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197:, commander of the Fourth Army of the Ottoman Empire, who deliberately barred crops from neighbouring Syria from entering Mount Lebanon, in response to the Allied blockade. Additionally, a swarm of locusts devoured the remaining crops, creating a famine that led to the deaths of half of the population of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, a semi-autonomous subdivision of the Ottoman Empire and the precursor of modern-day Lebanon. Ottoman Mount Lebanon had the highest per capita fatality rate of any 'bounded' territory during the First World War.
333:
33:
285:. This made the transportation of remittances into the region increasingly difficult, and was worsened by the congestion of land-based transport. The region's dependence on income from external sources reduced local purchasing power and drove the price of food up as it became more scarce. Low rainfall and record-breaking locust infestations laid waste to the remaining crops, which further exacerbated the situation and put increasing pressure on already limited food supplies.
402:
1418:[The genocide of the Christians of the orient, “tseghaspanutyun” for Armenians, “Seyfo” (the sword) for the Syriac/Assyro-Chaldeans of Upper-Mesopotamia, and “Kafno” (famine) for the Christians of Lebanon. You can’t assassinate a people twice; first by death, then by silence and oblivion. It is a national duty to take this into account at the state, religious and cultural institutions’ level.]
302:'Christmas ship' to modern-day Lebanon in an agreed break of the Entente blockade. However, it was stopped at Jaffa port in modern-day Israel and the aid never reached Mount Lebanon, where it was to be transferred upon arrival at the port in Beirut. Self-reinforcing dynamics went so far that cannibalism became a common phenomenon, particularly amongst parents who ate their children.
240:; raw silk was processed in looms and finished goods were shipped to the European market. While sericulture constituted 32.9% of Mount Lebanon's income in 1914, 45.6% of the region's economy was dependent on remittances from the diaspora in the Americas, making them the 'largest' source of income by the onset of the war.
273:
The region's ability to export silk, a backbone of the economy, to
European countries such as France was inhibited as a result of Ottoman military alliances and the subsequent Entente Blockade. The Ottoman alliance with the Central Powers caused the Entente Powers to block international trade routes
261:
The movement of
Ottoman troops to the front following the 1915 Suez Canal campaign caused a 'bottleneck' in the transportation system of Greater Syria. While there was ample grain and wheat in Damascus, moving it to the mountainous region of Mount Lebanon when the price of hiring a railway carriage
1415:
Le génocide des chrétiens d'Orient, « tseghaspanoutioun » pour les Arméniens, seyfo (l'épée) pour les chrétiens de Haute-Mésopotamie, et kafno (famine) pour les chrétiens du Liban, est un devoir de mémoire. On ne peut assassiner un peuple deux fois ; d'abord par la mort, puis par le
297:
The inability to access already-diminished food supplies was further exacerbated by a black market run by well-connected usurers. The black market for grain arose as a representation of self-reinforcing dynamics, perpetuated by humans in response to the food crisis. Merchants often 'strategically
288:
Growing crops was already a challenge in the mountainous region, and the inhabitants relied on food imports from the adjacent Bekaa Valley and Syria. To counter the Allied
Blockade, the Ottomans adopted a severe policy of acquisition by which all food supplies were prioritised for the army. Jamal
572:
Despite the
Lebanese government, or any other governmental body, not officially recognizing the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon as a genocide, some Maronites have pushed for its recognition as such. The president of the Syriac Maronite Union, Dr. Amine Iskandar, has stated that “We must inform the
301:
The politicisation of aid was another self-reinforcing dynamic. In urban areas such as Beirut, the
American University (formerly known as the Syrian Protestant College or SPC) distributed aid to locals on conditions of religious and moral 'worthiness'. US aid was sent via boat, the USS Caesar or
552:
There was a woman, lying on her back, covered with lice. An infant with huge eyes was hanging to her naked breast. One of the men pushed her with his foot and waited... Tom bit his fingers and stepped forward. The woman’s head was tipped back and her hair was sparse. From her bosom jutted out a
413:
Malnutrition and starvation left the inhabitants vulnerable to the spread of disease at a time of societal upheaval. Malaria, typhus and body lice became widespread amongst a population which grew increasingly susceptible to such illnesses. This was worsened by the movement of troops across the
257:
Pressure within a community occurs when external factors weaken ongoing food shortages. The impact of WWI acted as the primary example of pressure in Mount
Lebanon: the Ottoman war effort that prioritised food for soldiers on the front lines when the Empire neared collapse and the Entente naval
317:
The end of the famine in Mount
Lebanon coincided most notably with the end of the First World War in 1918, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent arrival of French and British forces into the region. However, the situation did not 'normalise' until the following year.
