1934:(Parliament of Germany) amended Article 146 and the Preamble of the Basic Law to state that German unification had now been fully achieved, while also adding a further clause 143(3) to entrench in the Basic Law the irreversibility of acts of expropriation undertaken by the Soviet occupying powers between 1945 and 1949. Hence when the GDR's nominal accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 came into effect on 3 October 1990, Article 23 was no longer in place. Strictly therefore, German reunification was effected by the Unification Treaty between two sovereign states, the GDR and the Federal Republic, and not by the GDR's prior declaration of accession under Article 23, although the former Article 23 was agreed by both parties to the Treaty as setting the constitutional model by which unification would be achieved.
2366:(one of only four women on the 70-strong panel) was eventually successful in a largely lone campaign to gain constitutional protection for sex equality. Notwithstanding this, there was a striking disjunction between the social context of two-parent, family households assumed in the Basic Law, and the everyday reality of German society in 1949, where over half of adult women were unmarried, separated or widowed, where the effective working population was overwhelmingly female, and where millions of expellees, refugees and displaced families were still without permanent accommodation. It was not until 1994 that constitutional protection was extended against discrimination on grounds of disability, while discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation is still not disallowed within the Basic Law.
2312:(special way): the proposition that Germany had followed a path to modernity radically different from that of its European neighbours, that had rendered it particularly susceptible to militaristic, anti-humanitarian, totalitarian and genocidal impulses. The theory is much contested, but formed the major context for the original formulation of the Basic Law. The Basic Law sought "to correct the course of Germany's Sonderweg—to reclaim the German State from its special historical path, and to realise in postwar West Germany the Liberal Democratic Republic that had proved unachievable for the Frankfurt patriots of 1848 or the Weimar revolutionaries of 1919." In interpreting it, the Federal Constitutional Court seemed to "have its eye on a Germany that might have been".
1986:
2413:. The Allies maintained in fact that sovereign authorities wielding state powers no longer existed in the former German Reich; so, as the 'highest authority' for Germany, they were entitled to assume all sovereign powers without limitation of duration or scope, and could legitimately impose whatever measures on the German people within German national territory as any government could legally do on its own people—including validly ceding parts of that territory and people to another country. They argued furthermore that international conventions constraining occupying powers in wartime from enforcing fundamental changes of governmental system, economic system or social institutions within the territory under their control—the
3193:, the two states discussed the possibility of drafting a new common constitution followed by a plebiscite, as envisioned in Article 146, but this path was ultimately not taken. Instead the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic decided to keep the Basic Law, amended in accordance with the terms of the Two plus Four Treaty, because it had proved to be effective in West Germany. To facilitate reunification and to reassure other states, the FRG made some changes to the Basic Law. Article 23 was fulfilled by reunification itself, and then withdrawn to indicate that there were no other parts of Germany that existed outside of the unified territory.
2580:
490:(Article 93 paragraph 1 No. 4a). Article 1 of these fundamental rights, which states that human dignity shall be inviolable and all state authority shall respect and protect it, cannot be changed or removed. The same is true of Article 20, which enshrines fundamental principles of the state—for example, that Germany is a state of law and a democracy. Laws which limit these basic rights are in no case allowed to affect the essence of these rights (Article 19 paragraph 2). Some people think every basic right cannot be changed or removed. However, that is a misconception as other fundamental rights are not protected by Article 79 paragraph 3 (
1998:
2649:) which is both an independent constitutional organ and at the same time part of the judiciary in the sectors of constitutional law and public international law. Its judgements have the legal status of ordinary law. It is required by law to declare statutes as null and void if they are in violation of the Basic Law. Although judgements of the Federal Constitutional Court are supreme over all other counts, it is not a court of appeal; the FCC only hears constitutional cases, and maintains sole jurisdiction in all such cases, to the exclusion of all other courts.
2828:, the “final stroke” or settlement on criminal affairs. While politicians raised concerns over granting amnesty to perpetrators who committed or abetted murderous policies under the Nazis, the Bundestag ended up approving Article 103, including an extension of a statute of limitations for Nazi-related murders. When the Basic Law extended its scope into East German regions upon reunification in 1990, concerns regarding Article 103 were enlivened. At the time, courts in the new unified state dealt with the legal dilemma of liability of border guards from the
1761:, maintaining that there remained separated parts of 'Germany as a whole' in the form of German peoples living outside the territory under the control of the Federal Republic of 1949, with whom the Federal Republic was constitutionally bound to pursue reunification, and in respect of whom mechanisms were provided by which such other parts of Germany might subsequently declare their accession to the Basic Law. Since initially the Basic Law did not apply for all of Germany, its legal provisions were only valid in its field of application (German:
1978:
2172:
2434:
approval of all the Allies. From the 1950s onwards, however, a school of German legal scholars developed the alternative view that the Allies had only taken custody of German sovereignty while the former German state had been rendered powerless to act, and that consequently, once a freely constituted German government had come into being in the form of the
Federal Republic, it could resume the identity and legal status of the former German Reich without reference to the Allied Powers.
533:
482:) are guaranteed in Germany by the Federal Constitution and in some state constitutions. In the Basic Law, most fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the same name (Articles 1 to 19). They are subjective public rights with the constitutional rank which bind all institutions and functions of the state. In cases where a federal or state law or public ordinance is alleged to be in violation of these fundamental rights, the Basic Law provides the
2381:
as embedding in the Basic Law both the proposition that
Germany in 1949 was neither unified nor free, and also as binding the new Federal Republic to a duty to pursue the creation of such a free and unified Germany "on behalf of those Germans to whom participation was denied". The Basic Law potentially provided two routes for the establishment of a reborn and unified German state: either under Article 23 whereby 'other parts of Germany' over and above the named
1704:
2600:" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81). Under Article 59 paragraph 1, the Federal President represents the Federal Republic of Germany in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats. Furthermore, all federal laws must be signed by the President before they can come into effect; however, he/she can only veto a law that he believes to violate the constitution.
2273:, and in particular, is no longer in Supreme Command of the armed forces. Indeed, the original text of the Basic Law of 1949 made no provision for federal armed forces; only in 1955 was the Basic Law amended with Article 87a to allow the creation of a German military for the Federal Republic. The government now depends only on the parliament; while the military, by contrast with their status in the Weimar Republic, are entirely under parliamentary authority.
2691:
the constitution. Under the Basic Law the fundamentals of the constitution in
Articles 1 and 20, the fundamental rights in Articles 1 to 19, and key elements of the federalist state, cannot be removed. Especially important is the protection of the division of state powers into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. This is provided by Article 20. A clear separation of powers was considered imperative to prevent measures like an over-reaching
2496:), and had the general effect of removing or rewording all the clauses (including Article 23) on which the Federal Constitutional Court had relied in support of its claim to the continued legal identity of the German Reich as an 'overall state'. Specifically too, the Basic Law was then amended such that the constitutional duty of the German people to strive for unity and freedom was stated as now fully realised, and consequently that the expanded '
272:
256:
2006:
3177:, or remove or otherwise affect the essence of, any of the fundamental rights originally specified in Articles 1 to 19, but may clarify, extend or refine those original principles and fundamental rights. Where however Articles 1 to 20 have subsequently been amended or extended, any additional words and phrases are not protected by the eternity clause but may be further amended or removed through the normal constitutional process.
1690:
2284:), i.e. the election of a new chancellor. The new procedure was intended to provide more stability than under the Weimar Constitution, when extremists on the left and right would vote to remove a chancellor, without agreeing on a new one, creating a leadership vacuum. In addition it was possible for the parliament to remove individual ministers by a vote of distrust, while it now has to vote against the cabinet as a whole.
464:
2295:
within
Germany, that were nevertheless different from the generality of rules and principles of international law as they might operate between Germany and other nations. Hence, the Federal Constitutional Court could recognise East Germany as a sovereign state in international law in the second sense, while still asserting that it was not a "sovereign state in international law" within Germany itself.
1922:, under which the Allied Powers had relinquished their residual German sovereignty. So, on the date of accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany Article 23 was repealed, representing an explicit commitment under Two-Plus-Four Treaty that, following the unification of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin, no "other parts of Germany" remained in east or west to which the
3186:
important reform was the introduction in 1968 of emergency competencies, for example
Article 115 paragraph (1). This was done by a grand coalition of the two main political parties (CDU/CSU and SPD) and was accompanied by heated debate. In the following year there were changes to the articles regarding the distribution of taxes between federal government and the states of Germany.
2983:
the constitutional court. In the Weimar
Republic, the public image of political parties was clearly negative and they were often regarded as vile. At the same time there was no obligation to adhere to democratic standards (in contrast, the Basic Law stipulates that parties' "... internal organisation must conform to democratic principles", which precludes any party using the
2626:, consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing a successor in a "constructive vote of no confidence".
1782:) at a later date. Therefore, although the Basic Law was considered provisional, it allowed more parts of Germany to join its field of application. On one side, it gave the Federal Republic of Germany—composed as it was in 1949—no right to negotiate, reject or deny another German state's declaration of its accession to the FRG, subject to the FRG's recognising that state
2065:. These papers—amongst other points—summoned the Ministerpräsidenten to arrange a constitutional assembly, that should work out a democratic and federal constitution for a West German state. According to Frankfurt Document No 1, the constitution should specify a central power of German government, but nevertheless respect the administration of the
53:
2341:) were inherently in conflict with one another, and the Parliamentary Council drafting the Basic Law were well aware that their militantly pro-democratic ideals were far from generally shared in the bleak context of Germany in 1949. Hence they built into the Basic Law a strong instrument for guardianship of the "
2211:, all state power is directly bound to guarantee these basic rights. Article 1 of the Basic Law, which establishes this principle that "human dignity is inviolable" and that human rights are directly applicable law, as well as the general principles of the state in Article 20, which guarantees democracy,
2478:
claim that the German Reich continued to exist as an 'overall state' such that the duty to strive for future German unity could not be abandoned while East and West
Germany remained disunited, albeit that without any institutional organs of itself the 'overall' Reich was currently not capable of action.
