299:
311:
27:
527:
650:
1491:
465:(Case No. 12, 1947–1948), the U.S. military tribunal ruled that in order for a commanding officer to be criminally liable for the war crimes of his subordinates "there must be a personal dereliction", which "can only occur where the act is directly traceable to him, or where his failure to properly supervise his subordinates constitutes criminal negligence on his part" by way of "a wanton, immoral disregard of the actions of his subordinates amounting to acquiescence" to the war crimes.
185:
1477:
1505:
431:, Japanese Fourteenth Area Army, was the first instance of a commanding officer formally charged with a criminal act of omission by “unlawfully disregarding and failing to discharge his duty as a commander to control the acts of members of his command by permitting them to commit war crimes” in the Philippine Islands, where his soldiers committed atrocities against Allied prisoners of war, Filipino guerrillas, and civilians during the Second World War.
1128:("the Čelebići case") first considered the scope of command responsibility by concluding that "had reason to know" (article 7(3)) means that a commander must have "had in his possession information of a nature, which at the least, would put him on notice of the risk of ... offences by indicating the need for additional investigation in order to ascertain whether ... crimes were committed or were about to be committed by his subordinates."
435:
826:: Military leadership in the field. The Yamashita standard established that a commanding officer cannot cede operational command to a subordinate officer; that operational commanders must fully exercise the potential of their authority to prevent the commission of war crimes – neither failure to supervise subordinates nor ambiguous orders exculpate the commander.
474:(Case No. 7, 1947–1948), the judgements of the U.S. military tribunal seemed to limit the circumstances wherein a commanding officer has a duty to investigate, document, and know in full of all instances of atrocity and war crime, especially if the commander already possessed information regarding the war crimes of his subordinate officers and soldiers.
477:
After the war crimes trials of the Second World War, military law expanded the scope and deepened the definition of command responsibility, by imposing criminal liability upon commanding officers who fail to prevent their soldiers committing war crimes against prisoners of war and atrocities against
736:
against the government officials and military officers who violated the U.N. Convention
Against Torture. In support of Nowak's statement, the jurist Dietmar Herz explained that former president George W. Bush is criminally responsible for adopting torture-as-interrogation, per the legal doctrine of
279:
Whoever intentionally inflicts additional wounds on an enemy already wholly disabled, or kills such an enemy, or who orders or encourages soldiers to do so, shall suffer death, if duly convicted, whether he belongs to the Army of the United States, or is an enemy captured after having committed his
757:
the fact that a breach of the
Conventions or of this Protocol was committed by a subordinate does not absolve his superiors from ... responsibility ... if they knew, or had information which should have enabled them to conclude in the circumstances at the time, that he was committing or about to
294:
emphasizes command responsibility in three places: (i) Section I: On
Belligerents: Chapter I: The Qualifications of Belligerents; (ii) Section III: Military Authority over the Territory of the Hostile State; and (iii) the Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention deal
58:, whereby a commanding officer (military) and a superior officer (civil) is legally responsible for the war crimes and the crimes against humanity committed by his subordinates; thus, a commanding officer always is accountable for the acts of commission and the acts of omission of his soldiers.