419:
Around 200,000 people starved to death at a time when the population of Mount
Lebanon was estimated to be 400,000 people. The Mount Lebanon famine caused one of the highest fatality rates by civilian population during World War I, alongside the ethnically and religiously motivated
324:''In that sense, the transition between Ottoman and French rule in Lebanon hinged on the ability of the French Empire to enforce a blockade for the duration of the war, and then arrive to relieve the famine its navy had helped create, with ships laden with grain.''
1067:
381:
was impossible without paying large bribes to military commanders and to the railroad authorities. Grain prices began to soar, which prompted the president of Beirut's municipal body, Ahmad
Mukhtar Beyhum, to address the grain supply bottlenecks himself.
344:
in World War I on 28 October 1914. The
Ottoman government had appropriated all of the empire's railway services for military use, which disrupted the procurement of crops to parts of the empire. One of the first cities to be hit by the grain shortage was
298:
withheld' their grain and wheat supplies from the market for weeks at a time in order to raise the price and then flood the market. While the Beirut municipality implemented solutions to the illegal trade, they were ultimately unsuccessful.
389:. The wheat was paid for from the municipal treasury. Grain freights arrived to Beirut on 19 November 1914 to the relief of the masses; however, the crisis was to worsen as both reports of the Ottoman officials and correspondence from the
1429:
275:
248:
Famine is not characterised by a dearth of food but rather by the inability of people to access it. Multiple factors compounded to create an environment that worsened the pre-existing food shortages caused by the First World War.
305:
The above mechanisms contributed to the worsening food insecurity and culminated in the outbreak of famine. How long a famine will last is dependent on how long the pressure, hold and self-reinforcing dynamics are kept in place.
525:
that reads: "The famine in Mount Lebanon has been planned and instigated by the Turkish government. Already 80,000 have succumbed to starvation and thousands are dying every single day. The same process happened with
361:
from Aleppo had not arrived and the bakery shelves were empty. Angry mobs looted the bakeries of whatever little reserves of flour and grain they had left. The municipal council dispatched a message to then Beirut
280:
200:
Other areas in modern-day Lebanon, according to multiple sources, were also famine-stricken. However, due to poor documentation, casualties were never recorded. Some of the areas hit with no documentation include
643:
Taoutel, Christian; Wittouck, Pierre. Le peuple libanais dans la tourmente de la grande guerre 1914-1918 d'après les Pères Jésuites au Liban (in French). Presses de l'Université Saint-Joseph.
349:. On 13 November 1914, only 2 weeks after the Ottoman Empire joined the war, a group of citizens stormed the Beirut municipality to warn the municipal council of the severe shortage of
1524:
1710:
1465:
1393:
Maronites are pushing to have the international community recognize Kafno as genocide equivalent to the willful eradication and displacement of the Armenians by that same Empire.
236:
was one of three entities in Greater Syria or 'Bilad al-Asham' under Ottoman control, including the Syrian and Beirut Vilayets. Mount Lebanon's economy relied heavily on
995:"'That They May Have Life': Balancing Principles and Pragmatism in the Syrian Protestant College's Humanitarian Relief Projects during the Famine of World War I'"
573:
coming generations about the Kafno Genocide on 24 April because whoever fears telling of being famined and killed, will be famined and killed again and again.”
1806:
602:
598:
262:
had tripled became almost impossible. The Ottoman requisition of transport animals further plagued any efforts at moving aid to the mountainous region.
