2084: 2067:Alexander Orlov 2057:, in June 1937. 1996: 1991: 1985: 1835:Opposition Bloc 1732: 1726: 1699:mass operations 1607:Reign of Terror 1589:Robert Conquest 1561: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1511:Bol'shoy terror 1480: 1444: 1442: 1437: 1436: 1377: 1369: 1368: 1314: 1306: 1305: 1227:April 9 tragedy 1106: 1095: 1094: 942: 931: 930: 867:Khrushchev Thaw 847: 836: 835: 816:Berlin Blockade 703: 692: 691: 642: 641:: Establishment 631: 630: 609:Bolshevik Party 604:Bolshevik split 579: 542: 308: 307:Mass repression 264:Lavrentiy Beria 239: 226: 195: 164: 162: 133: 98: 91:Reign of Terror 79: 68: 62: 59: 52: 39: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12977: 12967: 12966: 12961: 12956: 12951: 12946: 12941: 12936: 12931: 12926: 12921: 12916: 12911: 12906: 12901: 12896: 12891: 12886: 12881: 12876: 12871: 12866: 12861: 12844: 12843: 12841: 12840: 12830: 12815: 12812: 12811: 12808: 12807: 12805: 12804: 12799: 12798: 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12228: 12222: 12221: 12219: 12218: 12213: 12211:Deputy Premier 12208: 12203: 12202: 12201: 12194:Heads of state 12190: 12188: 12184: 12183: 12181: 12180: 12179: 12178: 12168: 12162: 12159:Supreme Soviet 12156: 12150: 12149: 12148: 12143: 12142: 12141: 12136: 12126: 12121: 12110: 12108: 12104: 12103: 12101: 12100: 12095: 12094: 12093: 12088: 12083: 12076:State ideology 12073: 12068: 12063: 12058: 12057: 12056: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12035: 12034: 12024: 12023: 12022: 12012: 12007: 12006: 12005: 11995: 11990: 11989: 11988: 11983: 11972: 11970: 11963: 11957: 11956: 11953: 11952: 11950: 11949: 11944: 11942:Ural Mountains 11939: 11934: 11932:North Caucasus 11929: 11924: 11919: 11913: 11911: 11907: 11906: 11904: 11903: 11898: 11893: 11892: 11891: 11881: 11876: 11875: 11874: 11863: 11861: 11852: 11846: 11845: 11843: 11842: 11837: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11782: 11777: 11776: 11775: 11770: 11759: 11754: 11749: 11744: 11739: 11734: 11729: 11728: 11727: 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10481: 10476: 10471: 10470: 10469: 10459: 10449: 10444: 10439: 10434: 10429: 10424: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10400: 10395: 10390: 10385: 10384: 10383: 10378: 10368: 10359: 10353: 10351: 10347: 10346: 10344: 10343: 10338: 10333: 10328: 10323: 10318: 10313: 10308: 10302: 10300: 10293: 10287: 10286: 10284: 10283: 10277: 10270: 10267: 10266: 10259: 10258: 10251: 10244: 10236: 10230: 10229: 10223: 10215: 10204: 10196: 10182: 10181:External links 10179: 10178: 10177: 10172:. Narrated by 10164: 10161: 10160: 10159: 10153: 10140: 10126:, ed. (1991). 10120: 10113: 10106: 10096: 10089: 10071:(8): 1319–53. 10048: 10041: 10035: 10020: 10014: 9999: 9993: 9977: 9971: 9955: 9949: 9936: 9930: 9918:Rogovin, Vadim 9914: 9908: 9892: 9886: 9870: 9852: 9839: 9821: 9812: 9806: 9791: 9785: 9772: 9766: 9750: 9744: 9727: 9721: 9708: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9687: 9661:(6): 1143–59. 9643: 9638:978-0300074420 9637: 9621: 9605: 9600:978-0275951139 9599: 9586: 9581:978-1403901194 9580: 9567: 9562:978-0300123890 9561: 9544: 9532: 9527:978-1893554726 9526: 9500: 9495:978-0198797869 9494: 9477: 9472:978-1400040056 9471: 9455: 9450:978-0691175775 9449: 9436: 9431:978-0713997026 9430: 9418:Figes, Orlando 9414: 9409:978-0674076082 9408: 9390: 9385:978-0195317008 9384: 9369: 9364:978-0195055795 9363: 9348: 9343:978-0465003129 9342: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9320: 9308: 9295: 9282: 9269: 9256: 9228: 9216: 9209: 9189: 9187:, p. 286. 9177: 9165: 9147: 9129: 9122: 9102: 9083:(4): 1030–35. 9067: 9053: 9020: 8986: 8972: 8954: 8936: 8910: 8873: 8862:. 16 July 2002 8851: 8840:. 17 July 1997 8825: 8812: 8797: 8791:978-0521446709 8790: 8767: 8761:978-0674016972 8760: 8732: 8725: 8705: 8698: 8678: 8671: 8651: 8634: 8621: 8595:Michael Ellman 8587: 8562: 8538: 8525: 8519:978-0300104073 8518: 8496: 8483: 8470: 8426: 8424:, p. 139. 8414: 8408:978-0691175775 8407: 8389: 8363: 8357:978-1417992775 8356: 8336: 8324: 8322:, p. 469. 8312: 8310:, p. 468. 8300: 8288: 8286:, p. 472. 8273: 8261: 8243: 8231: 8219: 8207: 8179: 8166:978-0521255141 8165: 8145: 8136: 8104: 8087: 8075: 8073:, p. 117. 8063: 8039: 8017: 8015:, p. 295. 8005: 7987: 7980: 7960: 7953: 7933: 7924: 7922:, p. 301. 7912: 7888: 7859: 7838: 7824: 7815: 7800: 7775: 7768: 7748: 7741: 7721: 7714: 7694: 7687: 7667: 7649: 7642: 7622: 7595:(3): 373–394. 7589:Soviet Studies 7575: 7568: 7548: 7541: 7521: 7514: 7494: 7487: 7467: 7460: 7440: 7433: 7413: 7396: 7389: 7380:Lenin's Moscow 7369: 7362: 7342: 7335: 7315: 7308: 7288: 7281: 7261: 7234:(8): 633–634. 7214: 7176: 7169: 7149: 7142: 7122: 7115: 7095: 7088: 7068: 7041:(1): 267–283. 7025: 7012:"Aino Forsten" 7003: 6985:978-0674587496 6914: 6896: 6890:978-0199560417 6889: 6871: 6864: 6844: 6837: 6817: 6810: 6790: 6783: 6763: 6756: 6736: 6729: 6709: 6702: 6682: 6675: 6655: 6648: 6630: 6611: 6599: 6583: 6570: 6568:, p. 198. 6558: 6556:, p. 211. 6546: 6521: 6480: 6474:978-0190637729 6473: 6448: 6422: 6409:10.1086/235168 6380: 6364: 6346: 6339: 6321: 6315:978-1442609914 6314: 6291: 6278: 6248: 6242:978-9176017777 6241: 6213: 6201: 6179: 6155: 6120: 6108: 6092: 6067: 6054: 6045:Werth, Nicolas 6033: 6020: 6011: 5999: 5997:, p. 352. 