Gulag - Knowledge

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with Rosefielde pointing out the archival figure of 1,196,369 for the population of the Gulag and labor colonies combined on December 31, 1936, is less than half the 2.75 million labor camp population given to the Census Board by the NKVD for the 1937 census, it is generally believed that these data provide more reliable and detailed information that the indirect data and literary sources available for the scholars during the Cold War era. Although Conquest cited Beria's report to the Politburo of the labor camp numbers at the end of 1938 stating there were almost 7 million prisoners in the labor camps, more than three times the archival figure for 1938 and an official report to Stalin by the Soviet minister of State Security in 1952 stating there were 12 million prisoners in the labor camps.

1571: 5988:"We are all inclined to accept the Zemskov totals (even if not as complete) with their 14 million intake to Gulag 'camps' alone, to which must be added 4–5 million going to Gulag 'colonies', to say nothing of the 3.5 million already in, or sent to, 'labor settlements'. However taken, these are surely 'high' figures." There are reservations to be made. For example, we now learn that the Gulag reported totals were of capacity rather than actual counts, leading to an underestimate in 1946 of around 15%. Then as to the numbers 'freed': there is no reason to accept the category simply because the MVD so listed them, and, in fact, we are told of 1947 (when the anecdotal evidence is of almost no one released) that this category concealed deaths: 100000 in the first quarter of the year'" 4679:

Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, at the Polar Circle, without a trial or even a communicated accusation. The same night of June 12 to 13, 1941, (that is, just before Germany's invasion of the USSR), overall 602 fellow villagers were arrested and deported, without any prior notice. Her mother received the same sentence but was spared from deportation after the fact that she was a paraplegic was acknowledged by the authorities. It was later discovered that the reason for her deportation and forced labor was the fake and nonsensical claim that, allegedly, her husband had been a mayor in the Romanian administration, a politician and a rich peasant, none of the latter of which was true. Separated from her husband, she brought up the three boys, overcame

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would have automatically led to a decrease in the food supply plan for camps, prisons, and corrective labor colonies. The decrement in food would have been accompanied by an increase in mortality that would have led to wrecking of the vast production program of the Gulag. On the other hand, overstatement of data of the number of prisoners also did not comply with departmental interests, because it was fraught with the same (i.e., impossible) increase in production tasks set by planning bodies. In those days, people were highly responsible for non-fulfilment of plan. It seems that a resultant of these objective departmental interests was a sufficient degree of reliability of the reports.

382: 3223: 4902: 2110:, camp administrators moved prisoners from project to project. To improve the situation, laws were implemented in mid-1940 that allowed giving short camp sentences (4 months or a year) to those convicted of petty theft, hooliganism, or labor-discipline infractions. By January 1941, the Gulag workforce had increased by approximately 300,000 prisoners. But in 1942, serious food shortages began, and camp populations dropped again. The camps lost still more prisoners to the war effort as the Soviet Union went into a total war footing in June 1941. Many laborers received early releases so that they could be drafted and sent to the front. 4691:, extreme cold and harsh toils, to later return to Bucovina after rehabilitation. Her manuscript was written toward the end of her life, in the simple and direct language of a peasant with three years of public school education, and was secretly brought to Romania before the fall of Romanian communism, in 1982. Her manuscript was first published in 1991. Her deportation was shared mainly with Romanians from Bucovina and Basarabia, Finnish and Polish prisoners, as token proof to show that Gulag labor camps had also been used for the shattering/ extermination of the natives in the newly occupied territories of the Soviet Union. 2135: 1658:– regions that lacked towns or food sources as well as organized transportation systems. Despite the isolated conditions, some prisoners successfully escaped to populated areas. Stalin himself escaped three of the four times after he was sent into exile. Since these times, Siberia gained its fearful connotation as a place of punishment, a reputation which was further enhanced by the Soviet GULAG system. The Bolsheviks' own experiences with exile and forced labor provided them with a model which they could base their own system on, including the importance of strict enforcement. 1773:, which later came to be known as the "first camp of the Gulag". While serving his sentence he wrote a letter to the camp administration detailing a number of "productivity improvement" proposals including the infamous system of labor exploitation whereby the inmates' food rations were to be linked to their rate of production, a proposal known as nourishment scale (шкала питания). This notorious you-eat-as-you-work system would often kill weaker prisoners in weeks and caused countless casualties. The letter caught the attention of a number of high communist officials including 2061: 2441: 1459:", i.e., without trial at courts; official data suggest that there were over 2.6 million sentences to imprisonment on cases investigated by the secret police throughout 1921–53. Maximum sentences varied depending on the type of crime and changed over time. From 1953, the maximum sentence for petty theft was six months, having previously been one year and seven years. Theft of state property however, had a minimum sentence of seven years and a maximum of twenty five. In 1958, the maximum sentence for any crime was reduced from twenty five to fifteen years. 1475: 3910:, was far from understanding of the Gulag essence and the nature of socio-political processes in the country. He added that without distinguishing the degree of accuracy and reliability of certain figures, without making a critical analysis of sources, without comparing new data with already known information, Zemskov absolutizes the published materials by presenting them as the ultimate truth. As a result, Maksudov charges that Zemskov's attempts to make generalized statements with reference to a particular document, as a rule, do not hold water. 1884: 3842:

the inmates and guards complicit. The terror resulting from the operation of the Gulag system caused people outside of the camps to cut all ties with anyone who was arrested or purged and to avoid forming ties with others for fear of being associated with anyone who was targeted. As a result, the camps were essential as the nucleus of a system that destroyed individuality and dissolved all social bonds. Thereby, the system attempted to eliminate any capacity for resistance or self-directed action in the greater population.

2157:, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the Soviet Union. One interpretation of this agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets. British and United States civilian authorities ordered their military forces in Europe to deport to the Soviet Union up to two million former residents of the Soviet Union, including persons who had left the Russian Empire and established different citizenship years before. The forced repatriation operations took place from 1945 to 1947. 5260: 2046: 1452:, all foreign civilian detainees and foreign POWs were imprisoned in the GULAG; the surviving foreign civilians and POWs considered themselves prisoners in the GULAG. According to the estimates, in total, during the whole period of the existence of the GUPVI, there were over 500 POW camps (within the Soviet Union and abroad), which imprisoned over 4,000,000 POW. Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time. 4947: 15230: 13193: 1043: 2421: 4242:

were associated with punitive forced labor in detention. Forced labor camps ("GULAG camps") were hard regime camps, whose inmates were serving more than three-year terms. As a rule, they were situated in remote parts of the USSR, and labor conditions were extremely hard there. They formed a core of the GULAG system. The inmates of "corrective labor colonies" served shorter terms; these colonies were located in less remote parts of the USSR, and they were run by local NKVD administration.

3419: 1360: 1307: 4265:. Thus, these figures reflect the number of convicted persons, and do not take into account the fact that a significant part of Gulag inmates had been convicted more than one time, so the actual number of convicted is somewhat overstated by these statistics. From other hand, during some periods of Gulag history the official figures of GULAG population reflected the camps' capacity, not the actual number of inmates, so the actual figures were 15% higher in, e.g. 1946. 15242: 15173: 14635: 13205: 12005: 52: 3318:) specified a minimum sentence of ten years or execution for theft from collective farms or of cooperative property. Over the next few months, prosecutions rose fourfold. A large share of cases prosecuted under the law were for the theft of small quantities of grain worth less than fifty rubles. The law was later relaxed on 8 May 1933. Overall, during the first half of 1933, prisons saw more new incoming inmates than the three previous years combined. 3830:

political repression because the system survived and grew long after Stalin had wiped out all serious political resistance. Although the various camps were initially filled with criminals and political prisoners, eventually they were filled with prisoners who were arrested irrespective of anything relating to them as individuals, but rather only on the basis of their membership in some ever shifting category of imagined threats to the state.

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worked in mines. Most prisoners laboured under the threat of starvation or execution if they refused. It is estimated that the combination of very long working hours, harsh climatic and other working conditions, inadequate food, and summary executions killed tens of thousands of prisoners each year. Western scholarly estimates of the total number of deaths in the Gulag in the period from 1918 to 1956 ranged from 1.2 to 1.7 million.

2126:. While this practice denied the Germans a source of free labor, it also further restricted the Gulag's capacity to keep up with the Red Army's demands. When the tide of the war turned, however, and the Soviets started pushing the Axis invaders back, fresh batches of laborers replenished the camps. As the Red Army recaptured territories from the Germans, an influx of Soviet ex-POWs greatly increased the Gulag population. 3196:), they instituted a number of positive incentives intended to boost productivity. These included monetary bonuses (since the early 1930s) and wage payments (from 1950 onward), cuts of individual sentences, general early-release schemes for norm fulfilment and overfulfilment (until 1939, again in selected camps from 1946 onward), preferential treatment, sentence reduction and privileges for the most productive workers ( 3647: 3243:

ore-processing plant which sent out parties to dig for tin. I worked at the radio station which kept contact with the parties. If the inmates were good and disciplined they had almost the same rights as the free workers. They were trusted and they even went to the movies. As for the reason they were in the camps, well, I never poked my nose into details. We all thought the people were there because they were guilty.

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their inconsistency, they do not support previously published higher estimates. Importantly, the released documents made possible to clarify terminology used to describe different categories of forced labor population, because the use of the terms "forced labor", "GULAG", "camps" interchangeably by early researchers led to significant confusion and resulted in significant inconsistencies in the earlier estimates.

1729:, oversaw political prisoners and the "special" camps to which they were sent. In April 1929, the judicial distinctions between criminal and political prisoners were eliminated, and control of the entire Soviet penal system turned over to the OGPU. In 1928, there were 30,000 individuals interned; the authorities were opposed to compelled labor. In 1927, the official in charge of prison administration wrote: 15202: 12017: 43: 3834:

economic purpose they typically served was financing the cost of their own supervision. Otherwise the work performed was generally useless, either by design or made that way through extremely poor planning and execution; some workers even preferred more difficult work if it was actually productive. She differentiated between "authentic" forced-labor camps, concentration camps, and "annihilation camps".

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solution they found was to push the remaining prisoners still harder. The NKVD employed a system of setting unrealistically high production goals, straining resources in an attempt to encourage higher productivity. As the Axis armies pushed into Soviet territory from June 1941 on, labor resources became further strained, and many of the camps had to evacuate out of Western Russia.

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Eastern Siberian Trust of the Chief Administration of Camps for Highway Construction destroyed ninety-four trucks in just three years. But the greatest problem was simple – forced labor was less efficient than free labor. In fact, prisoners in the Gulag were, on average, half as productive as free laborers in the USSR at the time, which may be partially explained by malnutrition.

1094: 1834:", as the Soviet government referred to them, all lived on starvation level rations, and many people starved to death in the camps, and anyone who was healthy enough to escape tried to do just that. This resulted in the government having to give rations to a group of people they were getting hardly any use out of, and was just costing the Soviet government money. The 1602:, a category of punishment which was reserved for those who were convicted of the most serious crimes, had many of the features which were associated with labor-camp imprisonment: confinement, simplified facilities (as opposed to the facilities which existed in prisons), and forced labor, usually involving hard, unskilled or semi-skilled work. According to historian 1971:. According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens and inhabitants of the other annexed lands, regardless of their ethnic origin, were arrested and sent to the Gulag camps. However, according to the official data, the total number of sentences for political and anti-state (espionage, terrorism) crimes in the USSR in 1939–41 was 211,106. 2612:

prisoners who received the health classification "invalid", "light physical labor", "light individualised labor", or "physically defective" that together according to Alexopoulos encompassed at least one third of all inmates who passed through the Gulag died or had their lives shortened due to detention in the Gulag in captivity or shortly after release.

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through starvation and neglect." She criticizes other commentators' conclusion that the purpose of the camps was a supply of cheap labor. According to her, the Soviets were able to liquidate the camp system without serious economic consequences, showing that the camps were not an important source of labor and were overall economically irrelevant.

4782: 2639:) was considered in detail by Mikhail Nakonechnyi. He concluded that the number of terminally ill people discharged early on medical grounds from the Gulag was about 1 million. Mikhail added 800,000–850,000 excess deaths to the death toll directly caused by the results of GULAG incarceration, which brings the death toll to 2.5 million people. 1709:, officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, political enemies, dissidents and other people deemed dangerous for the state. In the first decade of Soviet rule, the judicial and penal systems were neither unified nor coordinated, and there was a distinction between criminal prisoners and political or "special" prisoners. 1781:

prisoners. Hence it is followed by one more important reason for the constancy of the repressive policy, namely, the state's interest in unremitting rates of receiving a cheap labor force that was forcibly used, mainly in the extreme conditions of the east and north. The Gulag possessed both punitive and economic functions.

1677:. These camps, as Lenin envisioned them, had a distinctly political purpose. These early camps of the GULAG system were introduced in order to isolate and eliminate class-alien, socially dangerous, disruptive, suspicious, and other disloyal elements, whose deeds and thoughts were not contributing to the strengthening of the 7793: 3898:. These had been generally accepted by leading Western scholars, despite the fact that a number of inconsistencies were found in this statistics. Not all the conclusions drawn by Zemskov based on his data have been generally accepted. Thus, Sergei Maksudov alleged that although literary sources, for example the books of 5631:Хотя даже по самым консервативным оценкам, от 20 до 25 млн человек стали жертвами репрессий, из которых, возможно, от пяти до шести миллионов погибли в результате пребывания в ГУЛАГе. Translation: 'The most conservative calculations speak of 20–25 million victims of repression, 5 to 6 million of whom died in the Gulag.' 7688:"For decades, many historians counted Stalin' s victims in 'tens of millions', which was a figure supported by Solzhenitsyn. Since the collapse of the USSR, the lower estimates of the scale of the camps have been vindicated. The arguments about excess mortality are far more complex than normally believed. R. Conquest, 1274:", and as an eyewitness, he described the Gulag as a system where people were worked to death. In March 1940, there were 53 Gulag camp directorates (simply referred to as "camps") and 423 labor colonies in the Soviet Union. Many mining and industrial towns and cities in northern Russia, eastern Russia and 4268:

The USSR implemented a number of labor disciplinary measures, due to the lack of productivity of its labour force in the early 1930s. 1.8 million workers were sentenced to 6 months in forced labor with a quarter of their original pay, 3.3 million faced sanctions, and 60k were imprisoned for absentees

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Archival studies revealed several components of the NKVD penal system in the Stalinist USSR: prisons, labor camps, labor colonies, as well as various "settlements" (exile) and of non-custodial forced labor. Although most of them fit the definition of forced labor, only labor camps, and labor colonies

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The GULAG mortality estimated in this way yields the figure of 6 million deaths. Historian Orlando Figes and Russian writer Vadim Erlikman have posited similar estimates. The estimate of Alexopoulos, however, has obvious methodological difficulties and is supported by misinterpreted evidence, such as

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Even as the pool of workers shrank, demand for outputs continued to grow rapidly. As a result, the Soviet government pushed the Gulag to "do more with less". With fewer able-bodied workers and few supplies from outside the camp system, camp administrators had to find a way to maintain production. The

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New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and "inhumanity." The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7

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is the own life's account written by a Romanian peasant woman from Bucovina (Mahala village near Cernăuți) who managed to survive the harsh, forced labor system together with her three sons. Together with her husband and her three underage children, she was deported from Mahala village to the Soviet

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or Stephen Wheatcroft to reconsider their earlier estimates of the size of the GULAG population, although the 'high numbers' of arrested and deaths are not radically different from earlier estimates. Although such scholars as Rosefielde or Vishnevsky point at several inconsistencies in archival data

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political reforms in the late 1980s and the subsequent dissolution of the USSR, led to the release of a large amount of formerly classified archival documents including new demographic and NKVD data. Analysis of the official GULAG statistics by Western scholars immediately demonstrated that, despite

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During the decades before the dissolution of the USSR, the debates about the population size of GULAG failed to arrive at generally accepted figures; wide-ranging estimates have been offered, and the bias toward higher or lower side was sometimes ascribed to political views of the particular author.

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Arendt argues that together with the systematized, arbitrary cruelty inside the camps, this served the purpose of total domination by eliminating the idea that the arrestees had any political or legal rights. Morality was destroyed by maximizing cruelty and by organizing the camps internally to make

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She also argues that the function of the Gulag system was not truly economic. Although the Soviet government deemed them all "forced labor" camps, this in fact highlighted that the work in the camps was deliberately pointless, since all Russian workers could be subject to forced labor. The only real

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system of government, the camps of the Gulag system were experiments in "total domination." In her view, the goal of a totalitarian system was not merely to establish limits on liberty, but rather to abolish liberty entirely in service of its ideology. She argues that the Gulag system was not merely

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Local newspapers and magazines were published. Even some scientific research was carried out, e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained but unfortunately later lost completely. Eventually, Solovki turned into an ordinary Gulag camp. Some historians maintain that it was a pilot camp of this type.

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soldiers imprisoned by the Germans were sent to the Gulag. However, that is a confusion with two other types of camps. During and after World War II, freed POWs went to special "filtration" camps. Of these, by 1944, more than 90 percent were cleared, and about 8 percent were arrested or condemned to

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The Gulag quickly switched to the production of arms and supplies for the army after fighting began. At first, transportation remained a priority. In 1940, the NKVD focused most of its energy on railroad construction. This would prove extremely important when the German advance into the Soviet Union

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The hypothesis that economic considerations were responsible for mass arrests during the period of Stalinism has been refuted on the grounds of former Soviet archives that have become accessible since the 1990s, although some archival sources also tend to support an economic hypothesis. In any case,

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According to some estimates, the total population of the camps varied from 510,307 in 1934 to 1,727,970 in 1953. According to other estimates, at the beginning of 1953 the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners. Between

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and were being constantly exposed during the last fifteen years, represent only a very small part of bureaucratic prose of immense size left over after the decades of "creativity" by the "dull and reptile" organization managing the Gulag. In many cases, local camp archives, which had been stored in

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In Burepolom there were roughly 3,000 prisoners, all non-political, in the central compound. They could walk around at will, were lightly guarded, had unlocked barracks with mattresses and pillows, and watched western movies. However Nuksha 2, which housed serious criminals and political prisoners,

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In her 2018 study, Golfo Alexopoulos attempted to challenge this consensus figure by encompassing those whose life was shortened due to GULAG conditions. Alexopoulos concluded from her research that a systematic practice of the Gulag was to release sick prisoners on the verge of death; and that all

2584:). Mortality in Gulag camps in 1934–40 was 4–6 times higher than average in the Soviet Union. Post-1991 research by historians accessing archival materials brought this range down considerably. In a 1993 study of archival Soviet data, a total of 1,053,829 people died in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953. 2436:

Yet the major reason for the post-war increase in the number of prisoners was the tightening of legislation on property offences in summer 1947 (at this time there was a famine in some parts of the Soviet Union, claiming about 1 million lives), which resulted in hundreds of thousands of convictions

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Between 1934 and 1941, the number of prisoners with higher education increased more than eight times, and the number of prisoners with high education increased five times. It resulted in their increased share in the overall composition of the camp prisoners. Among the camp prisoners, the number and

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To help prevent the mass escapes the OGPU started to recruit people within the colony to help stop people who attempted to leave, and set up ambushes around known popular escape routes. The OGPU also attempted to raise the living conditions in these camps that would not encourage people to actively

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The exploitation of prison labour, the system of squeezing "golden sweat" from them, the organisation of production in places of confinement, which while profitable from a commercial point of view is fundamentally lacking in corrective significance – these are entirely inadmissible in Soviet places

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system grew rapidly, reaching a population of 100,000 in the 1920s. By the end of 1940, the population of the Gulag camps amounted to 1.5 million. The emergent consensus among scholars is that, of the 14 million prisoners who passed through the Gulag camps and the 4 million prisoners

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In authentic labor camps, inmates worked in "relative freedom and are sentenced for limited periods." Concentration camps had extremely high mortality rates and but were still "essentially organized for labor purposes." Annihilation camps were those where the inmates were "systematically wiped out

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Since many of these existed only for short periods, the number of camp administrations at any given point was lower. It peaked in the early 1950s when there were more than 100 camp administrations across the Soviet Union. Most camp administrations oversaw several single camp units, some as many as

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These were vast and sparsely inhabited regions with no roads or sources of food, but rich in minerals and other natural resources, such as timber. The construction of the roads was assigned to the inmates of specialised railway camps. Camps were generally spread throughout the entire Soviet Union,

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and post-war periods were fulfilled on the backs of convicts. The activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry. Gorky organized in 1933 a trip of 120 writers and artists to the White Sea–Baltic Canal, 36 of them wrote a propaganda book about the construction published in

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Despite its low capital costs, the camp economy suffered from serious flaws. For one, actual productivity almost never matched estimates: the estimates proved far too optimistic. In addition, scarcity of machinery and tools plagued the camps and the tools that the camps did have quickly broke. The

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campaign. Most of the camps established to accommodate the masses of incoming prisoners were assigned distinct economic tasks. These included the exploitation of natural resources and the colonization of remote areas, as well as the realisation of enormous infrastructural facilities and industrial

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created a system of self-supporting camps that would eventually replace the existing prisons around the country. These prisons were meant to receive inmates that received a prison sentence that exceeded three years. Prisoners who had a shorter prison sentence than three years were to remain in the

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From 1920 to 1950, the leaders of the Communist Party and the Soviet state considered repression a tool that they should use to secure the normal functioning of the Soviet state system and preserve and strengthen their positions within their social base, the working class (when the Bolsheviks took

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Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the "meat-grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the

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sources that come to higher estimations. Archival researchers have found "no plan of destruction" of the gulag population and no statement of official intent to kill them, and prisoner releases vastly exceeded the number of deaths in the Gulag. This policy can partially be attributed to the common

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In response, Zemskov wrote that the charge that he allegedly did not compare new data with already known information could not be called fair. In his words, the trouble with most western writers is that they do not benefit from such comparisons. Zemskov added that when he tried not to overuse the

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While considering the issue of reliability of the primary data provided by corrective labor institutions, it is necessary to take into account the following two circumstances. On the one hand, their administration was not interested to understate the number of prisoners in its reports, because it

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to date, Russian historians have discovered and described 476 camps that existed at different times on the territory of the USSR. It is well known that practically every one of them had several branches, many of which were quite large. In addition to the large numbers of camps, there were no less

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In general, the central administrative bodies showed a discernible interest in maintaining the labor force of prisoners in a condition allowing the fulfilment of construction and production plans handed down from above. Besides a wide array of punishments for prisoners refusing to work (which, in

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in 2018 also stated the same thing "New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and "inhumanity." The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir

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was higher. The tentative historical consensus is that, of the 18 million people who passed through the gulag from 1930 to 1953, between 1.6 million and 1.76 million perished as a result of their detention, and about half of all deaths occurred between 1941 and 1943 following the German invasion.

1445:. The top management of GUPVI came from the GULAG system. The major memoir noted distinction from GULAG was the absence of convicted criminals in the GUPVI camps. Otherwise the conditions in both camp systems were similar: hard labor, poor nutrition and living conditions, and high mortality rate. 2094:

To make up for this disparity, the NKVD worked prisoners harder than ever. To meet rising demand, prisoners worked longer and longer hours, and on lower food-rations than ever before. A camp administrator said in a meeting: "There are cases when a prisoner is given only four or five hours out of

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At its height the Gulag consisted of many hundreds of camps, with the average camp holding 2,000–10,000 prisoners. Most of these camps were "corrective labour colonies" in which prisoners felled timber, laboured on general construction projects (such as the building of canals and railroads), or

2186:, POWs, and other displaced persons, which processed more than 4,000,000 people. By 1946, the major part of the population of these camps were cleared by NKVD and either sent home or conscripted (see table for details). 226,127 out of 1,539,475 POWs were transferred to the NKVD, i.e. the Gulag. 7643:

The long-awaited archival evidence on repression in the period of the Great Purges shows that levels of arrests, political prisoners, executions, and general camp populations tend to confirm the orders of magnitude indicated by those labeled as "revisionists" and mocked by those proposing high

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and other Russian researchers managed to gain access to the documents and published the highly classified statistical data collected by the OGPU-NKVD-MGB-MVD and related to the number of the Gulag prisoners, special settlers, etc. In 1995, Zemskov wrote that foreign scientists have begun to be

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admitted to the restricted-access collection of these documents in the State Archive of the Russian Federation since 1992. However, only one historian, namely Zemskov, was admitted to these archives, and later the archives were again "closed", according to Leonid Lopatnikov. Pressure from the

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The scarcity of food stemmed in part from the general strain on the entire Soviet Union, but also the lack of central aid to the Gulag during the war. The central government focused all its attention on the military and left the camps to their own devices. In 1942, the Gulag set up the Supply

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The 1931–32 archives indicate the Gulag had approximately 200,000 prisoners in the camps; while in 1935, approximately 800,000 were in camps and 300,000 in colonies. Gulag population reached a peak value (1.5 million) in 1941, gradually decreased during the war and then started to grow again,

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After having appeared as an instrument and place for isolating counter-revolutionary and criminal elements, the Gulag, because of its principle of "correction by forced labor", quickly became, in fact, an independent branch of the national economy secured on the cheap labor force presented by

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I was 18 years old and Magadan seemed a very romantic place to me. I got 880 rubles a month and a 3000 ruble installation grant, which was a hell of a lot of money for a kid like me. I was able to give my mother some of it. They even gave me membership in the Komsomol. There was a mining and

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share of the intelligentsia was growing at the quickest pace. Distrust, hostility, and even hatred for the intelligentsia was a common characteristic of the Soviet leaders. Information regarding the imprisonment trends and consequences for the intelligentsia derive from the extrapolations of

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process was a failure in providing the government with a steady forced labor force. These prisoners were also lucky to be in the gulag in the early 1930s. Prisoners were relatively well off compared to what the prisoners would have to go through in the final years of the gulag. The Gulag was

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Preliminary analysis of the GULAG camps and colonies statistics (see the chart on the right) demonstrated that the population reached the maximum before the World War II, then dropped sharply, partially due to massive releases, partially due to wartime high mortality, and then was gradually

1814:. The Kulaks were supposedly wealthy, comparatively to other Soviet peasants, and were considered to be capitalists by the state, and by extension enemies of socialism. The term would also become associated with anyone who opposed or even seemed unsatisfied with the Soviet government. 8985:, "average number of prisoners was 17.6 million in 1942, which many times exceeds the "declassified" official (forged) data frequently published in press"; the number was taken from an NKVD document dated January 18, 1945. The number of prisoners in 1943 was estimated as 13 million. 3403:

were given rewards. It is also said that camps in colder areas were less concerned with finding escaped prisoners as they would die anyhow from the severely cold winters. In such cases prisoners who did escape without getting shot were often found dead kilometres away from the camp.