3196:
The question of "using" Article 146 to draw a new constitution, and hold a referendum, was left to the twelfth (and first all-German) Bundestag, which after consideration decided against a new draft. However, the
Bundestag passed the constitutional reform of 1994, a minor change, but still fulfilling
2982:
In contrast to Weimar, political parties are explicitly mentioned in the constitution, i.e., officially recognized as important participants in politics. Parties are obliged to adhere to the democratic foundations of the German state. Parties found in violation of this requirement may be abolished by
2840:
had to decide whether there existed a violation of an inadmissibility of retroactive punishment in the criminal statute. Since
Article 103 only permitted prosecution for an offense when it occurred under the applicable law, the Constitutional Court rejected the appeals. The prohibition of retroactive
2353:
The Basic Law places at its head a guarantee of inviolable fundamental rights. Initially it was intended to limit these to classic formulations of civil freedoms, as with equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of occupation and freedom of religious conscience. In the
417:
In the preamble to the Basic Law, its adoption was declared as an action of the "German people", and
Article 20 states "All state authority is derived from the people". These statements embody the constitutional principles that 'Germany' is identical with the German people, and that the German people
1879:
between East Germany and West Germany, the Federal Constitutional Court justified the recognition of East Germany as a valid German state, on the basis that this would enable the GDR in the future to declare accession to the Basic Law under Article 23. But the Court then explicitly acknowledged that
1788:
and being satisfied that the declaration of accession resulted from the free self-determination of its people; while on the other side an acceding state would have to accept the Basic Law and all laws so far legislated under the institutions of the FRG as they were. As the Federal Republic could not
3104:
Although this is not explicitly spelled out in the Basic Law, a number of Constitutional Court cases in the 1990s established that the military may not be deployed by the government outside of NATO territory without a specific resolution of parliament, which describes the details of the mission and
2491:
of the GDR did indeed declare its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, but postdated to come into effect on 3 October 1990, and conditional on fundamental amendments being made to the Basic Law in the interim. These amendments were required to implement the series of
2481:
According to the 1973 decision of the Federal Constitutional Court, Article 23 of the Basic Law required the Federal Republic to be "legally open" to the accession of those former parts of Germany who were then organised into the German Democratic Republic, and they noted that this implied that the
2380:
As adopted by West Germany in 1949 as an interim constitution, the preamble of the Basic Law looked forward explicitly to a future free and united German state: "The entire German people is called upon to accomplish, by free self-determination, the unity and freedom of Germany." This was understood
2349:
the Federal Constitutional Court not only has jurisdiction in constitutional matters, but also exclusive jurisdiction in such matters; all other courts must refer constitutional cases to it. The intention of the framers of the Basic Law was that this court would range widely against any tendency to
2294:
shall be an integral part of federal law". The latter article was included in deference to the post-war actions of the occupying Western powers; but had the unintended consequence that the Federal Constitutional Court tended to define "rules of international law" as applicable to German federal law
2069:
and it should contain provisions and guarantees of individual freedom and individual rights of the German people in respect to their government. With the specific request of a federal structure of a future German state the Western Powers followed German constitutional tradition since the foundation
2690:
The Weimar Constitution did not institute a court with similar powers. When the Basic Law is amended, this has to be done explicitly; the concerning article must be cited. Under Weimar the constitution could be amended without notice; any law passed with a two-thirds majority vote was not bound by
2596:
integrative role and the controlling function of upholding the law and the constitution. It has also a "political reserve function" for times of crisis in the parliamentary system of government. The Federal President gives direction to general political and societal debates and has some important "
2486:
German State and as a valid state in international relations (albeit without then according it within West Germany with the status of a separate sovereign state) could be interpreted as furthering the long-term objective of eventual German unification, rather than as contradicting it. On 23 August
2331:
in his "illegal" seizure of dictatorial powers. Consequently, following the death of Hitler in 1945 and the subsequent capitulation of the German Armed Forces, the national institutions and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct,
1874:
The Basic Law, in its original form, maintained the continuing existence of a larger Germany and German people, only parts of whom were currently organised within the Federal Republic. Nevertheless, the full extent of the implied wider German nation is nowhere defined in the Basic Law, although it
418:
act constitutionally as the primary institution of the German state. Where the Basic Law refers to the territory under the jurisdiction of this German state, it refers to it as the 'federal territory', so avoiding any inference of there being a constitutionally defined 'German national territory'.
3205:
under Article 3, and environmental protection was made a policy objective of the state in the new Article 20a. Article 3 was also reworded to ban discrimination on grounds of disability. In 1992, membership in the European Union was institutionalised (new Article 23). For the privatisation of the
2477:
sovereign jurisdiction over East Germany. The Treaty was challenged in the Federal Constitutional court, as apparently contradicting the overriding aspirations of the Basic Law for a unified German state; but the Treaty's legality was upheld by the Court, heavily qualified by a reassertion of the
2446:
adopted a mirror image version of this claim, being framed in anticipation of a future all-German constitution on its own political terms, but it was replaced with a new constitution in 1968 that made no references to a wider national German nation, and from that date the GDR maintained that from
2433:
envisaged that an eventual self-governing state would emerge from the wreckage of WWII covering 'Germany as a whole', but that this new state would have no claim to sovereignty other than as derived from the sovereignty then being assumed by the Allies, and its constitution would also require the
1858:
then opened the way for the government of the Saar Protectorate to declare its accession to the West German state under Article 23, including the new Saarland into the field of application of the Basic Law. The Saar held no separate referendum on its accession. With effect from 1 January 1957 the
497:
According to this regulation the Federal Constitutional Court can be called not only because of a violation of fundamental rights, but also by violation "of the rights set out in Article 20 paragraph 4 and Articles 33, 38, 101, 103 and 104". Hence, these rights are called the rights identical to
3004:
to war service (Article 4), and prohibited the Federal Republic from activities preparing for or engaging in aggressive war (Article 26). These provisions remain in force. Also in the 1949 Basic Law, Article 24 empowered the federal government to join international systems for mutual collective
3224:
The most controversial debate arose concerning the limitation of the right to asylum in 1993 as in the current version of Article 16a. This change was later challenged and confirmed in a judgment by the constitutional court. Another controversy was spawned by the limitation of the right to the
3185:
The Basic Law had been amended 50 times as of 2003. Important changes to the Basic Law were the re-introduction of conscription and the establishment of the Bundeswehr in 1956. Therefore, several articles were introduced into the constitution, e.g., Articles 12a, 17, 45a-c, 65a, 87a-c. Another
2595:
runs the government and the day-to-day affairs of state. However, the German President's role is more than merely ceremonial. By his or her actions and public appearances, the Federal President represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. The President's office has an
2031:
of the three western occupying powers (US, United Kingdom, France) and the three Western neighbours of Germany (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg) was debating the political future of the three western occupation zones of Germany. The negotiations ended with the conclusion that a democratic and
385:
would adopt a proper constitution, enacted under the provisions of Article 146 of the Basic Law, which stipulates that such a constitution must be "freely adopted by the German people". Nevertheless, although the amended Basic Law was approved by all four Allied Powers in 1990 (who thereby
2350:
slip back toward non-democratic ways: "a strict but benevolent guardian of an immature democracy that cannot quite trust itself". As such the Federal Constitutional Court had the power to ban political parties whose objectives or actions threatened the 'free democratic basic order".
390:), it was never submitted to a popular vote, neither in 1949 nor in 1990. However, the Basic Law as passed in 1949 also contained Article 23 which provided for "other parts of Germany" to "join the area of applicability of the Basic Law" which was the provision that was used for
2332:
such that the Basic Law could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity. Nevertheless, although the Weimar Republic was now wholly irretrievable, avoiding its perceived constitutional weaknesses represented the predominant concern for the framers of the Basic Law.
3105:
limits its term. There are also strict restrictions on the intervention of the military within Germany (i.e. a ban of the military being used for police-type duties), which generally only allow the military to act in unarmed roles within Germany (such as disaster relief).
2905:(states) and participates in federal legislation. The Bundesrat's power has grown over the years, as the fields of federal legislation were extended at the expense of state legislation. In return, the number of laws requiring the assent of the Bundesrat was also extended.
2748:, of federal military criminal courts having jurisdiction only in a state of defense or on soldiers serving abroad, and of a federal disciplinary court. Article 92 establishes that all courts other than the federal courts established under the Basic Law are courts of the
2882:
The main body of the legislative branch is Germany's parliament, the Bundestag, which enacts federal legislation, including the budget. Each member of the Bundestag has the right to initiate legislation, as do the cabinet and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag also elects the
1918:) envisaged states within East Germany being included into the field of application of the Basic Law, but subject to the Basic Law first being amended in accordance with both the previously negotiated Unification Treaty between East and West Germany, and also the
2937:
as new chancellor. Surprisingly, two representatives of CDU/CSU voted for SPD's Willy Brandt so that the vote failed. Nevertheless, the coalition had no majority in the Bundestag, so that a new election was necessary. It was later revealed that the East German
2077:
were reluctant to fulfill what was expected from them, as they anticipated that the formal foundation of a West German state would mean a permanent disruption of German unity. A few days later they convened a conference of their own on Rittersturz ridge near
2401:
in creating a new permanent constitution that would replace the Basic Law. Adoption of a constitution under Article 146 would have implied that the legal validity of a unified German State would rest on "a free decision by the German people" as a whole.