5987: 5985:, p. 258. 5975: 5966: 5954: 5939: 5924: 5922:, p. 164. 5912: 5900: 5882: 5868:978-0923891312 5867: 5849: 5840: 5828: 5805: 5803:, p. 121. 5793: 5791:, p. 182. 5781: 5779:, p. 142. 5769: 5760: 5751: 5700: 5688: 5662: 5637: 5617: 5613:Gellately 2007 5602: 5600:, p. 239. 5590: 5575: 5569:978-0521335706 5568: 5548: 5533: 5508: 5483: 5457: 5445: 5430: 5395: 5386:"Great Terror" 5377: 5368:Werth, Nicolas 5350: 5333: 5329:S. Fitzpatrick 5316: 5291: 5276: 5251: 5244: 5224: 5217: 5197: 5150: 5131: 5119: 5106: 5094: 5067:(2): 187–204. 5044: 5018: 5004: 4991:978-1576070840 4990: 4967: 4965:30#3 : 513–45. 4951: 4936: 4913: 4897: 4869: 4812: 4789:(7): 1151–72. 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4745: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4721: 4709: 4708:Similar events 4706: 4705: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4637: 4634: 4612:Old Bolsheviks 4540: 4537: 4536: 4535: 4528: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4509: 4507: 4500: 4493: 4491: 4481:A memorial to 4480: 4473: 4471: 4460: 4453: 4451: 4440: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4421: 4404:Wall of Sorrow 4355:Main article: 4352: 4349: 4287: 4284: 4204: 4201: 4137: 4134: 4126:Marxist theory 4073:Main article: 4070: 4069:Rehabilitation 4067: 4008:Walter Duranty 3986: 3983: 3949:dekulakization 3896:Nikolai Yezhov 3888: 3881: 3880: 3879: 3870: 3869: 3868: 3867: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3856: 3853: 3850: 3847: 3844: 3841: 3838: 3809:Main article: 3806: 3803: 3759: 3756: 3739:Main article: 3736: 3733: 3727: 3724: 3702: 3699: 3672: 3665: 3664: 3663: 3654: 3653: 3652: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3647: 3639: 3628: 3625:Nikolai Nevsky 3621: 3614: 3600: 3587: 3584:Platon Oyunsky 3577: 3570: 3555: 3548: 3541: 3526:Sergei Chavain 3519: 3508: 3505:Nikolai Klyuev 3501: 3490:David Riazanov 3487: 3465: 3461: 3450:Paolo Iashvili 3446: 3437:Georgian poet 3435: 3418: 3407: 3404:Butyrka prison 3391: 3379:Stalin Epigram 3371: 3339:Jewish German 3337: 3320:, director of 3318:Aleksei Gastev 3314: 3311:Pyotr Bogdanov 3303: 3288:astrophysicist 3284: 3269: 3262: 3250: 3244: 3229: 3210: 3203:Trofim Lysenko 3180: 3165: 3040: 3039:Intelligentsia 3037: 3012:Nikolai Yezhov 2977:Ramón Mercader 2862: 2861: 2816: 2814: 2807: 2800: 2799: 2758: 2756: 2749: 2742: 2741: 2730: 2729: 2718: 2717: 2710: 2707: 2625: 2622: 2606:Norman Naimark 2582:dekulakization 2563:Timothy Snyder 2481:Nikolai Yezhov 2458: 2455: 2377:Tsarist regime 2364: 2361: 2341:Romain Rolland 2282: 2279: 2228:Genrikh Yagoda 2196:Genrikh Yagoda 2174: 2171: 2148: 2145: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2086:Main article: 2083: 2080: 2059: 2058: 2051: 2036: 1995: 1992: 1987:Main article: 1984: 1981: 1980: 1979: 1972: 1969: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1942:dekulakization 1867:Ramón Mercader 1751:Vladimir Lenin 1745:Following the 1738:An excerpt of 1725: 1722: 1710:Nikolai Yezhov 1706:Genrikh Yagoda 1656:Nikolai Yezhov 1638:intelligentsia 1626:Old Bolsheviks 1622:Genrikh Yagoda 1500:Большой террор 1482: 1481: 1479: 1478: 1471: 1464: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1429: 1424: 1419: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1378: 1376:Related topics 1375: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1365: 1364: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1307: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1284: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1259: 1257:The Barricades 1254: 1252:January Events 1249: 1247:Dushanbe riots 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1167: 1166: 1165: 1160: 1159: 1158: 1148: 1143: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1107: 1101: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1082: 1081: 1080: 1075: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1049: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1016:Wars in Africa 1013: 1012: 1011: 1001: 999:Yom Kippur War 996: 995: 994: 992:Fall of Saigon 989: 984: 982:Operation Menu 979: 969: 964: 959: 954: 949: 943: 937: 936: 933: 932: 929: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 893: 888: 883: 882: 881: 869: 864: 859: 854: 848: 842: 841: 838: 837: 834: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 797: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 756: 755: 754: 744: 739: 734: 733: 732: 731: 730: 725: 710: 704: 698: 697: 694: 693: 690: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 659: 654: 649: 643: 637: 636: 633: 632: 629: 628: 623: 618: 616:Russian Empire 613: 612: 611: 606: 601: 591: 586: 580: 577: 576: 573: 572: 564: 563: 557: 556: 544: 543: 541: 540: 533: 526: 518: 515: 514: 513: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 484: 483: 479: 478: 477: 476: 471: 470: 469: 459: 454: 453: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 399: 398: 392: 391: 390: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 361: 360: 354: 353: 352: 351: 350: 349: 344: 334: 332:Dekulakization 329: 324: 316: 315: 311: 310: 300: 299: 296: 292: 291: 260:Nikolai Yezhov 256:Genrikh Yagoda 245: 241: 240: 232: 228: 227: 225: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 198: 196: 193: 190: 189: 171: 167: 166: 157: 153: 152: 139: 135: 