7801: 7757: 2417:). According to German government estimates "65,000 people died in those Soviet-run camps or in transportation to them." According to German researchers, Sachsenhausen, where 12,500 Soviet era victims have been uncovered, should be seen as an integral part of the Gulag system. 3545:

With the new emphasis on Gulag as the means of concentrating cheap labor, new camps were then constructed throughout the Soviet sphere of influence, wherever the economic task at hand dictated their existence, or was designed specifically to avail itself of them, such as the

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Among the prisoners there are some so ragged and lice-ridden that they pose a sanitary danger to the rest. These prisoners have deteriorated to the point of losing any resemblance to human beings. Lacking food…they collect orts and, according to some prisoners, eat rats and

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started in 1941. In addition, factories converted to produce ammunition, uniforms, and other supplies. Moreover, the NKVD gathered skilled workers and specialists from throughout the Gulag into 380 special colonies which produced tanks, aircraft, armaments, and ammunition.

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in 1940 alone. The conditions of Soviet workers worsened in WW2 as 1.3 million were punished in 1942, and 1 million each were punished in subsequent 1943 and 1944 with the reduction of 25% of food rations. Further more, 460 thousand were imprisoned throughout these years.

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juxtaposition of new information with "old" one, it was only because of a sense of delicacy, not to once again psychologically traumatize the researchers whose works used incorrect figures, as it turned out after the publication of the statistics by the OGPU-NKVD-MGB-MVD.

3541:

visited the camp and published an apology for it. The report of Gorky's trip to Solovki was included in the cycle of impressions titled "Po Soiuzu Sovetov", Part V, subtitled "Solovki." In the report, Gorky wrote that "camps such as 'Solovki' were absolutely necessary."

3251:

in June 1941 the conditions in camps worsened drastically: quotas were increased, rations cut, and medical supplies came close to none, all of which led to a sharp increase in mortality. The situation slowly improved in the final period and after the end of the war.

4755:, an Armenian writer and poet, who was arrested in 1936, released in 1947, arrested again in 1948 and sent into Siberian exile as an "unreliable type" until 1954, wrote "Barbed Wires in Blossom", a novella based largely on his personal experiences in a Soviet gulag. 4603:) tells the story of Margaret Werner, an athletic girl who moves to Russia right before Stalin came to power. She faces many hardships, as her father is taken away from her and imprisoned. Werner is the only American woman who was held in the Gulag to tell about it. 2616:

presuming that hundreds of thousands of prisoners "directed to other places of detention" in 1948 was a euphemism for releasing prisoners on the verge of death into labor colonies, when it was really referring to internal transport in the Gulag rather than release.

4381:, among others, became a symbol of defiance in Soviet society. These writings harshly chastised the Soviet people for their tolerance and apathy regarding the Gulag, but at the same time provided a testament to the courage and resolve of those who were imprisoned. 1712:

The "traditional" judicial and prison system, which dealt with criminal prisoners, were first overseen by The People's Commissariat of Justice until 1922, after which they were overseen by the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs, also known as the

2095:

twenty-four for rest, which significantly lowers his productivity." In the words of a former Gulag prisoner: "By the spring of 1942, the camp ceased to function. It was difficult to find people who were even able to gather firewood or bury the dead."

1823:. Stalin demanded that the kulak class be completely wiped out, resulting in the imprisonment and execution of Soviet peasants. In a mere four months, 60,000 people were sent to the camps and another 154,000 exiled. This was only the beginning of the 1805:

The purpose of these new camps was to colonise the remote and inhospitable environments throughout the Soviet Union. These changes took place around the same time that Stalin started to institute collectivisation and rapid industrial development.

3811:, in turn as set out by historian Anne Applebaum, argues that the Soviet regime instrumentalised the Gulag for its economic development projects. Although never economically profitable, it was perceived as such right up to Stalin's death in 1953. 2099:

Administration to find their own food and industrial goods. During this time, not only did food become scarce, but the NKVD limited rations in an attempt to motivate the prisoners to work harder for more food, a policy that lasted until 1948.

2013:. 516,841 prisoners died in prison camps in 1941–43, from a combination of their harsh working conditions and the famine caused by the German invasion. This period accounts for about half of all gulag deaths, according to Russian statistics. 3325:

died monthly. During this time, prisoners were getting around 300 calories (1,300 kJ) worth of food a day. Many inmates attempted to flee, causing an upsurge in coercive and violent measures. Camps were directed "not to spare bullets".

2437:

to lengthy prison terms, sometimes on the basis of cases of petty theft or embezzlement. At the beginning of 1953, the total number of prisoners in prison camps was more than 2.4 million of which more than 465,000 were political prisoners.

3793:. According to this view, Soviet ideology eliminated the moral checks on the darker side of human nature – providing convenient justifications for violence and evil-doing on all levels: from political decision-making to personal relations. 4838:"). In addition, for persons who served full term, but who were denied the free choice of place of residence, it was recommended to assign them for "free settlement" and give them land in the general vicinity of the place of confinement. 1208:

who passed through the Gulag colonies from 1930 to 1953, roughly 1.5 to 1.7 million prisoners perished there or died soon after they were released. Some journalists and writers who question the reliability of such data heavily rely on

7692:(London, 1992) does not really get to grips with the new data and continues to present an exaggerated picture of the repression. The view of the 'revisionists' has been largely substantiated (J. Arch Getty & R. T. Manning (eds), 3157:; those who took it had their workday reduced to four hours. During that year the professional theater group in the camp complex gave 230 performances of plays and concerts to over 115,000 spectators. Camp newspapers also existed. 3152:

Some prisoners were released early if they displayed good performance. There were several productive activities for prisoners in the camps. For example, in early 1935, a course in livestock raising was held for prisoners at a

1378:

Some historians estimate that 14 million people were imprisoned in the Gulag labor camps from 1929 to 1953 (the estimates for the period from 1918 to 1929 are more difficult to calculate). Other calculations, by historian

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Persons who served a term in a camp or prison were restricted from taking a wide range of jobs. Concealment of a previous imprisonment was a triable offence. Persons who served terms as "politicals" were nuisances for

2479:

The state continued to maintain the extensive camp system for a while after Stalin's death in March 1953, although the period saw the grip of the camp authorities weaken, and a number of conflicts and uprisings occur

1245:

of political prisoners. Six years later, on 25 January 1960, the Gulag system was officially abolished when the remains of its administration were dissolved by Khrushchev. The legal practice of sentencing convicts to

3396:. The working territory of logging presented by itself a square and was surrounded by forest clearing. Thus, all attempts to exit or escape from it were well observed from the four towers set at each of its corners. 8823:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 7. Советская репрессивно-карательная политика и пенитенциарная система. Аннотированный указатель дел ГА РФ 4801:

The camps must be transformed into colonizing settlements, without waiting for the end of periods of confinement... Here is my plan: to turn all the prisoners into a settler population until they have served their

1898:

of 1937–38, mass arrests caused another increase in inmate numbers. Hundreds of thousands of persons were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious

1610:

convicts were serving sentences in 1906 and 28,600 in 1916. Under the Imperial Russian penal system, those who were convicted of less serious crimes were sent to corrective prisons and they were also made to work.

1224:

was granted in the immediate aftermath of Stalin's death, but it was only offered to non-political prisoners and political prisoners who had been sentenced to a maximum of five years in prison. Shortly thereafter,

3500:

In the early days of Gulag, the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the isolated conditions involved. Remote monasteries in particular were frequently reused as sites for new camps. The site on the

4512:), in November 1962, but was soon banned and withdrawn from all libraries. It was the first work to demonstrate the Gulag as an instrument of governmental repression against its own citizens on a massive scale. 4384:

Another cultural phenomenon in the Soviet Union linked with the Gulag was the forced migration of many artists and other people of culture to Siberia. This resulted in a Renaissance of sorts in places like

2117:

From the beginning of the war to halfway through 1944, 40 camps were set up, and 69 were disbanded. During evacuations, machinery received priority, leaving prisoners to reach safety on foot. The speed of

1618:

had been in use for a wide range of offenses since the seventeenth century and it was a common punishment for political dissidents and revolutionaries. In the nineteenth century, the members of the failed

5499:. p. 67 "...more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537"; pg 77: "The best archivally-based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953." 4569:

in Moscow 1932–39, was arrested one night and taken from his Moscow home after being accused of anti-revolutionary activities. He spent the next 20 years in camps from Solovki to Norilsk. After USSR–

4426:

after defecting to the United States in 1944. As a leader of industrial plants he had encountered forced labor camps in across the Soviet Union from 1935 to 1941. He describes a visit to one camp at

3314:

swept across many different regions of the Soviet Union. During this time, it is estimated that around six to seven million people starved to death. On 7 August 1932, a new decree drafted by Stalin (

586: 2146:

After World War II, the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies sharply rose again, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early 1950s (about 1.7 million of whom were in camps).

1830:

Although these massive relocation processes were successful in getting a large potential free forced labor work force where they needed to be, that is about all it was successful at doing. The "

4761:

is a 2011 memoir by Fyodor Vasilevich Mochulsky (1918–1999), a Soviet Engineer and eventual head of numerous Gulag camps in the northern Russian region of Pechorlag, Pechora, from 1940 to 1946.

4573:

political normalization he was re-tried and quickly found innocent. He left the Soviet Union with his wife, who had been waiting for him for 20 years, in 1956 and spent the rest of his life in

4452:

to Sweden in 1946 and included his experiences seeing gulag prisoners as a young boy, as well as his experiences as a prisoner himself in 1939. Granovsky's father was sent to the gulag in 1937.

1466:(MVD) ceased to function as the Soviet-wide administration of the camps in favour of individual republic MVD branches. The centralised detention administrations temporarily ceased functioning. 2651:

stated more complete archival data increases camp deaths by 19.4 percent to 1,258,537, "the best archivally-based estimate of Gulag excess deaths at present is 1.6 million from 1929 to 1953."

5261: 2537:

order No 020 of January 25, 1960, but forced labor colonies for political and criminal prisoners continued to exist. Political prisoners continued to be kept in one of the most famous camps

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an American factory owner's son, were two more American citizens interned who wrote of their ordeal. They were interned due to their American citizenship for about eight years c. 1946–55.

2037:

who fled from exile) were also sentenced to "katorga works". Prisoners sentenced to "katorga works" were sent to Gulag prison camps with the most harsh regime and many of them perished.

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featured guard towers with machine guns and locked barracks. In some camps prisoners were only permitted to send one letter a year and were not allowed to have photos of loved ones.

12112: 5811:

pg 583: "both archives and memoirs indicate that it was a common practice in many camps to release prisoners who were on the point of dying, thereby lowering camp death statistics."

1415: 13577: 7486: 3800:, according to which the Gulag (along with executions) was primarily a means for eliminating the regime's perceived political enemies (this understanding is favoured by historian 1518:

to denote all the prisons and internment camps in the Soviet Union. The term's contemporary usage is at times notably not directly related to the USSR, such as in the expression "

1631:

was sentenced to die for reading banned literature in 1849, but the sentence was commuted to banishment to Siberia. Members of various socialist revolutionary groups, including

3107:

Living and working conditions in the camps varied significantly across time and place, depending, among other things, on the impact of broader events (World War II, countrywide

8126:

Maddox, S. (2018). Gulag Football: Competitive and Recreational Sport in Stalin's System of Forced Labor. Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, 19(3), 509–536.

3906:, did not envisage the total number of the camps very well and markedly exaggerated their size. On the other hand, Viktor Zemskov, who published many documents by the NKVD and 11612: 7696:(Cambridge, 1993)). The popular press, even TLS and The Independent, have contained erroneous journalistic articles that should not be cited in respectable academic articles." 3678:

than 2,000 colonies. It would be virtually impossible to reflect the entire mass of Gulag facilities on a map that would also account for the various times of their existence.

1698:. These concentration camps were not identical to the Stalinist or Hitler camps, but were introduced to isolate war prisoners given the extreme historical situation following 10688: 7468:Земсков В.Н. К вопросу о репатриации советских граждан. 1944–1951 годы // История СССР. 1990. № 4 Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4 4486:. Herman experienced firsthand many places, prisons, and experiences that Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was able to reference in only passing or through brief second hand accounts. 9397: 2083:, 40.5% of its chrome-iron ore, 60% of its gold, and 25.3% of its timber. And in preparation for war, the NKVD put up many more factories and built highways and railroads. 13261: 12516: 12499: 4566: 2506:, therefore mostly those convicted for common crimes were then freed. The release of political prisoners started in 1954 and became widespread, and also coupled with mass 1230: 865: 477: 462: 13429: 13394: 13390: 12546: 10522: 3091: 1777:

and Frenkel soon went from being an inmate to becoming a camp commander and an important Gulag official. His proposals soon saw widespread adoption in the Gulag system.

737: 9163: 8186: 1455:

Petty crimes and jokes about the Soviet government and officials were punishable by imprisonment. About half of political prisoners in the Gulag camps were imprisoned "

4935: 4921: 4671: 8523:

To ensure that the preferred version of history prevailed, the Kremlin has squeezed historians, researchers and rights groups that focus on gulag research and memory.

5849: 1846:

try and escape, and Kulaks were promised that they would regain their rights after five years. Even these revisions ultimately failed to resolve the problem, and the

14603: 13950: 9046:, Vol. 40, No. 1/2, Archives et nouvelles sources de l'histoiresoviétique, une réévaluation / Assessing the New Soviet Archival Sources (Jan. – Jun. 1999), pp. 13–63 4749:, an Armenian writer who was imprisoned in 1937 and rehabilitated in 1945, published a collection of his memories under the title "They Ordered to Give You" in 1964. 3188:, Gulag inmates could tell when Yezhov was no longer in charge as one day the conditions relaxed. A few days later Beria's name appeared in official prison notices. 14191: 14149: 13592: 13328: 13267: 4981: 4971: 4246:

increasing until the end of Stalin era, reaching the global maximum in 1953, when the combined population of GULAG camps and labor colonies amounted to 2,625,000.

2071:

Up until World War II, the Gulag system expanded dramatically to create a Soviet "camp economy". Right before the war, forced labor provided 46.5% of the nation's

1975: 357: 4476:

in 1951. By describing life in the gulag in a harrowing personal account, it provides an in-depth, original analysis of the nature of the Soviet communist system.

3111:

and shortages, waves of terror, sudden influx or release of large numbers of prisoners) and the type of crime committed. Instead of being used for economic gain,

1789:

The Gulag was an administration body that watched over the camps; eventually its name would be used for these camps retrospectively. After Lenin's death in 1924,

12489: 8751:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 4. Население Гулага. Численность и условия содержания 8536: 15302: 14330: 13009: 12509: 11460: 1080: 493: 14593: 10038: 9629: 7290: 326: 1494:

was originally used in reference to a government agency, in English and many other languages, the acronym acquired the qualities of a common noun, denoting

13777: 12535: 12504: 10649: 8067: 1794: 1550: 574: 488: 231: 1200:

which was constructed after the revolution, was opened in 1918 and legalized by a decree, "On the creation of the forced-labor camps", on April 15, 1919.

12494: 12446: 7498: 3051: 762: 457: 8799:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 6. Восстания, бунты и забастовки заключенных 4660:

in 1945, he was sent to the USSR and spent ten years in the Gulag. After his release, Marković wrote his autobiographical account in two volumes titled

3695:, all in arctic or subarctic regions. However, prisoner mortality in Norilsk in most periods was actually lower than across the camp system as a whole. 14608: 14588: 14062: 10657: 10644: 4540: 2106:

of 1936–1938 had provided a large supply of free labor, but by the start of World War II the purges had slowed down. In order to complete all of their

467: 3765:) held arrested and convicted scientists, some of them prominent, where they anonymously developed new technologies and also conducted basic research. 1928:

On the eve of World War II, Soviet archives indicate a combined camp and colony population upwards of 1.6 million in 1939, according to V. P. Kozlov.

15307: 14598: 13682: 12743: 8703:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 2. Карательная система. Структура и кадры 3071: 3061: 2030: 2009:, Gulag populations declined sharply due to a steep rise in mortality in 1942–43. In the winter of 1941, a quarter of the Gulag's population died of 995: 208: 193: 10131:. (From the annotation: "more than forty dramatic personal memoirs of Communist violence and repression from political prisoners across the globe.") 4785:

show that the goals of the gulag included colonization of sparsely populated remote areas and exploiting its resources using forced labor. In 1929,

1438:(prisoners of war) in the Soviet Union during and in the aftermath of World War II (1939–1953). In many ways the GUPVI system was similar to GULAG. 15272: 14777: 10698: 6602: 3041: 2587:

It was common practice to release prisoners who were either suffering from incurable diseases or near death, so a combined statistics on mortality

6260: 6218: 4340:

The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet and East European history and affected millions of individuals. Its cultural impact was enormous.

14613: 14170: 10683: 9477:

Zwangsarbeit im stalinistischen Lagersystem: Eine Untersuchung der Methoden, Strategien und Ziele ihrer Ausnutzung am Beispiel Norilsk, 1935–1953

7610: 7103: 7080: 6039: 5717: 3215:

writes that this was "at least an indication that they were still regarded as participants in society to some degree." Sports team, particularly

534: 14787: 10693: 8342: 7364: 7338: 5113: 2544:

The Russian penal system, despite reforms and a reduction in prison population, informally or formally continues many practices endemic to the

2161: 10231:

14(1):48–53. (Children/family: Seyid Husein, Sayyara Sadigzade, Ogtay Sadigzade, Jighatay Sadigzade, Toghrul Sadigzade, and Gumral Sadigzade.)

7416: 14714: 14671: 14583: 13647: 13508: 12441: 12054: 10678: 8229: 6398: 5391: 4592: 4365:". Words and phrases which originated in the labor camps became part of the Russian/Soviet vernacular in the 1960s and 1970s. The memoirs of 2600:

writes that "with the exception of the war years, a very large majority of people who entered the Gulag left alive". If prisoner deaths from

1692:'s experiments with forced labor camps for Czech war prisoners from 1918 and his proposals to introduce "compulsory labor service" voiced in 256: 251: 7736: 1880:

achieving a maximum by 1953. Besides Gulag camps, a significant amount of prisoners, which confined prisoners serving short sentence terms.

15016: 14891: 14073: 13353: 13349: 12107: 10634: 3616: 3321:

Prisoners in the camps faced harsh working conditions. One Soviet report stated that, in early 1933, up to 15% of the prison population in

705: 350: 331: 246: 241: 236: 9573: 7992: 1384: 13705: 13308: 12626: 12596: 12020: 11592: 4835: 4257:

These data allowed scholars to conclude that during the period of 1928–53, about 14 million prisoners passed through the system of GULAG

3120: 3108: 1189: 1122: 8679:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 1. Массовые репрессии в СССР 1673:

and the Bolsheviks established a "special" prison camp system, separate from its traditional prison system and under the control of the

14131: 13955: 12883: 12843: 12753: 12564: 12080: 11634: 9264: 3870:

formerly called Central State Archive of the October Revolution (CSAOR). These documents were highly classified and inaccessible. Amid

3255:

Considering the overall conditions and their influence on inmates, it is important to distinguish three major strata of Gulag inmates:

1073: 990: 880: 411: 217: 9887: 9113: 4462:

was finished in 1947, but it was impossible to publish such a book about the Soviet Union at the time, immediately after World War II.

14782: 13715: 13687: 12871: 12766: 12638: 12424: 11713: 11495: 8775:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 5. Спецпереселенцы в СССР 8604:

Vishnevsky, Alantoly. Демографические потери от репрессий (The Demographic Loss of Repression), Demoscope Weekly, December 31, 2007,

6151: 1903:

of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of "counterrevolutionary activities". Under

423: 278: 10210: 9861: 9080: 7390: 5961: 14852: 14360: 14017: 13657: 13323: 12776: 12693: 12586: 10409: 5691: 5033: 4996: 4806:

When well-behaved persons had served the majority of their terms, they could be released for "free settlement" (вольное поселение,

4570: 4043:, and 1,431 documents, the overwhelming majority of which were obtained from funds of the State Archive of the Russian Federation. 3604: 3131: 1217: 1157: 1000: 965: 695: 433: 288: 179: 68:

53 Gulag camp directorates (colloquially referred to as simply "camps") and 423 labor colonies in the Soviet Union as of March 1940

7159: 5686: 3949:

sheds, barracks, or other rapidly disintegrating buildings, simply disappeared in the same way as most of the camp buildings did.

2002:' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union gathered in Great Britain only 310 volunteered to return to Soviet-controlled Poland in 1947. 14872: 14857: 13930: 13879: 13241: 12716: 12523: 12390: 11784: 10884: 10280: 8358: 7911: 5016: 3945: 3867: 2034: 1015: 1005: 675: 524: 343: 321: 10235: 9906:

Bell, Wilson T. 2013. "Was the Gulag an Archipelago? De‐Convoyed Prisoners and Porous Borders in the Camps of Western Siberia."

1863:

the development of the camp system followed economic lines. The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet

14802: 14108: 13975: 13934: 13587: 13513: 13424: 13318: 12414: 12259: 11909: 10438: 8727:История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920–х — первая половина 1950–х годов. Собрание документов в 7 томах. Том 3. Экономика Гулага 4991: 4549:, a Hungarian writer, often referred to as the Hungarian Solzhenitsyn, wrote many books and articles on the issue of the Gulag. 4499: 2605: 2551:

In the late 2000s, some human rights activists accused authorities of gradual removal of Gulag remembrance from places such as

1869: 1831: 1570: 1483: 1400: 749: 591: 10224: 9705:

The Gulag Handbook: An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Soviet Penitentiary Institutions and Terms Related to the Forced Labor Camps

8646: 7658:"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word" 7438: 6344: 5436:"Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word" 1053: 15267: 12901: 12402: 12368: 12356: 12351: 12242: 10464: 10381: 10288: 10047: 9855: 9768:

Werth, Nicolas. 1999. "A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union." Pp. 33–260 in

9484: 9309: 9251: 9188: 8830: 8806: 8782: 8758: 8734: 8710: 8686: 8586: 8399: 8324: 8260: 8179: 8147: 7053: 6612: 6017: 5600: 4740: 1066: 12828: 6573:"The only way to attract the labor power necessary for our economic problems is to introduce compulsory labor service", in: 3818:' the social body of hostile elements, through spatial isolation and physical elimination of individuals defined as harmful. 14709: 14649: 13419: 13414: 13358: 12938: 12706: 11923: 10426: 10108: 10096: 7929: 4414:

is a short-story collection, cited by most major works on the Gulag, and widely considered one of the main Soviet accounts.

3958:

The History of Stalin's Gulag. From the Late 1920s to the First Half of the 1950s. Collection of Documents in Seven Volumes

3570:

The majority of Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of northeastern Siberia (the best known clusters are

1807: 1414:

of the Soviet concentration system is complicated by the formal distinction between GULAG and GUPVI. GUPVI (ГУПВИ) was the

980: 148: 71:

The tentative consensus in contemporary Soviet historiography is that roughly 1,600,000 died due to detention in the camps.

9755:

Dancing Under the Red Star: The Extraordinary Story of Margaret Werner, the Only American Woman to Survive Stalin's Gulag.

15277: 14936: 14125: 13869: 13787: 13652: 13471: 12818: 12484: 12431: 12419: 12008: 11423: 9917: 8038: 3735: 3525:

for the labor camp in general. It was presented to the world as an example of the new Soviet method for "re-education of

2523: 1554: 670: 446: 401: 13560: 9246:

Robert Conquest, Paul Hollander: Political violence: belief, behavior, and legitimation p.55, Palgrave Macmillan;(2008)

3125: 2656:

sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953."

14272: 13945: 13910: 13852: 12866: 12861: 12581: 12529: 11988: 11867: 10747: 10023: 6361: 6179: 4502:", about a typical day in the life of a Gulag inmate, was originally published in the most prestigious Soviet monthly, 3859: 3227: 2390: 1891:

In the early 1930s, a tightening of the Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population.

860: 700: 629: 544: 416: 9978: 14664: 14310: 14041: 13118: 13069: 13002: 12813: 12541: 12143: 12047: 11958: 11809: 11534: 11352: 11300: 10447: 10399: 10361: 10259: 10201: 10163: 10128: 10120: 10082: 10067: 10005: 9825: 9812: 9805: 9783: 9762: 9747: 9732: 9712: 9691: 9676: 9653: 9638: 9618: 9600: 9582: 9566: 9549: 9526: 9502: 9459: 9438: 9417: 9223: 8969: 8547: 8079: 7978: 7952: 7889: 7024: 6972: 6945: 6901: 6695: 6205: 5928: 5887: 5830: 5808: 5654: 5496: 4627: 4614: 4600: 4322: 3894:

Between 1990 and 1992, the first precise statistical data on the Gulag based on the Gulag archives were published by

3814:

Finally, Barnes advances his own, fourth explanation, which situates the Gulag in the context of modern projects of '

3487: 3379: 1856: 1852: 1835: 1769:. In 1923, he was arrested for illegally crossing borders and smuggling. He was sentenced to 10 years' hard labor at 1213:

practice of releasing prisoners who were suffering from incurable diseases as well as prisoners who were near death.

1181: 732: 428: 271: 8113:, and Simon Ertz. 2005. "Forced Labor and the Need for Motivation: Wages and Bonuses in the Stalinist Camp System." 6424: 4649: 15312: 14315: 13832: 13313: 13148: 13136: 12960: 12950: 12906: 12721: 12397: 12346: 12229: 11518: 5064: 5001: 4986: 3779:

According to historian Stephen Barnes, the origins and functions of the Gulag can be looked at in four major ways:

2402: 1442: 985: 921: 744: 618: 266: 7511: 7294: 7264: 1264:, who survived eight years of Gulag incarceration, gave the term its international repute with the publication of 14926: 14699: 14335: 13822: 13817: 13797: 13745: 13461: 13153: 13141: 12997: 12982: 12896: 12798: 12380: 12200: 11972: 11965: 11697: 11309: 10494: 9146: 3434: 1995: 1678: 855: 564: 10113:

From the Gulag to the Killing Fields: Personal Accounts of Political Violence and Repression in Communist States

8083: 7316: 1907:, tens of thousands of Gulag inmates were executed in 1937–38 for "continuing counterrevolutionary activities". 15322: 14916: 14762: 14380: 14284: 13925: 13792: 13094: 13074: 12771: 12385: 12210: 12138: 11888: 10568: 10517: 10303: 8428: 5396: 4304: 3469: 3361: 3311: 1936:

estimate that 1.2 to 1.5 million people were in Gulag system's prison camps and colonies when the war started.

1177: 1010: 960: 665: 655: 283: 168: 158: 2601: 2580:

Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, estimates of Gulag victims ranged from 2.3 to 17.6 million (see

1654:

Convicts who were serving labor sentences and exiles were sent to the underpopulated areas of Siberia and the

13905: 13802: 13165: 12992: 12856: 12808: 12569: 12363: 12237: 12220: 11432: 10486: 9081:"Documented Homicides and Excess Deaths: New Insights into the Scale of Killing in the USSR During the 1930s" 8919: 5530:"Victims of the Soviet penal system in the pre-war years: a first approach on the basis of archival evidence" 5134: 5055: 2177:

penal battalions. In 1944, they were sent directly to reserve military formations to be cleared by the NKVD.