2159:, but at the same time decided that it would still come into force in Bavaria if two-thirds of the other Länder ratified it. On 23 May 1949, in a solemn session of the Parliamentary Council, the German Basic Law was signed and promulgated. The time of
3148:—the words are to be understood meaning votes on legislative issues—are, by now, common practice on the level of the Länder. Claims of extending this practice also to the federal level have an undisputed constitutional basis in the Article 20, being
1859:
Federal Republic regarded itself as including almost all of Western Germany such that the only "other parts of Germany" to which Article 23 might be extended were now to the east, hence relinquishing all claims to those western parts of the former
2437:
From the 1950s, the claim that there was a single continuing German Reich, and that in some sense the Federal Republic and the Federal Republic alone could represent that Reich, was adopted both by the Federal Government itself and by the
2859:), and that a relative or a person in the confidence of the prisoner must be notified of a judicial decision imposing detention. The German Constitution (i.e. the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany) unmistakably outlines the
4156:
3144:. Yet Article 20 states that "All state authority is derived from the people. It shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes and through specific legislative, executive and judicial bodies". These
3289:
Translated by Christian Tomuschat, David P Currie, Donald P Kommers and Raymond Kerr, in cooperation with the Language Service of the German Bundestag. The translation includes the amendment(s) to the Act by the Act of
2139:
in Bonn on 8 May 1949—the museum was the only intact building in Bonn large enough to house the assembly—and after being approved by the occupying powers on 12 May 1949, it was ratified by the parliaments of all the
2824:, or the state molded by the rule of law. Thus, criminal justice issues such as amnesty towards former Nazis, were encompassed by Article 103’s ban on retroactive punishment. This was also echoed by the concept of
2675:
individual complaint – a suit brought by a person alleging that a law or any action of government violated his or her constitutional rights. All possible solutions in the regular courts must have been exhausted
2925:
governments. However, early elections have been called three times (1972, 1982, and 2005). The last two occasions were considered controversial moves and were referred to the constitutional court for review.
2887:, the head of government, usually (but not necessarily) the leader of the majority party or the party with a plurality of seats in the Bundestag, and takes part in the election of the Federal President.
2126:
On 1 September 1948 the Parlamentarischer Rat assembled and began working on the exact wording of the Basic Law. The 65 members of the Parlamentarischer Rat were elected by the parliaments of the German
1793:, nor could accession under Article 23 be achieved by international treaty with third party states, although the Federal Constitutional Court recognised that a future declared accession could be framed
2953:
examined the case, and decided that the vote was valid, but with reservations. It was decided that a vote of confidence could be so engineered only if it were based on an actual legislative impasse.
4210:
1799:
as a compact between the Federal Republic and the acceding state. It remained unclear whether accession under Article 23 could be achieved by a part of Germany whose government was not recognised
3876:
1005:
1000:
995:
1908:
declared the accession of the GDR according to Article 23 to the Federal Republic of Germany to come into effect on 3 October 1990, making unification an act unilaterally initiated by the last
2451:
supported its claims in part, as they acknowledged the Federal Republic as the sole legitimate democratically organised state within former German territory (the GDR being held to be a Soviet
4152:
3063:. The Chancellor is directly responsible to the parliament, the Minister is indirectly responsible to the parliament because it can remove the entire Cabinet by electing a new chancellor.
2287:
Article 32 of the Basic Law allows the states to conduct foreign affairs with states with regards to matters falling within their purview, under supervision of the Federal Government.
1886:
recognition of the GDR also implied acceptance of the constitutional power of the GDR in the interim to enter into international treaties on its own account, naming specifically the
4357:
2482:
Federal Republic could recognise the capability of the GDR state, as then constituted, of so declaring its accession. In this sense, the Basic Treaty's recognition of the GDR as a
421:
The authors of the Basic Law sought to ensure that a potential dictator would never again be able to come to power in the country. Although some of the Basic Law is based on the
2090:
instead of calling it a "constitution". By these provisions they made clear, that any West German state was not a definite state for the German people, and that future German
278:
4904:
3855:
4487:
4649:
1875:
was always clearly understood that the peoples of both East Germany and Berlin would be included. In its judgement of 1973, confirming the constitutional validity of the
2492:
constitutional changes to the Basic Law that had been agreed both in the Unification Treaty between the GDR and the Federal Republic, and in the 'Two Plus Four Treaty' (
2409:
in May 1945, no effective national government of any sort existed in Germany and all national military and civil authority and powers were thereon exercised by the four
1522:
3569:, had voted for the Basic Law, but the Western Allies denied West Berlin, as part of quadripartite Berlin, being included in the field of application of the Basic Law.
336:. However, when reunification took place in 1990, the Basic Law was retained as the definitive constitution of reunified Germany. Its original field of application (
1765:). This legal term was frequently used in West German legislation when West German laws did not apply to the entirety of German territory, as was usually the case.
4130:
1868:
1532:
718:
2082:. They decided that any of the Frankfurt requirements should only be implemented in a formally provisional way. So the constitutional assembly was to be called
2493:
1919:
353:
2335:
The experience of the Weimar Republic had resulted in a widespread public perception that the principles of representative democracy and of the rule of law (
425:, the first article is a protection of human dignity ("MenschenwĂĽrde") and human rights; they are core values protected by the Basic Law. The principles of
259:
1517:
1477:
789:
4183:
4206:
2532:
2290:
Article 24 states that the Federal Government may "transfer sovereign powers to international institutions" and Article 25 states that "general rules of
2933:'s coalition had lost its majority in the Bundestag, so that the opposition (CDU/CSU) tried to pass a constructive vote of no confidence, thus electing
2035:
As an immediate consequence of the London Six-Power Conference, the representatives of the three western occupation powers on 1 July 1948, convoked the
4692:
1937:
As part of the process, East Germany, which had been a unitary state since 1952, was re-divided into its initial five partially self-governing states (
5823:
2913:
The Basic Law contains no clear provision to call early elections. Neither the chancellor nor the Bundestag has the power to call elections, and the
2358:/CSU representatives) succeeded in inserting protection both for 'Marriage and the Family" and for parental responsibility for children's education,
1672:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1256:
1251:
2345:" of the Federal Republic, in the form of the Federal Constitutional Court, representing a 'staggering conferral of judicial authority'. Unlike the
1662:
3717:
1805:
by the Federal Republic, and if so how; but in practice this situation did not arise. Article 23, altered after 1990, originally read as follows:
5071:
4914:
4725:
3356:
2855:
must be provided for by statute and authorised by a judge before the end of the day following the arrest (analogous to the common law concept of
3679:
4504:
3237:, but the judges confirmed the changes. Other changes took place regarding a redistribution of competencies between federal government and the
2974:
for 18 September 2005. The constitutional court agreed to the validity of this procedure on 25 August 2005, and the elections duly took place.
2679:
referral by regular court – a court can refer the question as to whether a statute applicable to the case before that court is constitutional.
4044:
3825:
1744:
458:
4574:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1864:
402:, Article 23 was repealed the same day as reunification came into force. An unrelated article on the relationship between Germany and the
2176:
1246:
1121:
846:
3152:
general and unchangeable article on state structure. However, this could only be conferred by a constitutional amendment nevertheless.
3086:
are prohibited. From eleven defense commissioners until 2013 eight performed military or war services. Six hold an officer's rank (or
3595:
This authorisation has not been implemented by statute; German soldiers are under the jurisdiction of the civilian court system. See
1957:). After the changes of the Basic Law, mostly pertaining to the accession in 1990, additional major modifications were made in 1994 (
1126:
3792:
2671:
The Federal Constitutional Court decides on the constitutionality of laws and government actions under the following circumstances:
5562:
4802:
4710:
3324:
3125:
was founded following a 1952 referendum that approved the fusion of three separate states. In a 1996 referendum the inhabitants of
3082:
who can be petitioned directly by soldiers, bypassing the chain of command. Disciplinary measures against soldiers petitioning the
3060:
2884:
2609:
2592:
2543:
449:("Ewigkeitsklausel") Article 79 (3) that prohibits any sort of change or removal of the principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20.
4465:
3847:
2306:
In seeking to come to terms with Germany's catastrophic recent history, much discussion has focused on the key theory of a German
1789:
itself declare the accession of another part of Germany under Article 23, this provision could not be applied as an instrument of
5743:
3221:
added in 2009, which became fully effective in 2016. In 2002, the protection of animals was explicitly mentioned in Article 20a.
2950:
2726:
2562:
556:
17:
4484:
4385:
2163:
ended, as the new West German state, the Federal Republic of Germany, came into being, although still under Western occupation.
5885:
4685:
3941:
3845:
3118:
2327:
was characterised as having been a 'failed' state, whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by
1776:
German states, initially not included in the field of application of the Basic Law, with the right to declare their accession (
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1046:
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1036:
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1021:
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The court is famous for nullifying several high-profile laws, passed by large majorities in the parliament. An example is the
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to shoot down civilian aircraft in case of a terrorist attack. It was ruled to be in violation of the guarantee of life and
348:—consisted of the three Western Allies' zones of occupation, but at the insistence of the Western Allies, formally excluded
5343:
4611:
4589:
3608:
The Federal Disciplinary Court was abolished in 2003 and its jurisdiction merged into the administrative court system. See
3048:
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of German institutions and legal structures had been agreed by the Allies as absolute moral imperatives. Consequently, the
2232:
2223:, remain under the guarantee of perpetuity stated in Article 79 paragraph 3, i.e., the principles underlying these clauses
1575:
961:
926:
2686:'s members can bring suit against a law. In this case the suit need not refer to a specific case of the law's application.
5190:
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intentionally lost a confidence vote in order to call an early election to strengthen his position in the Bundestag. The
2722:
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58:
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rejected a proposed merger of the two states. After referendums on reestablishing to Länder borders as existed in the
2260:
is permitted against anyone seeking to abolish constitutional order, if other remedies were to fail under Article 20.
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979:
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612:
35:
30:"Constitution of Germany" redirects here. For the constitution that governed Germany during the Weimar Republic, see
2682:
abstract regulation control – the federal government, a government of one of the federal states or a quarter of the
1985:
5809:
3312:
2730:
1897:
1871:, were reunited with the Federal Republic in 1963 by means of an international treaty without invoking Article 23.
1656:
1507:
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with the GDR, recognising it as one of two German states within one German nation, and relinquishing any claim to
1457:
6173:
6125:
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regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state, illegal and illegitimate from the outset, while the
6199:
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The Basic Law was amended in 1955 with Article 87a allowing the creation from new of federal armed forces, the
2734:
2342:
1606:
1527:
701:
617:
4067:
The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Returning of German Archives after the Second World War
2535:, the head of government, normally (but not necessarily) the leader of the largest grouping in the Bundestag.
356:
between the two parts of Germany and all four Allies stipulated the implementation of a number of amendments.