967:
1430:"President of Syriac Maronite Union: We must inform coming generations about the Kafno Genocide, whoever fears to talk about the past will repeat it"
545:
1028:
314:
Re-balancing occurs when one or more aspects of the system collapse which allows for the stabilisation of food supply, in turn ending the famine.
502:
968:"Le centenaire de la Grande famine au Liban : pour ne jamais oublier (The Centenary of Lebanon's great famine: so that we don't forget)"
593:
in 2018, marking the 100th year since the end of the famine. The site is called "The Great Famine Memorial", and is located in front of the
494:
into Mount Lebanon, greeting them affectionately by stating "The piece of bread that we have, we will share it with our Armenian brothers."
456:
militias. Bodies were piled in the streets and people were reported to be eating street animals. Some people were said to have resorted to
1718:
1473:
174:
834:
747:
321:
For this reason, the creation of Greater Lebanon or 'Le grand Lebanon' under the administration of France was objectively paradoxical:
1633:
Tanielian, Melanie Schulze (November 2014). "Feeding the city: the Beirut municipality and the politics of food during World War I".
498:
1562:
al-Qattan, Najwa (November 2014). "When mothers ate their children: Wartime memory and the language of food in Syria and Lebanon".
1416:
silence et l'oubli. C'est un devoir national à prendre en compte au niveau des institutions étatiques, religieuses et culturelles.
534:
and applied to the Christians in Mount Lebanon." Gibran dedicated a poem named "Dead Are My People" to the fallen of the famine.
270:
The 'hold' in a famine system applies when something keeps or 'holds' pressure in place for a prolonged period without release.
173:
There were many reasons for the famine in Mount Lebanon. Natural as well as man-made factors both played a role. Allied forces (
1811:
1766:
870:
780:
553:
scratched and battered breast that the infant kneaded with his tiny hands and squeezed with his lips, then gave up and cried.
182:
1816:
385:
On 14 November 1914, Beyhum took off to Aleppo, where he negotiated with authorities, securing grain freight cars from the
1801:
1511:
Richard P. Tucker, Tait Keller, J.R. McNeill, and Martin Schmid, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press (2018)
1139:
715:
Richard P. Tucker, Tait Keller, J.R. McNeill, and Martin Schmid, eds. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press (2018)
1771:
1700:
1681:
1623:
1369:
1316:
1791:
1388:
Out of the Valley of Qadisha: Modern Syro-Maronite Identity and Its Impact on Relations with the Arab Islamic World
1796:
1781:
1776:
1598:
Yann Bouyrat, « Une crise alimentaire « provoquée » ? La famine au Liban (1915-1918) »,
193:
in Europe, in order to strangle the economy and weaken the Ottoman war effort. The situation was exacerbated by
648:
341:
663:
Economic Warfare and the Evolution of the Allied Blockade of the Eastern Mediterranean: August 1914-April 1917
289:
Pasha, commander of the Fourth Army of the Ottoman Empire in Syria, barred crops from entering Mount Lebanon.
1786:
614:
1333:
487:
475:
233:
159:
46:
1693:
Le peuple libanais dans la tourmente de la grande guerre 1914-1918 d'après les Pères Jésuites au Liban
1525:"A Hungry Population Stops Thinking About Resistance: Class, Famine, and Lebanon's World War I Legacy"
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390:
131:
581:
1761:
1741:
619:
467:
1042:
1114:
594:
522:
190:
1603:
1498:
Linda Schilcher Schatkowski, «The famine of 1915-1918 in greater Syria», in J. Spagnolo (dir.),
693:
Linda Schilcher Schatkowski, «The famine of 1915-1918 in greater Syria», in J. Spagnolo (dir.),
1500:
Problems of the modern Middle East in historical perspective, Essays in honor of Albert Hourani
1068:"When Mothers Ate Their Children: Wartime Memory and the Language of Food in Syria and Lebanon"
936:
Howe, Paul (2018). "Famine systems: A new model for understanding the development of famines".
695:
Problems of the modern Middle East in historical perspective, Essays in honor of Albert Hourani
537:
108:
1507:“Make Them Hated in All of the Arab Countries: France, Famine, and the Creation of Lebanon.”