926: 895: 406: 10546: 3954:

Istoriya Stalinskogo Gulaga. Konets 1920-kh — Pervaya Polovina 1950-kh Godov. Sobranie Dokumentov v 7 Tomakh

3673:, there were at least 476 separate camp administrations. The Russian researcher Galina Ivanova stated that, 3115:

were typically given the worst work or were dumped into the less productive parts of the gulag. For example

1129:'s rule, but in English literature the term is popularly used for the system of forced labor throughout the 15206: 14931: 14911: 14657: 14560: 14325: 13987: 13837: 13750: 13476: 13466: 13439: 12761: 12436: 12331: 12132: 12040: 11676: 9665:

Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh – pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomach

8504: 7966: 7018: 6838: 4417: 4361:, neither of whom ever served time in the camps, describe life inside the Gulag and glorified the life of " 3562:

new campus were built by forced labor. Many more projects during the rapid industrialisation of the 1930s,

2139: 1463: 941: 373: 226: 14729: 10090:

Tell the West: An account of his experiences as a slave laborer in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

9588: 8994:

S. G. Wheatcroft. On Assessing the Size of Forced Concentration Camp Labour in the Soviet Union, 1929–56.

4465: 15317: 15193: 15061: 14878: 14007: 13662: 13434: 13409: 13385: 13293: 13234: 13042: 13024: 12790: 12648: 12609: 12576: 12266: 12254: 12170: 12072: 10877: 10608: 9961:

Healey, Dan. 2015. "Lives in the Balance: Weak and Disabled Prisoners and the Biopolitics of the Gulag."

9770: 9063: 7824: 7718: 5305: 5139: 4758: 4343:

The Gulag has become a major influence on contemporary Russian thinking, and an important part of modern

4226:

Note: Later numbers from Rosefielde, Wheatcroft and Conquest were revised down by the authors themselves.

4029:

Sovetskaya Pepressivno-karatelnaya Politika i Penitentsiarnaya Sistema. Annotirovanniy Ukazatel Del GA RF

3670: 1722: 1519: 910: 870: 845: 685: 316: 9325: 6024:

Orlando Figes Estimates that 25 million people circulated through the Gulag system between 1928 and 1953

5304:, "chief administration of the camps". The original name given to the system of camps controlled by the 3222: 2464:(Enemies of people): treason, espionage, terrorism, etc., for various real political opponents, such as 15220: 14772: 14719: 14620: 14350: 14340: 14305: 13842: 13498: 13037: 13014: 12987: 11874: 11853: 11481: 11368: 10936: 10478:

GULAG: Many Days, Many Lives, Online Exhibit, Center for History and New Media, George Mason University

10058: 6303:

Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism Labour and the Restoration of the Stalinist System After World War II

6264: 5537: 5118: 3921: 3547: 2102:

In addition to food shortages, the Gulag suffered from labor scarcity at the beginning of the war. The

931: 381: 10477: 9351: 7638: 7163: 7107: 6043: 3960:), wherein each of its seven volumes covered a particular issue indicated in the title of the volume: 2563: 1982:. Almost all of the captured officers and a large number of ordinary soldiers were then murdered (see 1793:

was able to take control of the government, and began to form the gulag system. On June 27, 1929, the

1337:

GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for "Гла́вное управле́ние испави́тельно-трудовы́х лагере́й" (Main Directorate of

1294:, were blocks of camps which were originally built by prisoners and subsequently run by ex-prisoners. 14744: 14739: 13444: 13079: 13052: 12955: 11759: 11669: 11627: 10138: 10033: 9943: 7826:'Factory of invalids': Mortality, disability and early release on medical grounds in GULAG, 1930–1955 5622: 5483: 5123: 4358: 2448:"special camp" coal mine. In "special camps" prisoners had to wear prison garb with personal numbers. 1979: 1944: 1261: 890: 261: 13047: 8339: 7368: 7342: 4926:

Both Moscow and St. Petersburg have memorials to the victims of the Gulag made of boulders from the

3509:

is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in 1918. The

15188: 14345: 14181: 14097: 14034: 13827: 13710: 13667: 13627: 13160: 11720: 11164: 10970: 10414: 9983: 9892: 9817: 9216:

Reflections on the Gulag: With a Documentary Index on the Italian Victims of Repression in the USSR

7762: 6997: 6387: 5311: 5073: 4694: 3551: 3529:" and reintegrating them through labor into Soviet society. Initially the inmates, largely Russian 2398: 1546: 1338: 1197: 1169: 1146: 644: 639: 634: 10172:. Oxford University Press. 272 pp., the first memoir from an NKVD employee translated into English 8883:

Edwin Bacon. Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labor around World War II.

8226: 6576: 6009: 4901: 15282: 15056: 14921: 14555: 14159: 14048: 13915: 13782: 12409: 11979: 11902: 11818: 11655: 11467: 11039: 10507: 7733: 5721: 5148: 4958: 4951: 4293: 3559: 3458: 3350: 2507: 2414: 2406: 2134: 2123: 1694: 1545:), usually singular, for the labor camp system and for the individual camps. The official term, " 1456: 1392: 1342: 1242: 727: 559: 103: 14827: 1859:

order 22 p. 248 dated April 7, 1930. It was renamed as the GULAG in November of that year.

15287: 15147: 15066: 14767: 14638: 14547: 13642: 13528: 13227: 13089: 12681: 12619: 11895: 11585: 11293: 11266: 11139: 10991: 10870: 10433: 9718: 8982: 7989: 7041: 5086: 5081: 4934:, the site of the headquarters of the NKVD. People gather at these memorials every year on the 4914: 4489: 4422: 4370: 4300: 4149: 4040: 3903: 3784: 3465: 3392:

The convicts in such camps were actively involved in all kinds of labor with one of them being

3357: 2386: 1948: 1449: 1411: 1257: 20: 9295: 8314: 8250: 6962: 6710:

Applebaum, Anne (2004). Gulag: a History of the Soviet Camps. London: Penguin Books., p. 52-53

6222: 6155: 4472:, which was translated into English by Andrzej Ciolkosz and published with an introduction by 2608:

are included, the death toll rises to 2,749,163, according to J. Otto Pohl's incomplete data.

2502:

was limited to non-political prisoners and for political prisoners sentenced to not more than

2149:

When the war in Europe ended in May 1945, as many as two million former Russian citizens were

1125:

that was in charge of running the forced labor camps from the 1930s to the early 1950s during

15297: 15116: 15049: 14817: 14686: 14534: 14079: 14068: 14002: 13582: 13303: 13208: 12180: 11881: 11832: 11683: 11453: 9723: 9211: 8576: 6935: 6721: 5879: 5800: 5770: 5103: 5098: 4562: 4543:": In 1941, the author and six other fellow prisoners escaped a Soviet labor camp in Yakutsk. 4494: 3201: 2469: 1999: 1750:), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the "Gulag", was a secret decree from the 1529:

was not often used in Russian, either officially or colloquially; the predominant terms were

1407:

the years 1934 to 1953, 20% to 40% of the Gulag population in each given year were released.

1266: 14797: 14679: 10333:Вернон Кресс (alias of Петр Зигмундович Демант) "Зекамерон XX века", autobiographical novel 9454:(illustrated hardcover ed.). Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press. 9272: 9120: 6001: 3136: 1738:

The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of "corrective labor camps" (

1318: 15177: 15126: 15121: 14812: 14486: 14414: 14355: 14266: 14221: 13898: 13399: 13380: 12970: 12833: 12653: 12451: 12165: 11798: 11557: 11446: 11118: 10220: 10206: 8433: 7879: 6288:

Crime and Punishment in Russia A Comparative History from Peter the Great to Vladimir Putin

4035:

The edition contains the brief introductions by the two "patriarchs of the Gulag science",

3884: 3248: 2119: 1904: 1351:), which names can be seen in the documents describing the subordination of various camps. 778: 13057: 7841: 4546: 2619:

In a University of Oxford doctoral dissertation, in 2020, the problem of medical release (

8: 15234: 15096: 15021: 14999: 14994: 14941: 14494: 14478: 14462: 14231: 14186: 14154: 13940: 13533: 13523: 13454: 13197: 12926: 12731: 12660: 12468: 12317: 12195: 12117: 12090: 11734: 11474: 10532: 9837: 9095: 9007:

Steven Rosefielde. An Assessment of the Sources and Uses of Gulag Forced Labour 1929–56.

7665: 7394: 6002: 5970: 5958: 5443: 4976: 4348: 3944:, the mountains of the materials of the Gulag archives, which are stored in funds of the 3514: 3413: 3142: 2556: 2006: 1770: 1685: 1636: 1193: 1047: 875: 554: 14807: 9042:

Andrea Graziosi. The New Soviet Archival Sources. Hypotheses for a Critical Assessment.

7881:Документ № 103. Справка о смертности заключённых в системе ГУЛага за период 1930—1956 гг 6106:

Alexopoulos, Golfo (Summer 2005). "Amnesty 1945: The Revolving Door of Stalin's Gulag".

4529:

or special prison was submitted for publication to the Soviet authorities shortly after

1474: 14884: 14867: 14862: 14837: 14822: 14754: 14734: 14724: 14694: 14518: 14446: 14438: 14397: 14370: 14365: 14102: 14055: 13847: 13740: 13632: 13491: 13064: 12975: 12292: 12205: 12095: 12085: 11946: 11846: 11839: 11741: 11504: 11053: 11046: 10984: 10561: 9995: 9908: 9428: 9059: 8509: 7944: 7778: 7714: 7630: 7250:

Mark Elliott. "The United States and Forced Repatriation of Soviet Citizens, 1944–47",

6819: 6744: 6133: 6125: 5975: 5696: 5554: 5174: 5170: 5006: 4881:

at all enterprises and institutions), because former "politicals" had to be monitored.

4389:, where, for example, the quality of theatre production was comparable to Moscow's and 3502: 3298: 3212: 3112: 3081: 2457: 2440: 2382: 2150: 1940: 1883: 1251: 1161: 936: 8365: 5043: 4498:

was not the first literary work about labor camps. His previous book on the subject, "

3438:

Memorial in Astana, Kazakhstan, dedicated to the wives of Akmola Labor Camp prisoners.

2060: 1383:, refer to 25 million prisoners of the Gulag in 1928–1953. A further 6–7 million were 15091: 14972: 14565: 14196: 13997: 13920: 13637: 13481: 13404: 13375: 13172: 13112: 12891: 12677: 12373: 12175: 12160: 12102: 11939: 11916: 11705: 11690: 11662: 11648: 11361: 11224: 10922: 10629: 10460: 10443: 10395: 10377: 10372: 10357: 10299: 10284: 10255: 10197: 10159: 10124: 10078: 10063: 10053: 10043: 10019: 10001: 9963: 9851: 9801: 9791:

Cannibal Island: Death in a Siberian Gulag (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity)

9779: 9775: 9758: 9743: 9728: 9708: 9687: 9672: 9649: 9634: 9614: 9596: 9578: 9562: 9545: 9522: 9498: 9480: 9455: 9445: 9434: 9413: 9305: 9247: 9229: 9219: 9184: 8965: 8901: 8826: 8802: 8778: 8754: 8730: 8706: 8682: 8582: 8514: 8477: 8395: 8320: 8256: 8143: 8075: 7974: 7948: 7885: 7861: 7744: 7657: 7049: 6968: 6941: 6917: 6897: 6691: 6670: 6608: 6201: 6013: 5924: 5883: 5826: 5804: 5650: 5596: 5492: 5478: 5435: 4736: 4635: 4623: 4610: 4596: 4441: 4378: 4354: 3789: 3322: 3185: 2648: 2548:

system, including forced labor, inmates policing inmates, and prisoner intimidation.

2511: 2473: 1933: 1864: 1706: 1666: 1628: 1620: 1583: 1431: 1371: 1226: 885: 311: 13812: 9147:"Forced Labor in Soviet Industry: The End of the 1930s to the Mid-1950s An Overview" 7800:. © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies 2018. Archived from 6822: 6748: 6318:

The Gulag After Stalin Redefining Punishment in Khrushchev's Soviet Union, 1953-1964

6137: 5920: 5709: 5529: 5130: 15142: 15026: 14967: 14957: 14510: 14502: 14320: 14278: 14252: 14141: 14012: 13992: 13965: 13725: 13486: 11860: 11825: 11571: 11550: 11439: 11398: 11088: 10454: 10349: 10250: 10029: 9951: 9932: 9897: 9408: 8661: 8288: 7853: 7674: 7622: 7442: 6736: 6341: 6330: 6117: 5874: 5795: 5546: 5452: 5405: 5254: 5232: 5197: 4862: 4716: 4514: 4473: 4410: 4366: 4344: 3315: 3281: 3193: 3160: 2492: 2453: 2154: 1991: 1655: 1234: 804: 773: 295: 89: 10528: 9955: 9936: 9927:. 2018. "New sources on Soviet perpetrators of mass repression: a research note." 9901: 9398:

Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag

9055: 8605: 7710: 7477:("Военно-исторический журнал" ("Military-Historical Magazine"), 1997, №5. page 32) 4558: 4052:

Some of those earlier estimates (both high and low) are shown in the table below.

2045: 15131: 14903: 14792: 14454: 14246: 14164: 13960: 13889: 13720: 13565: 13555: 13344: 13084: 12297: 12249: 12155: 11791: 11578: 11527: 11217: 11185: 11104: 10998: 10639: 10603: 10511: 10498: 10245: 10151: 10134: 10109:

Editor's Introduction: The Distinctive Features of Repression in Communist States

9606: 9554: 9517: 9449: 9377: 8346: 8233: 8137: 7996: 7970: 7933: 7740: 7028: 6889: 6348: 6183: 5965: 5954: 5744: 5226: 5059: 4931: 4885: 4790: 4708: 4536: 4455: 4405: 4374: 4250: 4036: 3925: 3875: 3801: 3001: 2499: 2488: 1766: 1435: 1238: 1221: 10421: 9518:

The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939

9033:

Rappaport, H. Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO Greenwood. 1999.

7926: 7128: 6740: 6365: 5923:, a section from "Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР", Moscow, 1998, 2122:'s advance prevented the evacuation of all prisoners in good time, and the NKVD 15262: 15183: 15101: 15076: 15071: 14984: 14578: 14570: 14375: 14300: 14216: 14176: 13735: 13730: 13672: 13104: 13032: 12312: 12302: 11641: 11620: 11488: 11416: 11252: 11245: 11238: 11178: 11125: 10624: 10598: 10593: 10116: 10104: 9990: 9624: 9403: 9301: 8847: 8110: 8063: 5869: 5790: 5682: 5415:

million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953.

4946: 4794: 4704: 4552: 3895: 3879: 3636: 3530: 3291: 3208: 3207:

Inmates were used as camp guards and could purchase camp newspapers as well as

3168: 2597: 1983: 1929: 1912: 1819: 1774: 1640: 1603: 1587: 1363: 153: 10537: 9684:

The Russian Homosexual Lexicon: Consensual and Prison Camp Sexuality Among Men

6870:

See, for example, Gulaga, Naselenie. 2004. " sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomakh."

5734: 5048: 3234:

Boris Sulim, a former prisoner who had worked in the Omsuchkan camp, close to

3192:

practice, were sometimes applied to prisoners that were too enfeebled to meet

2190:

Results of the checks and the filtration of the repatriants (by March 1, 1946)

1469: 15292: 15256: 15166: 15086: 14962: 14847: 14704: 14470: 14430: 14226: 14119: 14114: 13970: 13893: 13859: 13622: 13617: 13503: 13250: 12965: 11564: 11284: 11273: 11074: 10673: 10576: 10554: 10418:

14(1):96–99. (First Novel About Exile to the Gulag by an Azerbaijani Writer.)

10309: 10265: 10175: 10011: 9700: 9508: 9490: 9423: 9268: 9233: 9207: 8518: 8423: 7936: 7908: 7865: 7857: 6108: 5899: 5409: 5038: 4878: 4849: 4752: 4746: 4479: 3941: 3929: 3822: 3116: 3031: 3021: 2519: 2420: 2169: 1873: 1648: 1595: 1380: 1126: 1025: 900: 796: 143: 9265:"Директор Государственного музея ГУЛАГа Антон Владимирович Антонов-Овсеенко" 7608: 6342:

News Release: Forced labor camp artifacts from Soviet era on display at NWTC

6176: 5527: 4025:

Soviet Repressive and Punitive Policy. Annotated Index of Cases of the SA RF

3418: 2659:

Certificates of death in the Gulag system for the period from 1930 to 1956

2033:, but then other categories of political prisoners (for example, members of 1359: 14526: 14422: 14241: 13982: 13767: 13677: 13538: 12848: 12669: 12063: 11766: 11727: 11391: 11375: 11157: 11111: 10893: 10405: 10387: 9794: 8897: 8572: 7678: 7238:

The Gulag at War: Stalin's Forced Labor System in the Light of the Archives

7075: 6872:

Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh – pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov

6855: 6666: 5456: 5077: 5010: 4927: 4810:) outside the confinement of the camp. They were known as "free settlers" ( 4700: 4688: 4390: 4056:

Historical estimates of the GULAG population size (in chronological order)

3826: 3563: 3555: 3285: 2534: 2378: 2316:

Were waiting for transportation and worked for Soviet military units abroad

1705:

Various categories of prisoners were defined: petty criminals, POWs of the

1689: 1644: 1501: 1388: 1367: 1114: 7021: 6066: 4555:, a Hungarian documentary filmmaker, made several films about gulag camps. 3533:, enjoyed relative freedom within the natural confinement of the islands. 2180:

Furthermore, in 1945, about 100 filtration camps were set for repatriated

1164:, a large number of whom were convicted by simplified procedures, such as 14842: 14259: 14085: 13772: 12711: 12673: 12665: 12287: 12271: 12185: 12127: 11543: 11511: 11384: 11345: 11338: 11231: 11210: 11171: 11132: 11060: 10908: 10367: 9924: 9883: 9512: 7584: 7562: 5739: 4723:. Popov was released in 1954, after the death of Stalin, and returned to 4712: 4249:

The results of these archival studies convinced many scholars, including

3538: 3526: 3427: 3172: 3011: 2465: 2182: 2103: 1895: 1887:

The population of Gulag camps (blue) and Gulag colonies (red) in 1934–53.

1755: 1699: 1271: 1247: 1165: 970: 810: 198: 14680:

Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)

10541:

Drawings from the Gulag by Danzig Baldaev, a retired Soviet prison guard

8619: 8450: 6518: 4789:

was given the task to colonize these areas. To this end, the notion of "

4362: 3952:

In 2004 and 2005, some archival documents were published in the edition

1306: 15246: 15152: 15009: 15004: 14989: 14236: 13884: 13570: 13449: 12701: 11331: 11259: 11095: 11081: 11067: 11032: 10929: 10767:

Troops in Security of Industrial Infrastructure of Specially Importance

9944:

Of pelicans and prisoners: avian–human interactions in the Soviet Gulag

7634: 7515: 7268: 7240:. New York: New York University Press. pp. 42–63, 82–100, 123–144. 6129: 5558: 5387: 4961:. In 2015, another museum dedicated to the Gulag was opened in Moscow. 4848:

It is estimated that of the 40,000 people collecting state pensions in

4307: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3899: 3659: 3599: 3572: 3518: 3510: 3472: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3364: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2652: 2484: 2461: 2410: 2065: 2010: 1964: 1900: 1632: 1275: 1204: 1130: 1110: 1020: 188: 12032: 10491: 9875:

Barenberg, Alan. 2015. "The Gulag in Vorkuta: Beyond Space and Time."

9593:

A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II

7537: 5979: 4972:

List of concentration and internment camps#Russia and the Soviet Union

15044: 14977: 14832: 13864: 13755: 13612: 13550: 12921: 12916: 12738: 12631: 12461: 12122: 11192: 10719: 9646:

Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917–1990

9633:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. hardcover, 464 pp., 5488: 5021: 4930:— the first prison camp in the Gulag system. Moscow's memorial is on 4684: 4525: 4449: 4431: 3995:

The Population of the Gulag. The Number and Conditions of Confinement

3755: 3651: 3506: 2515: 1960: 1759: 1751: 1430:), a department of NKVD (later MVD) in charge of handling of foreign 1279: 1098: 791: 163: 51: 15241: 9214:. In Dundovich, Elena; Gori, Francesca; Guercetti, Emanuela (eds.). 8647:"Der Gulag im Prisma der Archive. Zugänge, Erkenntnisse, Ergebnisse" 8039:"Stalin's legacy lives on in city that slaves built – archive, 1994" 7626: 6121: 5550: 4282: 3447: 3339: 2142:

was a project of the Gulag system that took place from 1947 to 1953.

1220:, the Soviet establishment started to dismantle the Gulag system. A 15137: 13807: 13518: 12911: 12456: 12190: 12150: 10947: 10915: 10739: 10482: 10319: 9630:

The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror

7216:

The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror

7046:

Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947

5091: 4724: 4720: 4657: 4504: 4427: 4234: 3871: 3640: 3594:) and in the southeastern parts of the Soviet Union, mainly in the 3586: 3400: 2173: 2054: 1968: 1575: 817: 786: 10327: 9882:

Barenberg, Alan, Wilson T. Bell, Sean Kinnear, Steven Maddox, and

8333: 15111: 15081: 13543: 13368: 13363: 12803: 12307: 11005: 10977: 10956: 10156:

Journey into the Land of the Zeks and Back: A Memoir of the Gulag

9668: 8392:

Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society

8316:

Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System

7904: 7563:"Сюжеты о "Перми-36" на НТВ сочли "квазижурналистским пасквилем"" 7365:"Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of World War II" 7196:

Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System

6875: 6093:

Death and Redemption: The Gulag and the Shaping of Soviet Society

5528:

Getty, Arch; Rittersporn, Gábor; Zemskov, Viktor (October 1993).

5289: 5143: 4852:, 32,000 are trapped former gulag inmates, or their descendants. 4842: 4775: 4653: 4578: 4520: 4401:

Many eyewitness accounts of Gulag prisoners have been published:

4386: 3692: 3688: 3663: 3646: 3629: 3625: 3610: 3591: 3522: 3393: 3272: 3266: 3235: 3197: 3154: 2552: 2538: 2425: 2165: 2107: 2050: 2018: 1952: 1758:

that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of the

1624: 1615: 1607: 1599: 1479: 1416:

Main Administration for Affairs of Prisoners of War and Internees

1291: 1287: 1283: 498: 13219: 10862: 10323: 9020:

Robert Conquest. Excess Deaths and Camp Numbers: Some Comments.

7963: 7905:

History of Gulag in 7 Volumes. Volume 2: Structure and Personnel

6987:

Franciszek Proch, Poland's Way of the Cross, New York 1987 P.146

4909: 1872:" instead of labor camps was dropped after the revealing of the 15106: 11016: 9212:"The GULag as Instrument of the USSR's Punitive System 1917–39" 5665: 5663: 5108: 4680: 4574: 4138:

including own experience and testimonies of numerous witnesses

3717: 3704:

There were separate camps or zones within camps for juveniles (

3684: 3655: 3595: 3581: 3284:, decree about work discipline, etc.), occasional violators of 3216: 2445: 2429: 2394: 2080: 2072: 1987: 1956: 1827:

process, however. In 1931 alone, 1,803,392 people were exiled.

1811: 1790: 1497: 1209: 11613:

Association for the Protection and Assistance of the Convicted

7291:"Forced Repatriation to the Soviet Union: The Secret Betrayal" 7071:"A Polish life. 5: Starobielsk and the trans-Siberian railway" 6004:

Gulag Voices: Oral Histories of Soviet Incarceration and Exile

4884:

Many people who were released from camps were restricted from

3683:

dozens or even hundreds. The infamous complexes were those at

3230:. The number of prisoners confined to each shack is not stated 3163:, chief procurator of the Soviet Union, wrote a memorandum to 1851:

officially established on April 25, 1930, as the GULAG by the

1427:

Glavnoye upravleniye po delam voyennoplennyh i internirovannyh

1341:). It was renamed several times, e.g., to Main Directorate of 12604: 10963: 9329: 8917:

N. S. Timasheff. The Postwar Population of the Soviet Union.

7842:"Golfo Alexopoulos. Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag" 5392:"GOLFO ALEXOPOULOS. Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag" 5212: 5206: 4120:

Analysis of the output of the Soviet enterprises run by NKVD

3423: 3277: 3260: 2124:

massacred many to prevent them from falling into German hands

1868:

construction projects. The plan to achieve these goals with "

1838:(OGPU) quickly realised the problem, and began to reform the 1718: 1684:

Forced labor as a "method of reeducation" was applied in the

1674: 1670: 1591: 1173: 42: 27: 13262:

General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

8932:

Naum Jasny. Labor and Output in Soviet Concentration Camps.

5660: 4770: 4518:, an account of three days in the lives of prisoners in the 1915:

from a collection of prison camp population movements data.

12838: 12614: 10578: 9062:, Director of the Center for Human Demography and Ecology, 7717:, Director of the Centre for Human Demography and Ecology, 6835:

Origins of the GULag: The Soviet Prison Camp System 1917–34

6797: 6795: 5068: 4957:

Moscow has the State Gulag Museum whose first director was

4786: 4186:

Based on data of Mora & Zwiernak and annual mortality.

4155: 3917: 3913: 3855: 3851: 3554:, including facilities in big cities — parts of the famous 3164: 1799: 1726: 1714: 1470:

Contemporary usage of the word and the usage of other terms

1421:Главное управление по делам военнопленных и интернированных 1185: 9534:

Gulag Voices: Oral Histories of Soviet Detention and Exile

9521:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 635 pp., 9451:

The Soviet Gulag: Evidence, Interpretation, and Comparison

7794:"Slavic Review, Volume 77, Issue 1 Spring 2018 pp.269–270" 7512:"The museum of history of political repressions "Perm-36"" 6852:

Labor Camp Socialism: The Gulag in the Totalitarian System

4922:

Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions

3932:; left: Afanasev (Head of the southern part of BelBaltLag) 3430:. The lowest temperature recorded there was −68°C (−90°F). 2581: 2456:

was established exclusively for a "special contingent" of

1810:

resulted in a large scale purge of peasants and so-called

1093: 12823: 12643: 10339:Бирюков А.М. Колымские истории: очерки. Новосибирск, 2004 10158:(S. Hoffman, trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. 9835: 9297:

Writing history in the Soviet Union: making the past work

7611:"Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years" 7609:

Getty, J. A.; Rittersporn, G. T.; Zemskov, V. N. (1993).

7144:, Sociologičeskije issledovanija, 1991, No. 6, pp. 14–15. 6543:

Applebaum, Anne. "Gulag: A History." Anchor, 2003, pp. 12

6425:"Revealed: the gas chamber horror of North Korea's gulag" 5241: 5238: 5215: 5203: 5186:

Some disputed estimates range from over 2.7 to 6 million.