289:
The Hague
Conventions of 1899 and 1907 are the international legal foundations for the conduct of war among civilized nations, especially the legal doctrine of command responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity. The Hague Convention of 1907 updated the codifications of the Hague
1149:
The conflicting views of both cases were addressed by the
Appeals Chambers in Čelebići and in a separate decision in Blaškić. Both rulings hold that some information of unlawful acts by subordinates must be available to the commander following which he did not, or inadequately, discipline the
1117:
The ICTY statute article 7 (3) establishes that the fact that crimes "were committed by a subordinate does not relieve his superior of criminal responsibility if he knew or had reason to know that the subordinate was about to commit such acts or had done so and the superior failed to take the
426:
is a mode of individual criminal liability, whereby the commanding officer is legally responsible for the war crimes committed by his subordinates, by failing to act and prevent such crimes; and for failing to punish war-criminal subordinates. In late 1945, the war-crimes trial of
General
368:
The commanders in chief of the belligerent fleets must arrange for the details of carrying out the preceding articles, as well as for cases not covered thereby, in accordance with the instructions of their respective
Governments and in conformity with the general principles of the present
405:
soldiers (uniform, weapons, tactics, missions, etc.) that practical likeness renders the mercenary (militiaman or irregular combatant) into a legitimate agent of the belligerent state, who thus is subject to the legal liabilities of command responsibility codified in the Hague and in the
753:(AP I, 1977) to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 was the first comprehensive codification of the legal doctrine of command responsibility. In the Additional Protocol No. I, the terms of Article 86(2) "explicitly address the knowledge factor of command responsibility", and stipulate that:
359:
The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the
1206:
as a war crime. Rape was placed in line with "other acts of serious bodily and mental harm" rather than the historical view of rape as "a trophy of war". Akayesu was held responsible for his actions and non-actions as mayor and police commander of a commune in which many
587:, 548 U.S. 557 (2006), the U.S. Supreme Court overruled Attorney General Gonzáles' illegal reclassification of POWs as detainees; ruled that Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions applies to the Al Qaeda POWs at the Guantanamo Bay prison camp; and ruled that the
1332:
individual commanders and civilian officials could be liable for failing to take any action to end abuses by their troops or staff ... The principle of command responsibility is applicable in internal armed conflicts as well as in international armed
451:
of criminal liability, whereby if "vengeful actions are widespread offenses, and there is no effective attempt by a commander to discover and control the criminal acts, such a commander may be held responsible, even criminally liable". In 1946, with the
762:
Therefore, in the execution of military operations, Article 86(2) obligates a commanding officer to "prevent, and, where necessary, to suppress and report to competent authorities" any violation of the Geneva
Conventions and of Additional Protocol I.
1279:
It uses the stricter "should have known" standard of mens rea, instead of "had reason to know", as defined by the ICTY Statute. Although the ICC Pre-Trial
Chamber established a test for the "should have known" standard during the prosecution of
857:: the supreme governing authority of a territory under military occupation. Subordination is again irrelevant – the commanding officer is responsible for the welfare of the civilian populace under his military occupation, as established in the
136:
expanded the U.S. Code to include the criminal liability of
American military officers for the war crimes committed by their subordinates, as are the war-criminal military officers of an enemy power. The Medina standard was established in the
180:
said that the duties and responsibilities of a commanding officer were to ensure that in prosecuting a war, his soldiers act in accordance with the customary laws of war, by limiting their operational actions to the military aims of the war.
2324:
10 February 2006. International Human Rights Law Institute, DePaul University College of Law. Presented 14 March 2006 as the 38th Henry J. Miller Distinguished Lecture, Georgia State University College of Law, and to be published in the
1153:
The concept of command responsibility has developed significantly in the jurisprudence of the ICTY. One of the most recent judgements that extensively deals with the subject is the Halilović judgement of 16 November 2005 (para. 22–100).
235:
did not exist in the 15th century, the tribunal did presume he had a legal responsibility for the war crimes of his soldiers, thus Hagenbach's trial was the first war crimes trial based upon the legal doctrine of command responsibility.
456:, the U.S. Supreme Court resolved the ambiguous wording of that legal definition of command responsibility, which did not establish the commander's required degree of knowledge of the war crimes committed by his subordinates.