6245:
6130:
5977:
5673:
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The denial of referendums in other cases was designed to avoid the kind of populism that allowed the rise of
3056:
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2776:
2117:. The delegates at the convention were appointed by the leaders of the newly formed (or newly reconstituted)
2362:
representatives then amended this to protect additionally the rights of children born outside marriage, and
6135:
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3521:
being included in the field of application, let alone East Berlin, whose rulers clearly rejected this idea.
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1926:
might validly be extended. Rather than adopting a new constitution under Article 146 of the Basic Law, the
1847:
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832:
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3233:). This was done by changes to Article 13 paragraph (3) and Article 6. The changes were challenged in the
6260:
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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR), 22 February 1996. Introduction: paragraph 6.
4411:
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2241:
2062:
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1846:
Whereas the West German state had gained restricted sovereignty in May 1955, the Saarlanders rejected in
1585:
1570:
1131:
921:
86:
3562:
3252:
The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
2579:
2455:), but they did not accept the associated arguments for the Reich's continuing 'metaphysical' existence
1839:
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3716:. Association of the Councils of State and Supreme Administrative Jurisdictions of the European Union.
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all failed, this institution has not been used, as minor border changes can be done by state contract.
936:
837:
638:
2155:
rejected the Basic Law mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual
6250:
6163:
5982:
5663:
4848:
4720:
4381:
German Bundestag: Official English Translation of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany:
3846:
Stiftung Deutsches Historisches Museum, Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
3481:
3350:
3218:
2102:
987:
888:
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222:
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the constitutional question together with some other amendments between 1990 and 1994. For example,
2465:, the Federal Republic in the early 1970s sought to end hostile relations with the countries of the
1997:
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are key components of the Basic Law (Article 20). Articles 1 and 20 are protected by the so-called
333:
186:
178:
6153:
4041:
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3173:. Such a vote may not remove any of the principles underlying Articles 1 and 20 as defined by the
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International law aspects of the German reunification alternative answers to the German question.
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who himself was not dependent on the parliament. Under the Basic Law, during times of peace, the
3001:
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320:
on 8 May 1949 and came into effect on 23 May after having been approved by the occupying western
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Wikisource:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany#II. THE FEDERATION AND THE L.C3.84NDER
3554:
3456:
3337:
3006:
2410:
2256:. The suspension of human rights would also be illegal under Articles 20 and 79, as above. The
931:
650:
321:
111:
4547:
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3165:
Article 79 states the Basic Law may be amended by an absolute two-thirds majority of both the
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1949 there had existed two entirely separate sovereign German states. The Federal Republic's
2354:
event particular interests pushed for additional consideration: the Catholic Church (through
2237:
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2195:
while shielded from the public. The basic law formed the central part of the constitution of
2132:
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1667:
1638:
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491:
434:
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232:
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and the most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the
2009:
Facsimile of the Basic Law of 1949 as received by each member of the Parliamentary Council
1835:
394:
from the constitutional standpoint. As the overwhelming consensus thereafter was that the
8:
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5567:
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5389:
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This is the original 1949 text, as distinguished from the amended version in force today.
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1887:
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518:
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31:
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2500:' could no longer be "legally open" to further accessions of former German territories.
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1990:
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the transformation of their protectorate into an independent state within the emerging
1467:
659:
2699:. This act had given the government legislative powers which effectively finished the
5723:
5698:
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5406:
5178:
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4382:
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3255:
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2382:
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2224:
2220:
2207:, which listed them merely as "state objectives". Pursuant to the mandate to respect
2118:
2014:
We must be sure that what we construct will some day be a good house for all Germans.
1977:
1487:
820:
123:
3950:
2022:
speaking about the objective of the West German Basic Law at the Koenig Museum, 1948
5785:
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There were, in the original version, no emergency powers such as those used by the
2098:
prevailed and the Western Powers gave in concerning this highly symbolic question.
2044:
856:
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5683:
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4389:
4358:"To Prosecute Nazis; Jurist Suggests a Constitutional Amendment to Permit Trials"
4048:
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3134:
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2922:
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2700:
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2257:
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1923:
1814:
For the time being, this Basic Law shall apply in the territory of the Länder of
1708:
1616:
475:
446:
395:
337:
325:
298:
4207:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Role in the international arena"
2967:
2171:
373:. The term "constitution" (Verfassung) was avoided as the drafters regarded the
5790:
5668:
5655:
5318:
5076:
3583:
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2426:
2263:
The constitutional position of the federal government was strengthened, as the
2180:
1950:
1819:
1694:
664:
407:
403:
4602:
3763:"Article 93 of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland)"
2405:
Following the surrender of the German High Command and the dissolution of the
398:
was settled, and to reaffirm the renunciation of any residual German claim to
6214:
5031:
4318:
4302:
3416:
3217:
Since then, there have only been minor amendments, with the exception of the
3094:
2934:
2856:
2846:
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2212:
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2131:
with one deputy representing about 750,000 people. After being passed by the
646:
430:
133:
5832:
5416:
5091:
5086:
5056:
4955:
4909:
4754:
4670:
3680:"Right to Have Rights – The German Constitutional Concept of Human Dignity"
3437:
2930:
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2803:
2704:
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2466:
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2448:
2443:
2422:
2328:
2320:
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1827:
378:
345:
306:
93:
5801:
4014:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
4001:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3988:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3975:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3928:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3915:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3902:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3889:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
2645:
The guardian of the Basic Law is the German Federal Constitutional Court (
1842:. In other parts of Germany it shall be put into force on their accession.
532:
5426:
5140:
4975:
4924:
3566:
3518:
3476:
3130:
3091:
2946:
2820:
2459:
within the organs of the Federal Republic alone. Subsequently, under the
2389:) could subsequently declare their accession, or under Article 146 where
2337:
2184:
2106:
2019:
1909:
1905:
1855:
1815:
1758:
625:
442:
349:
332:) to indicate that it was a provisional piece of legislation pending the
1703:
406:
was instead inserted in its place two years later. As a heritage of the
5635:
5256:
4653:
4593:
3114:
3052:
3040:
3026:
3020:
3014:
2960:
engineered a defeat in a vote of confidence after a power shift in the
2661:
2555:
2461:
2397:) could be exercised by elected representatives of the entirety of the
2240:
of 1933 to suspend basic rights and to remove communist members of the
1790:
501:
438:
399:
285:
263:
207:
108:
103:
4069:. Translated by Seyer, D. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219ff.
1810:
Former Article 23 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
5246:
4894:
4153:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Constitutional basis"
4107:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4092:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4028:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
3565:. The Stadtverordnetenversammlung von Berlin, then only competent in
3166:
3098:
3079:
3032:
2877:
2683:
2539:
2308:
2166:
1929:
690:
426:
173:
150:
4659:
3579:
3117:, concerning the federal level of legislation, on a single issue: a
3024:
therefore has no constitutional or legal continuity with either the
2508:
The Basic Law established Germany as a parliamentary democracy with
2086:(lit. parliamentary council) and the constitution given the name of
1763:
Geltungsbereich des Grundgesetzes fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
4780:
4639:
3809:
The Constitutional Jursiprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany
2192:
2110:
2005:
3074:), reporting once a year to parliament, not to the executive. The
2203:
Basic rights are fundamental to the Basic Law, in contrast to the
1949:, with East and West Berlin reuniting into a new city-state (like
5525:
4945:
4889:
4811:
4635:
2398:
2188:
2148:
2141:
2114:
2079:
1954:
1823:
1771:
463:
411:
310:
3943:
How a constitution can safeguard democracy:The German Experience
3269:
Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany — Amendments to 28
2094:
and the reunification of Germany was still on their agenda. The
2001:
German stamp commemorating the work of the Parlamentarischer Rat
5836:
4660:
Staatsrecht for you – Introduction to german constitutional law
3141:
3126:
2245:
1867:). The towns of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, which had been
468:
3097:, were high-ranking and decorated admirals or generals of the
2771:
General provisions for the judiciary and rights of the accused
2744:
Article 96 authorizes the establishment by federal law of the
52:
4905:
Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples
4884:
3550:
2939:
2741:
as supreme courts in their respective areas of jurisdiction.
3066:
The Basic Law also institutes the parliamentary post of the
2917:
can do so only if the chancellor so requests after losing a
2276:
To remove the chancellor, the parliament has to engage in a
3848:"Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Das lebendige Museum Online"
2421:—did not apply, and could not apply, as the termination of
317:
4042:
Moving the law of occupation into the twenty-first century
3582:'. The "Herren" in question were "Augustiner Chorherren",
2179:
drew up the draft for the Basic Law in summer 1948 at the
1981:
Article 1, sentence 1: "Human dignity shall be inviolable"
344:)—that is, the states that were initially included in the
3113:
Unlike the Weimar Constitution, the Basic Law only names
2049:
in Frankfurt am Main and committed to them the so-called
2921:. This was designed to avoid the chronic instability of
2527:
The executive branch consists of the largely ceremonial
3765:. Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection.
3711:"Administrative Justice in Europe – Report for Germany"
3000:
From the outset, the Basic Law guaranteed the right of
2494:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
1943:), being granted equal status as the already existing
1863:
that had been surrendered to France and Denmark. (cf.
4055:, publisher: U.S. Naval Justice School. pp. 21, 28–30
3254:. Duke University Press, 3rd edition (2nd ed. 1997),
2269:
has only a small fraction of the former power of the
4650:
Introduction to the basic and the constitutional law
502:
Extensions of the field of application by Article 23
4632:
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany
4573:Original text of the Basic Law, as adopted in 1949
2227:even if the normal amendment process is followed.
2167:Important differences from the Weimar Constitution
2469:, in the course of which it negotiated in 1972 a
2298:
2032:federal West German state was to be established.
34:. For the constitution of the German Empire, see
6212:
4303:"The Basic Law and the Process of Reunification"
3265:
2565:, which oversees the constitutionality of laws.
27:Constitution for the Federal Republic of Germany
4603:Constitution of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
4180:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3662:
3639:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3357:Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)
3039:The Weimar Constitution had contributed to the
2942:had bribed the two dissenting representatives.