4435: 3907: 3863: 2460:, convicted according to the more severe sub-articles of 2172:). According to some sources, over 1.5 million surviving 2076: 1606:, katorga was not a common sentence; approximately 6,000 1348:Главное управление исправительно-трудовых колоний (ГУИТК) 120:

Main Administration of Camps / General Authority of Camps

13299:

Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, Polish–Soviet War

13268:

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

10277:

Life sentence: Memoirs of a Ukrainian political prisoner

9918:

Gulag far and near. The story of the penitentiary system

9888:

New directions in Gulag studies: a roundtable discussion

8394:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 7–16. 6792: 6552:

Applebaum, Anne. "Gulag: A History." Anchor, 2003, pp. 5

6466:. E-book, The University Press of Kentucky, 2015, pp. 11 6388:"The Hidden Gulag – Exposing North Korea's Prison Camps" 4982:

Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin

4046: 10501:

projected by the scientific information center Memorial

9850:(in Russian). Moscow: Международный Фонд "Демократия". 9771:

The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression

9355: 8505:"Born in Soviet Exile, They Might Die in a Russian One" 8313:

Ivanova, Galina; Flath, Carol; Raleigh, Donald (2000).

8072:

Inside the Stalin Archives: Discovering the New Russia.

7189: 7187: 7185: 7183: 7181: 3887:

has exacerbated the difficulties of Gulag researchers.

3620:). A detailed map was made by the Memorial Foundation. 2164:, on their return to the Soviet Union, were treated as 2064:

Lithuanian deportees preparing logs for rafting on the

1986:) or sent to Gulag. Of the 10,000–12,000 Poles sent to 1784: 14331:

List of awards and honours bestowed upon Joseph Stalin

10504: 8825:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2005. 8801:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. 8777:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. 8753:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. 8729:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. 8705:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. 8681:. Москва: Российская политическая энциклопедия. 2004. 7655: 7040: 7031:, last retrieved on December 10, 2005, Polish language 6416: 5714:

GULAG: Soviet Labor Camps and the Struggle for Freedom

5433: 3635:

There were several camps outside the Soviet Union, in

1994:, only 583 men survived, released in 1942 to join the 1798:

prison system that was still under the purview of the

15218: 10213:", translated by A. Mustafayeva, edited by B. Blair. 9183:. София: Издателство "Изток-Запад". pp. 37, 57. 8359:"Coercion versus Motivation: Forced Labor in Norilsk" 5999: 5322: 5299: 4950:

Gulag Museum in Moscow, founded in 2001 by historian

4905:

Map of Stalin's Gulag camps in Gulag Museum in Moscow

4872: 4829: 4817: 4202:

estimates, variety of personal and literary sources.

3999:

Naselenie Gulaga. Chislennost i Usloviya Soderzhaniya

3774: 3750:) were placed under a special category of repression. 3745: 3727: 3711: 2428:

was a major transit center for prisoners sent to the

2029:) was reintroduced. They were initially intended for 1943:

that marked the start of World War II in Europe, the

13778:

Case of Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization

9532:

Gheith, Jehanne M., and Katherine R. Jolluck. 2010.

9114:"Knowing the Soviet Union: The Historical Dimension" 7499:

Ex-Death Camp Tells Story Of Nazi and Soviet Horrors

7178: 6560: 6558: 5623:"Ученый: при Сталине погибло больше, чем в холокост" 5235: 5209: 4727:. He wrote his autobiographical account in the book 4561:, a Croatian communist who was active in the former 4533:

but was rejected and later published abroad in 1968.

4347:. Many songs by the authors-performers known as the 3643:, which were under the direct control of the Gulag. 1662:

power, peasants represented 80% of the population).

1270:

in 1973. The author likened the scattered camps to "

9049: 8908:, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947, p. 59-62. 8312: 7367:. Historynet.com. September 8, 1941. Archived from 6577:"Leon Trotsky: Terrorism and Communism (Chapter 8)" 5324:

Glavnoje upravlenije ispraviteljno-trudovyh lagerej

5200: 5027: 2266:

Sent to labor battalions of the Ministry of Defence

1441:Its major function was the organization of foreign 1172:. In 1918–1922, the agency was administered by the 14063:Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia 10394:. United Kingdom: Dewi Lewis Publishing. 250 pp., 10039:Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag 10016:He Leadeth Me: An Extraordinary Testament of Faith 9378:"New Russian Gulag museum recreates Soviet terror" 8949:, Harper and Row, 1975. Estimate was through 1953. 8275:Map of Gulag, made by the Memorial Foundation on: 7293:. Hillsdale.edu. September 1, 1939. Archived from 4607:Alexander Dolgun's Story: An American in the Gulag 4541:The Long Walk: The True Story of a Trek to Freedom 1097:A punishment cell block in one of the subcamps of 65:18,000,000 people passed through the Gulag's camps 10143:, full text, according to the original manuscript 9571:Gregory, Paul R., and Valery Lazarev, eds. 2003. 9078: 8578:Stalinism and nazism: history and memory compared 8142:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 425. 7990:The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman 7776: 7441:. Moreorless.au.com. May 23, 2001. Archived from 6823:http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/r1/r1-4.htm 6677:, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947, p. 153. 6555: 5865: 5863: 5318:Главное управление исправительно-трудовых лагерей 4668:, Matica crnogorska, Podgorica, Montenegro 2004). 4656:Montenegrin ideologist. Caught in Austria by the 2153:. On February 11, 1945, at the conclusion of the 1156:The Gulag is recognized as a major instrument of 15254: 12912:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 11953:United Kingdom and British overseas territories 10316:, ed. Simeon Vilensky. Indiana University Press. 9613:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 304 pp., paperback: 8308: 8306: 8180:"Theft Under Stalin: A Property Rights Analysis" 8139:Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire 6918:"Таблица 3. Движение лагерного населения ГУЛАГа" 6874:, vol. 4, edited by V. P. Kozlov et al. Moskva: 6690:. Erdogan A (published February 9, 2021). 2021. 6631:E-book, The University Press of Kentucky, pp. 52 6331:http://penpolit.ru/author-item+M5cd00dd4488.html 5474: 5472: 5470: 5468: 5466: 5429: 5427: 5425: 5423: 1160:. The camps housed both ordinary criminals and 1121:originally referred only to the division of the 14171:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 9877:Laboratorium: Russian Review of Social Research 9574:The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag 9495:The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia 8565: 8537:"Политические репрессии в СССР (1917–1990 гг.)" 8289:"Система исправительно-трудовых лагерей в СССР" 8215:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 61. 8167:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 55. 6806:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 17. 6788:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 11. 6688:Transcripts from the Soviet Archives Volume III 6604:Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography 5786: 5784: 5782: 4855: 4703:, a Bulgarian communist and a defendant in the 4638:wrote two famous books about her remembrances, 3650:Part of 'Project 503' to build a railroad from 3305: 2629:) and of mortality among 'certified invalids' ( 1978:were captured by the USSR during and after the 10518:Sound Archives. European Memories of the Gulag 10314:Till My Tale is Told: Women's Memoirs of Gulag 10196:(Antonelli-Street trans.). Prague: Karolinum. 9144: 8600: 8598: 8478:"К дискуссиям о статистике "Большого террора"" 8419: 8417: 8415: 8413: 8411: 7393:. Hoover.org. October 23, 2002. Archived from 7265:"Repatriation – The Dark Side of World War II" 6773:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 9. 5950: 5948: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5940: 5938: 5936: 5860: 5647:Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik 5114:List of prisons in the Tibet Autonomous Region 4434:in Siberia. Factories paid a fixed sum to the 4019:Vosstaniya, Bunty i Zabastovki Zaklyuchyonnykh 3736:Family members of "Traitors of the Motherland" 1945:Soviet Union invaded and annexed eastern parts 1817:By late 1929, Stalin began a program known as 1482:, founded in 1943, turned into a museum. Many 15303:Persecution of dissidents in the Soviet Union 14665: 13746:Demolition of Cathedral of Christ the Saviour 13648:Aggravation of class struggle under socialism 13509:Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance 13235: 12048: 10878: 10562: 8444: 8442: 8303: 8025:Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941 7487:Germans Find Mass Graves at an Ex-Soviet Camp 7464: 7462: 7460: 6722:"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments" 6395:The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea 6353: 6195: 6095:. Princeton University Press. pp. 71–72. 5823:Система Исправительно-трудовьх лагерей в СССР 5765: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5757: 5755: 5753: 5463: 5420: 5316: 5293: 5283: 4936:Day of Victims of the Repression (October 30) 4866: 4823: 4811: 3760: 3739: 3721: 3705: 3226:A shack in a gulag – a reconstruction in the 3219:teams were set up by the prison authorities. 2024: 1745: 1739: 1425: 1419: 1370:, 1935. Behind his right shoulder is a young 1346: 1133:. The abbreviation GULAG (ГУЛАГ) stands for " 1074: 351: 108: 94: 15017:Residential segregation in the United States 10764:Troops in Security of Railway Infrastructure 10483:Gulag: Forced Labor Camps, Online Exhibition 9839:ГУЛАГ: Главное управление лагерей. 1918–1960 9256: 9202: 9200: 8571: 8502: 8018: 8016: 8014: 8012: 8010: 8008: 8006: 8004: 7973:Moscow: International Democracy Fund, 1997. 7198:. Armonk, New York: Sharpe. pp. 69–126. 7034: 6305:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–9. 5779: 5771:Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments. 3866:between the 1930s and 1950s are kept in the 2385:subordinate to the Gulag were set up in the 1721:and its successor organizations, the GPU or 1366:(middle) inspecting the construction of the 1149:), but the full official name of the agency 13706:1906 Bolshevik raid on the Tsarevich Giorgi 10577:People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs ( 10531:, Revelations from the Russian Archives at 10194:Fragments of Lives: Chronicles of the Gulag 9611:The Unquiet Ghost: Russians Remember Stalin 9262: 9111: 8595: 8469: 8408: 8255:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 188. 7964:Lubyanka. VCheka — KGB. Documents 1917–1960 7884:. Mezhdunarodnyi Fond "Demokratiia". 2000. 7822: 7331: 6177:Репрессии против поляков и польских граждан 6105: 5933: 5776:, Vol. 54, No. 7 (Nov. 2002), pp. 1151–1172 5590: 4841:The gulag inherited this approach from the 4729:From the Leipzig trial to the Siberia camps 3920:chiefs responsible for construction of the 3276:(people sentenced for violation of various 14672: 14658: 14132:Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR 13242: 13228: 12055: 12041: 11635:International Network of Prison Ministries 10885: 10871: 10569: 10555: 10459:. Northwestern University Press. 580 pp., 10211:Prison Diary: Tears Are My Only Companions 10182:, Broadview, Illinois: Cicero Bible Press. 9844:Gulag. Main camp administration. 1918–1960 9027: 8528: 8475: 8439: 8244: 8242: 8100:. Cambridge University Press. p. 189. 8027:. Yale University Press. pp. 102–104. 7927:The Heads of the Central Committee of NKVD 7872: 7585:"Gulag | Definition, History, & Facts" 7457: 7431: 7341:. Stsg.de. August 16, 1941. Archived from 7254:, Vol. 88, No. 2 (June 1973), pp. 253–275. 7218:. Yale University Press. pp. 236–286. 6933: 6512: 6510: 6508: 6506: 6504: 6502: 6500: 6498: 6255: 6253: 5750: 5586: 5584: 4106:Calculation of disenfranchised population 4015:Uprisings, Riots, and Strikes of Prisoners 1399:who were already in, or had been sent to, 1081: 1067: 358: 344: 13716:National delimitation in the Soviet Union 13688:Backwardness brings on beatings by others 9444: 9197: 9181:От Лайпцигския процес в Сибирските лагери 8998:, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Apr. 1981), pp. 265–295 8936:, Vol. 59, No. 5 (Oct. 1951), pp. 405–419 8923:, Vol. 54, No. 2 (Sep. 1948), pp. 148–155 8879: 8877: 8875: 8873: 8611: 8210: 8162: 8104: 8001: 7409: 7231: 7229: 7227: 7225: 7154: 7152: 7150: 6960: 6929: 6927: 6887: 6866: 6864: 6801: 6783: 6768: 6519:"ГУЛАГ (историко-социологический аспект)" 6067:"ГУЛАГ (историко-социологический аспект)" 6034: 6032: 4733:От Лайпцигския процес в Сибирските лагери 4484:Coming out of the Ice: An Unexpected Life 4323:Learn how and when to remove this message 3488:Learn how and when to remove this message 3380:Learn how and when to remove this message 1549:", was suggested for official use by the 1448:For the Soviet political prisoners, like 15308:Political repression in the Soviet Union 13658:Great Construction Projects of Communism 11461:Mentally ill people in the United States 9328:. The State Gulag Museum. Archived from 9287: 8617: 8451:"К вопросу о масштабах репрессий в СССР" 8177: 7785: 7706: 7704: 7309: 7257: 7213: 7209: 7207: 7205: 7068: 6937:The Russian economy: from Lenin to Putin 6934:Rosefielde, Steven (February 12, 2007). 6827: 6564:Applebaum, "Gulag: A History", Chapter 3 6320:. Cornell University Press. p. 124. 5921:ГЛАВНОЕ УПРАВЛЕНИЕ ЛАГЕРЕЙ ОГПУ–НКВД–МВД 5593:Illness and Inhumanity in Stalin's Gulag 5382: 5380: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5034:Forced labour camps in Communist Albania 4997:Foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union 4945: 4908: 4900: 4769: 3912: 3645: 3624:including the European parts of Russia, 3433: 3417: 3221: 2444:Political prisoners eating lunch in the 2439: 2419: 2133: 2059: 2044: 1882: 1569: 1473: 1358: 1158:political repression in the Soviet Union 1092: 15273:Human rights abuses in the Soviet Union 14074:Alleged 19 August 1939 speech 12062: 10492:The website of the Virtual Gulag Museum 9996:Man Is Wolf to Man: Surviving the Gulag 9864:from the original on November 13, 2015. 9318: 9293: 9011:, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Jan. 1981), pp. 51–87 8534: 8448: 8239: 8135: 7912:State Archive of the Russian Federation 7711:"Demographic Losses Due to Repressions" 7339:"Remembrance (Zeithain Memorial Grove)" 7193: 6844: 6815: 6813: 6516: 6495: 6422: 6300: 6250: 6064: 5820: 5641: 5639: 5581: 5017:Population transfer in the Soviet Union 3946:State Archive of the Russian Federation 3868:State Archive of the Russian Federation 3698: 2985: 1625:Polish nobles who resisted Russian rule 1254:, but its capacity is greatly reduced. 15255: 14109:Dialectical and Historical Materialism 12081:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 11714:Prison Officers' Association (Ireland) 10439:One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 9826:The Literature of Stalin's Repressions 9681: 9577:. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. 9412:. Broadway Books. hardcover, 720 pp., 9218:. Feltrinelli Editore. pp. 8–10. 9206: 9165:One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 8939: 8887:, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1992), pp. 1069–1086 8870: 8839: 8638: 8389: 8248: 7839: 7755: 7283: 7222: 7147: 7104:"Polish deportees in the Soviet Union" 7012: 6924: 6861: 6719: 6713: 6600: 6090: 6029: 5900:"Gulag: a History of the Soviet Camps" 5570: 5568: 5386: 4992:Forced settlements in the Soviet Union 4617:), by a member of the US Embassy, and 4531:One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 4500:One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 4200:1937 Census figures, arrest and deaths 3979:Karatelnaya Sistema. Struktura i Kadry 3753:Secret research laboratories known as 3066:February 26, 1941 – September 2, 1947 3056:February 18, 1939 – February 26, 1941 3046:November 16, 1938 – February 18, 1939 1918: 1836:Unified State Political Administration 57:Map of the camps between 1923 and 1961 16:Soviet forced penal labour camp system 14653: 13223: 12036: 10866: 10550: 10356:. Tbilisi, Georgia: Chabua. 650 pp., 10330:works at Lib.ru (in original Russian) 10281:Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Study 9800:Princeton University Press. 248 pp., 9263:Гальперович, Данила (June 27, 2010). 9178: 8845: 8644: 8503:Nechepurenko, Ivan (March 13, 2021). 8095: 7779:"Medicine and Mortality in the Gulag" 7701: 7235: 7202: 6404:from the original on October 21, 2012 6359: 6315: 5844: 5842: 5620: 5523: 5521: 5519: 5517: 5515: 5513: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5361: 5253: 5133:– the equivalent of the Gulag in the 4735:, Изток-Запад, София, България, 2012 4581:. He wrote an impressive book titled 4221: 4047:History of Gulag population estimates 3975:Punitive System. Structure and Cadres 3845: 3783:The first approach was championed by 3076:September 2, 1947 – January 31, 1951 2582:History of Gulag population estimates 2129: 1951:. In 1940, the Soviet Union occupied 1765:One of the Gulag system founders was 1574:Prisoners on a ship on their way to 1486:were repressed and held at this camp. 15201: 14192:22nd Congress of the Communist Party 14150:20th Congress of the Communist Party 13593:19th Congress of the Communist Party 13430:18th Congress of the Communist Party 13395:17th Congress of the Communist Party 12016: 10785:Camps of Hydrotechnical Construction 10427:Everything I Possess I Carry With Me 10410:Underground Rivers Flow Into the Sea 10097:National Committee for a Free Europe 9836:Петров Н. В.; Кокурин А. И. (2000). 9088:Communist and Post-Communist Studies 9024:, Vol. 43, No. 5 (1991), pp. 949–952 8319:. London: M.E. Sharpe. p. 188. 8227:Nikolai Getman: The Gulag Collection 8022: 7777:Golfo Alexopoulos (April 12, 2019). 7756:Snyder, Timothy (January 27, 2011). 7417:"Patriots ignore greatest brutality" 7391:"Sorting Pieces of the Russian Past" 7383: 7194:Ivanova, Galina Mikhailovna (2000). 6894:Gulag: A History of the Soviet Camps 6810: 6423:Barnett, Antony (February 1, 2004). 6285: 5850:"Slave labour and criminal cultures" 5636: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5336:Including those who died in custody. 4305:adding citations to reliable sources 4276: 3747:ChSIR, Chlyen sem'i izmennika Rodini 3470:adding citations to reliable sources 3441: 3362:adding citations to reliable sources 3333: 3329: 3036:August 16, 1937 – November 16, 1938 2393:. These "special camps" were former 2151:forcefully repatriated into the USSR 1855:order 130/63 in accordance with the 1785:Formation and expansion under Stalin 1301: 1141:правле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х 15022:Segregation academy (United States) 14937:Sex segregation in public restrooms 14126:Marxism and Problems of Linguistics 13350:Anti-religious campaign (1921–1928) 10525:Photo album at NYPL Digital Gallery 10376:. New York: Vintage Books. 242 pp. 8581:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 92. 7758:"Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?" 6850:See, e.g. Ivanova, Galina M. 2000. 6833:See, e.g. Jakobson, Michael. 1993. 6601:Krausz, Tamás (February 27, 2015). 6574: 5565: 4822:; not to be confused with the term 4793:" was introduced. On 12 April 1930 4261:and 4–5 million passed through the 4136:Analysis of various indirect data, 3086:January 31, 1951 – October 5, 1954 1754:of July 11, 1929, about the use of 1555:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 1478:The fence at the old Gulag camp in 13: 14273:Comparison of Nazism and Stalinism 14092:The History of the Communist Party 13911:Soviet offensive plans controversy 13876:Ideological repression in science 13420:1937 Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang 10523:Gulag prisoners at work, 1936–1937 9497:. Allen Lane. hardcover, 740 pp., 9479:. Duncker & Humblot. 273 pp., 9391: 8252:Maxim Gorky: A Political Biography 8192:from the original on March 7, 2017 7694:Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives 7489:New York Times, September 24, 1992 6888:Applebaum, Anne (August 2, 2012). 6221:. Gulaghistory.org. Archived from 6008:. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 5839: 5649:. Moscow 2004: Russkaia panorama. 5502: 4896: 4891: 4715:, was arrested in 1937 during the 3775:Origins and functions of the Gulag 3228:Museum of the Occupation of Latvia 3002:Feodor (Teodors) Ivanovich Eihmans 2476:, as well as for fabricated ones. 1967:(now the Republic of Moldova) and 14: 15334: 14311:Generalissimo of the Soviet Union 14042:Marxism and the National Question 13249: 10892: 10471: 10121:Intercollegiate Studies Institute 9778:et al. Harvard University Press. 8620:"О публикациях в журнале "Социс"" 8340:Anne Applebaum — Inside the Gulag 8178:Gorlizki, Yoram (June 28, 2001). 7791: 7690:The Great Terror: A Re-assessment 7501:New York Times, December 17, 2001 7162:. Publicist.n1.by. Archived from 6263:. Publicist.n1.by. Archived from 6042:. Publicist.n1.by. Archived from 5609: 5142:– the equivalent of the Gulag in 5076:– the equivalent of the Gulag in 5067:– the equivalent of the Gulag in 5058:– the equivalent of the Gulag in 3769: 3741:ЧСИР, член семьи изменника Родины 3249:German attack on the Soviet Union 3238:, when he was a teenager stated: 2642: 1923: 1598:as forms of judicial punishment. 1557:in the session of July 27, 1929. 1391:, and 4–5 million passed through 15240: 15228: 15200: 15172: 15171: 14634: 14633: 13951:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 13415:Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 13204: 13203: 13191: 12015: 12004: 12003: 10715:Camps and Places of Imprisonment 10000:University of California Press. 9538:Palgrave Studies in Oral History 9370: 9344: 9240: 9172: 9156: 9138: 9105: 9072: 9036: 9014: 9001: 8988: 8975: 8952: 8926: 8911: 8890: 8815: 8791: 8767: 8743: 8719: 8695: 8671: 8496: 8383: 8351: 8281: 8269: 8219: 8204: 8171: 8156: 8136:Remnick, David (April 2, 2014). 8129: 8120: 8089: 8057: 8031: 7983: 7957: 7920: 7898: 7833: 7816: 7770: 7749: 7727: 7649: 7602: 7577: 7555: 7530: 7106:. Wajszczuk.v.pl. Archived from 7101: 6194:MVD of Russia: An Encyclopedia ( 5718:Center for History and New Media 5231: 5196: 5065:Military Units to Aid Production 5028:Similar establishments elsewhere 5002:Human rights in the Soviet Union 4987:Forced labor in the Soviet Union 4438:for every convict they employed. 4281: 3850:Statistical reports made by the 3446: 3338: 3096:October 5, 1954 – April 4, 1956 2040: 1688:as early as the 1920s, based on 1443:forced labor in the Soviet Union 1305: 1241:, triggering a mass release and 1184:(1923–1934), later known as the 1041: 380: 50: 41: 14336:Statue of Joseph Stalin, Berlin 13472:Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact 13462:Occupation of the Baltic states 11785:Countries by incarceration rate 11698:Prison Fellowship International 10189:. Northern Illinois University. 9145:Andrei Sokolov (January 2003). 9056:"The Total Number of Repressed" 7829:(Thesis). University of Oxford. 7656:Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). 7504: 7492: 7480: 7471: 7357: 7244: 7134: 7122: 7095: 7062: 6990: 6981: 6954: 6910: 6881: 6777: 6762: 6704: 6680: 6660: 6647: 6634: 6621: 6594: 6567: 6546: 6537: 6482: 6469: 6456: 6443: 6380: 6335: 6324: 6309: 6294: 6279: 6237: 6211: 6188: 6170: 6144: 6099: 6084: 6058: 5993: 5959:Victims of Stalinism: A Comment 5914: 5892: 5814: 5747:. 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2020. 5727: 5702: 5676: 5434:Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). 5339: 5330: 5277: 5189: 5180: 4941: 4765: 4292:needs additional citations for 3787:, and is what Barnes terms the 3457:needs additional citations for 3349:needs additional citations for 3119:, in his memoirs, compares the 3026:June 9, 1932 – August 16, 1937 3006:April 25, 1930 – June 16, 1930 2541:until 1987 when it was closed. 1996:Polish Armed Forces in the East 1679:dictatorship of the proletariat 1578:, remote prison island, c. 1903 1522:" for camps operational today. 10782:Political Propaganda of Troops 10720:Workers' and Peasants' Militia 9648:. Firefly Books Ltd. 496 pp., 8848:"Новые карты архипелага ГУЛАГ" 8546:(1–2): 107–124. Archived from 8429:The Origins of Totalitarianism 7846:The American Historical Review 6000:J. Gheith, K. Jolluck (2011). 5397:The American Historical Review 5163: 4797:wrote to the OGPU Commission: 4172:Analysis of demographic data. 4067:Year the estimate was made for 3940:According to French historian 3141:2 camps, which were both near 2533:institution was closed by the 1747:Ispravitel'no-trudovye lagerya 1741:исправи́тельно-трудовые лагеря 1233:, initiating the processes of 1192:(MVD) in the final years. The 1150: 332:Ukrainian language suppression 1: 14177:Gomulka thaw (Polish October) 13988:1946–1947 Soviet famine 13561:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 12744:Political abuse of psychiatry 12536:Congress of People's Deputies 10740:Construction at the Far North 10730:State Filming and Cartography 10487:Blinken Open Society Archives 10077:, Harvest/HBJ Book, 448 pp., 10062:, Harvest/HBJ Book. 432 pp., 10042:." New York: Knopf. 370 pp., 9956:10.1080/00085006.2017.1396837 9937:10.1080/00085006.2018.1497393 9902:10.1080/00085006.2017.1384665 9742:. Harper & Row. 712 pp., 9727:. Harper & Row. 660 pp., 9352:"Gulag – Museum on Communism" 8920:American Journal of Sociology 8906:Forced Labor in Soviet Russia 7823:Nakonechnyi, Mikhail (2020). 7419:. Smh.com.au. August 13, 2007 7319:. Channel4.com. March 6, 1953 7317:"The warlords: Joseph Stalin" 6675:Forced Labor in Soviet Russia 5355: 5135:Socialist Republic of Romania 5056:Francoist concentration camps 4719:and spent seventeen years in 4396: 3297:People sentenced for various 3102: 3052:Vasili Vasilievich Chernyshev 3016:June 16, 1930 – June 9, 1932 2575: 1565: 1514:Western authors use the term 1510:early and unnecessary deaths. 1216:Almost immediately after the 996:Political abuse of psychiatry 575:Congress of People's Deputies 194:Purges of the Communist Party 15268:Politics of the Soviet Union 14326:1956 Georgian demonstrations 11677:Prison Advice and Care Trust 10724:Border and Internal Security 10095:Abridged edition: New York: 8934:Journal of Political Economy 8645:Werth, Nicolas (June 2007). 8624:Социологические исследования 8455:Социологические исследования 8115:Comparative Economic Studies 8086:on February 24, 2009. p. 12. 7840:Healey, Dan (June 1, 2018). 6839:University Press of Kentucky 6523:Социологические исследования 6071:Социологические исследования 5710:Introduction: Stalin's Gulag 5301:Glavnoye upravleniye lagerey 4856:Life after a term was served 3567:1934 and destroyed in 1937. 3407: 3306:Gulag and famine (1932–1933) 3072:Georgy Prokopievich Dobrynin 3062:Victor Grigorievich Nasedkin 2522:at the 20th Congress of the 2383:ten NKVD-run "special camps" 2160:Multiple sources state that 1464:Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh Del 1297: 1190:Ministry of Internal Affairs 1145:ере́й" (Main Directorate of 374:Politics of the Soviet Union 7: 14879:Brown v. Board of Education 14341:Stalin Monument in Budapest 14008:Night of the Murdered Poets 13926:Allegations of antisemitism 13663:Engineers of the human soul 13410:Soviet invasion of Xinjiang 13386:Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) 12907:Academy of Medical Sciences 10442:. Signet Classic. 158 pp., 10272:. Paris: Smoloskyp. 447 pp. 10223:, and her children. 2006. " 10170:Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir 10139:ПУТЕШЕСТВИЕ В СТРАНУ ЗЭ-КА 9869: 9064:Russian Academy of Sciences 8476:Лопатников, Леонид (2009). 8390:Barnes, Stephen A. (2011). 8098:Origins of the Great Purges 7719:Russian Academy of Sciences 7439:"Joseph Stalin killer file" 7252:Political Science Quarterly 7027:September 27, 2005, at the 6741:10.1080/0966813022000017177 5964:September 27, 2011, at the 5591:Alexopoulos, Golfo (2017). 5323: 5300: 5140:Re-education camp (Vietnam) 4964: 4873: 4830: 4818: 4759:Gulag Boss: A Soviet Memoir 3965:Mass Repression in the USSR 3746: 3728: 3712: 3671:history of the Soviet Union 2978: 2967: 2964: 2956: 2953: 2945: 2942: 2934: 2931: 2923: 2920: 2912: 2909: 2901: 2898: 2890: 2887: 2879: 2876: 2868: 2865: 2857: 2854: 2846: 2843: 2835: 2832: 2824: 2821: 2813: 2810: 2802: 2799: 2791: 2788: 2780: 2777: 2769: 2766: 2758: 2755: 2747: 2744: 2736: 2733: 2725: 2722: 2714: 2711: 2703: 2700: 2692: 2689: 2681: 2678: 1746: 1723:State Political Directorate 1651:were also sent into exile. 1354: 1343:Correctional Labor Colonies 535:Central Executive Committee 109: 10: 15339: 15278:Imprisonment and detention 14788:Czechoslovakia and Hungary 14381:Stalin Bloc – For the USSR 14351:Joseph Stalin Museum, Gori 13499:Soviet atomic bomb project 12009:Imprisonment and detention 10937:Stanford prison experiment 10794:Railway Construction Camps 10791:Railway Construction Camps 10779:Railway Construction Camps 10510:November 19, 2019, at the 10343: 10254:. Penguin Books. 528 pp., 10234:Sadikhli, Murtuz. 2006. " 10141:A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka 10059:Journey into the Whirlwind 9971: 9740:The Gulag Archipelago: Two 9589:Herling-Grudzinski, Gustaw 9395: 9326:"About State Gulag Museum" 9079:Steven Rosefielde (1997). 8575:; Golsan, Richard (2004). 7995:November 27, 2007, at the 7969:December 13, 2020, at the 7734:"The History of the GULAG" 7615:American Historical Review 7214:Khevniuk, Oleg V. (2004). 7022:'KAMPANIA WRZEŚNIOWA 1939' 6607:. NYU Press. p. 512. 6479:Anchor, 2004, pp. xxix–xxx 6316:Hardy, Jeffrey S. (2016). 6182:December 13, 2014, at the 6091:Barnes, Steven A. (2011). 5673:. Doubleday, 2003, pp. 50. 5576:The Stalinist Penal System 5538:American Historical Review 5295:Глaвное управлeние лагерeй 5119:Re-education through labor 4919: 4640:Journey Into the Whirlwind 4589:Dancing Under the Red Star 4567:Comintern Publishing House 4460:A Travel to the Land Ze-Ka 4335: 4089:Mora & Zwiernag (1945) 3411: 3312:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 3042:Gleb Vasilievich Filaretov 2053:built by prisoners of the 1762:meeting of June 27, 1929. 1560: 1250:continues to exist in the 159:Soviet famine of 1930–1933 25: 18: 15161: 15035: 14950: 14902: 14833:Apartheid in South Africa 14753: 14685: 14629: 14546: 14407: 14389: 14361:Places named after Stalin 14346:Stalin Monument in Prague 14293: 14205: 14140: 14026: 13870:Repressions in Azerbaijan 13696: 13605: 13588:1950 legislative election 13514:1946 legislative election 13425:1937 legislative election 13337: 13286: 13277: 13257: 13185: 13129: 13103: 13023: 12946: 12937: 12882: 12789: 12752: 12692: 12595: 12557: 12477: 12339: 12330: 12280: 12228: 12219: 12071: 11998: 11808: 11776: 11751: 11670:Prison abolition movement 11628:Florida Justice Institute 11604: 11408: 11323: 11283: 11202: 11149: 11024: 11015: 10946: 10900: 10801: 10707: 10666: 10617: 10586: 10187:Memoir of a Gulag Actress 10185:Petkevich, Tamara. 2010. 9977:Baghirov, Ayyub. 2006. " 9942:Hardy, Jeffrey S. 2017. " 9848:(PDF, immediate download) 9682:Mielke, Tomas M. (2017). 9471:– via Google Books. 9433:Ignatius Press. 433 pp., 9094:(3): l-33. Archived from 8947:The Gulag Archipelago Two 8660:(6): 9–30. Archived from 8618:Максудов, Сергей (1995). 8345:October 15, 2008, at the 7941:Who Headed NKVD 1934—1941 7932:October 21, 2011, at the 7267:. Fff.org. Archived from 6896:. Penguin Books Limited. 6219:"What Were Their Crimes?" 6196: 6073:, vol. 6, no. 7 5724:. Retrieved 23 June 2020. 5595:. Yale University Press. 5317: 5294: 5284: 5124:Xinjiang internment camps 4886:settling in larger cities 4867: 4824: 4812: 4650:Savić Marković Štedimlija 4466:Gustaw Herling-Grudziński 4272: 4219: 3969:Massovye Repressii v SSSR 3825:argues that as part of a 3761: 3740: 3722: 3706: 3426:in the river valley near 3092:Sergei Yegorovich Yegorov 3032:Israel Israelevich Pliner 2454:system of "special camps" 2025: 1941:German invasion of Poland 1740: 1420: 1347: 1339:Correctional Labour Camps 1262:Nobel Prize in Literature 1147:Correctional Labour Camps 891:Material balance planning 592:1989 Legislative election 116: 102: 95: 88: 81: 62: 40: 14182:Soviet Nonconformist Art 14098:1936 Soviet Constitution 13751:Soviet famine of 1932–33 13711:1907 Tiflis bank robbery 13683:Transformation of nature 13668:1936 Soviet Constitution 13628:Socialism in One Country 13467:German–Soviet Axis talks 11721:The Prison Phoenix Trust 11165:Administrative detention 10736:Measurements and Weights 10497:August 17, 2011, at the 10415:Azerbaijan International 10240:Azerbaijan International 10229:Azerbaijan International 10215:Azerbaijan International 10092:. Gresham Press. 358pp. 9984:Azerbaijan International 9948:Canadian Slavonic Papers 9929:Canadian Slavonic Papers 9893:Canadian Slavonic Papers 9838: 9830:Azerbaijan International 9818:Azerbaijan International 9793:with an introduction by 8535:Земсков, Виктор (1994). 8449:Земсков, Виктор (1995). 8213:The History of the Gulag 8211:Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). 8165:The History of the Gulag 8163:Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). 