3320:
226:
The Knight Hagenbach was accused of, tried, and convicted for war crimes that "he, as a knight, was deemed to have a duty to prevent"; in self-defense, Hagenbach argued that he was only following the military orders of
438:
The Yamashita standard: Under the legal doctrine of command responsibility, Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita was tried, judged, and put to death for the war crimes of his soldiers in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War
3695:
1270:
codified the doctrine of command responsibility. With Article 28(a), military commanders are imposed with individual responsibility for crimes committed by forces under their effective command and control if they
3084:"Die leere Anklagebank – Heikles juristisches Erbe: Der künftige US-Präsident Barack Obama muss über eine Strafverfolgung seiner Vorgänger entscheiden. Mögliche Angeklagte sind George W. Bush und Donald Rumsfeld"
128:
charged, tried, and judged Gen. Yamashita for "unlawfully disregarding, and failing to discharge, his duty as a commander to control the acts of members of his command, by permitting them to commit war crimes".
1367:
Following an inquiry by the United Nations, regarding allegations of involvement of the Government in genocide, the dossier was referred to the International Criminal Court. On May 2, 2007, the ICC issued
1240:
tribunals, the international community decided on a comprehensive court of justice for future crimes against humanity. This resulted in the International Criminal Court, which identified four categories.
1183:, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994; additional later resolutions expanded the scope and timeline of the tribunal. The tribunal has jurisdiction over
267:
committed by his subordinate officers, sergeants, and soldiers; and further stipulated the duties and rights of the individual soldier of the Union Army to not commit war crimes – such as the
3472:
530:
Civilian superior responsibility: In violation of the Geneva Conventions (1949), the U.S. Attorney General, Alberto Gonzáles (in office 2005–2007), voided U.S. recognition of the rights of
1295:
in an attempt to protect any US citizen from appearing before this court. As such it interferes with implementing the command responsibility principle when applicable to US citizens.
598:
organization said that, given his superior responsibility of government office, U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld would be criminally liable for the torturing of the prisoner
713:, would be evidence of U.S. war crimes at a war-crimes trial of the War on Terror. Moreover, by the end of the Bush administration in 2008, the international community said that the
1292:
2125:, a research paper presented to Encounters at Sugamo Prison, Tokyo 1945–52, The American Occupation of Japan and Memories of the Asia-Pacific War, Princeton University, 9 May 2003.
3528:
488:(a guilty mind) for war crimes to occur, and determined that a lesser level of knowledge is sufficient for the commander to be complicit in the war crimes of his subordinates.
1214:
Another case prosecuted persons in charge of a radio station and a newspaper that incited and then encouraged the Rwandan genocide. The defendants were charged with genocide,
2065:
256:
that allowed the Union Army to lawfully combat the regular and irregular modes of warfare (partisans, guerrillas, spies) deployed by the Confederacy in the mid-19th century.
1001:, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing.
3245:
3477:
1411:
because he "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity. The ICC's prosecutor for Darfur,
1142:
required by AP I. The Blaškić Trial Chamber concluded that "had reason to know", as defined by the ICTY Statute, also imposes a stricter "should have known" standard of
3651:
912:– superior status is deduced from an analysis of the distribution of military tasks among the soldiers of the unit, and applies to operational and POW camp commanders.
851:
decision, the ICTY established that the commander of a POW camp is entrusted with the welfare of every prisoner, and that the condition of subordination is irrelevant.
3143:
2005:
1917:
1089:
on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the
1814:
1112:
717:(1985) obligated the U.S. government to prosecute the civilian and military officers who ordered and realized the torture of POWs captured during the War on Terror.
874:(factual) command, the effective, tactical control of soldiers in the field is the determining factor, not the rank of the commanding officer. This circumstance of
1103:
at Nuremberg applied to all "leaders, organisers, instigators and accomplices" who participated in planning and committing crimes against humanity and war crimes.