1022:
860:
770:
711:“Make Them Hated in All of the Arab Countries: France, Famine, and the Creation of Lebanon.”
178:
1406:
8:
1711:"Victims of the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon finally have a memorial monument in Beirut"
1466:"Victims of the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon finally have a memorial monument in Beirut"
386:
167:
149:
772:
The Ottoman Twilight in the Arab Lands: Turkish Memoirs and Testimonies of the Great War
1745:
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1650:
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676:
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225:
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1099:
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866:
776:
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644:
531:
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491:
457:
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425:
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366:
332:
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1536:
1391:(Thesis). Ottawa, Canada: Université Saint-Paul/Saint Paul University. p. 30.
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1079:
1002:
994:
949:
945:
666:
119:
1358:
Allen, Roger; Allen, Roger M. A.; Lowry, Joseph Edmund; Stewart, Devin J. (2009).
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1613:
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1359:
1306:
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during World War I. In the novel, 'Awwad describes scenes from the great famine.
363:
99:
920:
The War of Famine: Everyday life in Wartime Beirut and Mount Lebanon (1914-1918)
904:
The War of Famine: Everyday Life in Wartime Beirut and Mount Lebanon (1914-1918)
449:
429:
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indicated that food shortages were to become a daily occurrence past November.
378:
370:
50:
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1755:
1249:
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202:
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32:
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were set up but had little effect in relieving the starving population. The
1673:
Charity of War: Famine, Humanitarian Aid and World War I in the Middle East
1671:
589:
The first memorial to memorialize the victims of the famine was erected in
506:
463:
414:
country, who were at greater risk of dying from disease than battle wounds.
1043:"Caesar Affair | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)"
374:
237:
194:
163:
1654:
1583:
1257:
671:
214:
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funded the shipping of food supplies to the Lebanese mainland through
1600:
Actes des congrès nationaux des sociétés historiques et scientifiques
377:
to Beirut. Acquiring train freight cars to transport anything to the
1746:
1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War
433:
1115:"Lebanon / History: The Great Famine of Mount Lebanon during WW1"
479:
166:
that resulted in the deaths of 200,000 people, most of whom were
54:
835:"Was Capitalism the Crisis? Mount Lebanon's World War I Famine"
590:
401:
357:
in the city. The train freight cars that regularly transported
346:
155:
142:
1604:
https://www.persee.fr/doc/acths_1764-7355_2016_act_138_8_2870
1163:
471:
453:
441:
358:
354:
350:
210:
206:
993:
Brand, Bilal, El Cheikh, Aaron Tylor, Orfali, Nadia (2016).
862:
Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation
748:"Lebanon's dark days of hunger: The Great Famine of 1915–18"
445:
597:
It was erected based on initiatives by Lebanese historian
544:(The loaf) is set in the impoverished mountain village of
1291:
Statelessness under confessionalism: The case of Lebanon
276:
Blockade of the Eastern Mediterranean during World War I
992:
1529:
Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association
1357:
501:
was "formed in June of 1916 under the chairmanship of
185:
the Eastern Mediterranean, as they had done with the
369:
who requested grain provisions from the governor of
113:
1717:. Lebanon: The961.com. 22 July 2018. Archived from
1695:(in French). Presses de l'Université Saint-Joseph.
1472:. Lebanon: The961.com. 22 July 2018. Archived from
999:
American University of Beirut: A Century and a Half
482:. Despite these conditions, the Maronite Patriarch
1753:
373:and urged the Ottoman authorities to prioritize
1690:
478:who distributed it to the populace through its
1361:Essays in Arabic Literary Biography: 1850-1950
601:(curator of the memorial) and Lebanese writer
1691:Taoutel, Christian; Wittouck, Pierre (2015).
1618:. Oxford University Press. pp. 173–179.
274:in order to hinder Ottoman supply ; see
1807:20th-century disasters in the Ottoman Empire
1635:International Journal of Middle East Studies
1564:International Journal of Middle East Studies
1224:"The Ottoman Conscription System, 1844-1914"
1072:International Journal of Middle East Studies
1027:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
567:
309:
292:
1294:. Lebanese American University. p. 69.