7763:New York Review of Books 7079:. London. Archived from 7069:beanbean (May 2, 2008). 6961:Applebaum, Anne (2003). 6804:The History of the Gulag 6802:Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). 6786:The History of the Gulag 6784:khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). 6771:The History of the Gulag 6769:Khlevniuk, Oleg (2004). 6720:Ellman, Michael (2002). 6517:Земсков, Виктор (1991). 6492:Anchor, 2004, pp. xxxiii 6347:August 28, 2008, at the 6301:Filtzer, Donald (2002). 6290:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 6197:МВД России: энциклопедия 6065:Земсков, Виктор (1991), 5645:Erlikman, Vadim (2004). 5312:Correctional Labor Camps 5156: 5074:Nazi concentration camps 4695:Frantsishak Alyakhnovich 4005:Specsettlers in the USSR 3796:Another approach is the 3022:Matvei Davidovich Berman 2399:Nazi concentration camps 1547:correctional labour camp 1198:correctional labour camp 1170:extrajudicial punishment 1168:or other instruments of 706:Administrator of Affairs 26:Not to be confused with 15313:Law of the Soviet Union 15057:Anti-miscegenation laws 14892:Anti-miscegenation laws 14306:Iosif Stalin locomotive 14049:Foundations of Leninism 14035:Anarchism or Socialism? 13916:Hitler Youth Conspiracy 13783:NKVD prisoner massacres 13435:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 13324:Death and state funeral 13198:Soviet Union portal 11799:Films featuring prisons 11656:Mount Tamalpais College 11310:Prisoner-of-war escapes 11040:Corrective labor colony 10434:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 10294:Solomon, Michel. 1971. 10180:I Was a Slave in Russia 10088:Gliksman, Jerzy. 1948. 9915:Kravchuk, Pavel. 2013. 9719:Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 8096:Getty, J. Arch (1985). 7589:Encyclopædia Britannica 6837:. Lexington, Kentucky: 6286:Daly, Jonathan (2018). 5722:George Mason University 5621:Figes, Orlando (2009). 5310:Main Administration of 5149:Corrective labor colony 4959:Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko 4952:Anton Antonov-Ovseyenko 4619:I Was a Slave in Russia 4565:and the manager of the 4128:total number of persons 4009:Specpereselentsy v SSSR 3639:, Hungary, Poland, and 3560:Moscow State University 3513:name for the islands, " 2564:Encyclopædia Britannica 2424:During the Stalin era, 1976:Polish prisoners of war 1695:Terrorism and Communism 1627:were sent into exile. 1457:by administrative means 1387:to remote areas of the 1048:Soviet Union portal 560:Soviet of Nationalities 15148:White Australia policy 15067:Corporative federalism 14514:(second father-in-law) 13768:Murder of Sergey Kirov 13643:Stalinist architecture 13529:Turkish Straits crisis 13090:Stalinist architecture 12844:Science and technology 12754:Ideological repression 12682:Soviet Airborne Forces 12620:Destruction battalions 11433:Contemplative programs 11140:Youth detention center 10992:Prisoner of conscience 10788:Local Anti-Air Defense 10298:. New York: Auerbach. 10192:Rossi, Jacques. 2018. 10018:. Doubleday. 216 pp., 9294:Banerji, Arup (2008). 9179:Попов, Благой (2012). 9044:Cahiers du Monde russe 8983:Anton Antonov-Ovseenko 8852:Неприкосновенный запас 7858:10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049 7739:June 22, 2010, at the 7679:10.1080/09668139999056 7042:Marek Jan Chodakiewicz 6453:Anchor, 2004, pp. xxxi 5821:Смирнов, М.Б. (1998). 5687:Gulag: An Introduction 5457:10.1080/09668139999056 5410:10.1093/ahr/123.3.1049 5087:Prisons in North Korea 5082:German-occupied Europe 4954: 4917: 4906: 4804: 4778: 4490:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 4371:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 4150:Anton Antonov-Ovseenko 4041:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 3933: 3922:White Sea–Baltic Canal 3904:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 3785:Alexander Solzhenitsyn 3680: 3666: 3548:White Sea–Baltic Canal 3439: 3431: 3399:Locals who captured a 3301:and religious reasons. 3290:Dedicated criminals: " 3247:Immediately after the 3245: 3231: 3184:According to prisoner 3182: 3012:Lazar Iosifovich Kogan 2671:Mortality rate % 2573: 2449: 2433: 2387:Soviet Occupation Zone 2220:Released and sent home 2143: 2068: 2057: 1980:"Polish Defensive War" 1974:Approximately 300,000 1949:Second Polish Republic 1888: 1736: 1579: 1512: 1487: 1484:Ukrainian nationalists 1450:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1426: 1412:institutional analysis 1375: 1258:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1102: 991:Ideological repression 881:Science and technology 218:Ideological repression 21:Gulag (disambiguation) 15323:Former penal colonies 15117:Religious intolerance 14535:William Wesley Peters 14080:Falsifiers of History 14003:Rootless cosmopolitan 13309:Rule as Soviet leader 12872:List of metro systems 12425:Collective leadership 11684:Prison-Ashram Project 10776:Military Construction 10392:The Industry Of Souls 10221:Sadigzade, Ummugulsum 10207:Sadigzade, Ummugulsum 10168:Mochulsky, Fyodor V. 10115:, with a foreword by 10111:." Pp. xv–lxxviii in 9979:Bitter Days of Kolyma 9724:The Gulag Archipelago 9644:Kizny, Tomasz. 2004. 9358:on September 21, 2022 9101:on November 13, 2011. 8846:Полян, Павел (2006). 8249:Yedlin, Tova (1999). 8232:May 13, 2012, at the 7236:Bacon, Edwin (1994). 7000:. Project In Posterum 6998:"Project In Posterum" 6657:Anchor, 2003, pp. 50. 6644:Anchor, 2004, pp. 12. 6629:Origins of the Gulag. 6247:. Lucent Books. 2002. 5902:. Arlindo-correia.org 5699:on September 5, 2017. 5104:Labour camps in Tibet 5099:Penal system in China 4949: 4912: 4904: 4799: 4773: 4666:Deset godina u Gulagu 4563:Kingdom of Yugoslavia 4495:The Gulag Archipelago 3916: 3798:political explanation 3675: 3649: 3437: 3421: 3412:Further information: 3240: 3225: 3204:in Soviet parlance). 3177: 2568: 2470:Ukrainian nationalism 2443: 2423: 2415:special camp number 2 2407:special camp number 7 2137: 2063: 2048: 1886: 1731: 1573: 1507: 1496:the Soviet system of 1477: 1362: 1267:The Gulag Archipelago 1188:(1934–1946), and the 1151:changed several times 1096: 424:Collective leadership 48:Trademark logo (1939) 15127:Second-class citizen 15122:Reservation in India 14848:United Arab Emirates 14778:Bulgaria and Romania 14556:Stalin's house, Gori 14487:Yevgeny Dzhugashvili 14415:Besarion Jughashvili 14356:Batumi Stalin Museum 14267:Nineteen Eighty-Four 14018:Censorship of images 13697:Crimes, repressions, 13400:1931 Menshevik Trial 13381:First five-year plan 12834:Net material product 12777:Censorship of images 12694:Political repression 12654:Soviet Border Troops 12587:First Deputy Premier 12171:1965 economic reform 12166:Soviet space program 11868:Ireland, Republic of 11558:Solitary confinement 11119:Prisoner-of-war camp 10802:Territorial agencies 10505:GULAG History Museum 10075:Within the Whirlwind 9753:Tobien, Karl. 2006. 9595:. Penguin. 284 pp., 9544:Palgrave Macmillan. 9275:on November 23, 2011 8082:. Archived from the 8023:Thurston, Robert W. 7542:World Monuments Fund 7518:on September 2, 2013 7397:on February 18, 2009 7345:on February 27, 2008 6854:. Armonk, New York: 6464:Origins of the Gulag 5695:. Archived from the 5692:Victims of Communism 4676:20 Years in Siberia 4644:Within the Whirlwind 4583:7000 days in Siberia 4301:improve this article 4130:passed through GULAG 3985:Economy of the Gulag 3885:Putin administration 3809:economic explanation 3716:), the disabled (in 3699:Special institutions 3578:The North-East Camps 3552:Baikal–Amur Mainline 3466:improve this article 3358:improve this article 3171:in 1938, during the 2986:Gulag administrators 2293:(i.e. sent to GULAG) 2120:Operation Barbarossa 1905:NKVD Order No. 00447 1665:In the midst of the 1222:mass general amnesty 1123:Soviet secret police 1001:Political repression 966:Censorship of images 696:First Deputy Premier 434:Presidential Council 327:Repressions of Poles 322:Population transfers 180:Political repression 19:For other uses, see 14995:Exclusionary zoning 14942:Separatist feminism 14720:Partition of Bengal 14548:Stalin's residences 14495:Galina Dzhugashvili 14479:Svetlana Alliluyeva 14463:Nadezhda Alliluyeva 14390:Cultural depictions 14232:Anti-Stalinist left 14187:Shvernik Commission 14155:Pospelov Commission 13931:Population transfer 13906:1941 Red Army purge 13880:Suppressed research 13534:First Indochina War 13477:Great Patriotic War 13455:Moscow Peace Treaty 13319:Cult of personality 12902:Academy of Sciences 12717:Population transfer 12661:Soviet Armed Forces 12524:Congress of Soviets 12505:Presidium/Politburo 12469:Soviet anti-Zionism 12318:West Siberian Plain 12196:Revolutions of 1989 12133:Great Patriotic War 12118:New Economic Policy 11735:Prison Reform Trust 10533:Library of Congress 10456:In the First Circle 10225:Letters from Prison 9667:, 7 vols.. Moskva: 9475:Ertz, Simon. 2006. 9384:. October 30, 2015. 9126:on October 18, 2012 8964:Moscow, ACT, 1999, 8667:on January 9, 2014. 8371:on December 3, 2008 8045:. December 29, 2017 7947:, 1999, 504 pages. 7666:Europe-Asia Studies 7565:. February 13, 2015 7297:on February 7, 2012 7271:on January 17, 2012 7048:. Lexington Books. 6729:Europe-Asia Studies 6627:Jakobson, Michael. 6462:Jakobson, Michael. 6368:on October 13, 2007 6225:on November 5, 2007 5971:Europe-Asia Studies 5856:. October 19, 2013. 5774:Europe-Asia Studies 5444:Europe-Asia Studies 5169:Based on data from 4977:List of Gulag camps 4672:Anița Nandriș-Cudla 4446:I Was an NKVD Agent 4133:Solzhenitsyn (1975) 4057: 3878:in the late 1980s, 3414:List of Gulag camps 3113:political prisoners 2606:special settlements 2593:caused by the camps 2557:Solovki prison camp 2514:'s denunciation of 2458:political prisoners 2193: 2007:Great Patriotic War 1919:During World War II 1870:special settlements 1686:Solovki prison camp 1637:Sergo Ordzhonikidze 1520:North Korea's Gulag 1385:deported and exiled 1194:Solovki prison camp 1162:political prisoners 1016:Suppressed research 1006:Population transfer 876:New Economic Policy 555:Soviet of the Union 525:Congress of Soviets 317:National operations 209:Punitive psychiatry 136:Economic repression 131:in the Soviet Union 37: 15318:Soviet phraseology 14885:Massive resistance 14873:School segregation 14868:Separate but equal 14793:Dominican Republic 14695:Partition of India 14519:Alexander Svanidze 14447:Konstantin Kuzakov 14439:Yakov Dzhugashvili 14398:Apocalypse: Stalin 14371:Stalin Peace Prize 14366:State Stalin Prize 14069:"Ten Blows" speech 14056:Dizzy with Success 13966:Operation "Priboi" 13946:Operation "Lentil" 13899:1937 Soviet Census 13578:Sino-Soviet Treaty 13492:Potsdam Conference 13445:Invasion of Poland 12547:Military Collegium 12415:Capital punishment 12293:Caucasus Mountains 12206:Post-Soviet states 12086:Russian Revolution 11742:WriteAPrisoner.com 11505:Protective custody 11054:Extermination camp 10985:Political prisoner 10773:Military Logistics 10654:Aleksandr Kovalyov 10650:Vasiliy Chernyshov 10270:Za Chidnim Obriyam 10145:(written in 1947) 9909:The Russian Review 9813:Remembering Stalin 9757:WaterBrook Press. 9625:Khlevniuk, Oleg V. 9446:David-Fox, Michael 9429:With God in Russia 9060:Anatoly Vishnevsky 8510:The New York Times 7781:. NYUJordanCenter. 7715:Anatoly Vishnevsky 7641:on June 11, 2008. 6890:"The Camps Expand" 6429:Guardian Unlimited 6362:"GULAG: a history" 5825:. Moscow: Звенья. 5479:Rosefielde, Steven 5346:Special contingent 5175:human-rights group 5007:Memorial (society) 4955: 4918: 4907: 4808:volnoye poseleniye 4779: 4697:– Solovki prisoner 4662:Ten years in Gulag 4213:Volkogonov (1990s) 4055: 3934: 3846:Archival documents 3804:, amongst others). 3667: 3503:Solovetsky Islands 3440: 3432: 3232: 3213:Robert W. Thurston 3082:Ivan Ilich Dolgikh 2526:in February 1956. 2468:, "nationalists" ( 2450: 2434: 2189: 2144: 2140:Transpolar Railway 2130:After World War II 2069: 2058: 2031:Nazi collaborators 2016:In 1943, the term 1889: 1580: 1490:Although the term 1488: 1432:civilian internees 1376: 1368:Moscow-Volga canal 1317:. You can help by 1272:a chain of islands 1252:Russian Federation 1176:, followed by the 1111:forced labor camps 1103: 750:Procurator General 738:Military Collegium 35: 15216: 15215: 15092:Majority minority 14973:Ethnic federalism 14755:Ethnic and racial 14715:Greece and Turkey 14647: 14646: 14604:Kholodnaya Rechka 14301:Iosif Stalin tank 14222:Lenin's Testament 14197:Era of Stagnation 13998:Mingrelian Affair 13976:Forced settlement 13961:Operation "North" 13921:Soviet war crimes 13699:and controversies 13638:Socialist realism 13601: 13600: 13583:Tito–Stalin split 13482:Tehran Conference 13405:Spanish Civil War 13376:Chinese Civil War 13217: 13216: 13181: 13180: 13173:Hammer and sickle 13115:and their groups 13113:Soviet dissidents 12892:Communist Academy 12809:Economic planning 12785: 12784: 12678:Soviet Air Forces 12597:Security services 12517:General Secretary 12500:Central Committee 12442:Political parties 12374:Brezhnev Doctrine 12369:Foreign relations 12326: 12325: 12267:Autonomous okrugs 12181:Soviet–Afghan War 12161:Sino-Soviet split 12103:Russian Civil War 12030: 12029: 11966:England and Wales 11706:Prison Legal News 11691:Prison Fellowship 11649:Justice Defenders 11319: 11318: 10923:Prison healthcare 10860: 10859: 10708:Main Directorates 10630:Mikhail Frinovsky 10465:978-0-8101-1590-3 10382:978-1-4000-9601-5 10373:House of Meetings 10350:Amirejibi, Chabua 10289:978-0-920862-17-9 10054:Ginzburg, Eugenia 10048:978-0-394-49497-5 10030:Dolgun, Alexander 9950:60(3/4):375–406. 9931:60(3/4):592–604. 9857:978-5-85646-046-8 9485:978-3-428-11863-2 9311:978-81-87358-37-4 9252:978-0-230-60646-3 9190:978-619-152-025-1 9112:Robert Conquest. 8945:Solzhenitsyn, A. 8902:Boris Nicolaevsky 8832:978-5-8243-0611-8 8808:978-5-8243-0610-1 8784:978-5-8243-0608-8 8760:978-5-8243-0608-8 8736:978-5-8243-0607-1 8712:978-5-8243-0606-4 8688:978-5-8243-0605-7 8588:978-0-8032-9000-6 8553:on March 30, 2012 8401:978-0-691-15112-0 8326:978-0-7656-0426-2 8262:978-0-275-96605-8 8149:978-0-8041-7358-2 7804:on April 29, 2019 7745:Oleg V. Khlevniuk 7445:on August 3, 2013 7371:on March 30, 2008 7166:on April 19, 2009 7055:978-0-7391-0484-2 6671:Boris Nicolaevsky 6655:Gulag: A History. 6653:Applebaum, Anne. 6642:Gulag: A History. 6640:Applebaum, Anne. 6614:978-1-58367-449-9 6490:Gulag: A History. 6488:Applebaum, Anne. 6477:Gulag: A History. 6475:Applebaum, Anne. 6451:Gulag: A History. 6449:Applebaum, Anne. 6360:Applebaum, Anne. 6267:on March 11, 2008 6245:Political Leaders 6046:on March 27, 2008 6019:978-0-230-61062-0 5669:Applebaum, Anne. 5602:978-0-300-17941-5 4877:, outlets of the 4863:First Departments 4831:ssyl'noposelentsy 4741:978-619-152-025-1 4636:Yevgenia Ginzburg 4442:Anatoli Granovsky 4418:Victor Kravchenko 4379:Yevgenia Ginzburg 4355:Vladimir Vysotsky 4333: 4332: 4325: 4231: 4230: 4210:every single year 4183:Rosefielde (1981) 4169:Wheatcroft (1981) 4111:Up to 3.5 million 3790:moral explanation 3498: 3497: 3490: 3390: 3389: 3382: 3330:Social conditions 3323:Soviet Uzbekistan 3186:Yevgenia Ginzburg 3100: 3099: 2983: 2982: 2649:Steven Rosefielde 2512:Nikita Khrushchev 2375: 2374: 1990:in 1940–41, most 1934:Steven Rosefielde 1865:industrialisation 1707:Russian Civil War 1667:Russian Civil War 1629:Fyodor Dostoevsky 1621:Decembrist revolt 1590:both used forced 1401:labor settlements 1372:Nikita Khrushchev 1335: 1334: 1227:Nikita Khrushchev 1180:(1922–1923), the 1091: 1090: 1033: 1032: 886:Era of Stagnation 828: 827: 713: 712: 601: 600: 507: 506: 478:General Secretary 463:Central Committee 368: 367: 312:De-Cossackization 304:Ethnic repression 124: 123: 77: 76: 15330: 15245: 15244: 15233: 15232: 15231: 15224: 15204: 15203: 15175: 15174: 15143:Social apartheid 15027:Social exclusion 15000:Forced migration 14968:Ethnic cleansing 14958:Auto-segregation 14700:Northern Ireland 14674: 14667: 14660: 14651: 14650: 14637: 14636: 14539: 14531: 14523: 14522:(brother-in-law) 14515: 14511:Sergei Alliluyev 14507: 14503:Joseph Alliluyev 14499: 14491: 14483: 14475: 14467: 14459: 14451: 14443: 14435: 14427: 14419: 14321:Pantheon, Moscow 14279:The Soviet Story 14253:Darkness at Noon 14142:De-Stalinization 13993:Leningrad Affair 13726:Decossackization 13524:1946 Iran crisis 13487:Yalta Conference 13359:Collectivization 13284: 13283: 13244: 13237: 13230: 13221: 13220: 13207: 13206: 13196: 13195: 13194: 12944: 12943: 12852: 12707:Collectivization 12452:Marxism–Leninism 12337: 12336: 12226: 12225: 12057: 12050: 12043: 12034: 12033: 12023: 12019: 12018: 12011: 12007: 12006: 11991: 11982: 11975: 11973:Northern Ireland 11968: 11961: 11954: 11949: 11942: 11933: 11926: 11919: 11912: 11905: 11898: 11891: 11884: 11877: 11870: 11863: 11856: 11849: 11842: 11835: 11828: 11821: 11801: 11794: 11787: 11769: 11762: 11744: 11737: 11730: 11723: 11716: 11709: 11700: 11693: 11686: 11679: 11672: 11665: 11658: 11651: 11644: 11637: 11630: 11623: 11616: 11595: 11588: 11581: 11574: 11567: 11560: 11553: 11546: 11537: 11530: 11521: 11514: 11507: 11498: 11491: 11484: 11477: 11470: 11463: 11456: 11449: 11442: 11435: 11426: 11419: 11401: 11394: 11387: 11378: 11371: 11364: 11355: 11348: 11341: 11334: 11312: 11303: 11296: 11276: 11269: 11262: 11255: 11248: 11241: 11234: 11227: 11220: 11213: 11195: 11188: 11181: 11179:Maximum security 11174: 11167: 11160: 11142: 11135: 11128: 11121: 11114: 11107: 11098: 11091: 11084: 11077: 11070: 11063: 11056: 11049: 11042: 11035: 11022: 11021: 11008: 11001: 10994: 10987: 10980: 10973: 10966: 10959: 10939: 10932: 10925: 10918: 10911: 10887: 10880: 10873: 10864: 10863: 10667:NKVD Secretaries 10658:Vasiliy Karutsky 10645:Semyon Zhukovsky 10571: 10564: 10557: 10548: 10547: 10336: 10246:Shalamov, Varlam 10152:Margolin, Julius 10148: 10135:Margolin, Julius 10099:, 95pp. c. 1948. 9896:59(3/4):376–95. 9865: 9849: 9697: 9663:., eds. 2004–5. 9607:Hochschild, Adam 9555:Rawicz, Slawomir 9472: 9470: 9468: 9409:Gulag: A History 9386: 9385: 9374: 9368: 9367: 9365: 9363: 9354:. Archived from 9348: 9342: 9341: 9339: 9337: 9332:on June 25, 2018 9322: 9316: 9315: 9291: 9285: 9284: 9282: 9280: 9271:. Archived from 9260: 9254: 9244: 9238: 9237: 9204: 9195: 9194: 9176: 9170: 9169: 9160: 9154: 9153: 9151: 9142: 9136: 9135: 9133: 9131: 9125: 9119:. Archived from 9118: 9109: 9103: 9102: 9100: 9085: 9076: 9070: 9069: 9053: 9047: 9040: 9034: 9031: 9025: 9018: 9012: 9005: 8999: 8992: 8986: 8979: 8973: 8960: 8956: 8950: 8943: 8937: 8930: 8924: 8915: 8909: 8894: 8888: 8881: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8863: 8843: 8837: 8836: 8819: 8813: 8812: 8795: 8789: 8788: 8771: 8765: 8764: 8747: 8741: 8740: 8723: 8717: 8716: 8699: 8693: 8692: 8675: 8669: 8668: 8666: 8651: 8642: 8636: 8635: 8633: 8631: 8615: 8609: 8602: 8593: 8592: 8569: 8563: 8562: 8560: 8558: 8552: 8541: 8532: 8526: 8525: 8500: 8494: 8493: 8491: 8489: 8473: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8462: 8446: 8437: 8421: 8406: 8405: 8387: 8381: 8380: 8378: 8376: 8370: 8364:. Archived from 8363: 8355: 8349: 8337: 8331: 8330: 8310: 8301: 8300: 8298: 8296: 8285: 8279: 8273: 8267: 8266: 8246: 8237: 8223: 8217: 8216: 8208: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8197: 8191: 8184: 8175: 8169: 8168: 8160: 8154: 8153: 8133: 8127: 8124: 8118: 8111:Borodkin, Leonid 8108: 8102: 8101: 8093: 8087: 8074:Atlas & Co. 8061: 8055: 8054: 8052: 8050: 8035: 8029: 8028: 8020: 7999: 7987: 7981: 7961: 7955: 7939:, Sorokyn K. V. 7924: 7918: 7917: 7902: 7896: 7895: 7876: 7870: 7869: 7852:(3): 1049–1051. 7837: 7831: 7830: 7820: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7809: 7792:Hardy, Jeffery. 7789: 7783: 7782: 7774: 7768: 7767: 7753: 7747: 7731: 7725: 7724: 7708: 7699: 7682: 7662: 7653: 7647: 7646: 7637:. Archived from 7621:(4): 1017–1049. 7606: 7600: 7599: 7597: 7595: 7581: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7570: 7559: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7548: 7534: 7528: 7527: 7525: 7523: 7514:. Archived from 7508: 7502: 7496: 7490: 7484: 7478: 7475: 7469: 7466: 7455: 7454: 7452: 7450: 7435: 7429: 7428: 7426: 7424: 7413: 7407: 7406: 7404: 7402: 7387: 7381: 7380: 7378: 7376: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7335: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7324: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7304: 7302: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7278: 7276: 7261: 7255: 7248: 7242: 7241: 7233: 7220: 7219: 7211: 7200: 7199: 7191: 7176: 7175: 7173: 7171: 7156: 7145: 7138: 7132: 7131:, Anne Applebaum 7129:GULAG: a History 7126: 7120: 7119: 7117: 7115: 7110:on April 8, 2009 7099: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7066: 7060: 7059: 7038: 7032: 7019:Encyklopedia PWN 7016: 7010: 7009: 7007: 7005: 6994: 6988: 6985: 6979: 6978: 6964:Gulag: a history 6958: 6952: 6951: 6931: 6922: 6921: 6914: 6908: 6907: 6885: 6879: 6868: 6859: 6848: 6842: 6831: 6825: 6817: 6808: 6807: 6799: 6790: 6789: 6781: 6775: 6774: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6735:(2): 1151–1172. 6726: 6717: 6711: 6708: 6702: 6701: 6684: 6678: 6664: 6658: 6651: 6645: 6638: 6632: 6625: 6619: 6618: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6589: 6587: 6581:www.marxists.org 6571: 6565: 6562: 6553: 6550: 6544: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6530: 6514: 6493: 6486: 6480: 6473: 6467: 6460: 6454: 6447: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6436: 6420: 6414: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6403: 6392: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6364:. Archived from 6357: 6351: 6339: 6333: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6313: 6307: 6306: 6298: 6292: 6291: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6272: 6257: 6248: 6241: 6235: 6234: 6232: 6230: 6215: 6209: 6199: 6198: 6192: 6186: 6174: 6168: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6158:on June 27, 2007 6154:. Archived from 6148: 6142: 6141: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6036: 6027: 6026: 6007: 5997: 5991: 5955:Conquest, Robert 5952: 5931: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5907: 5896: 5890: 5875:Gulag: A History 5867: 5858: 5857: 5846: 5837: 5836: 5818: 5812: 5796:Gulag: A History 5788: 5777: 5769:Michael Ellman. 5767: 5748: 5745:A&E Networks 5731: 5725: 5706: 5700: 5680: 5674: 5671:Gulag: A History 5667: 5658: 5643: 5634: 5633: 5618: 5607: 5606: 5588: 5579: 5572: 5563: 5562: 5545:(4): 1017–1049. 5534: 5525: 5500: 5476: 5461: 5460: 5440: 5431: 5418: 5417: 5404:(3): 1049–1051. 5390:(June 1, 2018). 5384: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5334: 5328: 5326: 5320: 5319: 5303: 5297: 5296: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5275: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5257: 5255:[ɡʊˈlak] 5252: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5243: 5240: 5237: 5230: 5222: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5211: 5208: 5205: 5202: 5193: 5187: 5184: 5178: 5167: 4876: 4870: 4869: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4825:ссыльнопоселенцы 4821: 4815: 4814: 4717:Stalinist purges 4631: 4515:The First Circle 4474:Bertrand Russell 4367:Alexander Dolgun 4359:Alexander Galich 4345:Russian folklore 4328: 4321: 4317: 4314: 4308: 4285: 4277: 4224: 4103:Timasheff (1948) 4062:GULAG population 4058: 4054: 3989:Ekonomika Gulaga 3764: 3763: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3720:), and mothers ( 3715: 3709: 3708: 3493: 3486: 3482: 3479: 3473: 3450: 3442: 3385: 3378: 3374: 3371: 3365: 3342: 3334: 3316:Law of Spikelets 3282:Law of Spikelets 3194:production quota 3175:, which stated: 3161:Andrei Vyshinsky 3140: 3129: 2990: 2989: 2662: 2661: 2638: 2632: 2628: 2622: 2505: 2493:Vorkuta uprising 2391:post-war Germany 2289:Sent to NKVD as 2194: 2188: 2155:Yalta Conference 2049:Central shop in 2035:deported peoples 2028: 2027: 2026:каторжные работы 1992:prisoners of war 1832:special settlers 1808:Collectivisation 1749: 1743: 1742: 1656:Russian Far East 1614:Forced exile to 1429: 1423: 1422: 1398: 1350: 1349: 1330: 1327: 1309: 1302: 1260:, winner of the 1235:de-Stalinization 1109:was a system of 1083: 1076: 1069: 1046: 1045: 1044: 981:Collectivization 841: 840: 805:De-Stalinization 779:Marxism–Leninism 774:Soviet democracy 768: 767: 671:State Committees 614: 613: 520: 519: 452: 451: 384: 370: 369: 360: 353: 346: 149:Collectivization 126: 125: 112: 98: 97: 79: 78: 54: 45: 38: 34: 15338: 15337: 15333: 15332: 15331: 15329: 15328: 15327: 15253: 15252: 15251: 15239: 15229: 15227: 15219: 15217: 15212: 15157: 15132:Separate school 15037: 15031: 14946: 14898: 14749: 14681: 14678: 14648: 14643: 14625: 14621:Stalin's bunker 14571:Room at Kremlin 14561:Tiflis Seminary 14542: 14537: 14529: 14521: 14513: 14505: 14498:(granddaughter) 14497: 14489: 14481: 14473: 14465: 14457: 14455:Artyom Sergeyev 14449: 14441: 14433: 14425: 14417: 14403: 14385: 14289: 14247:True Communists 14210: 14208: 14201: 14165:Khrushchev Thaw 14136: 14103:Stalin's poetry 14022: 13890:Japhetic theory 13828:Medvedev Forest 13721:Georgian Affair 13698: 13692: 13653:Five-year plans 13597: 13566:Berlin Blockade 13556:Greek Civil War 13345:August Uprising 13333: 13314:Political views 13279: 13273: 13253: 13248: 13218: 13213: 13192: 13190: 13177: 13125: 13099: 13019: 12933: 12878: 12850: 12824:Internet domain 12819:Five-year plans 12781: 12748: 12688: 12591: 12553: 12485:Communist Party 12473: 12432:Passport system 12322: 12298:European Russia 12276: 12215: 12156:Khrushchev Thaw 12135:(World War II) 12113:Creation treaty 12067: 12061: 12031: 12026: 12014: 12002: 11994: 11987: 11978: 11971: 11964: 11957: 11952: 11945: 11938: 11929: 11922: 11915: 11908: 11901: 11894: 11887: 11880: 11873: 11866: 11859: 11852: 11845: 11838: 11831: 11824: 11817: 11804: 11797: 11790: 11783: 11772: 11765: 11758: 11747: 11740: 11733: 11726: 11719: 11712: 11703: 11696: 11689: 11682: 11675: 11668: 11661: 11654: 11647: 11640: 11633: 11626: 11619: 11611: 11600: 11591: 11586:Women in prison 11584: 11577: 11570: 11563: 11556: 11549: 11542: 11533: 11526: 11517: 11510: 11503: 11494: 11489:Private prisons 11487: 11480: 11473: 11466: 11459: 11452: 11445: 11438: 11431: 11422: 11415: 11404: 11397: 11390: 11383: 11374: 11367: 11360: 11351: 11344: 11337: 11330: 11315: 11308: 11299: 11292: 11279: 11272: 11265: 11258: 11251: 11244: 11237: 11230: 11223: 11216: 11209: 11198: 11191: 11184: 11177: 11170: 11163: 11156: 11150:Security levels 11145: 11138: 11131: 11124: 11117: 11110: 11103: 11094: 11087: 11080: 11073: 11066: 11059: 11052: 11045: 11038: 11031: 11011: 11004: 10999:Prisoner of war 10997: 10990: 10983: 10976: 10969: 10962: 10955: 10942: 10935: 10928: 10921: 10914: 10907: 10896: 10891: 10861: 10856: 10853:Karelia-Finland 10797: 10703: 10662: 10640:Leonid Zakovsky 10613: 10604:Lavrentiy Beria 10582: 10575: 10512:Wayback Machine 10499:Wayback Machine 10474: 10346: 10334: 10236:Memory of Blood 10154:. 2020 (1952). 10146: 10105:Hollander, Paul 9991:Bardach, Janusz 9974: 9872: 9858: 9847: 9840: 9694: 9686:. CreateSpace. 9659:Kozlov, V. P., 9466: 9464: 9462: 9404:Applebaum, Anne 9400: 9394: 9392:Further reading 9389: 9376: 9375: 9371: 9361: 9359: 9350: 9349: 9345: 9335: 9333: 9324: 9323: 9319: 9312: 9304:. p. 271. 9292: 9288: 9278: 9276: 9261: 9257: 9245: 9241: 9226: 9205: 9198: 9191: 9177: 9173: 9162: 9161: 9157: 9152:. Hoover Press. 9149: 9143: 9139: 9129: 9127: 9123: 9116: 9110: 9106: 9098: 9083: 9077: 9073: 9067: 9054: 9050: 9041: 9037: 9032: 9028: 9019: 9015: 9006: 9002: 8993: 8989: 8980: 8976: 8958: 8957: 8953: 8944: 8940: 8931: 8927: 8916: 8912: 8895: 8891: 8882: 8871: 8861: 8859: 8844: 8840: 8833: 8821: 8820: 8816: 8809: 8797: 8796: 8792: 8785: 8773: 8772: 8768: 8761: 8749: 8748: 8744: 8737: 8725: 8724: 8720: 8713: 8701: 8700: 8696: 8689: 8677: 8676: 8672: 8664: 8649: 8643: 8639: 8629: 8627: 8616: 8612: 8603: 8596: 8589: 8570: 8566: 8556: 8554: 8550: 8539: 8533: 8529: 8501: 8497: 8487: 8485: 8474: 8470: 8460: 8458: 8447: 8440: 8422: 8409: 8402: 8388: 8384: 8374: 8372: 8368: 8361: 8357: 8356: 8352: 8347:Wayback Machine 8338: 8334: 8327: 8311: 8304: 8294: 8292: 8287: 8286: 8282: 8274: 8270: 8263: 8247: 8240: 8234:Wayback Machine 8224: 8220: 8209: 8205: 8195: 8193: 8189: 8182: 8176: 8172: 8161: 8157: 8150: 8134: 8130: 8125: 8121: 8109: 8105: 8094: 8090: 8070:." Pp. 1–18 in 8064:Brent, Jonathan 8062: 8058: 8048: 8046: 8037: 8036: 8032: 8021: 8002: 7997:Wayback Machine 7988: 7984: 7971:Wayback Machine 7962: 7958: 7934:Wayback Machine 7925: 7921: 7915: 7907:documents, ed. 7903: 7899: 7892: 7878: 7877: 7873: 7838: 7834: 7821: 7817: 7807: 7805: 7790: 7786: 7775: 7771: 7754: 7750: 7741:Wayback Machine 7732: 7728: 7722: 7709: 7702: 7660: 7654: 7650: 7627:10.2307/2166597 7607: 7603: 7593: 7591: 7583: 7582: 7578: 7568: 7566: 7561: 7560: 7556: 7546: 7544: 7536: 7535: 7531: 7521: 7519: 7510: 7509: 7505: 7497: 7493: 7485: 7481: 7476: 7472: 7467: 7458: 7448: 7446: 7437: 7436: 7432: 7422: 7420: 7415: 7414: 7410: 7400: 7398: 7389: 7388: 7384: 7374: 7372: 7363: 7362: 7358: 7348: 7346: 7337: 7336: 7332: 7322: 7320: 7315: 7314: 7310: 7300: 7298: 7289: 7288: 7284: 7274: 7272: 7263: 7262: 7258: 7249: 7245: 7234: 7223: 7212: 7203: 7192: 7179: 7169: 7167: 7158: 7157: 7148: 7139: 7135: 7127: 7123: 7113: 7111: 7102:Hope, Michael. 