2188:
1849:
686:
as any serious violation of the Geneva Convention, which left the POW no means of legal defense. In "Court 'can envisage' Blair Prosecution" (2007), the jurist
116:(1945–1946). Abiding by that legal precedent, the U.S. Supreme Court allowed the U.S. prosecution of the war crimes case against Imperial Japanese Army General
3304:
690:(ICC, 2003–2012) offered to begin a war-crimes enquiry for a war-crimes trial of British Prime Minister Tony Blair and U.S. President George W. Bush, for the
1349:
2203:
364:
Furthermore, command responsibility is stipulated in Article 19 of Convention X, the Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention:
3111:
1641:
1457:
may be prosecuted using this doctrine. Because Zimbabwe has not subscribed to the International Criminal Court's jurisdiction it may be authorised by the
970:(20 November 1945 – 1 October 1946) resulted from the common opinion among jurists that the severity of Nazi war crimes and crimes against humanity (e.g.
3679:
3023:
2317:
3688:
By Robin Rowland, Paper presented to Encounters at Sugamo Prison, Tokyo 1945–52, The American Occupation of Japan and Memories of the Asia-Pacific War,
3625:
3598:
3584:
3566:
3554:
2457:
1380:
for crimes against humanity and war crimes. To this day Sudan has refused to comply with the arrest warrants and has not turned them over to the ICC.
978:(8 August 1945), which determined the procedures and legal bases to prosecute military officers, civil officials, and civilian people who committed:
3332:
1809:
1267:
920:
444:
125:
3657:
3560:
3513:
3492:
2149:
668:
for the Bush administration to flout their superior responsibility and thus their legal liability for war crimes committed when prosecuting the
2856:
2705:
1839:
1168:
909:
3585:
The Last Line of Defense: The Doctrine of Command Responsibility, Gender Crimes in Armed Conflict, and the Kahan Report (Sabra & Shatilla)
3043:
1524:
1308:
2842:
2668:
626:
that breached international law, and so exposed the superior responsibility of U.S. President George W. Bush for unilaterally launching an
2444:"Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land"
2443:
1275:
either knew or, owing to the circumstances at the time, should have known that the forces were committing or about to commit such crimes.
2960:
1819:
1288:
1163:
924:
2652:
Foreign Policy in Focus (FPIF), a project of the International Relations Center and the Institute for Policy Studies. 10 January 2006.
2618:
591:
who tried, judged, and sentenced al Qaeda POWs was an illegitimate military tribunal, because the U.S. Congress did not establish it.
538:
Consequent to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, the U.S. government deployed legalistic arguments to justify torture by way of
298:
1706:
714:
219:
in prosecuting their war. The tribunal tried Hagenbach for atrocities committed by his soldiers during their military occupation of
2245:
2062:
1634:
3727:
3249:
3090:
3674:
2702:"Former NY Congress member Holtzman Calls For President Bush and His Senior Staff To Be Held Accountable for Abu Ghraib Torture"
2181:
606:
said that in flouting the Geneva Conventions, the Bush administration were legally liable for war crimes in U.S.-occupied Iraq.
3316:"American Disengagement with the International Criminal Court: Undermining International Justice and U.S. Foreign Policy Goals"
2794:
1529:
1436:
3459:
1967:
3701:
2987:
2875:
2542:
2427:
2402:
2041:
3272:
602:. In "The Real Meaning of the Hamdan Ruling Supreme Court: Bush Administration Has Committed War Crimes" (2006), the writer
3698:
General McCaffrey presented the following on 18 November 1995 during "Nuremberg and the Rule of Law: A Fifty-Year Verdict."
3139:
2757:
2587:
1914:
1085:, enslavement, deportation, and other inhuman acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or
710:
3717:
3652:
Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law
3602:
3517:"We can do something about Mugabe: The International Criminal Court has every right to demand justice and accountability"
3434:
1915:
Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law
1627:
758:
commit such a breach, and if they did not take all feasible measures within their power to prevent or repress the breach.
3666:
by Stuart E Hendin BA, MA, LLB, LLM, QC, Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, Volume 10, Number 1 (March 2003)
1676:
1583:
697:
In "History Will Not Absolve Us: Leaked Red Cross Report Sets up Bush Team for International War-crimes Trial" (2007),
62:
2818:
401:
said that when the operational conduct of mercenary soldiers is indistinguishable from the operational conduct of the
306:
national militia to defend Germany from the Red Army in the last months of the Second World War (1939–1945) in Europe.