1170:A history of Europe: The liberal experiment
409:distributing bread from Egypt to the hungry
1332:Gibran, Khalil Gibran (5 September 2013).
1137:
37:Starving man and children in Mount Lebanon
31:
1669:
1632:
1561:
1239:
1065:
917:
900:
670:
1404:
768:
660:
580:
400:
331:
327:
224:
1509:Environmental Histories of World War I.
1502:, Ithaca Press, Reading, 1992, 229–258.
1221:
1190:
1188:
974:(in French). Beirut: L'Orient – Le Jour
713:Environmental Histories of World War I.
474:. This assistance was delivered to the
154:'Starvation'), was a period of
1754:
1608:
1602:, vol. 138, no 8, 2016, p. 22–37
1384:
1331:
1304:
1287:
1228:International Review of Social History
1173:. University of Michigan. p. 1161
961:
959:
775:. Academic Studies Press. p. 31.
745:
697:, Ithaca Press, Reading, 1992, 229-258
512:
16:1915–1918 famine in Mount Lebanon area
1522:
1405:Iskander, Amine Jules (14 May 2019).
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499:Syrian–Mount Lebanon Relief Committee
88:Population of 400,000 declined by 50%
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1119:Libnanews, Le Média Citoyen du Liban
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935:
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827:
741:
739:
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703:
661:Cummings, Lindsey Elizabeth (2015).
135:
1670:Tanielian, Melanie Schulze (2018).
1325:
956:
858:
585:The Great Famine Memorial in Beirut
432:of indigenous Christian peoples in
103:
13:
1523:Pitts, Graham Auman (2020-09-22).
1454:. MTV Lebanon News. 24 April 2020.
1288:Molaeb, Karoline (December 2017).
1066:al-Qattan, Najwa (November 2014).
926:
879:
810:"Six unexpected WW1 battlegrounds"
789:
505:and the Assistant Chairmanship of
14:
1828:
1734:
1113:Bacha, François El (2021-11-10).
1047:encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net
824:
726:
700:
336:Starving family in Mount Lebanon.
229:Starving family in Mount Lebanon.
922:. UC Berkeley. pp. 107–134.
839:Environment & Society Portal
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258:blockade impacted the economy.
1308:Antoun Saadeh: The youth years
950:10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.028
852:
762:
687:
654:
637:
540:'s landmark full-length novel
1:
1812:Home front during World War I
1767:Ottoman Empire in World War I
1676:. Stanford University Press.
1436:. Syriacpress. 26 April 2020.
1165:Herbert Albert Laurens Fisher
1007:10.1080/19475020.2016.1162187
966:Tawk, Rania (18 April 2015).
746:Ghazal, Rym (14 April 2015).
630:
615:Ottoman Empire in World War I
220:
124:Lübnan Dağı'nın Büyük Kıtlığı
96:Great Famine of Mount Lebanon
23:Great Famine of Mount Lebanon
1615:Lebanon: A History, 600–2011
1541:10.2979/jottturstuass.7.2.13
1364:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
812:. BBC News. 26 November 2014
576:
143:
7:
1817:Health disasters in Lebanon
1448:"24/04/2020 - ذكرى الابادة"
918:Tanielian, Melanie (2012).
901:Tanielian, Melanie (2012).
608:
468:Lebanese community in Egypt
252:
234:Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
114:
47:Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate
10:
1833:
1802:1915 in the Ottoman Empire
1222:Zürcher, Erik Jan (1998).
1772:Ottoman period in Lebanon
1647:10.1017/S0020743814001044
1576:10.1017/S0020743814001032
1385:Haddad, Rachelle (2020).
1241:10.1017/S0020859098000248
1138:Fieldhouse, D.K. (2008).
1084:10.1017/S0020743814001032
568:Recognition as a genocide
396:
391:Syrian Protestant College
342:joined the Central Powers
310:Collapse and Re-balancing
293:Self-reinforcing Dynamics
243:
84:
76:
68:
60:
42:
30:
21:
1140:"Lebanon and the French"
769:Deringil, Selim (2019).
620:Aftermath of World War I
509:" in the United States.