134: 123: 115: 114: 107: 106: 81: 80: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12976: 12965: 12962: 12960: 12957: 12955: 12952: 12950: 12947: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12937: 12935: 12932: 12930: 12927: 12925: 12922: 12920: 12917: 12915: 12912: 12910: 12907: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12895: 12892: 12890: 12887: 12885: 12882: 12880: 12877: 12875: 12872: 12870: 12867: 12865: 12862: 12860: 12857: 12856: 12854: 12839: 12831: 12829: 12828: 12817: 12816: 12813: 12803: 12800: 12796: 12793: 12792: 12791: 12788: 12784: 12781: 12780: 12779: 12776: 12772: 12769: 12768: 12767: 12764: 12763: 12761: 12757: 12749: 12746: 12745: 12743: 12740: 12739: 12737: 12735: 12731: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12699:Printed media 12697: 12695: 12692: 12688: 12685: 12684: 12683: 12680: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12670: 12668: 12665: 12663: 12660: 12659: 12657: 12655: 12651: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12633: 12632:Cyrillisation 12630: 12628: 12625: 12624: 12623: 12620: 12618: 12615: 12613: 12610: 12606: 12603: 12601: 12600:Working class 12598: 12596: 12595:Soviet people 12593: 12592: 12591: 12588: 12586: 12583: 12581: 12578: 12577: 12574: 12571: 12569: 12565: 12557: 12554: 12553: 12552: 12549: 12547: 12544: 12542: 12539: 12537: 12534: 12532: 12529: 12527: 12524: 12522: 12519: 12518: 12516: 12514: 12510: 12502: 12499: 12497: 12494: 12492: 12489: 12488: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12444: 12443:Energy policy 12441: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12431: 12429: 12426: 12425: 12423: 12421: 12417: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12388: 12386: 12384: 12380: 12374: 12371: 12369: 12366: 12362: 12359: 12358: 12357: 12354: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12328: 12326: 12324: 12320: 12312: 12308: 12304: 12300: 12296: 12293: 12292: 12291: 12288: 12284: 12281: 12279: 12276: 12275: 12274: 12271: 12269: 12266: 12262: 12259: 12258: 12257: 12254: 12250: 12247: 12246: 12245: 12242: 12240: 12237: 12235: 12232: 12231: 12229: 12227: 12223: 12217: 12214: 12212: 12209: 12207: 12204: 12200: 12197: 12196: 12195: 12192: 12191: 12189: 12185: 12177: 12174: 12173: 12172: 12171:Supreme Court 12169: 12166: 12163: 12160: 12157: 12154: 12151: 12147: 12144: 12140: 12137: 12135: 12132: 12131: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12120: 12117: 12116: 12115: 12112: 12111: 12109: 12105: 12099: 12096: 12092: 12089: 12087: 12084: 12082: 12079: 12078: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12064: 12062: 12059: 12055: 12052: 12051: 12050: 12047: 12045: 12042: 12040: 12037: 12033: 12030: 12029: 12028: 12025: 12021: 12018: 12017: 12016: 12013: 12011: 12008: 12004: 12001: 12000: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11978: 11977: 11974: 11973: 11971: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11958: 11948: 11945: 11943: 11940: 11938: 11935: 11933: 11930: 11928: 11925: 11923: 11920: 11918: 11915: 11914: 11912: 11908: 11902: 11899: 11897: 11894: 11890: 11887: 11886: 11885: 11882: 11880: 11877: 11873: 11870: 11869: 11868: 11865: 11864: 11862: 11860: 11856: 11853: 11851: 11847: 11841: 11838: 11836: 11833: 11831: 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11774: 11773:The Holocaust 11771: 11769: 11766: 11765: 11763: 11760: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11743: 11740: 11738: 11735: 11733: 11730: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11717: 11716: 11713: 11711: 11708: 11707: 11705: 11703: 11699: 11694: 11687: 11682: 11680: 11675: 11673: 11668: 11667: 11664: 11652: 11644: 11643: 11640: 11634: 11631: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11619: 11617: 11614: 11612: 11609: 11607: 11606:Semyonovskoye 11604: 11602: 11599: 11597: 11594: 11592: 11589: 11588: 11586: 11584: 11581: 11579: 11576: 11574: 11571: 11569: 11566: 11565: 11563: 11561: 11557: 11548: 11545: 11540: 11537: 11532: 11529: 11524: 11521: 11516: 11513: 11508: 11505: 11500: 11497: 11492: 11489: 11484: 11483:Vasily Stalin 11481: 11478:(second wife) 11476: 11473: 11470:(adopted son) 11468: 11465: 11460: 11457: 11452: 11449: 11444: 11443:Kato Svanidze 11441: 11436: 11433: 11428: 11425: 11424: 11422: 11418: 11412: 11411: 11407: 11406: 11404: 11400: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11386: 11384: 11381: 11379: 11376: 11374: 11371: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11354: 11351: 11349: 11346: 11344: 11341: 11339: 11336: 11334: 11331: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11310: 11308: 11304: 11298: 11295: 11293: 11292: 11288: 11286: 11283: 11281: 11280: 11276: 11274: 11273: 11269: 11267: 11266: 11262: 11260: 11257: 11255: 11252: 11250: 11247: 11245: 11242: 11240: 11239:Ryutin Affair 11237: 11235: 11232: 11230: 11227: 11226: 11224: 11219:Criticism and 11216: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11184: 11180: 11178: 11175: 11173: 11170: 11168: 11165: 11163: 11160: 11159: 11157: 11155: 11151: 11145: 11142: 11139: 11135: 11133: 11132:Order No. 270 11130: 11128: 11127:Order No. 227 11125: 11123: 11122: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11108: 11106: 11105: 11101: 11099: 11096: 11094: 11093: 11089: 11087: 11084: 11082: 