7100: 7096: 7086: 7084: 7083:on May 31, 2014 7067: 7063: 7056: 7039: 7035: 7029:Wayback Machine 7017: 7013: 7003: 7001: 6996: 6995: 6991: 6986: 6982: 6975: 6959: 6955: 6948: 6932: 6925: 6916: 6915: 6911: 6904: 6886: 6882: 6869: 6862: 6849: 6845: 6832: 6828: 6818: 6811: 6800: 6793: 6782: 6778: 6767: 6763: 6753: 6751: 6724: 6718: 6714: 6709: 6705: 6698: 6686: 6685: 6681: 6665: 6661: 6652: 6648: 6639: 6635: 6626: 6622: 6615: 6599: 6595: 6585: 6583: 6575:Trotsky, Leon. 6572: 6568: 6563: 6556: 6551: 6547: 6542: 6538: 6528: 6526: 6515: 6496: 6487: 6483: 6474: 6470: 6461: 6457: 6448: 6444: 6434: 6432: 6421: 6417: 6407: 6405: 6401: 6390: 6386: 6385: 6381: 6371: 6369: 6358: 6354: 6349:Wayback Machine 6340: 6336: 6329: 6325: 6314: 6310: 6299: 6295: 6284: 6280: 6270: 6268: 6259: 6258: 6251: 6242: 6238: 6228: 6226: 6217: 6216: 6212: 6193: 6189: 6184:Wayback Machine 6175: 6171: 6161: 6159: 6152:"H-Net Reviews" 6150: 6149: 6145: 6122:10.2307/3649985 6104: 6100: 6089: 6085: 6076: 6074: 6063: 6059: 6049: 6047: 6038: 6037: 6030: 6020: 5998: 5994: 5974:49(7):1317–19, 5966:Wayback Machine 5953: 5934: 5919: 5915: 5905: 5903: 5898: 5897: 5893: 5870:Applebaum, Anne 5868: 5861: 5848: 5847: 5840: 5833: 5819: 5815: 5791:Applebaum, Anne 5789: 5780: 5768: 5751: 5732: 5728: 5707: 5703: 5683:Applebaum, Anne 5681: 5677: 5668: 5661: 5644: 5637: 5619: 5610: 5603: 5589: 5582: 5573: 5566: 5551:10.2307/2166597 5532: 5526: 5503: 5477: 5464: 5438: 5432: 5421: 5385: 5362: 5358: 5353: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5282: 5278: 5266:. Also spelled 5259: 5258: 5250: 5234: 5225: 5224: 5199: 5195: 5194: 5190: 5185: 5181: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5060:Francoist Spain 5044:Qafë Bar Prison 5030: 4967: 4944: 4932:Lubyanka Square 4924: 4899: 4897:Gulag memorials 4894: 4892:Memorialization 4858: 4819:volnoposelentsy 4813:вольнопоселенцы 4791:free settlement 4783:state documents 4768: 4709:Georgi Dimitrov 4621: 4537:Slavomir Rawicz 4456:Julius Margolin 4423:I Chose Freedom 4406:Varlam Shalamov 4399: 4375:Varlam Shalamov 4353:, most notably 4338: 4329: 4318: 4312: 4309: 4298: 4286: 4275: 4251:Robert Conquest 4201: 4197:Conquest (1991) 4191:5.5–9.5 million 4137: 4129: 4049: 4037:Robert Conquest 3924:, 1932: right: 3876:democratization 3848: 3802:Robert Conquest 3777: 3772: 3701: 3669:Throughout the 3517:", entered the 3494: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3463: 3451: 3416: 3410: 3386: 3375: 3369: 3366: 3355: 3343: 3332: 3308: 3134: 3123: 3105: 2988: 2645: 2636: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2578: 2508:rehabilitations 2503: 2500:amnesty of 1953 2489:Kengir uprising 2291:spetskontingent 2132: 2043: 1926: 1921: 1787: 1767:Naftaly Frenkel 1734:of confinement. 1568: 1563: 1472: 1396: 1357: 1331: 1325: 1322: 1315:needs expansion 1300: 1239:Khrushchev Thaw 1231:First Secretary 1218:death of Stalin 1087: 1058: 1054:Other countries 1042: 1040: 1035: 1034: 946: 838: 830: 829: 801: 765: 755: 754: 723: 715: 714: 649: 611: 603: 602: 517: 509: 508: 503: 449: 447:Communist Party 439: 438: 397: 364: 130: 129:Mass repression 117:Literal meaning 58: 55: 49: 46: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 15336: 15326: 15325: 15320: 15315: 15310: 15305: 15300: 15295: 15290: 15285: 15283:Vladimir Lenin 15280: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15250: 15249: 15237: 15214: 15213: 15211: 15210: 15198: 15197: 15196: 15191: 15186: 15169: 15162: 15159: 15158: 15156: 15155: 15150: 15145: 15140: 15135: 15129: 15124: 15119: 15114: 15109: 15104: 15102:Nuremberg Laws 15099: 15094: 15089: 15084: 15079: 15077:Ghetto benches 15074: 15072:Discrimination 15069: 15064: 15059: 15054: 15053: 15052: 15041: 15039: 15033: 15032: 15030: 15029: 15024: 15019: 15014: 15013: 15012: 15002: 14997: 14992: 14987: 14985:Ethnopluralism 14982: 14981: 14980: 14970: 14965: 14960: 14954: 14952: 14948: 14947: 14945: 14944: 14939: 14934: 14929: 14924: 14919: 14914: 14908: 14906: 14900: 14899: 14897: 14896: 14895: 14894: 14889: 14888: 14887: 14882: 14870: 14865: 14855: 14853:United Kingdom 14850: 14845: 14840: 14835: 14830: 14825: 14820: 14815: 14810: 14805: 14800: 14795: 14790: 14785: 14780: 14775: 14770: 14765: 14759: 14757: 14751: 14750: 14748: 14747: 14742: 14737: 14732: 14727: 14722: 14717: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14697: 14691: 14689: 14683: 14682: 14677: 14676: 14669: 14662: 14654: 14645: 14644: 14642: 14641: 14630: 14627: 14626: 14624: 14623: 14618: 14617: 14616: 14611: 14606: 14601: 14596: 14591: 14586: 14581: 14573: 14568: 14563: 14558: 14552: 14550: 14544: 14543: 14541: 14540: 14532: 14524: 14516: 14508: 14500: 14492: 14484: 14476: 14468: 14460: 14452: 14444: 14436: 14428: 14420: 14411: 14409: 14405: 14404: 14402: 14401: 14393: 14391: 14387: 14386: 14384: 14383: 14378: 14376:Stalin Society 14373: 14368: 14363: 14358: 14353: 14348: 14343: 14338: 14333: 14328: 14323: 14318: 14316:Stalin statues 14313: 14308: 14303: 14297: 14295: 14291: 14290: 14288: 14287: 14282: 14275: 14270: 14263: 14256: 14249: 14244: 14239: 14234: 14229: 14224: 14219: 14217:Stalin Epigram 14213: 14211: 14206: 14203: 14202: 14200: 14199: 14194: 14189: 14184: 14179: 14174: 14167: 14162: 14160:Rehabilitation 14157: 14152: 14146: 14144: 14138: 14137: 14135: 14134: 14129: 14122: 14117: 14112: 14105: 14100: 14095: 14088: 14083: 14076: 14071: 14066: 14059: 14052: 14045: 14038: 14030: 14028: 14024: 14023: 14021: 14020: 14015: 14010: 14005: 14000: 13995: 13990: 13985: 13980: 13979: 13978: 13973: 13968: 13963: 13958: 13953: 13948: 13938: 13928: 13923: 13918: 13913: 13908: 13903: 13902: 13901: 13896: 13887: 13882: 13874: 13873: 13872: 13867: 13862: 13857: 13856: 13855: 13850: 13845: 13840: 13835: 13830: 13825: 13820: 13815: 13810: 13805: 13800: 13795: 13790: 13780: 13770: 13765: 13760: 13759: 13758: 13748: 13743: 13738: 13736:Wittorf affair 13733: 13731:Dekulakization 13728: 13723: 13718: 13713: 13708: 13702: 13700: 13694: 13693: 13691: 13690: 13685: 13680: 13675: 13673:New Soviet man 13670: 13665: 13660: 13655: 13650: 13645: 13640: 13635: 13630: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13609: 13607: 13603: 13602: 13599: 13598: 13596: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13574: 13573: 13568: 13563: 13558: 13553: 13548: 13547: 13546: 13536: 13531: 13526: 13516: 13511: 13506: 13501: 13496: 13495: 13494: 13489: 13484: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13464: 13459: 13458: 13457: 13447: 13437: 13432: 13427: 13422: 13417: 13412: 13407: 13402: 13397: 13388: 13383: 13378: 13373: 13372: 13371: 13366: 13356: 13347: 13341: 13339: 13335: 13334: 13332: 13331: 13326: 13321: 13316: 13311: 13306: 13301: 13296: 13290: 13288: 13281: 13275: 13274: 13272: 13271: 13265: 13258: 13255: 13254: 13247: 13246: 13239: 13232: 13224: 13215: 13214: 13212: 13211: 13201: 13186: 13183: 13182: 13179: 13178: 13176: 13175: 13170: 13169: 13168: 13158: 13157: 13156: 13146: 13145: 13144: 13133: 13131: 13127: 13126: 13124: 13123: 13122: 13121: 13109: 13107: 13101: 13100: 13098: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13067: 13062: 13061: 13060: 13050: 13045: 13040: 13035: 13029: 13027: 13021: 13020: 13018: 13017: 13012: 13007: 13006: 13005: 13000: 12990: 12985: 12980: 12979: 12978: 12973: 12968: 12958: 12953: 12947: 12941: 12935: 12934: 12932: 12931: 12930: 12929: 12919: 12914: 12909: 12904: 12899: 12894: 12888: 12886: 12880: 12879: 12877: 12876: 12875: 12874: 12869: 12867:Rail transport 12864: 12862:Railway system 12854: 12846: 12841: 12836: 12831: 12826: 12821: 12816: 12811: 12806: 12801: 12795: 12793: 12787: 12786: 12783: 12782: 12780: 12779: 12774: 12769: 12764: 12758: 12756: 12750: 12749: 12747: 12746: 12741: 12736: 12735: 12734: 12724: 12719: 12714: 12709: 12704: 12698: 12696: 12690: 12689: 12687: 12686: 12685: 12684: 12658: 12657: 12656: 12651: 12641: 12636: 12635: 12634: 12624: 12623: 12622: 12612: 12607: 12601: 12599: 12593: 12592: 12590: 12589: 12584: 12582:Deputy Premier 12579: 12574: 12573: 12572: 12565:Heads of state 12561: 12559: 12555: 12554: 12552: 12551: 12550: 12549: 12539: 12533: 12530:Supreme Soviet 12527: 12521: 12520: 12519: 12514: 12513: 12512: 12507: 12497: 12492: 12481: 12479: 12475: 12474: 12472: 12471: 12466: 12465: 12464: 12459: 12454: 12447:State ideology 12444: 12439: 12434: 12429: 12428: 12427: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12406: 12405: 12395: 12394: 12393: 12383: 12378: 12377: 12376: 12366: 12361: 12360: 12359: 12354: 12343: 12341: 12334: 12328: 12327: 12324: 12323: 12321: 12320: 12315: 12313:Ural Mountains 12310: 12305: 12303:North Caucasus 12300: 12295: 12290: 12284: 12282: 12278: 12277: 12275: 12274: 12269: 12264: 12263: 12262: 12252: 12247: 12246: 12245: 12234: 12232: 12223: 12217: 12216: 12214: 12213: 12208: 12203: 12198: 12193: 12188: 12183: 12178: 12173: 12168: 12163: 12158: 12153: 12148: 12147: 12146: 12141: 12130: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12105: 12100: 12099: 12098: 12093: 12083: 12077: 12075: 12069: 12068: 12060: 12059: 12052: 12045: 12037: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12024: 12012: 11999: 11996: 11995: 11993: 11992: 11985: 11984: 11983: 11976: 11969: 11962: 11950: 11943: 11936: 11935: 11934: 11920: 11913: 11906: 11899: 11892: 11885: 11878: 11871: 11864: 11857: 11850: 11843: 11836: 11829: 11822: 11814: 11812: 11806: 11805: 11803: 11802: 11795: 11788: 11780: 11778: 11774: 11773: 11771: 11770: 11763: 11760:Rehabilitation 11755: 11753: 11752:Leaving prison 11749: 11748: 11746: 11745: 11738: 11731: 11724: 11717: 11710: 11701: 11694: 11687: 11680: 11673: 11666: 11659: 11652: 11645: 11642:Justice Action 11638: 11631: 11624: 11621:Black and Pink 11617: 11608: 11606: 11602: 11601: 11599: 11598: 11597: 11596: 11582: 11575: 11568: 11561: 11554: 11547: 11540: 11539: 11538: 11524: 11523: 11522: 11508: 11501: 11500: 11499: 11485: 11478: 11471: 11464: 11457: 11450: 11443: 11436: 11429: 11428: 11427: 11412: 11410: 11406: 11405: 11403: 11402: 11395: 11388: 11381: 11380: 11379: 11372: 11358: 11357: 11356: 11342: 11335: 11327: 11325: 11321: 11320: 11317: 11316: 11314: 11313: 11306: 11305: 11304: 11294:Prison escapes 11289: 11287: 11281: 11280: 11278: 11277: 11270: 11263: 11256: 11249: 11242: 11235: 11228: 11221: 11214: 11206: 11204: 11200: 11199: 11197: 11196: 11189: 11182: 11175: 11168: 11161: 11153: 11151: 11147: 11146: 11144: 11143: 11136: 11129: 11122: 11115: 11108: 11101: 11100: 11099: 11092: 11078: 11071: 11064: 11057: 11050: 11043: 11036: 11028: 11026: 11019: 11013: 11012: 11010: 11009: 11002: 10995: 10988: 10981: 10974: 10967: 10960: 10952: 10950: 10944: 10943: 10941: 10940: 10933: 10926: 10919: 10912: 10904: 10902: 10898: 10897: 10890: 10889: 10882: 10875: 10867: 10858: 10857: 10855: 10854: 10851: 10848: 10845: 10842: 10839: 10836: 10833: 10830: 10827: 10824: 10821: 10818: 10815: 10812: 10809: 10805: 10803: 10799: 10798: 10796: 10795: 10792: 10789: 10786: 10783: 10780: 10777: 10774: 10771: 10768: 10765: 10762: 10759: 10756: 10755:Transportation 10753: 10750: 10748:State Security 10745: 10742: 10737: 10734: 10731: 10728: 10725: 10722: 10717: 10711: 10709: 10705: 10704: 10702: 10701: 10699:Stepan Mamulov 10696: 10691: 10689:Mikhail Petrov 10686: 10681: 10676: 10670: 10668: 10664: 10663: 10661: 10660: 10655: 10652: 10647: 10642: 10637: 10632: 10627: 10625:Nikolai Yezhov 10621: 10619: 10618:NKVD Collegium 10615: 10614: 10612: 10611: 10609:Sergei Kruglov 10606: 10601: 10599:Nikolai Yezhov 10596: 10594:Genrikh Yagoda 10590: 10588: 10584: 10583: 10574: 10573: 10566: 10559: 10551: 10545: 10544: 10535: 10526: 10520: 10515: 10502: 10489: 10480: 10473: 10472:External links 10470: 10469: 10468: 10451: 10431: 10419: 10403: 10385: 10365: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10340: 10337: 10331: 10320:Solzhenitsyn's 10317: 10310:Volovich, Hava 10307: 10292: 10273: 10266:Shumuk, Danylo 10263: 10243: 10232: 10218: 10204: 10190: 10183: 10176:Noble, John H. 10173: 10166: 10149: 10132: 10102: 10101: 10100: 10086: 10071: 10051: 10034:Patrick Watson 10027: 10024:978-0385040518 10012:Ciszek, Walter 10009: 9988: 9973: 9970: 9969: 9968: 9959: 9940: 9922: 9913: 9904: 9880: 9871: 9868: 9867: 9866: 9856: 9833: 9822: 9809: 9787: 9766: 9751: 9736: 9716: 9701:Rossi, Jacques 9698: 9692: 9679: 9657: 9642: 9622: 9604: 9586: 9569: 9552: 9530: 9513:Oleg V. Naumov 9509:Getty, J. Arch 9506: 9491:Figes, Orlando 9488: 9473: 9460: 9448:, ed. (2016). 9442: 9424:Ciszek, Walter 9421: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9387: 9369: 9343: 9317: 9310: 9302:Berghahn Books 9286: 9255: 9239: 9224: 9208:Petrov, Nikita 9196: 9189: 9171: 9155: 9137: 9104: 9071: 9048: 9035: 9026: 9022:Soviet Studies 9013: 9009:Soviet Studies 9000: 8996:Soviet Studies 8987: 8974: 8951: 8938: 8925: 8910: 8889: 8885:Soviet Studies 8869: 8838: 8831: 8814: 8807: 8790: 8783: 8766: 8759: 8742: 8735: 8718: 8711: 8694: 8687: 8670: 8637: 8610: 8608:April 13, 2011 8594: 8587: 8564: 8527: 8495: 8482:Вестник Европы 8468: 8438: 8424:Arendt, Hannah 8407: 8400: 8382: 8350: 8332: 8325: 8302: 8280: 8268: 8261: 8238: 8218: 8203: 8170: 8155: 8148: 8128: 8119: 8103: 8088: 8056: 8030: 8000: 7982: 7956: 7919: 7897: 7890: 7871: 7832: 7815: 7798:Cambridge Core 7784: 7769: 7748: 7726: 7700: 7698: 7697: 7673:(2): 340–342. 7648: 7601: 7576: 7554: 7529: 7503: 7491: 7479: 7470: 7456: 7430: 7408: 7382: 7356: 7330: 7308: 7282: 7256: 7243: 7221: 7201: 7177: 7146: 7133: 7121: 7094: 7061: 7054: 7033: 7011: 6989: 6980: 6973: 6953: 6946: 6923: 6909: 6902: 6880: 6860: 6843: 6826: 6809: 6791: 6776: 6761: 6712: 6703: 6696: 6679: 6659: 6646: 6633: 6620: 6613: 6593: 6566: 6554: 6545: 6536: 6494: 6481: 6468: 6455: 6442: 6415: 6379: 6352: 6334: 6323: 6308: 6293: 6278: 6249: 6236: 6210: 6187: 6169: 6143: 6116:(2): 274–306. 6098: 6083: 6057: 6028: 6018: 5992: 5990: 5989: 5932: 5913: 5891: 5859: 5838: 5831: 5813: 5778: 5749: 5726: 5701: 5675: 5659: 5635: 5608: 5601: 5580: 5564: 5501: 5462: 5419: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5338: 5329: 5276: 5188: 5179: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5152: 5146: 5137: 5131:Pitești Prison 5128: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5084: 5071: 5062: 5053: 5052: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4943: 4940: 4920:Main article: 4915:St. Petersburg 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4857: 4854: 4836:exile settlers 4795:Genrikh Yagoda 4767: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4698: 4692: 4669: 4647: 4633: 4604: 4586: 4556: 4553:Zoltan Szalkai 4550: 4544: 4534: 4487: 4477: 4463: 4453: 4439: 4415: 4398: 4395: 4337: 4334: 4331: 4330: 4289: 4287: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4263:labor colonies 4229: 4228: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4203: 4198: 4195: 4192: 4188: 4187: 4184: 4181: 4178: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4167: 4164: 4160: 4159: 4153: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4139: 4134: 4131: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4118: 4115: 4112: 4108: 4107: 4104: 4101: 4098: 4094: 4093: 4090: 4087: 4084: 4080: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4048: 4045: 4033: 4032: 4022: 4012: 4002: 3992: 3982: 3972: 3896:Viktor Zemskov 3880:Viktor Zemskov 3847: 3844: 3820: 3819: 3812: 3805: 3794: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3770:Historiography 3768: 3767: 3766: 3751: 3733: 3732:) with babies. 3700: 3697: 3637:Czechoslovakia 3531:intelligentsia 3496: 3495: 3478:September 2007 3454: 3452: 3445: 3409: 3406: 3388: 3387: 3346: 3344: 3337: 3331: 3328: 3307: 3304: 3303: 3302: 3295: 3292:thieves in law 3288: 3169:Nikolai Yezhov 3104: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3084: 3078: 3077: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3014: 3008: 3007: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2994: 2987: 2984: 2981: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2966: 2963: 2959: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2948: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2937: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2926: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2915: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2904: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2860: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2849: 2848: 2845: 2842: 2838: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2827: 2826: 2823: 2820: 2816: 2815: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2794: 2793: 2790: 2787: 2783: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2772: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2739: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2705: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2694: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2673: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2644: 2643:Mortality rate 2641: 2602:labor colonies 2598:Timothy Snyder 2591:and mortality 2577: 2574: 2397:, prisons, or 2373: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2313: 2312: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2286: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2240: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2131: 2128: 2042: 2039: 2000:General Anders 1984:Katyn massacre 1930:Anne Applebaum 1925: 1924:Political role 1922: 1920: 1917: 1913:Viktor Zemskov 1848:dekulakisation 1840:dekulakisation 1825:dekulakisation 1820:dekulakization 1786: 1783: 1775:Genrikh Yagoda 1641:Vladimir Lenin 1604:Anne Applebaum 1588:Russian Empire 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1471: 1468: 1393:labor colonies 1364:Genrikh Yagoda 1356: 1353: 1333: 1332: 1312: 1310: 1299: 1296: 1243:rehabilitation 1089: 1088: 1086: 1085: 1078: 1071: 1063: 1060: 1059: 1057: 1056: 1050: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1030: 1029: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 955: 954: 948: 947: 945: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 918: 915: 914: 906: 905: 904: 903: 898: 893: 888: 883: 878: 873: 871:Kosygin reform 868: 866:Five-Year Plan 863: 861:Consumer goods 858: 850: 849: 839: 836: 835: 832: 831: 826: 825: 824: 823: 822: 821: 807: 802: 800: 799: 794: 789: 783: 781: 776: 766: 761: 760: 757: 756: 753: 752: 747: 745:People's Court 742: 741: 740: 730: 724: 721: 720: 717: 716: 711: 710: 709: 708: 703: 701:Deputy Premier 698: 690: 689: 681: 680: 679: 678: 673: 668: 660: 659: 651: 650: 648: 647: 642: 637: 632: 630:Official names 626: 623: 622: 612: 609: 608: 605: 604: 599: 598: 597: 596: 595: 594: 589: 579: 578: 570: 569: 568: 567: 562: 557: 549: 548: 545:Supreme Soviet 540: 539: 538: 537: 529: 528: 518: 515: 514: 511: 510: 505: 504: 502: 501: 496: 491: 485: 482: 481: 473: 472: 471: 470: 465: 460: 450: 445: 444: 441: 440: 437: 436: 431: 426: 421: 420: 419: 417:Vice President 414: 404: 398: 395: 394: 391: 390: 386: 385: 377: 376: 366: 365: 363: 362: 355: 348: 340: 337: 336: 335: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 306: 305: 301: 300: 299: 298: 293: 292: 291: 281: 276: 275: 274: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 244: 239: 234: 221: 220: 214: 213: 212: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 183: 182: 176: 175: 174: 173: 172: 171: 166: 156: 154:Dekulakization 151: 146: 138: 137: 133: 132: 122: 121: 118: 114: 113: 106: 100: 99: 92: 86: 85: 75: 74: 73: 72: 69: 66: 60: 59: 56: 47: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15335: 15324: 15321: 15319: 15316: 15314: 15311: 15309: 15306: 15304: 15301: 15299: 15296: 15294: 15291: 15289: 15288:Joseph Stalin 15286: 15284: 15281: 15279: 15276: 15274: 15271: 15269: 15266: 15264: 15261: 15260: 15258: 15248: 15243: 15238: 15236: 15226: 15225: 15222: 15209: 15208: 15199: 15195: 15192: 15190: 15187: 15185: 15182: 15181: 15180: 15179: 15170: 15168: 15167:Pillarisation 15164: 15163: 15160: 15154: 15151: 15149: 15146: 15144: 15141: 15139: 15136: 15133: 15130: 15128: 15125: 15123: 15120: 15118: 15115: 15113: 15110: 15108: 15105: 15103: 15100: 15098: 15095: 15093: 15090: 15088: 15087:Jim Crow laws 15085: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15070: 15068: 15065: 15063: 15060: 15058: 15055: 15051: 15048: 15047: 15046: 15043: 15042: 15040: 15034: 15028: 15025: 15023: 15020: 15018: 15015: 15011: 15008: 15007: 15006: 15003: 15001: 14998: 14996: 14993: 14991: 14988: 14986: 14983: 14979: 14976: 14975: 14974: 14971: 14969: 14966: 14964: 14963:Balkanization 14961: 14959: 14956: 14955: 14953: 14949: 14943: 14940: 14938: 14935: 14933: 14930: 14928: 14925: 14923: 14920: 14918: 14915: 14913: 14910: 14909: 14907: 14905: 14901: 14893: 14890: 14886: 14883: 14881: 14880: 14876: 14875: 14874: 14871: 14869: 14866: 14864: 14861: 14860: 14859: 14858:United States 14856: 14854: 14851: 14849: 14846: 14844: 14841: 14839: 14836: 14834: 14831: 14829: 14826: 14824: 14821: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14811: 14809: 14806: 14804: 14801: 14799: 14796: 14794: 14791: 14789: 14786: 14784: 14781: 14779: 14776: 14774: 14771: 14769: 14766: 14764: 14761: 14760: 14758: 14756: 14752: 14746: 14743: 14741: 14738: 14736: 14733: 14731: 14728: 14726: 14723: 14721: 14718: 14716: 14713: 14711: 14708: 14706: 14703: 14701: 14698: 14696: 14693: 14692: 14690: 14688: 14684: 14675: 14670: 14668: 14663: 14661: 14656: 14655: 14652: 14640: 14632: 14631: 14628: 14622: 14619: 14615: 14612: 14610: 14607: 14605: 14602: 14600: 14597: 14595: 14594:Semyonovskoye 14592: 14590: 14587: 14585: 14582: 14580: 14577: 14576: 14574: 14572: 14569: 14567: 14564: 14562: 14559: 14557: 14554: 14553: 14551: 14549: 14545: 14536: 14533: 14528: 14525: 14520: 14517: 14512: 14509: 14504: 14501: 14496: 14493: 14488: 14485: 14480: 14477: 14472: 14471:Vasily Stalin 14469: 14466:(second wife) 14464: 14461: 14458:(adopted son) 14456: 14453: 14448: 14445: 14440: 14437: 14432: 14431:Kato Svanidze 14429: 14424: 14421: 14416: 14413: 14412: 14410: 14406: 14400: 14399: 14395: 14394: 14392: 14388: 14382: 14379: 14377: 14374: 14372: 14369: 14367: 14364: 14362: 14359: 14357: 14354: 14352: 14349: 14347: 14344: 14342: 14339: 14337: 14334: 14332: 14329: 14327: 14324: 14322: 14319: 14317: 14314: 14312: 14309: 14307: 14304: 14302: 14299: 14298: 14296: 14292: 14286: 14283: 14281: 14280: 14276: 14274: 14271: 14269: 14268: 14264: 14262: 14261: 14257: 14255: 14254: 14250: 14248: 14245: 14243: 14240: 14238: 14235: 14233: 14230: 14228: 14227:Ryutin Affair 14225: 14223: 14220: 14218: 14215: 14214: 14212: 14207:Criticism and 14204: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14190: 14188: 14185: 14183: 14180: 14178: 14175: 14173: 14172: 14168: 14166: 14163: 14161: 14158: 14156: 14153: 14151: 14148: 14147: 14145: 14143: 14139: 14133: 14130: 14127: 14123: 14121: 14120:Order No. 270 14118: 14116: 14115:Order No. 227 14113: 14111: 14110: 14106: 14104: 14101: 14099: 14096: 14094: 14093: 14089: 14087: 14084: 14082: 14081: 14077: 14075: 14072: 14070: 14067: 14064: 14060: 14057: 14053: 14050: 14046: 14043: 14039: 14036: 14032: 14031: 14029: 14025: 14019: 14016: 14014: 14013:Doctors' plot 14011: 14009: 14006: 14004: 14001: 13999: 13996: 13994: 13991: 13989: 13986: 13984: 13981: 13977: 13974: 13972: 13971:Nazino affair 13969: 13967: 13964: 13962: 13959: 13957: 13954: 13952: 13949: 13947: 13944: 13943: 13942: 13939: 13936: 13935:German–Soviet 13932: 13929: 13927: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13917: 13914: 13912: 13909: 13907: 13904: 13900: 13897: 13895: 13894:Slavists case 13891: 13888: 13886: 13883: 13881: 13878: 13877: 13875: 13871: 13868: 13866: 13863: 13861: 13860:Moscow Trials 13858: 13854: 13851: 13849: 13846: 13844: 13841: 13839: 13836: 13834: 13831: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13821: 13819: 13816: 13814: 13811: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13794: 13791: 13789: 13786: 13785: 13784: 13781: 13779: 13776: 13775: 13774: 13771: 13769: 13766: 13764: 13761: 13757: 13754: 13753: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13732: 13729: 13727: 13724: 13722: 13719: 13717: 13714: 13712: 13709: 13707: 13704: 13703: 13701: 13695: 13689: 13686: 13684: 13681: 13679: 13676: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13639: 13636: 13634: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13623:Korenizatsiya 13621: 13619: 13618:Neo-Stalinism 13616: 13614: 13611: 13610: 13608: 13604: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13572: 13569: 13567: 13564: 13562: 13559: 13557: 13554: 13552: 13549: 13545: 13542: 13541: 13540: 13537: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13527: 13525: 13522: 13521: 13520: 13517: 13515: 13512: 13510: 13507: 13505: 13504:Ili Rebellion 13502: 13500: 13497: 13493: 13490: 13488: 13485: 13483: 13480: 13478: 13475: 13473: 13470: 13468: 13465: 13463: 13460: 13456: 13453: 13452: 13451: 13448: 13446: 13443: 13442: 13441: 13438: 13436: 13433: 13431: 13428: 13426: 13423: 13421: 13418: 13416: 13413: 13411: 13408: 13406: 13403: 13401: 13398: 13396: 13392: 13389: 13387: 13384: 13382: 13379: 13377: 13374: 13370: 13367: 13365: 13362: 13361: 13360: 13357: 13355: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13342: 13340: 13336: 13330: 13327: 13325: 13322: 13320: 13317: 13315: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13300: 13297: 13295: 13292: 13291: 13289: 13285: 13282: 13276: 13269: 13266: 13263: 13260: 13259: 13256: 13252: 13251:Joseph Stalin 13245: 13240: 13238: 13233: 13231: 13226: 13225: 13222: 13210: 13202: 13200: 13199: 13188: 13187: 13184: 13174: 13171: 13167: 13164: 13163: 13162: 13159: 13155: 13152: 13151: 13150: 13147: 13143: 13140: 13139: 13138: 13135: 13134: 13132: 13128: 13120: 13117: 13116: 13114: 13111: 13110: 13108: 13106: 13102: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13073: 13071: 13070:Printed media 13068: 13066: 13063: 13059: 13056: 13055: 13054: 13051: 13049: 13046: 13044: 13041: 13039: 13036: 13034: 13031: 13030: 13028: 13026: 13022: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13004: 13003:Cyrillisation 13001: 12999: 12996: 12995: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12986: 12984: 12981: 12977: 12974: 12972: 12971:Working class 12969: 12967: 12966:Soviet people 12964: 12963: 12962: 12959: 12957: 12954: 12952: 12949: 12948: 12945: 12942: 12940: 12936: 12928: 12925: 12924: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12890: 12889: 12887: 12885: 12881: 12873: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12859: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12847: 12845: 12842: 12840: 12837: 12835: 12832: 12830: 12827: 12825: 12822: 12820: 12817: 12815: 12814:Energy policy 12812: 12810: 12807: 12805: 12802: 12800: 12797: 12796: 12794: 12792: 12788: 12778: 12775: 12773: 12770: 12768: 12765: 12763: 12760: 12759: 12757: 12755: 12751: 12745: 12742: 12740: 12737: 12733: 12730: 12729: 12728: 12725: 12723: 12720: 12718: 12715: 12713: 12710: 12708: 12705: 12703: 12700: 12699: 12697: 12695: 12691: 12683: 12679: 12675: 12671: 12667: 12664: 12663: 12662: 12659: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12646: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12633: 12630: 12629: 12628: 12625: 12621: 12618: 12617: 12616: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12603: 12602: 12600: 12598: 12594: 12588: 12585: 12583: 12580: 12578: 12575: 12571: 12568: 12567: 12566: 12563: 12562: 12560: 12556: 12548: 12545: 12544: 12543: 12542:Supreme Court 12540: 12537: 12534: 12531: 12528: 12525: 12522: 12518: 12515: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12502: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12487: 12486: 12483: 12482: 12480: 12476: 12470: 12467: 12463: 12460: 12458: 12455: 12453: 12450: 12449: 12448: 12445: 12443: 12440: 12438: 12435: 12433: 12430: 12426: 12423: 12422: 12421: 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12404: 12401: 12400: 12399: 12396: 12392: 12389: 12388: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12375: 12372: 12371: 12370: 12367: 12365: 12362: 12358: 12355: 12353: 12350: 12349: 12348: 12345: 12344: 12342: 12338: 12335: 12333: 12329: 12319: 12316: 12314: 12311: 12309: 12306: 12304: 12301: 12299: 12296: 12294: 12291: 12289: 12286: 12285: 12283: 12279: 12273: 12270: 12268: 12265: 12261: 12258: 12257: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12244: 12241: 12240: 12239: 12236: 12235: 12233: 12231: 12227: 12224: 12222: 12218: 12212: 12209: 12207: 12204: 12202: 12199: 12197: 12194: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12157: 12154: 12152: 12149: 12145: 12144:The Holocaust 12142: 12140: 12137: 12136: 12134: 12131: 12129: 12126: 12124: 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12089: 12088: 12087: 12084: 12082: 12079: 12078: 12076: 12074: 12070: 12065: 12058: 12053: 12051: 12046: 12044: 12039: 12038: 12035: 12022: 12013: 12010: 12001: 12000: 11997: 11990: 11989:United States 11986: 11981: 11977: 11974: 11970: 11967: 11963: 11960: 11956: 11955: 11951: 11948: 11944: 11941: 11937: 11932: 11928: 11927: 11925: 11921: 11918: 11914: 11911: 11907: 11904: 11900: 11897: 11893: 11890: 11886: 11883: 11879: 11876: 11872: 11869: 11865: 11862: 11858: 11855: 11851: 11848: 11844: 11841: 11837: 11834: 11830: 11827: 11823: 11820: 11816: 11815: 11813: 11811: 11807: 11800: 