2836:between the former East-West border. Thus, the
2634:
4612:Excerpts from the 1968 Constitution of the GDR
4485:Periodic reports of States parties due in 1993
3746:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
3108:
2841:punishment in Article 103 has been likened to
2503:
303:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
279:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
76:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
5817:
4796:
4686:
4590:Constitution of the German Empire (1871–1919)
4277:"X v. The Federal Republic of Germany (1971)"
3250:Donald P. Kommers, Russell A. Miller (2012):
3005:security; but made no specific provision for
2796:multiple punishment for the same criminal act
2538:The legislative branch is represented by the
1912:. East Germany's "declaration of accession" (
1738:
459:Fundamental rights in the German Constitution
316:The West German Constitution was approved in
295:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
260:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
46:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
4700:
4441:. Manchester University Press. p. 146.
4241:, Oxford University Press, pp. 93–154,
4204:Website of the Federal President of Germany
4150:Website of the Federal President of Germany
3744:
3531:
2977:
2653:
2249:
1964:
1958:
1944:
1938:
1927:
1913:
1777:
377:as an interim arrangement for a provisional
276:
74:
5831:
4915:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
2177:Constitutional Convention at Herrenchiemsee
1993:debating the Frankfurt Documents in Koblenz
1881:
1869:occupied and annexed by Netherlands in 1949
1800:
1794:
1783:
1769:
1768:Article 23 of the Basic Law provided other
5824:
5810:
4803:
4789:
4693:
4679:
4058:
2442:. Initially, the 1949 constitution of the
2369:
2101:The draft was prepared at the preliminary
1745:
1731:
51:
4109:, Princeton University Press, p. 14]
4094:, Princeton University Press, p. 13]
3939:
3586:, which ruled the region in former times.
3119:new delimitation of the federal territory
2550:participating in legislation through the
4434:
4232:
4122:Texas Law: Foreign Law Translations 1973
4030:, Princeton University Press, p. 12
3536:(field of application) of the Basic Law.
3325:Constitution of the German Confederation
2578:
2544:mixed-member proportional representation
2170:
2004:
1996:
1984:
1976:
1900:in East Germany fell in 1990. Following
1014:Federal Republic of Germany (since 1949)
462:
4403:
4300:
3806:
3318:
3225:invulnerability of the private domain (
2995:
511:This article is part of a series on the
467:The Grundrechte at Jakob Kaiser House,
14:
6213:
4064:
3769:from the original on 24 September 2015
3755:
3702:
3677:
3578:Explanation of the German meaning of '
2315:In the dominant post-war narrative of
324:on 12 May. It was termed "Basic Law" (
5805:
4784:
4674:
4133:from the original on 20 December 2016
4104:
4089:
4025:
3795:from the original on 2 November 2011.
3214:, amendments were necessary as well.
2990:
2866:
2561:The judicial branch is headed by the
1890:which confirmed the transfer of the "
452:
4810:
4186:from the original on 3 November 2012
3811:, Duke University Press, p. 309
3229:) by means of acoustic observation (
3030:of the Weimar Republic, or with the
2610:Chancellor of Germany (1949–present)
2027:Between February and June 1948, the
1906:parliament of the GDR (East Germany)
4233:Collings, Justin (5 January 2021),
3752: of 23 May 1949 (in German)
3708:
3399:Second Constitution of East Germany
3279:. Berlin, Germany: German Bundestag
2845:in common law systems, such as the
2838:Federal German Constitutional Court
2603:
2199:and subsequently reunified Germany.
1972:
24:
4247:10.1093/oso/9780198858850.003.0004
4159:from the original on 14 April 2014
3723:from the original on 27 March 2014
3393:First Constitution of East Germany
2908:
2798:. During the establishment of the
2629:
2583:Political system of Germany, chart
2278:Constructive vote of no confidence
2244:from power, an important step for
2057:). The handover took place in the
1865:Little Reunification with the Saar
1757:The 1949 Basic Law was explicitly
531:
59:Federal Agency for Civic Education
25:
6272:
4531:
3949:, Goethe-Institut, archived from
3499:United Kingdom constitutional law
3362:Constitution of the German Empire
2415:Hague Regulations of Land Warfare
2061:on the Campus Westend of today's
36:Constitution of the German Empire
4438:The Länder and German federalism
4213:from the original on 16 May 2014
3858:from the original on 20 May 2013
3530:These states formed the initial
3313:German language in the Basic Law
3294:June 2022 (Federal Law Gazette I
3059:, and during war-time under the
2818:—advocated for the ideal of the
2792:retroactive criminal legislation
1702:
1688:
270:
254:
243:Constitution of the German Reich
5007:German revolutions of 1848–1849
4976:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)
4497:
4478:
4455:
4428:
4397:
4375:
4350:
4325:
4301:Steiner, Udo (1 January 2000).
4294:
4269:
4226:
4198:
4172:
4144:
4113:
4098:
4083:
4034:
4019:
4006:
3993:
3980:
3967:
3933:
3920:
3907:
3894:
3881:
3870:
3839:
3815:
3800:
3791:(in German). 1949. Article 23.
3665:Eine kleine Geschichte PreuĂźens
3602:
3589:
3572:
3539:
2853:deprivation of personal liberty
2710:
2703:and led to the dictatorship of
2660:, which would have allowed the
410:, neither was unification with
4992:Early modern period, 1500–1800
4880:List of early Germanic peoples
4552:non-official table of contents
4472:pp. 11 footnote 18, & 26.
3781:
3735:
3671:
3656:
3631:
3524:
3511:
3374:Constitution of Prussia (1920)
3344:Constitution of Prussia (1850)
3331:Constitution of Prussia (1848)
2383:States of the Federal Republic
2282:Konstruktives Misstrauensvotum
1607:Politics of the European Union
423:Weimar Republic's constitution
13:
1:
5115:History of Germany since 1990
4404:Roberts, Geoffrey K. (2000).
3891:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxii
3822:International: Berlin to Bonn
3624:
3244:
3227:Unverletzlichkeit der Wohnung
3155:
2901:The Bundesrat represents the
2810:—the federal chairman of the
2568:
2542:, elected directly through a
381:, expecting that an eventual
4726:Constitution of January 1871
4435:Gunlicks, Arthur B. (2003).
4333:"K.-H. W. v. Germany (2001)"
4003:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxv
3990:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxvi
3977:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxii
3917:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxiv
3487:Rule according to higher law
3235:Federal Constitutional Court
3055:is under the command of the
2890:
2871:
2727:Federal Administrative Court
2641:Federal Constitutional Court
2635:Federal Constitutional Court
2563:Federal Constitutional Court
2440:Federal Constitutional Court
1558:Foreign relations by country
750:Federal Constitutional Court
557:Federal Constitutional Court
488:Federal Constitutional Court
386:relinquished their reserved
365:may be translated as either
191:Federal Administrative Court
183:Federal Constitutional Court
57:Basic Law. Published by the
7:
4412:Manchester University Press
4040:Breven C. Parsons, (2009),
4016:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxv
3904:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. 287
3807:Kommers, Donald P. (2012),
3306:
3109:Referendums and plebiscites
2940:Ministry for State Security
2816:Federal Minister of Justice
2812:Free Democratic Party (FDP)
2721:Article 95 establishes the
2504:Constitutional institutions
2347:United States Supreme Court
2343:free democratic basic order
2105:(10–23 August 1948) on the
2029:London Six-Power Conference
1852:European Economic Community
962:Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
400:land east of Oder and NeiĂźe
346:Federal Republic of Germany
311:Federal Republic of Germany
87:Federal Republic of Germany
10:
6277:
5022:North German Confederation
5002:Confederation of the Rhine
4731:Constitution of April 1871
4182:. Gesetze-im-internet.de.
4065:Eckert, Astrid M. (2012).
3930:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xv
3678:Enders, Christoph (2010).
3667:. Klett-Cotta. p. 17.
3643:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
3517:The Western Allies denied
3180:
3160:
3090:'s rank), two of them, as
2894:
2875:
2851:Article 104 mandates that
2714:
2638:
2607:
2572:
2444:German Democratic Republic
2373:
1830:, North Rhine-Westphalia,
639:Vice Chancellor of Germany
456:
29:
6256:May 1949 events in Europe
6221:German constitutional law
6192:
6144:
6106:
5843:
5756:
5616:
5496:
5487:
5370:
5361:
5242:
5233:
5169:
5160:
5123:
5102:
4984:
4938:
4862:
4831:
4822:
4706:
4490:15 September 2016 at the
4235:"After Hitler: 1951–1975"
3561:, WĂĽrttemberg-Baden, and
3482:Reconstruction of Germany
3405:
3351:North German Constitution
3266:German Bundestag (2022).
3219:Balanced Budget Amendment
2978:Role of political parties
2531:as head of state and the
2113:, a lake in southeastern
2103:Herrenchiemsee convention
1894:" to Polish sovereignty.
880:Collective municipality (
269:
253:
248:
238:
228:
223:Herrenchiemsee convention
218:
206:
172:
160:
144:
132:
122:
117:
102:
92:
82:
70:
65:
50:
45:
6241:Constitutions of Germany
5174:Administrative divisions
4701:Constitutions of Germany
3663:Eberhard Straub (2011).
3611:Bundesdisziplinargericht
3563:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
3557:, Rhineland-Palatinate,
3504:
3427:Constitutional economics
2861:presumption of innocence
2834:killed escaping refugees
2779:. Article 102 abolishes
2775:Article 97 provides for
2723:Federal Court of Justice
2647:Bundesverfassungsgericht
1840:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
1443:State and local politics
988:East Germany (1949–1960)
484:constitutional complaint
334:reunification of Germany
187:Federal Court of Justice
179:6 Supreme federal courts
4461:Johnson, Edward Elwyn.
4223:Retrieved 28 April 2014
4169:Retrieved 13 April 2014
4105:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4090:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4026:Quint, Peter E (1991),
3828:1 February 2011 at the
3467:Legal status of Germany
3002:conscientious objection
2786:Article 103 mandates a
2554:, reflecting Germany's
2376:Legal status of Germany
2370:Legal status of Germany
2197:Allied-occupied Germany
2187:(Isle of Lords) in the
1599:International Relations
589:Frank-Walter Steinmeier
354:Two Plus Four Agreement
18:Constitution of Germany
5886:Bosnia and Herzegovina
5435:Science and technology
5136:History of Brandenburg
5027:Unification of Germany
5017:Frankfurt Constitution
4644:Univ. of Chicago Press
4560:Official Translation:
4554:(status: August 2006)
4468:9 October 2007 at the
3745:
3555:North Rhine-Westphalia
3532:
3457:German nationality law
3338:Frankfurt Constitution
3007:West German rearmament
2654:
2618:The Chancellor is the
2584:
2250:
2200:
2183:Abbey on the secluded
2147:with the exception of
2070:of the Reich in 1871.