11079: 11076: 11072: 11069: 11065: 11062: 11058: 11055: 11051: 11048: 11044: 11043: 11041: 11037: 11031: 11028: 11026: 11025:Doctors' plot 11023: 11021: 11018: 11016: 11013: 11011: 11008: 11006: 11003: 11001: 10998: 10996: 10993: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10983:Nazino affair 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10955: 10954: 10951: 10948: 10947:German–Soviet 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10929: 10926: 10924: 10921: 10919: 10916: 10912: 10909: 10907: 10906:Slavists case 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10893: 10890: 10889: 10887: 10883: 10880: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10872:Moscow Trials 10870: 10866: 10863: 10861: 10858: 10856: 10853: 10851: 10848: 10846: 10843: 10841: 10838: 10836: 10833: 10831: 10828: 10826: 10823: 10821: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10808: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10797: 10796: 10793: 10791: 10788: 10787: 10786: 10783: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10769: 10766: 10765: 10764: 10761: 10759: 10756: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10715: 10713: 10707: 10701: 10698: 10696: 10693: 10691: 10688: 10686: 10683: 10681: 10678: 10676: 10673: 10671: 10668: 10666: 10663: 10661: 10658: 10656: 10653: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10635:Korenizatsiya 10633: 10631: 10630:Neo-Stalinism 10628: 10626: 10623: 10622: 10620: 10616: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10588: 10584: 10581: 10579: 10576: 10574: 10571: 10569: 10566: 10564: 10561: 10557: 10554: 10553: 10552: 10549: 10547: 10544: 10542: 10539: 10537: 10534: 10533: 10532: 10529: 10527: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10516:Ili Rebellion 10514: 10512: 10509: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10490: 10487: 10485: 10482: 10480: 10477: 10475: 10472: 10468: 10465: 10464: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10455: 10454: 10453: 10450: 10448: 10445: 10443: 10440: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10420: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10404: 10401: 10399: 10396: 10394: 10391: 10389: 10386: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10373: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10363: 10360: 10358: 10355: 10354: 10352: 10348: 10342: 10339: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10324: 10322: 10319: 10317: 10314: 10312: 10309: 10307: 10304: 10303: 10301: 10297: 10294: 10288: 10281: 10278: 10275: 10272: 10271: 10268: 10264: 10263:Joseph Stalin 10257: 10252: 10250: 10245: 10243: 10238: 10237: 10234: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10218:Nicolas Werth 10216: 10214: 10210: 10205: 10202: 10201: 10197: 10194: 10189: 10185: 10184: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10166: 10156: 10150: 10146: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10125: 10121: 10119:(2019): 1–24. 10118: 10114: 10111: 10107: 10105: 10101: 10097: 10094: 10090: 10086: 10082: 10078: 10074: 10070: 10066: 10065: 10057: 10053: 10049: 10046: 10042: 10038: 10032: 10028: 10027: 10021: 10017: 10011: 10007: 10006: 10000: 9996: 9990: 9986: 9982: 9978: 9974: 9968: 9964: 9963:Red Holocaust 9960: 9956: 9952: 9946: 9942: 9937: 9933: 9927: 9923: 9919: 9915: 9911: 9905: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9889: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9867: 9863: 9862: 9857: 9856:Lyons, Eugene 9853: 9846: 9842: 9836: 9829: 9828: 9822: 9818: 9813: 9809: 9803: 9799: 9798: 9792: 9788: 9782: 9778: 9773: 9769: 9763: 9759: 9755: 9751: 9747: 9741: 9737: 9736:Belknap Press 9733: 9728: 9724: 9718: 9714: 9709: 9706: 9702: 9701: 9699: 9684: 9680: 9676: 9672: 9668: 9664: 9660: 9656: 9649: 9644: 9640: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9617: 9616: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9596: 9592: 9587: 9583: 9577: 9573: 9568: 9564: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9533: 9529: 9523: 9519: 9515: 9514: 9509: 9508:Klehr, Harvey 9505: 9501: 9497: 9491: 9487: 9483: 9478: 9474: 9468: 9464: 9460: 9456: 9452: 9446: 9442: 9437: 9433: 9427: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9405: 9401: 9400: 9395: 9391: 9387: 9381: 9377: 9376: 9370: 9366: 9360: 9356: 9355: 9349: 9345: 9339: 9335: 9330: 9329: 9318:, p. xx. 9317: 9316:Thurston 1998 9312: 9305: 9299: 9292: 9286: 9279: 9273: 9266: 9260: 9245: 9244: 9239: 9232: 9225: 9220: 9212: 9206: 9202: 9201: 9193: 9186: 9185:Conquest 2008 9181: 9174: 9173:Conquest 2008 9169: 9161: 9157: 9151: 9143: 9139: 9133: 9125: 9119: 9115: 9114: 9106: 9098: 9094: 9090: 9086: 9082: 9078: 9071: 9063: 9057: 9041: 9037: 9036: 9031: 9024: 9009: 9005: 9001: 8997: 8990: 8982: 8976: 8968: 8964: 8958: 8950: 8946: 8940: 8925:. 