11796: 11793: 11789: 11786: 11782: 11781: 11779: 11775: 11768: 11764: 11761: 11757: 11756: 11754: 11750: 11743: 11739: 11736: 11732: 11729: 11725: 11722: 11718: 11715: 11711: 11708: 11707: 11702: 11699: 11695: 11692: 11688: 11685: 11681: 11678: 11674: 11671: 11667: 11664: 11660: 11657: 11653: 11650: 11646: 11643: 11639: 11636: 11632: 11629: 11625: 11622: 11618: 11614: 11610: 11609: 11607: 11605:Organizations 11603: 11594: 11593:United States 11590: 11589: 11587: 11583: 11580: 11576: 11573: 11569: 11566: 11562: 11559: 11555: 11552: 11548: 11545: 11541: 11536: 11535:United States 11532: 11531: 11529: 11525: 11520: 11519:United States 11516: 11515: 11513: 11509: 11506: 11502: 11497: 11496:United States 11493: 11492: 11490: 11486: 11483: 11479: 11476: 11472: 11469: 11468:Mobile phones 11465: 11462: 11458: 11455: 11451: 11448: 11444: 11441: 11437: 11434: 11430: 11425: 11424:United States 11421: 11420: 11418: 11414: 11413: 11411: 11409:Social issues 11407: 11400: 11396: 11393: 11389: 11386: 11382: 11377: 11373: 11370: 11366: 11365: 11363: 11359: 11354: 11353:United States 11350: 11349: 11347: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11329: 11328: 11326: 11322: 11311: 11307: 11302: 11298: 11297: 11295: 11291: 11290: 11288: 11286: 11282: 11275: 11271: 11268: 11267:Trusty system 11264: 11261: 11257: 11254: 11250: 11247: 11243: 11240: 11236: 11233: 11229: 11226: 11222: 11219: 11215: 11212: 11208: 11207: 11205: 11201: 11194: 11190: 11187: 11183: 11180: 11176: 11173: 11169: 11166: 11162: 11159: 11155: 11154: 11152: 11148: 11141: 11137: 11134: 11130: 11127: 11123: 11120: 11116: 11113: 11109: 11106: 11102: 11097: 11093: 11090: 11086: 11085: 11083: 11079: 11076: 11072: 11069: 11065: 11062: 11058: 11055: 11051: 11048: 11044: 11041: 11037: 11034: 11030: 11029: 11027: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11014: 11007: 11003: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10989: 10986: 10982: 10979: 10975: 10972: 10968: 10965: 10961: 10958: 10954: 10953: 10951: 10949: 10945: 10938: 10934: 10931: 10927: 10924: 10920: 10917: 10913: 10910: 10906: 10905: 10903: 10899: 10895: 10894:Incarceration 10888: 10883: 10881: 10876: 10874: 10869: 10868: 10865: 10852: 10849: 10846: 10843: 10840: 10837: 10834: 10831: 10828: 10825: 10822: 10819: 10816: 10813: 10810: 10807: 10806: 10804: 10800: 10793: 10790: 10787: 10784: 10781: 10778: 10775: 10772: 10770:Escort Troops 10769: 10766: 10763: 10761:Border Troops 10760: 10757: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10743: 10741: 10738: 10735: 10732: 10729: 10727:Fire Security 10726: 10723: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10712: 10710: 10706: 10700: 10697: 10695: 10692: 10690: 10687: 10685: 10684:Isaak Shapiro 10682: 10680: 10677: 10675: 10674:Pavel Bulanov 10672: 10671: 10669: 10665: 10659: 10656: 10653: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10631: 10628: 10626: 10623: 10622: 10620: 10616: 10610: 10607: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10591: 10589: 10585: 10580: 10572: 10567: 10565: 10560: 10558: 10553: 10552: 10549: 10542: 10540: 10536: 10534: 10530: 10527: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10513: 10509: 10506: 10503: 10500: 10496: 10493: 10490: 10488: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10475: 10466: 10462: 10458: 10457: 10452: 10449: 10448:0-451-52310-5 10445: 10441: 10440: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10428: 10423: 10422:Müller, Herta 10420: 10417: 10416: 10411: 10407: 10406:Huseyn, Mehdi 10404: 10401: 10400:0-312-26753-3 10397: 10393: 10389: 10388:Booth, Martin 10386: 10383: 10379: 10375: 10374: 10369: 10366: 10363: 10362:99940-734-1-9 10359: 10355: 10354:Gora Mborgali 10351: 10348: 10347: 10338: 10332: 10329: 10325: 10321: 10318: 10315: 10311: 10308: 10305: 10301: 10297: 10293: 10290: 10286: 10282: 10278: 10274: 10271: 10267: 10264: 10261: 10260:0-14-018695-6 10257: 10253: 10252: 10247: 10244: 10241: 10237: 10233: 10230: 10226: 10222: 10219: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10205: 10203: 10202:9788024637006 10199: 10195: 10191: 10188: 10184: 10181: 10177: 10174: 10171: 10167: 10165: 10164:9780197502143 10161: 10157: 10153: 10150: 10144: 10142: 10136: 10133: 10130: 10129:1-932236-78-3 10126: 10122: 10118: 10114: 10110: 10107:, ed. 2006. " 10106: 10103: 10098: 10094: 10093: 10091: 10087: 10084: 10083:0-15-697649-8 10080: 10076: 10072: 10069: 10068:0-15-602751-8 10065: 10061: 10060: 10055: 10052: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10040: 10035: 10031: 10028: 10025: 10021: 10017: 10013: 10010: 10007: 10006:0-520-22152-4 10003: 9999: 9997: 9992: 9989: 9986: 9985: 9980: 9976: 9975: 9966: 9965: 9960: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9938: 9934: 9930: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9919: 9914: 9911: 9910: 9905: 9903: 9899: 9895: 9894: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9878: 9874: 9873: 9863: 9859: 9853: 9845: 9841: 9834: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9820: 9819: 9814: 9810: 9807: 9806:0-691-13083-3 9803: 9799: 9796: 9792: 9788: 9785: 9784:0-674-07608-7 9781: 9777: 9773: 9772: 9767: 9764: 9763:1-4000-7078-3 9760: 9756: 9752: 9749: 9748:0-06-080345-2 9745: 9741: 9737: 9734: 9733:0-06-080332-0 9730: 9726: 9725: 9720: 9717: 9714: 9713:1-55778-024-2 9710: 9706: 9702: 9699: 9695: 9693:9781544658490 9689: 9685: 9680: 9678: 9677:5-8243-0604-4 9674: 9670: 9666: 9662: 9658: 9655: 9654:1-55297-964-4 9651: 9647: 9643: 9640: 9639:0-300-09284-9 9636: 9632: 9631: 9626: 9623: 9620: 9619:0-618-25747-0 9616: 9612: 9608: 9605: 9602: 9601:0-14-025184-7 9598: 9594: 9590: 9587: 9584: 9583:0-8179-3942-3 9580: 9576: 9575: 9570: 9568: 9567:1-55821-684-7 9564: 9560: 9559:The Long Walk 9556: 9553: 9551: 9550:0-230-61063-3 9547: 9543: 9539: 9535: 9531: 9528: 9527:0-300-07772-6 9524: 9520: 9519: 9514: 9510: 9507: 9504: 9503:0-14-101351-6 9500: 9496: 9492: 9489: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9463: 9461:9780822944645 9457: 9453: 9452: 9447: 9443: 9440: 9439:0-89870-574-6 9436: 9432: 9430: 9425: 9422: 9419: 9418:0-7679-0056-1 9415: 9411: 9410: 9405: 9402: 9401: 9399: 9383: 9379: 9373: 9357: 9353: 9347: 9331: 9327: 9321: 9313: 9307: 9303: 9299: 9298: 9290: 9274: 9270: 9269:Radio Liberty 9266: 9259: 9253: 9249: 9243: 9235: 9231: 9227: 9225:9788807990588 9221: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9203: 9201: 9192: 9186: 9182: 9175: 9167: 9166: 9159: 9148: 9141: 9122: 9115: 9108: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9082: 9075: 9065: 9061: 9057: 9052: 9045: 9039: 9030: 9023: 9017: 9010: 9004: 8997: 8991: 8984: 8981:According to 8978: 8971: 8970:5-237-03178-1 8967: 8963: 8955: 8948: 8942: 8935: 8929: 8922: 8921: 8914: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8893: 8886: 8880: 8878: 8876: 8874: 8858:(46): 277–286 8857: 8853: 8849: 8842: 8834: 8828: 8824: 8818: 8810: 8804: 8800: 8794: 8786: 8780: 8776: 8770: 8762: 8756: 8752: 8746: 8738: 8732: 8728: 8722: 8714: 8708: 8704: 8698: 8690: 8684: 8680: 8674: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8648: 8641: 8625: 8621: 8614: 8607: 8601: 8599: 8590: 8584: 8580: 8579: 8574: 8573:Rousso, Henry 8568: 8549: 8545: 8538: 8531: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8499: 8483: 8479: 8472: 8456: 8452: 8445: 8443: 8435: 8431: 8430: 8425: 8420: 8418: 8416: 8414: 8412: 8403: 8397: 8393: 8386: 8367: 8360: 8354: 8348: 8344: 8341: 8336: 8328: 8322: 8318: 8317: 8309: 8307: 8290: 8284: 8277: 8272: 8264: 8258: 8254: 8253: 8245: 8243: 8235: 8231: 8228: 8222: 8214: 8207: 8188: 8181: 8174: 8166: 8159: 8151: 8145: 8141: 8140: 8132: 8123: 8117:47(2):418–36. 8116: 8112: 8107: 8099: 8092: 8085: 8081: 8080:0-9777433-3-0 8077: 8073: 8069: 8065: 8060: 8044: 8040: 8034: 8026: 8019: 8017: 8015: 8013: 8011: 8009: 8007: 8005: 7998: 7994: 7991: 7986: 7980: 7979:5-89511-004-5 7976: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7960: 7954: 7953:5-7870-0032-3 7950: 7946: 7942: 7938: 7935: 7931: 7928: 7923: 7913: 7910: 7906: 7901: 7893: 7891:5-85646-046-4 7887: 7883: 7882: 7875: 7867: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7851: 7847: 7843: 7836: 7828: 7827: 7819: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7788: 7780: 7773: 7765: 7764: 7759: 7752: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7735: 7730: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7707: 7705: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7684: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7667: 7659: 7652: 7645: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7605: 7590: 7586: 7580: 7564: 7558: 7543: 7539: 7533: 7517: 7513: 7507: 7500: 7495: 7488: 7483: 7474: 7465: 7463: 7461: 7444: 7440: 7434: 7418: 7412: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7370: 7366: 7360: 7344: 7340: 7334: 7318: 7312: 7296: 7292: 7286: 7270: 7266: 7260: 7253: 7247: 7239: 7232: 7230: 7228: 7226: 7217: 7210: 7208: 7206: 7197: 7190: 7188: 7186: 7184: 7182: 7165: 7161: 7160:"Repressions" 7155: 7153: 7151: 7143: 7137: 7130: 7125: 7109: 7105: 7098: 7082: 7078: 7077: 7072: 7065: 7057: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7037: 7030: 7026: 7023: 7020: 7015: 6999: 6993: 6984: 6976: 6974:9780767900560 6970: 6967:. Doubleday. 6966: 6965: 6957: 6949: 6947:9781405113373 6943: 6939: 6938: 6930: 6928: 6919: 6913: 6905: 6903:9780141975269 6899: 6895: 6891: 6884: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6865: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6840: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6821: 6816: 6814: 6805: 6798: 6796: 6787: 6780: 6772: 6765: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6716: 6707: 6699: 6697:9781329631441 6693: 6689: 6683: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6663: 6656: 6650: 6643: 6637: 6630: 6624: 6616: 6610: 6606: 6605: 6597: 6582: 6578: 6570: 6561: 6559: 6549: 6540: 6524: 6520: 6513: 6511: 6509: 6507: 6505: 6503: 6501: 6499: 6491: 6485: 6478: 6472: 6465: 6459: 6452: 6446: 6430: 6426: 6419: 6408:September 20, 6400: 6396: 6389: 6383: 6367: 6363: 6356: 6350: 6346: 6343: 6338: 6332: 6327: 6319: 6312: 6304: 6297: 6289: 6282: 6266: 6262: 6261:"Repressions" 6256: 6254: 6246: 6240: 6224: 6220: 6214: 6207: 6206:5-224-03722-0 6203: 6191: 6185: 6181: 6178: 6173: 6157: 6153: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6110: 6109:Slavic Review 6102: 6094: 6087: 6072: 6068: 6061: 6045: 6041: 6040:"Repressions" 6035: 6033: 6025: 6021: 6015: 6011: 6006: 6005: 5996: 5987: 5984: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5972: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5956: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5939: 5937: 5930: 5929:5-7870-0022-6 5926: 5922: 5917: 5901: 5895: 5889: 5888:0-7679-0056-1 5885: 5881: 5877: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5864: 5855: 5854:The Economist 5851: 5845: 5843: 5834: 5832:5-7870-0022-6 5828: 5824: 5817: 5810: 5809:0-7679-0056-1 5806: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5775: 5772: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5754: 5746: 5742: 5741: 5736: 5730: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5705: 5698: 5694: 5693: 5688: 5684: 5679: 5672: 5666: 5664: 5656: 5655:5-93165-107-1 5652: 5648: 5642: 5640: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5604: 5598: 5594: 5587: 5585: 5577: 5571: 5569: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5539: 5531: 5524: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5516: 5514: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5506: 5498: 5497:0-415-77757-7 5494: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5484:Red Holocaust 5480: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5469: 5467: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5445: 5437: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5416: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5398: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5360: 5347: 5342: 5333: 5325: 5314: 5313: 5307: 5302: 5291: 5280: 5273: 5269: 5262: 5256: 5246: 5228: 5220: 5192: 5183: 5176: 5172: 5166: 5162: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5132: 5129: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5097: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5057: 5054: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5039:Burrel Prison 5037: 5036: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013:organization) 5012: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4969: 4962: 4960: 4953: 4948: 4939: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4923: 4916: 4911: 4903: 4889: 4887: 4882: 4880: 4879:secret police 4875: 4864: 4853: 4851: 4846: 4844: 4839: 4837: 4832: 4820: 4809: 4803: 4798: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4772: 4760: 4757: 4754: 4753:Gurgen Mahari 4751: 4748: 4747:Mkrtich Armen 4745: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4707:, along with 4706: 4705:Leipzig trial 4702: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4648: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4634: 4629: 4628:0-8159-5800-5 4625: 4620: 4616: 4615:0-394-49497-0 4612: 4608: 4605: 4602: 4601:1-4000-7078-3 4598: 4594: 4590: 4587: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4559:Karlo Štajner 4557: 4554: 4551: 4548: 4545: 4542: 4538: 4535: 4532: 4528: 4527: 4523: 4522: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4496: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4481: 4480:Victor Herman 4478: 4475: 4471: 4470:A World Apart 4467: 4464: 4461: 4457: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4440: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4416: 4413: 4412: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4394: 4393:played jazz. 4392: 4388: 4382: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4327: 4324: 4316: 4313:December 2010 4306: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4290:This section 4288: 4284: 4279: 4278: 4270: 4266: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4252: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4236: 4227: 4223: 4218: 4215: 4212: 4209: 4206: 4205: 4199: 4196: 4193: 4190: 4189: 4185: 4182: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4165: 4162: 4161: 4157: 4154: 4151: 4148: 4145: 4142: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4127: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4116: 4113: 4110: 4109: 4105: 4102: 4100:December 1937 4099: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4088: 4085: 4082: 4081: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4059: 4053: 4044: 4042: 4038: 4030: 4026: 4023: 4020: 4016: 4013: 4010: 4006: 4003: 4000: 3996: 3993: 3990: 3986: 3983: 3980: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3947: 3943: 3942:Nicolas Werth 3938: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3892: 3888: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3823:Hannah Arendt 3817: 3813: 3810: 3806: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3737: 3734: 3730: 3719: 3714: 3703: 3702: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3674: 3672: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3648: 3644: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3631: 3627: 3621: 3619: 3618: 3613: 3612: 3607: 3606: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3588: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3543: 3540: 3534: 3532: 3528: 3527:class enemies 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3492: 3489: 3481: 3471: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3455:This section 3453: 3449: 3444: 3443: 3436: 3429: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3405: 3402: 3397: 3395: 3384: 3381: 3373: 3370:February 2014 3363: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3347:This section 3345: 3341: 3336: 3335: 3327: 3324: 3319: 3317: 3313: 3300: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3274: 3269: 3268: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3244: 3239: 3237: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3205: 3203: 3202:Stakhanovites 3199: 3198:shock workers 3195: 3189: 3187: 3181: 3176: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3156: 3150: 3146: 3144: 3138: 3133: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3117:Victor Herman 3114: 3110: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3073: 3070: 3069: 3065: 3063: 3060: 3059: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3029: 3025: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3015: 3013: 3010: 3009: 3005: 3003: 3000: 2999: 2995: 2992: 2991: 2975: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2960: 2950: 2949: 2939: 2938: 2928: 2927: 2917: 2916: 2906: 2905: 2895: 2894: 2884: 2883: 2873: 2872: 2862: 2861: 2851: 2850: 2840: 2839: 2829: 2828: 2818: 2817: 2807: 2806: 2796: 2795: 2785: 2784: 2774: 2773: 2763: 2762: 2752: 2751: 2741: 2740: 2730: 2729: 2719: 2718: 2708: 2707: 2697: 2696: 2686: 2685: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2654: 2650: 2640: 2635: 2625: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2585: 2583: 2572: 2567: 2565: 2562:According to 2560: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2525: 2521: 2520:Secret Speech 2517: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2496: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2483: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2452:In 1948, the 2447: 2442: 2438: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2403:Sachsenhausen 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2356: 2353: 2351: 2348: 2346: 2343: 2341: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2314: 2310: 2307: 2304: 2301: 2298: 2295: 2292: 2288: 2287: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2218: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2192: 2187: 2185: 2184: 2178: 2175: 2171: 2170:Order No. 270 2167: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2141: 2136: 2127: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2111: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2082: 2079:, 40% of its 2078: 2075:, 76% of its 2074: 2067: 2062: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2041:Economic role 2038: 2036: 2032: 2022: 2020: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1916: 1914: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1892: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1875: 1874:Nazino affair 1871: 1866: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1821: 1815: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1782: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1735: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1710: 1708: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1663: 1659: 1657: 1652: 1650: 1649:Joseph Stalin 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1596:forced labour 1593: 1589: 1585: 1577: 1572: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1503: 1499: 1493: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1467: 1465: 1462:In 1960, the 1460: 1458: 1453: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1404: 1402: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1381:Orlando Figes 1373: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1352: 1344: 1340: 1329: 1320: 1316: 1313:This section 1311: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1295: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1268: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1127:Joseph Stalin 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1100: 1095: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1065: 1064: 1062: 1061: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1049: 1039: 1038: 1027: 1026:Soviet Empire 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 958: 957: 956: 953: 950: 949: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 919: 917: 916: 913: 912: 908: 907: 902: 901:War communism 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 887: 884: 882: 879: 877: 874: 872: 869: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 854: 853: 852: 851: 848: 847: 843: 842: 834: 833: 820: 819: 815: 814: 813: 812: 808: 806: 803: 798: 797:Khrushchevism 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 784: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 771: 770: 769: 764: 759: 758: 751: 748: 746: 743: 739: 736: 735: 734: 733:Supreme Court 731: 729: 726: 725: 719: 718: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 693: 692: 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11112:Penal colony 10844:Turkmenistan 10714: 10694:Pyotr Sharia 10538: 10455: 10437: 10425: 10413: 10391: 10371: 10368:Amis, Martin 10353: 10335:(in Russian) 10313: 10295: 10276: 10269: 10251:Kolyma Tales 10249: 10242:14(1):18–19. 10239: 10228: 10217:14(1):40–45. 10214: 10193: 10186: 10179: 10169: 10155: 10147:(in Russian) 10140: 10117:A. Applebaum 10112: 10089: 10074: 10057: 10037: 10015: 9994: 9987:14(1):58–71. 9982: 9962: 9947: 9928: 9925:Viola, Lynne 9916: 9907: 9891: 9876: 9843: 9832:14(1). 2006. 9829: 9821:13(4). 2005. 9816: 9797: 9790: 9774:, edited by 9769: 9754: 9739: 9722: 9704: 9683: 9664: 9660: 9645: 9628: 9610: 9592: 9572: 9558: 9541: 9537: 9533: 9516: 9494: 9476: 9465:. Retrieved 9450: 9427: 9407: 9381: 9372: 9360:. Retrieved 9356:the original 9346: 9334:. Retrieved 9330:the original 9320: 9296: 9289: 9277:. Retrieved 9273:the original 9258: 9242: 9215: 9180: 9174: 9164: 9158: 9140: 9128:. Retrieved 9121:the original 9107: 9096:the original 9091: 9087: 9074: 9068:(in Russian) 9051: 9043: 9038: 9029: 9021: 9016: 9008: 9003: 8995: 8990: 8977: 8961: 8959:(in Russian) 8954: 8946: 8941: 8933: 8928: 8918: 8913: 8905: 8898:David Dallin 8892: 8884: 8860:. Retrieved 8855: 8851: 8841: 8822: 8817: 8798: 8793: 8774: 8769: 8750: 8745: 8726: 8721: 8702: 8697: 8678: 8673: 8662:the original 8657: 8653: 8640: 8628:. 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Retrieved 5894: 5873: 5853: 5822: 5816: 5794: 5773: 5738: 5729: 5713: 5704: 5690: 5678: 5670: 5646: 5630: 5626: 5592: 5575: 5542: 5536: 5482: 5448: 5442: 5413: 5401: 5395: 5345: 5341: 5332: 5309: 5285:ГУЛАГ, ГУЛаг 5279: 5271: 5267: 5191: 5182: 5165: 5078:Nazi Germany 5011:human rights 4956: 4942:Gulag Museum 4928:Solovki camp 4925: 4913:Memorial in 4883: 4874:Pervyj Otdel 4868:Первый Отдел 4859: 4847: 4840: 4807: 4805: 4800: 4780: 4774:The city of 4766:Colonization 4732: 4728: 4701:Blagoy Popov 4689:malnutrition 4675: 4665: 4661: 4643: 4639: 4618: 4606: 4588: 4582: 4547:János Rózsás 4530: 4524: 4519: 4513: 4509: 4503: 4493: 4483: 4469: 4459: 4445: 4421: 4411:Kolyma Tales 4409: 4400: 4391:Eddie Rosner 4383: 4349: 4342: 4339: 4319: 4310: 4299:Please help 4294:verification 4291: 4267: 4262: 4258: 4256: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4232: 4225: 4222: 4177:10.6 million 4143:17.6 million 4117:Jasny (1951) 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4050: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4018: 4014: 4008: 4004: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3984: 3978: 3974: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3953: 3951: 3939: 3935: 3893: 3889: 3849: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3827:totalitarian 3821: 3815: 3808: 3797: 3788: 3778: 3754: 3681: 3676: 3668: 3634: 3622: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3585: 3577: 3571: 3569: 3556:Moscow Metro 3544: 3535: 3499: 3484: 3475: 3464:Please help 3459:verification 3456: 3398: 3391: 3376: 3367: 3356:Please help 3351:verification 3348: 3320: 3309: 3286:criminal law 3271: 3265: 3259: 3254: 3246: 3241: 3233: 3206: 3190: 3183: 3178: 3159: 3151: 3147: 3106: 2658: 2646: 2634:aktirovannye 2633: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2592: 2589:in the camps 2588: 2586: 2579: 2569: 2561: 2550: 2545: 2543: 2530: 2528: 2497: 2481: 2478: 2474:white émigré 2451: 2435: 2379:Nazi Germany 2376: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2290: 2191: 2181: 2179: 2159: 2148: 2145: 2116: 2112: 2104:Great Terror 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2070: 2017: 2015: 2004: 1973: 1938: 1927: 1909: 1893: 1890: 1878: 1861: 1847: 1844: 1839: 1829: 1824: 1818: 1816: 1804: 1788: 1779: 1764: 1737: 1732: 1711: 1704: 1693: 1683: 1664: 1660: 1653: 1645:Leon Trotsky 1613: 1581: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1524: 1515: 1513: 1508: 1502:unfree labor 1495: 1491: 1489: 1461: 1454: 1447: 1440: 1409: 1405: 1377: 1336: 1326:January 2022 1323: 1319:adding to it 1314: 1265: 1256: 1229:was elected 1215: 1202: 1196:, the first 1166:NKVD troikas 1155: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1118: 1115:Soviet Union 1106: 1104: 986:Human rights 976:Gulag system 975: 951: 922:Demographics 909: 844: 816: 809: 684: 654: 619:Constitution 617: 573: 543: 523: 476: 257:Christianity 203: 104:Romanization 82: 32: 15062:Black Codes 15010:labor camps 14917:Afghanistan 14294:Remembrance 14260:Animal Farm 14086:Stalin Note 13773:Great Purge 13741:Great Break 13633:Great Break 13354:(1928–1941) 13270:(1946–1953) 13264:(1922–1952) 13065:Phraseology 13010:Prohibition 12998:Linguistics 12983:Drug policy 12976:1989 census 12897:Cybernetics 12799:Agriculture 12712:Great Purge 12674:Soviet Navy 12666:Soviet Army 12538:(1989–1991) 12532:(1938–1991) 12526:(1922–1936) 12510:Secretariat 12381:Gun control 12288:Caspian Sea 12272:Closed city 12201:Dissolution 12186:Perestroika 12128:Great Purge 11896:North Korea 11889:New Zealand 11482:Pay-to-stay 10909:Criminology 10679:Yakov Deich 10283:. 401 pp., 9884:Lynne Viola 9795:J. T. Gross 9776:S. Courtois 9467:December 2, 9362:December 5, 9130:January 31, 8972:, page 203. 7522:October 29, 6243:Uschan, M. 5740:History.com 5388:Healey, Dan 5049:Spaç Prison 5009:(a Russian 4713:Vasil Tanev 4593:Karl Tobien 4571:Yugoslavian 4259:labor camps 4207:4–5 million 4163:4–5 million 4097:2.3 million 4077:Methodology 3539:Maxim Gorky 3428:Verkhoyansk 3173:Great Purge 3135: [ 3124: [ 2466:Trotskyites 2381:'s defeat, 2243:Conscripted 2183:Ostarbeiter 2162:Soviet POWs 2005:During the 1896:Great Purge 1894:During the 1756:penal labor 1700:World War 1 1397:3.5 million 1248:penal labor 1117:. The word 971:Great Purge 937:Phraseology 856:Agriculture 811:Perestroika 686:Premiership 516:Legislature 494:Secretariat 272:Legislation 199:Great Purge 15257:Categories 15165:See also: 15153:Xenophobia 15005:Internment 14990:Ethnocracy 14609:Lake Ritsa 14589:Uspenskoye 14506:(grandson) 14490:(grandson) 14482:(daughter) 14237:Trotskyism 14209:opposition 13885:Lysenkoism 13571:Korean War 13450:Winter War 13338:Chronology 13329:Death toll 13294:Early life 13105:Opposition 13095:Television 13075:Propaganda 13048:Literature 12922:Naukograds 12917:Sharashkas 12851:(currency) 12829:Inventions 12772:Censorship 12702:Red Terror 12386:Government 12260:Autonomous 12243:Autonomous 12176:Stagnation 12139:Evacuation 11810:By country 11447:Informants 11362:Literature 11301:Helicopter 11260:Sally port 11225:Commissary 11203:Components 11096:Chain gang 11082:Labor camp 11068:Internment 11033:Black site 10930:Punishment 10850:Tajikistan 10847:Uzbekistan 10841:Kyrgyzstan 10838:Kazakhstan 10823:Azerbaijan 10811:Belorussia 10635:Lev Belsky 10408:. 2006. " 10328:Ginzburg's 10324:Shalamov's 10304:0877690855 10209:. 2006. " 9396:See also: 9336:August 19, 9279:August 19, 8862:August 20, 8630:August 17, 8557:August 17, 8544:Россия XXI 8488:August 20, 8461:August 20, 8375:January 6, 8295:January 6, 7644:estimates. 7569:August 31, 7449:January 6, 7423:January 6, 7401:January 6, 7375:January 6, 7349:January 6, 7323:January 6, 7301:January 6, 7275:January 6, 7170:January 6, 7114:January 6, 6754:August 14, 6529:August 14, 6271:January 6, 6229:January 6, 6050:January 6, 5906:January 6, 5451:(2): 320. 5356:References 4802:sentences. 4397:Literature 4158:documents 4125:50 million 4083:15 million 3928:; center: 3900:Lev Razgon 3660:Turukhansk 3617:Peschanlag 3600:Kazakhstan 3584:river and 3573:Sevvostlag 3519:vernacular 3511:colloquial 3155:state farm 3103:Conditions 2976:1,606,748 2653:Dan Healey 2576:Death toll 2485:Bitch Wars 2462:Article 58 2411:Buchenwald 2066:Mana River 2011:starvation 1965:Bessarabia 1939:After the 1901:Article 58 1633:Bolsheviks 1566:Background 1276:Kazakhstan 1205:internment 1131:Soviet era 1021:Red Terror 1011:Propaganda 961:Censorship 952:Repression 666:Ministries 656:Government 610:Governance 396:Leadership 284:Censorship 189:Red Terror 169:Kazakhstan 15045:Apartheid 14978:Bantustan 14863:Civil War 14687:Religious 14599:New Athos 13865:Hotel Lux 13848:Vinnytsia 13803:Chortkiv 13793:Berezwecz 13788:Berezhany 13756:Holodomor 13613:Stalinism 13551:Cominform 13287:Overviews 13166:Republics 13154:Republics 13142:Republics 12993:Languages 12857:Transport 12739:Holodomor 12632:Militsiya 12570:President 12462:Stalinism 12364:Elections 12238:Republics 12221:Geography 12211:Nostalgia 12123:Stalinism 11819:Australia 11551:Sexuality 11440:Education 11399:Tattooing 11193:Death row 11089:Battalion 10948:Prisoners 10832:Lithuania 10587:Ministers 10529:The GULAG 10514:in Moscow 10453:—— 1968. 10275:—— 1984. 10073:—— 1982. 10056:. 2002. 9886:. 2017. 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