2730:
2488:
Phelps, Martha Lizabeth (December 2014). "Doppelgangers of the State: Private Security and Transferable Legitimacy".
721:
3592:
3300:
2516:
791:
661:
508:
3516:
3135:
Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment calls for prosecution
2720:
3190:
2207:
1458:
1100:
634:
and began legal proceedings against U.S. defense secretary Rumsfeld, U.S. Attorney General Gonzáles, the jurist
215:
of command responsibility, of a commander's legal obligation to ensure that his soldiers act in accordance with
90:
3669:
2277:
1933:
1880:
1824:
588:
551:
2645:
2313:
3632:
3347:"Chapter 9: Individual Accountability for Violations of Human Dignity: International Criminal Law and Beyond"
2774:"U.S.: Rumsfeld Potentially Liable for Torture Defense Secretary Allegedly Involved in Abusive Interrogation"
1696:
1316:
244:
During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the legal doctrine of command responsibility was codified in the
3041:"History Will Not Absolve Us: Leaked Red Cross report sets up Bush team for international war-crimes trial"
1972:
1844:
1829:
1658:
1384:
1357:
1231:
928:
691:
310:
35:
2738:
1461:. The precedent for this was set by its referral to bring indictments relating to the crimes committed in
974:) required prosecution, judgement, and resolution by an International Military Tribunal authorized by the
3619:
3610:
3177:
2135:
1885:
1666:
957:
479:
26:
3575:
3328:
2283:
1722:
1650:
2157:
515:
would expose the officers of the George W. Bush administration (2001–2008) to legal liability for the
3346:
2569:
2258:
1875:
1519:
1363:
had "command responsibility" for the atrocities committed by the multiple Sudanese security services.
729:
86:
534:
and POW-status for captured Al Qaeda fighters to facilitate prosecution of the Global War on Terror.
3340:
2791:"The Real Meaning of the Hamdan Ruling Supreme Court: Bush Administration Has Committed War Crimes"
2362:
1432:
1424:
382:
to replace regular army soldiers in fighting wars, which replacement of tactical combat personnel (
3663:
3248:(citation for honorary doctorate bestowed on Navanethem Pillay). Rhodes University. Archived from
2758:"The Gitmo Fallout: The Fight Over the Hamdan Ruling Heats Up – As Fears About its Reach Escalate"
2103:
2012: (archive index) by Iavor Rangelov and Jovan Nicic, Humanitarian Law Center, 23 February 2004.
1953:
73:
to fight in the regular and the irregular modes of warfare deployed by the Confederacy during the
2664:
2597:
1733:
1404:
1250:
1188:
1076:
936:
728:(in office 2004–2010), said that, as a former president of the U.S., George W. Bush had lost his
520:
423:
391:
348:
264:
231:, the Duke of Burgundy, to whom the Holy Roman Empire had bequeathed Breisach. Although the term
145:
in 1971 for not exercising his command authority as company commander, by not acting to halt the
3404:
2296:
1415:, is expected within months to ask a panel of ICC judges to issue an arrest warrant for Bashir.
794:, the determining factor is hierarchical subordination, not the rank of the commanding officer.
3615:
2689:
2556:
1890:
1758:
1613:
1534:
1284:, it has never been tested because Bemba had "actual knowledge" of crimes by his subordinates.
1215:
679:
631:
575:
3119:
2852:
2701:
2104:"Command Responsibility and Superior Orders in the Twentieth Century – A Century of Evolution"
394:
committed by mercenaries ostensibly not subject to the military law of any belligerent party.