9 June 2010 8924: 8920: 8914: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8887: 8883: 8877: 8861: 8855: 8839: 8835: 8829: 8822: 8816: 8809: 8804: 8802: 8793: 8787: 8783: 8782: 8777: 8771: 8763: 8757: 8753: 8752: 8747: 8741: 8739: 8737: 8728: 8722: 8718: 8717: 8709: 8701: 8695: 8691: 8690: 8682: 8674: 8668: 8664: 8663: 8655: 8648: 8644: 8638: 8631: 8625: 8618: 8614: 8610: 8607: 8603: 8600: 8596: 8591: 8584: 8580: 8576: 8572: 8566: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8548: 8542: 8535: 8529: 8521: 8515: 8511: 8507: 8500: 8493: 8487: 8480: 8474: 8466: 8462: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8446: 8445: 8437: 8430: 8423: 8422:Thurston 1998 8418: 8410: 8404: 8400: 8393: 8378: 8374: 8367: 8359: 8353: 8349: 8348: 8340: 8333: 8332:Conquest 2008 8328: 8321: 8320:Conquest 2008 8316: 8309: 8308:Conquest 2008 8304: 8297: 8296:Conquest 2008 8292: 8285: 8284:Conquest 2008 8280: 8278: 8270: 8269:Conquest 2008 8265: 8257: 8253: 8247: 8241:, p. 33. 8240: 8235: 8228: 8223: 8217:, p. 32. 8216: 8211: 8196: 8195: 8190: 8183: 8168: 8162: 8158: 8157: 8149: 8140: 8124: 8120: 8119: 8114: 8108: 8101: 8097: 8091: 8084: 8083:Kuromiya 2007 8079: 8072: 8067: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8048: 8043: 8028: 8021: 8014: 8013:Conquest 2008 8009: 8001: 7997: 7991: 7983: 7977: 7973: 7972: 7964: 7956: 7950: 7946: 7945: 7937: 7928: 7921: 7920:Conquest 2008 7916: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7898: 7892: 7877: 7873: 7866: 7864: 7856: 7852: 7848: 7842: 7833: 7831: 7829: 7819: 7812: 7811: 7804: 7789: 7785: 7779: 7771: 7765: 7761: 7760: 7752: 7744: 7738: 7734: 7733: 7725: 7717: 7711: 7707: 7706: 7698: 7690: 7684: 7680: 7679: 7671: 7663: 7659: 7653: 7645: 7639: 7635: 7634: 7626: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7579: 7571: 7565: 7561: 7560: 7552: 7544: 7538: 7534: 7533: 7525: 7517: 7511: 7507: 7506: 7498: 7490: 7484: 7480: 7479: 7471: 7463: 7457: 7453: 7452: 7444: 7436: 7430: 7426: 7425: 7417: 7409: 7408: 7400: 7392: 7386: 7382: 7381: 7373: 7365: 7359: 7355: 7354: 7346: 7338: 7332: 7328: 7327: 7319: 7311: 7305: 7301: 7300: 7292: 7284: 7278: 7274: 7273: 7265: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7218: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7183: 7181: 7172: 7166: 7162: 7161: 7153: 7145: 7139: 7135: 7134: 7126: 7118: 7112: 7108: 7107: 7099: 7091: 7085: 7081: 7080: 7072: 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7029: 7013: 7007: 7000: 6999: 6994: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6925: 6918: 6910: 6906: 6900: 6892: 6886: 6882: 6875: 6867: 6861: 6857: 6856: 6848: 6840: 6834: 6830: 6829: 6821: 6813: 6807: 6803: 6802: 6794: 6786: 6780: 6776: 6775: 6767: 6759: 6753: 6749: 6748: 6740: 6732: 6726: 6722: 6721: 6713: 6705: 6699: 6695: 6694: 6686: 6678: 6672: 6668: 6667: 6659: 6651: 6645: 6641: 6634: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6615: 6608: 6607:Conquest 2008 6603: 6596: 6592: 6591:Conquest 2008 6587: 6580: 6577:Stephen Lee, 6574: 6567: 6566:Courtois 1999 6562: 6555: 6554:Conquest 2008 6550: 6535: 6531: 6525: 6517: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6484: 6476: 6470: 6466: 6465: 6457: 6455: 6453: 6437: 6433: 6426: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6403:(4): 813–61. 6402: 6398: 6391: 6384: 6377: 6373: 6368: 6360: 6356: 6350: 6342: 6336: 6332: 6325: 6317: 6311: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6295: 6288: 6282: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6244: 6238: 6231: 6230: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6210: 6209:Courtois 1999 6205: 6197: 6193: 6186: 6184: 6175: 6168: 6166: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6152: 6151: 6137: 6133: 6124: 6115: 6113: 6105: 6101: 6096: 6088: 6084: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6072: 6064: 6058: 6050: 6046: 6040: 6038: 6031:. pp. 667–68. 6030: 6024: 6015: 6008: 6007:Conquest 2008 6003: 5996: 5995:Conquest 2008 5991: 5984: 5983:Koestler 1940 5979: 5970: 5961: 5959: 5950: 5943: 5935: 5928: 5921: 5920:Conquest 2008 5916: 5907: 5905: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5860: 5853: 5844: 5838:, p. 87. 5837: 5836:Conquest 2008 5832: 5824: 5820: 5819:Labour Review 5816: 5809: 5802: 5801:Conquest 2008 5797: 5790: 5789:Conquest 2008 5785: 5778: 5777:Conquest 2008 5773: 5764: 5755: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5724:(3): 524–26. 5723: 5719: 5715: 5713: 5704: 5697: 5692: 5676: 5672: 5666: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5621: 5614: 5609: 5607: 5599: 5594: 5587: 5586:Conquest 1987 5582: 5580: 5571: 5565: 5561: 5560: 5552: 5544: 5537: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5520: 5512: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5471: 5467: 5461: 5454: 5449: 5441: 5434: 5419: 5415: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5391: 5387: 5381: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5359: 5357: 5355: 5347: 5343: 5337: 5330: 5326: 5320: 5305: 5301: 5295: 5287: 5280: 5265: 5261: 5255: 5247: 5241: 5237: 5236: 5228: 5220: 5214: 5210: 5209: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5154: 5146: 5142: 5135: 5128: 5123: 5116: 5110: 5103: 5102:Conquest 2008 5098: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5061:Slavic Review 5055: 5048: 5033: 5029: 5022: 5014: 5008: 4993: 4987: 4983: 4982: 4977: 4971: 4964: 4958: 4956: 4949:, p. 16. 