2025:
2010:
2002:
1994:
1982:
1965:
1959:
1945:
1939:
1928:
1914:
1910:East German parliament
1882:
1844:
1834:, Schleswig-Holstein,
1801:
1795:
1784:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1503:North Rhine-Westphalia
1498:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
1113:Parliamentary election
954:Presidential elections
536:
486:with an appeal to the
479:
471:
408:Lesser German solution
341:
329:
322:Allies of World War II
302:
277:
112:parliamentary republic
75:
5072:Flight and expulsions
4407:German politics today
3493:Streitbare Demokratie
3452:German Emergency Acts
3447:Constitution of Japan
3441:Constitution of Italy
3379:Reichstag Fire Decree
2777:judicial independence
2731:Federal Finance Court
2656:Luftsicherheitsgesetz
2582:
2299:Basic Law and German
2238:Reichstag Fire Decree
2217:social responsibility
2174:
2133:Parliamentary Council
2084:Parlamentarischer Rat
2055:Frankfurter Dokumente
2043:) of the West German
2012:
2008:
2000:
1988:
1980:
1807:
1657:Agrarian Conservatism
727:Gemeinsamer Ausschuss
720:Vermittlungsausschuss
613:Chancellor of Germany
535:
466:
435:social responsibility
388:constitutional rights
233:Parlamentarischer Rat
202:Federal Finance Court
6246:1949 in West Germany
5744:World Heritage Sites
5422:German states by GDP
5012:German Confederation
4741:Enabling Act of 1933
4736:Constitution of 1919
4721:Constitution of 1867
4716:Constitution of 1849
4711:Constitution of 1815
4585:Former constitutions
4505:"www.dukeupress.edu"
4388:19 June 2017 at the
4047:3 March 2016 at the
3836:. 13 September 1948.
3412:Abolition of Prussia
3319:Former constitutions
3231:GroĂźer Lauschangriff
3072:defense commissioner
3045:state within a state
2996:Role of the military
2987:, even internally).
2956:In 2005, Chancellor
2951:constitutional court
2945:In 1982, Chancellor
2929:In 1972, Chancellor
2897:Bundesrat of Germany
2759:extraordinary courts
2746:Federal Patent Court
2739:Federal Social Court
2735:Federal Labour Court
2717:Judiciary of Germany
2589:parliamentary system
2575:President of Germany
2510:separation of powers
2407:Flensburg Government
2059:I.G. Farben building
1920:Two-Plus-Four Treaty
1898:The Communist regime
1832:Rhineland-Palatinate
1629:Political ideologies
1508:Rhineland-Palatinate
942:Federal Convention (
581:President of Germany
498:fundamental rights.
474:Fundamental rights (
392:German reunification
219:Commissioned by
199:Federal Social Court
195:Federal Labour Court
139:President of Germany
118:Government structure
6107:States with limited
5380:Automobile industry
4966:Carolingian dynasty
4900:History of the Huns
4127:University of Texas
3956:on 20 December 2016
3597:German military law
3472:Politics of Germany
3368:Weimar Constitution
3057:Minister of Defence
2806:, politicians like
2591:of government, the
2395:pouvoir constituant
2205:Weimar Constitution
2096:Ministerpräsidenten
2075:Ministerpräsidenten
2051:Frankfurt Documents
2041:ministers-president
2037:Ministerpräsidenten
1991:ministers-president
1892:Eastern Territories
1848:a referendum (1955)
1709:Politics portal
32:Weimar Constitution
6261:Anti-fascist works
5450:Telecommunications
5131:History of Prussia
5047:Revolution of 1918
5042:War guilt question
4961:Carolingian Empire
4930:Sack of Rome (410)
4839:History of Germany
4362:The New York Times
4337:hudoc.echr.coe.int
4281:hudoc.echr.coe.int
3559:Schleswig-Holstein
3462:History of Germany
3445:Post-World War II
3422:Bundesrechnungshof
3199:affirmative action
3061:Federal Chancellor
2991:Other stipulations
2919:vote of confidence
2867:Legislative branch
2781:capital punishment
2668:in the Basic Law.
2624:Federal Government
2620:head of government
2614:Cabinet of Germany
2593:Federal Chancellor
2585:
2546:, with the German
2533:Federal Chancellor
2419:Geneva Conventions
2201:
2153:Landtag of Bavaria
2092:self-determination
2011:
2003:
1995:
1983:
1966:Föderalismusreform
1963:), 2002 and 2006 (
1915:Beitrittserklärung
1888:treaty with Poland
1822:, Greater Berlin,
1695:Germany portal
1528:Schleswig-Holstein
1373:European elections
838:State Parliament (
833:Minister president
537:
472:
453:Fundamental rights
6208:
6207:
5799:
5798:
5752:
5751:
5483:
5482:
5397:Chemical Triangle
5357:
5356:
5344:Political parties
5292:Foreign relations
5229:
5228:
5156:
5155:
5067:Allied occupation
4971:Holy Roman Empire
4778:
4777:
4774:
4748:Basic Law of 1949
4592:. Full text from
4448:978-0-7190-6533-0
4256:978-0-19-885885-0
4076:978-1-107-62920-2
4012:Justin Collings,
3999:Justin Collings,
3986:Justin Collings,
3973:Justin Collings,
3926:Justin Collings,
3913:Justin Collings,
3900:Justin Collings,
3887:Justin Collings,
3432:Constitutionalism
3123:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
3036:of WWII Germany.
2757:Article 101 bans
2695:, as happened in
2529:Federal President
2431:Potsdam Agreement
2391:constituent power
2364:Elisabeth Selbert
2292:international law
2225:cannot be removed
2135:assembled at the
2063:Goethe University
1960:Verfassungsreform
1836:WĂĽrttemberg-Baden
1755:
1754:
1635:Political culture
1548:Foreign relations
1458:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
944:Bundesversammlung
927:Political parties
522:
383:reunified Germany
379:West German state
291:
290:
16:(Redirected from
6268:
6251:1949 in politics
6145:Dependencies and
5844:Sovereign states
5826:
5819:
5812:
5803:
5802:
5779:
5772:
5765:
5729:Prussian virtues
5494:
5493:
5402:Economic history
5368:
5367:
5262:
5240:
5239:
5191:Cities and towns
5167:
5166:
5147:Baden Revolution
4951:Treaty of Verdun
4920:Marcomannic Wars
4875:Migration Period
4870:Germanic peoples
4854:Military history
4829:
4828:
4805:
4798:
4791:
4782:
4781:
4773:
4759:
4695:
4688:
4681:
4672:
4671:
4665:
4628:Currie, David P.
4617:
4608:
4599:
4579:
4570:
4557:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4511:. Archived from
4501:
4495:
4482:
4476:
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4459:
4453:
4452:
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4239:Scales of Memory
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4053:Naval Law Review
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3709:Herbert, Georg.
3706:
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3593:
3587:
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3570:
3553:, Lower Saxony,
3545:The others were
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3522:
3515:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3278:
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3084:Wehrbeauftragter
3076:Wehrbeauftragter
3068:Wehrbeauftragter
2958:Gerhard Schröder
2764:Volksgerichtshof
2659:
2604:Executive branch
2255:
2023:
1989:The West German
1973:Drafting process
1968:
1962:
1948:
1942:
1933:
1917:
1885:
1804:
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1673:Social Democracy
1549:
922:Electoral system
915:
858:Regierungsbezirk
813:
743:
672:Federal agencies
550:
549:
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520:
512:
506:
505:
414:aspired for.
359:The German word
282:
274:
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55:
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21:
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5563:Life expectancy
5479:
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5324:Law enforcement
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5082:Divided Germany
5052:Weimar Republic
4980:
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4555:
4542:Official text:
4534:
4529:
4528:
4518:
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4503:
4502:
4498:
4492:Wayback Machine
4483:
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3201:was allowed in
3183:
3175:eternity clause
3163:
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3135:Weimar Republic
3111:
3088:reserve officer
3078:is a soldiers'
2998:
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2923:Weimar Republic
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2909:Early elections
2899:
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2843:double jeopardy
2773:
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2701:Weimar Republic
2697:Germany in 1933
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2632:
2630:Judicial branch
2616:
2608:Main articles:
2606:
2577:
2571:
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2498:Berlin Republic
2449:Cold-war Allies
2378:
2372:
2325:Weimar Republic
2304:
2271:Reichspräsident
2266:Bundespräsident
2258:right to resist
2252:Machtergreifung
2233:Reichspräsident
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2161:legal nonentity
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2018:
1975:
1924:Berlin Republic
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492:Eternity Clause
461:
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447:eternity clause
396:German question
371:Fundamental Law
352:. In 1990, the
342:Geltungsbereich
271:
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61:
39:
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6200:European Union
6196:
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6193:Other entities
6190:
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5903:
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5077:Denazification
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4849:Historiography
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4532:External links
4530:
4527:
4526:
4515:on 15 May 2013
4509:dukeupress.edu
4496:
4477:
4454:
4447:
4427:
4420:
4414:. p. 39.