386:) – by a private military company – raises the legal matter of command responsibility for the
3202:
3040:
2968:
2773:
1568:
1377:
818:
750:
526:
3664:
Command Responsibility and Superior Orders in the Twentieth Century - A Century of Evolution
355:
Moreover, command responsibility is stipulated in Article 43, Section III of Convention IV:
259:
As U.S. military law, the Lieber Code stipulated a commander's legal responsibility for the
3689:
2622:
1834:
1691:
1578:
1134:
992:
733:
61:
In the late 19th century, the legal doctrine of command responsibility was codified in the
314:
Irregular soldiers: Boer militias waged guerrilla warfare against the British Army in the
8:
3722:
3658:
YAMASHITA, MEDINA, AND BEYOND: COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY IN CONTEMPORARY MILITARY OPERATIONS
3606:
3561:
YAMASHITA, MEDINA, AND BEYOND: COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY IN CONTEMPORARY MILITARY OPERATIONS
3538:
3374:
2557:"The Memo: How an internal effort to ban the abuse and torture of detainees was thwarted"
2366:
2237:
2129:
1791:
1738:
1701:
1603:
1598:
1588:
1539:
1260:
623:
599:
208:
275:, and enemy civilians; thus Article 71, Section III of the Lieber Code stipulates that:
3329:"The International Criminal Court: American Concerns About an International Prosecutor"
2635:
1775:
1770:
1743:
1681:
1563:
1544:
1412:
1388:
1325:
1123:
1118:
necessary and reasonable measures to prevent such acts or to punish the perpetrators."
1068:
1028:
878:
command authority requires the existence of a formal superior-subordinate relationship.
706:
687:
595:
583:
563:
547:
428:
407:
331:
272:
223:, and was found guilty of their war crimes, condemned to death, and then was beheaded.
117:
74:
3083:
2233:
3105:
2945:
2423:
2398:
2378:
1981:
1686:
1573:
1281:
1199:
1176:
1171:(1994) set up an international criminal tribunal to judge people responsible for the
998:
975:
961:
461:
268:
204:
112:
of the developments of the legal doctrine of command responsibility presented in the
78:
20:
3415:
3364:"Entrenching Impunity: Government Responsibility for International Crimes in Darfur"
2790:
649:
252:(24 April 1863) – the contemporary updating of the 18th-century military law of the
3704:
By Ilias Bantekas, the American Journal of International Law v.93, no. 3, July 1999
3301:"The Nuremberg Tribunal: Background Reading about the International Criminal Court"
2934:
2619:"Command's Responsibility: Detainee Deaths in U.S. Custody in Iraq and Afghanistan"
2533:"Getting Away with Torture? Command Responsibility for the U.S. Abuse of Detainees"
2497:
1977:
1804:
1753:
1338:
1172:
1052:
1032:
967:
953:
899:
619:
615:
567:
447:
who charged, tried, and judged Gen. Yamashita guilty of war crimes established the
228:
113:
3315:
3158:
3067:
2983:
2921:
2871:
2538:
2038:
3336:
3308:
3147:
3077:
3047:
2991:
2879:
2860:
2822:
2798:
2742:
2709:
2672:
2649:
2591:
2546:
2458:"Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention (Hague X)"
2321:
2069:
2045:
2009:
1921:
1870:
1671:
1593:
1510:
1496:
1304:
1218:, and crimes against humanity for their positions of control and command in the "
1048:
919:
Moreover, Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Convention and the statutes of the
643:
315:
253:
146:
98:
3215:
2579:
1138:("the Blaškić case") this view was corroborated. However, it differed regarding
3497:
2901:
2897:
2561:
2314:"The Perennial Conflict Between International Criminal Justice and Realpolitik"
1392:
1369:
804:
627:
539:
419:
212:
168:
120:
for the atrocities committed by his soldiers in the Philippine Islands, in the
94:
69:(General Orders No. 100, 24 April 1863), military law that legally allowed the
51:
3557:
Ilias Bantekas, International Review of the Red Cross No. 838, p. 391–402