4948: 4943: 4941: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4917: 4910: 4906: 4905:Conquest 2008 4901: 4894: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4876: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4817: 4809: 4808:world—history 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4764: 4762: 4757: 4742: 4741:Prague Spring 4739: 4736: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4719: 4715: 4712: 4711: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4668: 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4633: 4631: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4613: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4575:According to 4572: 4568: 4566: 4562: 4560: 4555: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4532: 4525: 4520: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4477: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4437: 4432: 4425: 4420: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4383: 4379: 4374: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4358: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4337: 4333: 4328: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4292: 4282: 4277: 4274: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4249: 4245: 4242: 4237: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4209: 4203:Stalin's role 4200: 4198: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4178: 4177:J. Arch Getty 4175:According to 4173: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4151:According to 4149: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4113:rehabilitated 4109: 4106: 4098: 4093: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4066: 4064: 4063:Secret Speech 4060: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4044: 4041: 4037: 4036: 4031: 4028:, authors of 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4014: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3998:According to 3996: 3993: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3968:rehabilitated 3965: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3950: 3946: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3897: 3893: 3892: 3885: 3874: 3857: 3854: 3851: 3848: 3845: 3842: 3839: 3836: 3835: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3823:Israil Pliner 3820: 3816: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3765: 3755: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3732: 3723: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3658: 3644: 3640: 3637: 3633: 3632:Mykola Kulish 3629: 3626: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3571: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3553: 3549: 3546: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3433: 3427: 3426:Zinaida Raikh 3423: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3411:Boris Pilnyak 3408: 3405: 3400: 3399:André Malraux 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3344:Fritz Noether 3342: 3338: 3335: 3334:cybernetician 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3267: 3266:Boris Numerov 3263: 3260: 3259: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3214:Lev Shubnikov 3211: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3164: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3131: 3126: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3104: 3099: 3092: 3087: 3080: 3075: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3036: 3034: 3030: 3024: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2988: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2907:Eric D. Weitz 2903: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2872:Vadim Rogovin 2869: 2858: 2855: 2847: 2844:February 2022 2837: 2833: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2817:This section 2815: 2806: 2805: 2796: 2793: 2785: 2782:February 2022 2775: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2759:This section 2757: 2753: 2748: 2747: 2740: 2731: 2728: 2719: 2714: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2621: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2505: 2501: 2496: 2492: 2489: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2454: 2451: 2447: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2369: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2353:rehabilitated 2350: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2318: 2312: 2309: 2305: 2298: 2297:revolutionary 2295: 2291: 2287: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2267:Jay Lovestone 2264: 2263:Bertram Wolfe 2260: 2254: 2252: 2246: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2192:Yakov Agranov 2189: 2185: 2180: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2157: 2154: 2144: 2136: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2127: 2123: 2121: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2103:For example, 2101: 2099: 2095: 2089: 2079: 2077: 2071: 2068: 2064: 2056: 2052: 2049: 2045: 2044:Yuri Piatakov 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2000: 1990: 1989:Moscow trials 1983:Moscow trials 1977: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1950: 1949: 1945: 1943: 1937: 1935: 1930: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1883:party leader 1882: 1878: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1827:Ryutin affair 1823: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1702: 1700: 1696: 1695:Volga Germans 1692: 1688: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1660:Yezhovshchina 1657: 1653: 1649: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1569:Joseph Stalin 1567: 1559: 1543: 1533: 1532:Yezhovshchina 1528: 1517: 1512: 