4396:
4383:Article 20 (2)
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4307:SMU Law Review
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3584:Canons Regular
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3308:
3305:
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3263:
3260:978-0822352662
3246:
3243:
3212:postal service
3203:women's rights
3182:
3179:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3110:
3107:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2979:
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2895:Main article:
2892:
2889:
2876:Main article:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2772:
2769:
2761:, such as the
2715:Main article:
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2688:
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2680:
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2639:Main article:
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2605:
2602:
2598:reserve powers
2573:Main article:
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2427:Denazification
2425:and the total
2374:Main article:
2371:
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2181:Herrenchiemsee
2168:
2165:
2016:
1974:
1971:
1902:free elections
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1449:State Politics
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910:
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906:
903:
902:
901:
900:
889:Municipality (
886:
877:
876:
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861:
852:
851:
850:
849:
835:
829:
828:
816:
809:
808:
805:
804:
801:
800:
793:
792:
786:
785:
780:
775:
770:
768:Administrative
765:
759:
758:
757:Federal courts
753:
752:
746:
739:
738:
735:
734:
731:
730:
723:
714:
713:
706:
705:
704:
699:
697:constituencies
686:
683:
682:
679:
678:
675:
674:
669:
668:
667:
655:
654:
643:
642:
634:
633:
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457:Main article:
454:
451:
404:European Union
289:
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84:
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72:
71:Original title
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56:
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47:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6273:
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6191:
6185:
6182:
6180:
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6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6159:Faroe Islands
6157:
6155:
6152:
6151:
6149:
6143:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6131:South Ossetia
6129:
6127:
6124:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6113:
6111:
6105:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
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6079:
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6074:
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6001:
5999:
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5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5978:Liechtenstein
5976:
5974:
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5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5848:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5833:Constitutions
5827:
5822:
5820:
5815:
5813:
5808:
5807:
5804:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
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5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5623:
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5619:
5615:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5603:Social issues
5601:
5599:
5596:
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5559:
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5534:
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5531:Ethnic groups
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5139:
5137:
5134:
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5128:
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5122:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5110:Reunification
5108:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5084:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
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5058:
5055:
5053:
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5038:
5035:
5033:
5032:German Empire
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
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4990:
4989:
4987:
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4908:
4906:
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4888:
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4855:
4852:
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4813:
4806:
4801:
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4762:
4757:
4756:
4751:
4750:
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4746:
4742:
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4738:
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4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
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4712:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4696:
4691:
4689:
4684:
4682:
4677:
4676:
4673:
4661:
4658:
4655:
4651:
4648:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
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4621:
4613:
4610:
4604:
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4595:
4591:
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4458:
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3834:Tone Magazine
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3417:Bremen clause
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3209:
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3200:
3194:
3192:
3191:reunification
3187:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3153:
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3147:
3143:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
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3116:
3106:
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3100:
3096:
3095:Hellmuth Heye
3093:
3089:
3085:
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3077:
3073:
3069:
3064:
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3058:
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3028:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3016:
3010:
3008:
3003:
2988:
2986:
2985:FĂĽhrerprinzip
2975:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2941:
2936:
2935:Rainer Barzel
2932:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2906:
2904:
2898:
2888:
2886:
2879:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2857:Habeas corpus
2854:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2808:Thomas Dehler
2805:
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2698:
2694:
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2678:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2666:human dignity
2663:
2658:
2657:
2650:
2648:
2642:
2627:
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2621:
2615:
2611:
2601:
2599:
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2587:In Germany's
2581:
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2399:German people
2396:
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2247:
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2239:
2235:
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2228:
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2222:
2218:
2214:
2213:republicanism
2210:
2209:human dignity
2206:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2164:
2162:
2158:
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2150:
2146:
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2138:
2137:Museum Koenig
2134:
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2052:
2048:
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2038:
2033:
2030:
2021:
2015:
2007:
1999:
1992:
1987:
1979:
1970:
1967:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1880:this limited
1878:
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1523:Saxony-Anhalt
1521:
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1190:
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1128:
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947:
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843:
841:
836:
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831:
830:
827:
826:
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818:
817:
814:
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806:
799:
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787:
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771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
760:
756:
755:
751:
748:
747:
744:
737:
736:
729:
728:
724:
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712:
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707:
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694:
693:
692:
688:
687:
681:
680:
673:
670:
666:
663:
662:
661:
658:
657:
652:
648:
647:Robert Habeck
645:
644:
641:
640:
636:
635:
631:
627:
624:
623:
619:
615:
614:
610:
609:
603:
602:
594:
590:
587:
586:
583:
582:
578:
577:
574:Head of State
571:
570:
563:
560:
558:
555:
554:
551:
546:Constitution
541:
540:
534:
530:
529:
526:
517:
516:
513:
508:
507:
499:
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
470:
465:
460:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:republicanism
428:
424:
419:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
363:
357:
355:
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347:
343:
339:
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331:
327:
323:
319:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
287:
283:
281:
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268:
265:
261:
252:
247:
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237:
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227:
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217:
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200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
177:
175:
171:
168:
165:
163:
159:
156:
152:
149:
147:
143:
140:
137:
135:
134:Head of state
131:
127:
125:
121:
116:
113:
110:
107:
105:
101:
97:
95:
91:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
60:
54:
49:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
6236:West Germany
6136:Transnistria
6098:Vatican City
5935:
5777:Bibliography
5651:Coat of arms
5631:Architecture
5608:Trade unions
5588:Prostitution
5548:Homelessness
5511:Demographics
5460:Trade unions
5427:
5417:German model
5390:Central bank
5334:Conservatism
5297:Human rights
5282:Court system
5277:Constitution
5276:
5257:
5103:Contemporary
5092:West Germany
5087:East Germany
5062:World War II
5057:Nazi Germany
4997:18th-century
4956:East Francia
4910:Cimbrian War
4755:East Germany
4753:
4747:
4664:(in English)
4622:
4616:(in English)
4607:(in English)
4598:(in English)
4584:
4578:(in English)
4569:(in English)
4537:
4517:. Retrieved
4513:the original
4508:
4499:
4480:
4474:(in English)
4457:
4437:
4430:
4406:
4399:
4393:(in English)
4377:
4365:. Retrieved
4361:
4352:
4340:. Retrieved
4336:
4327:
4310:
4306:
4296:
4284:. Retrieved
4280:
4271:
4260:, retrieved
4238:
4228:
4215:. Retrieved
4200:
4188:. Retrieved
4174:
4161:. Retrieved
4146:
4135:, retrieved
4121:
4115:
4106:
4100:
4091:
4085:
4066:
4060:
4052:
4036:
4027:
4021:
4013:
4008:
4000:
3995:
3987:
3982:
3974:
3969:
3958:, retrieved
3951:the original
3942:
3935:
3927:
3922:
3914:
3909:
3901:
3896:
3888:
3883:
3872:
3860:. Retrieved
3851:
3841:
3833:
3817:
3808:
3802:
3783:
3773:30 September
3771:. Retrieved
3757:
3750:
3742:Art. 79
3737:
3725:. Retrieved
3704:
3692:. Retrieved
3687:
3683:
3673:
3664:
3658:
3646:. Retrieved
3642:
3633:
3609:
3604:
3591:
3574:
3541:
3526:
3513:
3491:
3438:World War II
3385:Enabling Act
3281:. Retrieved
3268:
3251:
3238:
3230:
3226:
3223:
3216:
3195:
3188:
3184:
3164:
3149:
3145:
3139:
3112:
3103:
3083:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3065:
3038:
3031:
3025:
3019:
3013:
3011:
2999:
2981:
2970:then called
2968:Horst Köhler
2966:. President
2961:
2955:
2944:
2931:Willy Brandt
2928:
2912:
2902:
2900:
2881:
2850:
2826:SchluĂźstrich
2825:
2819:
2804:West Germany
2799:
2785:
2774:
2763:
2756:
2750:
2743:
2720:
2711:Other courts
2705:Nazi Germany
2693:Enabling act
2689:
2670:
2651:
2646:
2644:
2617:
2586:
2560:
2547:
2537:
2526:
2507:
2488:
2483:
2480:
2474:
2471:Basic Treaty
2467:Eastern Bloc
2460:
2456:
2453:puppet state
2436:
2423:Nazi Germany
2404:
2394:
2387:Bundesländer
2386:
2379:
2352:
2336:
2334:
2317:West Germany
2314:
2307:
2305:
2300:
2289:
2286:
2281:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2231:
2229:
2202:
2160:
2156:
2144:
2128:
2125:
2119:
2100:
2095:
2087:
2074:
2072:
2066:
2054:
2045:
2036:
2034:
2026:
2013:
1940:Bundesländer
1936:
1896:
1877:Basic Treaty
1873:
1861:German Reich
1845:
1828:Lower Saxony
1813:
1809:
1808:
1767:
1756:
1653:Conservatism
1598:
1557:
1493:Lower Saxony
1448:
1427:
1372:
1362:
1112:
1102:
953:
943:
890:
881:
865:
857:
839:
822:
819:
812:Subdivisions
798:Other courts
790:Joint Senate
726:
719:
708:
689:
637:
611:
579:
562:Human rights
544:
521:Politics of
509:
496:
473:
420:
416:
374:
370:
366:
361:
360:
358:
315:
307:constitution
294:
292:
275:
83:Jurisdiction
40:
6226:1949 in law
6174:Isle of Man
6109:recognition
6078:Switzerland
6013:Netherlands
5578:Pornography
5553:Immigration
5516:Drug policy
5428:Mittelstand
5375:Agriculture
5339:Nationalism
5312:Transgender
5196:Earthquakes
5143:, 1583-1588
5141:Cologne War
5037:World War I
4939:Middle Ages
4925:Gothic Wars
4623:Other links
4556:(in German)
4190:22 November
3789:"Basic Law"
3615:(in German)
3567:West Berlin
3549:, Hamburg,
3519:West Berlin
3477:Rechtsstaat
3283:14 November
3146:other votes
3131:Brandenburg
3115:referendums
3092:Vizeadmiral
3043:becoming a
2947:Helmut Kohl
2821:Rechtsstaat
2800:Grundgesetz
2676:beforehand.
2558:structure.
2518:legislative
2489:Volkskammer
2338:Rechtsstaat
2185:Herreninsel
2107:Herreninsel
2020:Karl Arnold
1856:Saar Treaty
1818:, Bavaria,
1759:irredentist
1473:Brandenburg
1232:1932 (July)
932:Referendums
847:composition
684:Legislature
626:Olaf Scholz
548:(Basic Law)
480:Grundrechte
443:rule of law
375:Grundgesetz
362:Grundgesetz
350:West Berlin
330:Grundgesetz
6215:Categories
6048:San Marino
6008:Montenegro
5988:Luxembourg
5968:Kazakhstan
5871:Azerbaijan
5739:Television
5724:Philosophy
5699:Literature
5558:Irreligion
5543:Healthcare
5506:Corruption
5272:Chancellor
5261:(military)
5258:Bundeswehr
4654:JurisPedia
4594:Wikisource
4313:(2): 461.