3375:"HRW Letter to Prime Minister Harper of Canada Regarding the Crisis in Darfur"
2518:
Application of Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1 (1946) [full text of the opinion]
322:
To wit, Article 1 of Section I of Convention IV (Hague 1907) stipulates that:
3711:
3140:"UN torture investigator calls on Obama to charge Bush for Guantanamo abuses"
2234:"The evolution of individual criminal responsibility under international law"
1619:
1550:
1454:
1344:
1312:
971:
725:
703:
Leave No Marks: Enhanced Interrogation Techniques and the Risk of Criminality
674:
669:
653:
603:
574:"substantially reduces the threat of domestic criminal prosecution under the
512:
497:
470:
216:
142:
138:
3159:"UN Rapporteur: Initiate criminal proceedings against Bush and Rumsfeld now"
1106:
3464:
3290:
2996:
2815:
2379:
Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field
1711:
1557:
1428:
1090:
1086:
1024:
639:
250:
Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field
184:
3363:
326:
The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, but also to
3685:
3593:
YAMASHITA v. STYER, Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces, Western Pacific
2956:
2122:
1373:
1020:
814:
738:
698:
665:
245:
173:
150:
121:
66:
3696:
ROLE OF THE ARMED FORCES IN THE PROTECTION AND PROMOTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
3435:"Sudan president refuses to turn over war crimes suspects wanted by ICC"
3004:
1504:
3654:
by Allison Marston Danner†and Jenny S. Martinez, CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW
2694:
2552:
2501:
2475:
2446:. The Hague: International Committee of the Red Cross. 18 October 1907.
1608:
1482:
1396:
1353:
1255:
1219:
1192:
1012:
1006:
932:
516:
303:
188:
Command responsibility: The war-crimes trial of the Knight Hagenbach. (
70:
55:
3555:
The interests of States versus the doctrine of superior responsibility
2532:
3521:
2191:, Human Rights Program, School of the Americas, Fort Benning, Georgia
2048:
by Ilias Bantekas, American Journal of International Law, 3 July 1999
1780:
1391:, announced on July 14, 2008, ten criminal charges against President
1320:
1036:
434:
402:
387:
379:
260:
109:
31:
1476:
3680:
THE YAMASHITA WAR CRIMES TRIAL: COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY THEN AND NOW
2642:
1924:
by Allison Marston Danner and Jenny S. Martinez, 15 September 2004.
1748:
1490:
1442:
1408:
1400:
1245:
1184:
1082:
1064:
870:
635:
543:
484:
383:
220:
3473:"ICC prosecutor seeking arrest warrant for the President of Sudan"
732:
and that international law obligated the U.S. government to start
523:
committed by their military subordinates in Iraq and Afghanistan.
290:
Convention of 1899, thus, in Convention IV (18 October 1907), the
3273:"Command responsibility for Australian war crimes in Afghanistan"
2926:
2698:, June 28, 2005 (July 18, 2005 issue) about the Geneva Convention
1446:
1044:
1040:
786:
327:
177:
3670:
The Last Line of Defense: The Doctrine of Command Responsibility
3567:
THE TRIBUNAL'S FIRST TRIAL TO CONSIDER COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY...
2259:"Exhibit highlights the first international war crimes tribunal"
1372:
for militia leader Ali Muhammad al-Abd al-Rahman, also known as
1011:
violations of the laws and customs of war. A list follows with,
656:
was the U.N. Special Rapporteur on torture from 2004 until 2010.
3579:
3460:"Darfur genocide charges for Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir"
1765:
1462:
1450:
1237:
1180:
1056:
1016:
398:
2150:"Excerpt of the Prosecution Brief on the Law of Principals in
2072:
by Profr. Kai Ambos, University of Göttingen, 25 January 2007.
2460:. International Committee of the Red Cross. October 18, 1907.