1506: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1477: 1472: 1470: 1465: 1463: 1458: 1457: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1441: 1440: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1417:Soviet Empire 1415: 1413: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1363: 1362: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1316: 1310: 1309: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1288: 1285: 1283: 1280: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1263: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1232:Black January 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1108: 1104: 1099: 1098: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1085:Polish strike 1083: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1005: 1004:Prague Spring 1002: 1000: 997: 993: 990: 988: 985: 983: 980: 978: 975: 974: 973: 970: 968: 965: 963: 960: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 944: 940: 935: 934: 927: 924: 922: 921:Space program 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 879: 875: 874: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 849: 845: 840: 839: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 761: 760: 757: 753: 752:Moscow trials 750: 749: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 729: 726: 724: 721: 720: 719: 716: 715: 714: 711: 709: 706: 705: 701: 696: 695: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 667:War communism 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 644: 640: 635: 634: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 596: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 581: 575: 574: 570: 566: 565: 562: 559: 558: 554: 550: 549: 539: 534: 532: 527: 525: 520: 519: 517: 516: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 487: 486: 485: 481: 480: 475: 472: 468: 465: 464: 463: 460: 458: 455: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 407: 406: 403: 402: 401: 400: 397: 394: 393: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 364: 363: 362: 359: 356: 355: 348: 345: 343: 340: 339: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 322:War communism 320: 319: 318: 317: 313: 312: 306: 305: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 270:and others), 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 248:Joseph Stalin 246: 242: 237: 233: 229: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 197: 191: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 161: 158: 154: 151: 147: 143: 140: 136: 131: 127: 121: 116: 113: 108: 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 77: 74: 66: 63:November 2023 56: 50: 48: 43:This article 41: 32: 31: 19: 12818: 12590:Demographics 12580:Antisemitism 12433:Central Bank 12351:Forced labor 12340: 12299:Spetsnaz GRU 12119:organisation 12027:Human rights 11976:Constitution 11859:Subdivisions 11756: 11737:Russian SFSR 11693:Soviet Union 11550:(son-in-law) 11542:(son-in-law) 11539:Yuri Zhdanov 11446:(first wife) 11435:Keke Geladze 11408: 11297:Antisemitism 11289: 11277: 11270: 11263: 11254:Kremlin Plot 11181: 11119: 11103: 11090: 10995:Tax on trees 10953:Deportations 10784: 10690:Stakhanovite 10551:Eastern Bloc 10452:World War II 10405: / 10292:and politics 10199: 10174:Meryl Streep 10169: 10144: 10131: 10127: 10116: 10109: 10099: 10092: 10068: 10062: 10044: 10025: 10004: 9984: 9962: 9940: 9921: 9899: 9877: 9860: 9845:the original 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The term 1516:Year of '37 1488:Great Purge 1272:August Coup 1242:War of Laws 1121:Perestroika 972:Vietnam War 962:Six-Day War 747:Great Purge 702:: Stalinism 621:World War I 450:Legislation 377:Great Purge 212:Mass murder 194:Attack type 175:Trotskyists 160:Main phase: 105:Great Purge 12853:Categories 12734:Opposition 12724:Television 12704:Propaganda 12677:Literature 12551:Naukograds 12546:Sharashkas 12480:(currency) 12458:Inventions 12401:Censorship 12331:Red Terror 12015:Government 11889:Autonomous 11872:Autonomous 11805:Stagnation 11768:Evacuation 11621:Lake Ritsa 11601:Uspenskoye 11518:(grandson) 11502:(grandson) 11494:(daughter) 11249:Trotskyism 11221:opposition 10897:Lysenkoism 10583:Korean War 10462:Winter War 10350:Chronology 10341:Death toll 10306:Early life 9696:See also: 9249:1 December 9046:6 November 8641:Quoted in 8583:0817929029 8558:0300110669 7909:0253209153 7855:1929631146 6967:. p. 200; 6965:0142000639 6951:. p. 460; 6949:1400040051 6935:. p. 101; 6534:goarmy.com 6287:Bloodlands 6274:0465002390 6102:, p. 6100:Figes 2007 5634:1400040051 5598:Figes 2007 5528:B0711N78KN 5501:3 December 5309:2 December 5127:Figes 2007 5037:3 December 4907:, p. 4748:References 4731:(Cambodia) 4692:Lustration 4557:Historian 4531:Sandarmokh 4463:Krasny Bor 4225:Kaganovich 4221:Voroshilov 4099:, Mongolia 3960:Ivan Fedko 3799:Hoja-Niyaz 3789:, General 3716:Sandarmokh 3673:Statue of 3545:Les Kurbas 3292:astronomer 3187:geneticist 3043:See also: 2957:Bolsheviks 2944:, Spanish 2942:Andreu Nin 2934:Trotskyist 2898:and other 2870:historian 2868:Trotskyist 2828:improve it 2684:commissars 2400:White Army 2292:, Russian 2177:See also: 2153:Karl Radek 2120:Not Guilty 2098:John Dewey 2040:Karl Radek 1974:1938, the 1965:1937, the 1952:1936, the 1934:Red Terror 1798:The term " 1728:See also: 1724:Background 1556:period of 1530:) and the 1407:Leadership 1334:Khrushchev 1287:referendum 1262:Referendum 1146:Baltic Way 821:Korean War 662:Red Terror 589:Bolshevism 578:Background 462:Censorship 367:Red Terror 347:Kazakhstan 290:and others 268:Ivan Serov 124:People of 55:editing it 12929:Stalinism 12795:Republics 12783:Republics 12771:Republics 12622:Languages 12486:Transport 12368:Holodomor 12261:Militsiya 12199:President 12091:Stalinism 11993:Elections 11867:Republics 11850:Geography 11840:Nostalgia 11752:Stalinism 11611:New Athos 10877:Hotel Lux 10860:Vinnytsia 10815:Chortkiv 10805:Berezwecz 10800:Berezhany 10768:Holodomor 10625:Stalinism 10563:Cominform 10299:Overviews 9756:(1973) . 