1792:1910s disasters in Asia
595:Saint-Joseph University
528:the Christian Armenians
265:
191:Austro-Hungarian Empire
1797:1915 disasters in Asia
1782:1910s health disasters
1777:1910s in Ottoman Syria
1311:. Kutub. p. 107.
1305:Mujais, Salim (2004).
907:(Thesis). UC Berkeley.
586:
565:
410:
337:
230:
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85:Effect on demographics
1505:Pitts, Graham Auman.
1212:Tanielian 2014, p.741
1203:Tanielian 2014, p.737
1194:Tanielian 2014, p.738
944:. Elsevier: 144–155.
859:Sen, Amartya (1982).
709:Pitts, Graham Auman.
584:
558:Tawfiq Yusuf 'Awwad,
550:
476:Maronite patriarchate
404:
335:
328:First grain shortages
228:
1787:20th-century famines
1334:"Dead Are My People"
519:Gibran Khalil Gibran
115:Majā'at Jabal Lubnān
1721:on 25 December 2019
1476:on 25 December 2019
1413:. Beirut, Lebanon.
603:Ramzi Toufic Salame
538:Tawfiq Yusuf 'Awwad
532:Assyrian Christians
513:Literary references
448:, conducted by the
405:Maronite Patriarch
387:Ottoman Fourth Army
340:The Ottoman Empire
168:Maronite Christians
1516:2022-09-26 at the
1278:Harris 2012, p.174
720:2022-09-26 at the
587:
521:wrote a letter to
484:Elias Peter Hoayek
411:
407:Elias Peter Hoayek
338:
231:
1146:. Oxford Academic
938:World Development
872:978-0-19-828463-5
782:978-1-64469-090-1
599:Christian Taoutel
492:Armenian genocide
488:Armenian refugees
438:Upper Mesopotamia
426:Assyrian Genocide
422:Armenian Genocide
367:Bekir Sami Kunduh
153:
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126:), also known as
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80:Est. 200,000
77:Total deaths
1452:youtube.com
1338:Poem hunter
458:cannibalism
452:and allied
279: [
238:sericulture
195:Jamal Pasha
164:World War I
1756:Categories
1554:2022-09-14
1343:24 January
1150:2023-08-07
1124:2023-08-07
1052:2023-05-10
978:26 January
845:2023-05-10
816:24 January
754:24 January
665:(Thesis).
649:9953455449
631:References
444:region of
221:Background
215:Bint Jbeil
1663:153353905
1592:163058456
1549:235051188
1266:145478019
1250:0020-8590
1100:163058456
1092:0020-7438
1015:156454518
1001:: 51–62.
681:130072266
577:Memorials
560:Al-Raghif
542:Al-Raghif
486:welcomed
183:blockaded
109:romanized
72:1915–1918
1655:43303224
1612:(2012).
1584:43303223
1514:Archived
1258:44583417
1177:15 March
1167:(1936).
718:Archived
609:See also
556:—
480:convents
440:and the
434:Anatolia
428:and the
253:Pressure
61:Location
1725:22 July
1480:22 July
1407:"Kafno"
454:Kurdish
162:during
152:
120:Turkish
111::
55:Lebanon
43:Country
1744:, in:
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562:(1939)
397:Impact
359:grains
347:Beirut
244:Causes
179:France
100:Arabic
69:Period
1659:S2CID
1651:JSTOR
1588:S2CID
1580:JSTOR
1545:S2CID
1262:S2CID
1254:JSTOR
1096:S2CID
1011:S2CID
677:S2CID
472:Arwad
442:Urmia
355:flour
351:wheat
283:]
211:Akkar
207:Zahle
144:Kafno
128:Kafno
1727:2018
1697:ISBN
1678:ISBN
1620:ISBN
1482:2018
1366:ISBN
1345:2016
1313:ISBN
1246:ISSN
1179:2016
1088:ISSN
1029:link
980:2016
867:ISBN
818:2016
777:ISBN
756:2016
645:ISBN
497:The
446:Iran
364:Vali
353:and
266:Hold
213:and
203:Tyre
189:and
177:and
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