4137:7 December
3960:7 December
3852:www.hdg.de
3625:References
3245:Literature
3156:Amendments
3053:Bundeswehr
3041:Reichswehr
3027:Reichswehr
3021:Bundeswehr
3015:Bundeswehr
2885:Chancellor
2790:, forbids
2788:fair trial
2662:Bundeswehr
2569:Presidency
2524:branches.
2462:Ostpolitik
2221:federalism
2123:(states).
1791:annexation
1668:Liberalism
1639:Federalism
1247:1933 (Nov)
1242:1933 (Mar)
1237:1932 (Nov)
1217:1924 (Dec)
1212:1924 (May)
1127:1867 (Aug)
1122:1867 (Feb)
937:Coalitions
864:District (
439:federalism
286:Wikisource
284:at German
264:Wikisource
239:Supersedes
208:Federalism
167:Chancellor
98:8 May 1949
6164:Gibraltar
5983:Lithuania
5694:Libraries
5674:Festivals
5521:Education
5465:Transport
5430:companies
5349:President
5287:Elections
5252:Bundesrat
5247:Bundestag
5216:Mountains
5184:Districts
5162:Geography
4895:Visigoths
4832:Overviews
4538:Full text
4319:1066-1271
3648:6 January
3273:June 2022
3171:Bundesrat
3167:Bundestag
3099:Wehrmacht
3080:ombudsman
3049:President
3033:Wehrmacht
2972:elections
2963:Bundesrat
2915:president
2891:Bundesrat
2878:Bundestag
2872:Bundestag
2684:Bundestag
2552:Bundesrat
2540:Bundestag
2514:executive
2487:1990 the
2309:Sonderweg
2301:Sonderweg
2242:Reichstag
2088:Basic Law
1930:Bundestag
1826:, Hesse,
1663:Far-right
1648:Communism
1533:Thuringia
914:Elections
742:Judiciary
710:Bundesrat
691:Bundestag
606:Executive
427:democracy
367:Basic Law
305:) is the
249:Full text
229:Author(s)
174:Judiciary
162:Executive
155:Bundesrat
151:Bundestag
6184:Svalbard
6169:Guernsey
6116:Abkhazia
6063:Slovenia
6058:Slovakia
6033:Portugal
5891:Bulgaria
5786:Category
5704:Internet
5689:Language
5679:Folklore
5598:Religion
5573:Pensions
5568:Naturism
5445:Taxation
5329:Lobbying
5302:Intersex
5235:Politics
4844:Timeline
4823:General
4816:articles
4642: :
4630:(1994):
4488:Archived
4466:Archived
4386:Archived
4217:29 April
4211:Archived
4184:Archived
4163:29 April
4157:Archived
4131:archived
4045:Archived
3856:Archived
3826:Archived
3793:Archived
3767:Archived
3718:Archived
3694:16 April
3307:See also
3210:and the
3208:railways
3169:and the
2737:and the
2522:judicial
2417:and the
2193:Chiemsee
2191:lake of
2189:Bavarian
2142:Trizonal
2111:Chiemsee
2017:—
1796:de facto
1779:Beitritt
1617:Passport
1513:Saarland
891:Gemeinde
763:Ordinary
146:Chambers
124:Branches
94:Ratified
66:Overview
6088:Ukraine
6038:Romania
5998:Moldova
5956:Ireland
5951:Iceland
5946:Hungary
5936:Germany
5931:Georgia
5921:Finland
5916:Estonia
5911:Denmark
5896:Croatia
5881:Belgium
5876:Belarus
5866:Austria
5861:Armenia
5856:Andorra
5851:Albania
5763:Outline
5669:Fashion
5656:Cuisine
5618:Culture
5583:Poverty
5526:Germans
5489:Society
5470:Welfare
5455:Tourism
5412:Exports
5385:Banking
5363:Economy
5267:Cabinet
5206:Islands
5201:Geology
5124:Regions
4890:Teutons
4863:Ancient
4825:History
4812:Germany
4646:, 1994:
4636:Chicago
3370:(1919)
3340:(1849)
3327:(1815)
3189:During
3181:History
3161:Process
2556:federal
2484:de jure
2475:de jure
2457:de jure
2236:in the
2149:Bavaria
2115:Bavaria
2109:in the
2080:Koblenz
1955:Hamburg
1883:de jure
1824:Hamburg
1802:de jure
1785:de jure
1772:de jure
1483:Hamburg
1463:Bavaria
840:Landtag
821:State (
702:members
660:Cabinet
524:Germany
412:Austria
309:of the
109:Federal
6179:Jersey
6121:Kosovo
6083:Turkey
6073:Sweden
6053:Serbia
6043:Russia
6028:Poland
6023:Norway
6003:Monaco
5973:Latvia
5941:Greece
5926:France
5901:Cyprus
5837:Europe
5791:Portal
5646:Cinema
5626:Anthem
5593:Racism
5407:Energy
5221:Rivers
5179:States
5149:, 1848
4985:Modern
4814:
4445:
4418:
4367:13 May
4342:13 May
4317:
4286:13 May
4262:13 May
4253:
4073:
3547:Bremen
3406:Others
3401:(1968)
3395:(1949)
3387:(1933)
3381:(1933)
3364:(1871)
3353:(1867)
3300:
3296:
3292:
3271:
3258:
3239:Länder
3142:Hitler
3127:Berlin
3018:. The
2903:Länder
2751:Länder
2733:, the
2729:, the
2725:, the
2548:Länder
2520:, and
2411:Allies
2329:Hitler
2319:, the
2246:Hitler
2157:Länder
2151:. The
2145:Länder
2129:Länder
2120:Länder
2067:Länder
2046:Länder
1951:Bremen
1946:Länder
1854:. The
1838:, and
1820:Bremen
1591:Russia
1566:France
1518:Saxony
1478:Bremen
1468:Berlin
783:Social
778:Labour
773:Fiscal
665:Scholz
476:German
469:Berlin
338:German
326:German
299:German
104:System
6154:Ă…land
6068:Spain
5993:Malta
5963:Italy
5770:Index
5734:Sport
5719:Names
5714:Music
5709:Media
5664:Dance
5536:Women
5501:Crime
5475:Women
5211:Lakes
4885:Goths
4519:4 May
3954:(PDF)
3947:(PDF)
3862:4 May
3727:6 May
3721:(PDF)
3714:(PDF)
3551:Hesse
3505:Notes
3436:Post-
3302:968).
3277:(PDF)
2512:into
1816:Baden
1586:China
1571:Italy
1488:Hesse
866:Kreis
651:GrĂĽne
5684:Flag
5641:Arts
5307:LGBT
4766:1968
4761:1949
4652:(on
4562:HTML
4544:HTML
4521:2018
4443:ISBN
4416:ISBN
4369:2024
4344:2024
4315:ISSN
4288:2024
4264:2024
4251:ISBN
4219:2014
4192:2012
4165:2014
4139:2016
4071:ISBN
3962:2016
3864:2018
3775:2015
3729:2014
3696:2024
3650:2020
3580:Herr
3285:2022
3256:ISBN
3129:and
2847:U.S.
2832:who
2814:and
2794:and
2612:and
2321:Nazi
2219:and
2175:The
2073:The
1953:and
1904:the
1612:Visa
1428:2024
1422:2019
1417:2014
1412:2009
1407:2004
1402:1999
1397:1994
1392:1989
1387:1984
1382:1979
1363:Next
1357:2021
1352:2017
1347:2013
1342:2009
1337:2005
1332:2002
1327:1998
1322:1994
1317:1990
1312:1987
1307:1983
1302:1980
1297:1976
1292:1972
1287:1969
1282:1965
1277:1961
1272:1957
1267:1953
1262:1949
1257:1938
1252:1936
1227:1930
1222:1928
1207:1920
1202:1919
1197:1912
1192:1907
1187:1903
1182:1898
1177:1893
1172:1890
1167:1887
1162:1884
1157:1881
1152:1878
1147:1877
1142:1874
1137:1871
1132:1868
1103:2022
1097:2017
1092:2012
1087:2010
1082:2009
1077:2004
1072:1999
1067:1994
1062:1989
1057:1984
1052:1979
1047:1974
1042:1969
1037:1964
1032:1959
1027:1954
1022:1949
1006:1957
1001:1953
996:1949
980:1932
975:1925
970:1919
898:list
873:list
823:Land
618:list
441:and
318:Bonn
293:The
5835:of
5636:Art
5319:Law
4640:Ill
4575:PDF
4566:PDF
4548:PDF
4243:doi
3690:(3)
3150:the
2863:.
2830:GDR
2802:in
2783:.
2360:SPD
2356:CDU
2248:'s
1969:).
1581:USA
882:Amt
630:SPD
593:SPD
494:).
369:or
262:at
213:Yes
181::
6217::
4662:.
4656:).
4638:,
4634::
4614:.
4605:.
4596:.
4564:,
4550:,
4546:,
4507:.
4410:.
4360:.
4335:.
4311:53
4309:.
4305:.
4279:.
4249:,
4237:,
4209:.
4155:.
4129:,
4125:,
4051:,
3854:.
3850:.
3832:.
3824:.
3686:.
3682:.
3641:.
3298:p.
3290:28
3241:.
3121:.
3101:.
3009:.
2767:.
2754:.
2707:.
2516:,
2215:,
1637:/
1576:UK
478::
437:,
433:,
429:,
340::
328::
313:.
301::
5825:e
5818:t
5811:v
4804:e
4797:t
4790:v
4758::
4694:e
4687:t
4680:v
4523:.
4451:.
4424:.
4371:.
4346:.
4321:.
4290:.
4245::
4221:.
4194:.
4167:.
4079:.
3866:.
3777:.
3731:.
3698:.
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3652:.
3617:.
3599:.
3287:.
3262:.
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