9683:205667754 9627:(1998) . 9465:. Knopf. 9278:Historian 9008:0362-4331 8898:0882-7729 8882:Fred Weir 8613:Routledge 7609:0038-5859 7256:1063-777X 7201:0011-3891 7063:122107821 6943:. Knopf. 6628:, p. 214 6516:1252-6576 6302:(2009) . 5877:843206645 5746:151381912 5738:1351-8046 5681:24 August 5655:24 August 5476:22 August 5184:0966-8136 5089:163664533 4849:1252-6576 4753:Citations 4702:Holodomor 4505:, Ukraine 4449:, Belarus 4367:Gorbachev 4065:in full. 3913:USSR and 3911:Sovnarkom 3795:Ma Shaowu 3791:Ma Hushan 3559:Esperanto 3472:dialectic 3170:physicist 3101:Botanist 3053:Sharashka 2987:) lived. 2965:Politburo 2938:anarchist 2902:parties. 2892:Hungarian 2876:Bulgarian 2832:verifying 2613:vis-à-vis 2602:genocidal 2586:Holodomor 2543:Bulgarian 2396:Far North 2359:in 1988. 2294:Bolshevik 2233:Although 2161:Rightists 2035:executed. 1927:From the 1895:) in 1934 1881:Leningrad 1837:in which 1819:Civil War 1668:politburo 1505:romanized 1490:, or the 1397:Geography 1392:Education 1354:Gorbachev 1349:Chernenko 1237:Osh riots 1217:Jeltoqsan 1103:1982–1991 939:1964–1982 844:1953–1964 723:Holodomor 700:1927–1953 639:1917–1927 584:Communism 430:1975–1987 425:1958–1964 420:1928–1941 415:1921–1928 410:1917–1921 207:Massacres 126:Vinnytsia 12838:Category 12391:Religion 12278:Chairmen 12124:Congress 12086:Leninism 12066:Propiska 11961:Politics 11820:Glasnost 11780:Cold War 11720:February 11651:Category 11591:Kuntsevo 11438:(mother) 11430:(father) 10865:Zolochiv 10850:Valozhyn 10820:Kurapaty 10618:Concepts 10531:Cold War 10054:(1996). 9983:(2005). 9961:(2009). 9920:(1996). 9898:(2010). 9876:(2002). 9858:(1937). 9675:19326595 9611:(1973). 9538:(1940). 9510:(2003). 9461:(2007). 9420:(2007). 9396:(1999). 8778:(1993). 8748:(2005). 8602:Archived 8577:, 2002. 8552:, 2008. 8194:Memorial 7209:24093868 6955:. 2002. 6939:. 2007. 6931:. 1995. 6441:6 August 6417:32917643 6258:. 2010. 5269:27 April 4978:(1999). 4933:(1): 13. 4857:20171081 4803:43510161 4716:and the 4636:See also 4489:, Russia 4469:, Russia 4443:Kuropaty 4389:Bykivnia 4378:Kurapaty 4371:glasnost 4336:Shelepin 4316:Pospelov 4308:Shvernik 4304:Furtseva 4248:Buddhist 4165:Kuropaty 4161:Vinnitsa 4022:Beatrice 3805:Timeline 3778:Xinjiang 3691:Xinjiang 3687:Mongolia 3607:de facto 3557:Russian 3468:Jan Sten 3277:rocketry 3191:botanist 3159:in 1938. 3029:gas vans 2896:Yugoslav 2866:Russian 2676:marshals 2668:Red Army 2584:and the 2572:Pianist 2539:Estonian 2440:Komsomol 2065:officer 1893:Svetlana 1859:Béla Kun 1769:and the 1718:Xinjiang 1676:sabotage 1672:wrecking 1634:Red Army 1599:allusion 1537:Ежовщина 1521:37-й год 1412:Politics 1359:List of 1344:Andropov 1339:Brezhnev 1329:Malenkov 1116:Glasnost 811:Cold War 553:a series 551:Part of 405:Religion 222:Genocide 179:Red Army 146:Xinjiang 138:Location 12759:Symbols 12672:Fashion 12654:Culture 12568:Society 12513:Science 12478:Rouble 12420:Economy 12396:Science 12206:Premier 12187:Offices 12049:Leaders 11969:General 11937:Siberia 11910:Regions 11884:Oblasts 11725:October 11702:History 11626:Sukhumi 11587:Dachas 11578:Kureika 10968:Koreans 10855:Vileyka 10556:Comecon 10381:Sovkhoz 10376:Kolkhoz 10290:History 10213:YouTube 10136:ROSSPEN 9325:Sources 9097:2166597 8923:Reuters 8465:2166597 8256:memo.ru 8098:", in: 7236:Bibcode 7043:Bibcode 7018:21 June 6530:"Ranks" 5081:2495035 4720:(China) 4597:torture 4503:Donetsk 4320:Rudenko 4312:Aristov 4229:Zhdanov 4213:Molotov 4191:reserve 3643:sunspot 3582:writer 3538:Mari El 3409:Writer 3393:Writer 3387:Cherdyn 3286:Soviet 3207:genetic 3157:Butyrka 3155:in the 3023:again. 2985:Kalinin 2886:of the 2826:Please 2559:Chinese 2551:Iranian 2535:Latvian 2531:Finnish 2388:Siberia 2259:Kalinin 1863:killing 1601:to the 1564:), was 1550: 1507:: 1496:Russian 1402:History 1387:Economy 1382:Culture 1361:troikas 967:Détente 457:Science 445:Judaism 342:Ukraine 12778:Emblem 12766:Anthem 12714:Sports 12667:Cinema 12662:Ballet 12644:Racism 12617:Family 12107:Bodies 11695:topics 11420:Family 10845:Sambir 10151: 10104:online 10095:(2015) 10085:152781 10083: 10033: 10012: 9991: 9969: 9947: 9928: 9906: 9884: 9837: 9804: 9783: 9764: 9742: 9719: 9681: 9673: 9635: 9597: 9578: 9559: 9524: 9492: 9469: 9447: 9428: 9406: 9382: 9361: 9340: 9207: 9120: 9095: 9006: 8896: 8788: 8758: 8723: 8696: 8669: 8585:p. 111 8581: 8560:p. xix 8556: 8516: 8463: 8405: 8354: 8163: 8118:RTÉ.ie 7978: 7951: 7907: 7857:p. 111 7853: 7766: 7739: 7712: 7685: 7640: 7617:150306 7615: 7607: 7566: 7539: 7512: 7485: 7458: 7431: 7387: 7360: 7333: 7306: 7279: 7254: 7207: 7199: 7167: 7140: 7113: 7086: 7061: 6991:; 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