2420:
International Crime and Punishment: Selected Issues, Volume 1
2241:
1208:
1157:
1027:
or for any other purpose of the civilian population of or in
341:
To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at a distance
2922:"Why The Military Commissions Act is No Moderate Compromise"
1019:(which excludes killing in lawful combat), ill-treatment or
630:. In November 2006, the Federal Republic of Germany invoked
482:(1946–1949), explicitly discussed the requisite standard of
338:
To be commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates
3570:
3178:"International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia"
1203:
1060:
902:(1947–1949) before the U.S. Military Tribunal at Nuremberg.
737:
superior responsibility stipulated in of the international
422:
of military law, command responsibility stipulates that an
3587:
566:(1949) protecting prisoners of war, U.S. Attorney General
1815:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
1113:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
1107:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
1222:", although they physically had not committed the acts.
1211:
were killed, raped, tortured, and otherwise persecuted.
161:
3068:"Overseas, Expectations Build for Torture Prosecutions"
2598:"From John Ashcroft's Justice Department to Abu Ghraib"
1850:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
931:(ICC) stipulate that the prevention and prosecution of
511:, civil and military jurists said that prosecuting the
3057:
2478:
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Convention of 1977.
997:
the planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a
149:(16 March 1968) committed by his soldiers during the
34:
of the world are tried, judged, and sentenced by the
3063:
Other countries might pursue war-crime prosecutions
2063:
Joint Criminal Enterprise and Command Responsibility
1472:
1407:. The ICC's prosecutors have charged al-Bashir with
939:
are legal responsibilities of a commanding officer.
373:
3321:
The Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution
2843:"Charges Sought Against Rumsfeld Over Prison Abuse"
2549:
by John D. Hutson, Pioneer Press, 28 February 2006.
2279:
An Introduction to the International Criminal Court
622:, said that the U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003) was a
507:Concerning the superior responsibility inherent to
347:To conduct their operations in accordance with the
2690:"Torture and Accountability by Elizabeth Holtzman"
2514:
2363:"Command Responsibility: The Mens Rea Requirement"
1805:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
886:(discriminating marks) of command authority are:
554:, because under U.S. law they were classified as
3709:
3110:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2098:
1934:Command, superior and ministerial responsibility
1835:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
1810:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
1268:Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
921:International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
796:There are four structures of command authority:
550:– not soldiers – and thus could be subjected to
478:civilians. The last two war-crime trials of the
445:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
191:Berner Chronik des Diebold Schilling dem Ă„lteren
126:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
3702:THE CONTEMPORARY LAW OF SUPERIOR RESPONSIBILITY
3226:. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
2535:. Human Rights Watch, April 2005 Vol. 17, No. 1
2392:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2039:The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility
1225:
211:was the first international recognition of the
207:(962–1806), the trial of the Burgundian knight
3360:Responsibility for crimes committed in Darfur
3184:
3005:"Republican Torture Laws Will Live in History"
1908:
1649:
1169:United Nations Security Council Resolution 955
966:In the aftermath of the Second World War, the
807:, high-rank government officials, and monarchs
3091:"Aktuelle Nachrichten und Kommentare - SZ.de"
2946:"Europe's Investigations of the CIA's Crimes"
1936:by Robin Rowland, CBC News Online, 6 May 2004
1635:
1525:Cases before the International Criminal Court
1309:International response to the Darfur conflict
898:: recognized as a source of authority in the
239:
132:In the 20th century, in the early 1970s, the
3081:
2580:"Rumsfeld, Bush, and 'command responsibility
2422:. University Press of America. p. 117.
2357:
2355:
2108:Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law
2075:
2006:Command Responsibility: The Contemporary Law
1965:
1927:
1328:commented on this conflict by stating that:
906:Evidence stemming from distribution of tasks
189:
104:In the 20th century, in the late 1940s, the
3616:Command Responsibility in the United States
3389:
3387:
3385:
2853:"War Crimes Suit Prepared against Rumsfeld"
2539:"Accountability Absent in Prisoner Torture"
2353:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2248:No. 835, p. 531–553, October 30, 1999.
2204:"Events of 1971 - Year in Review - UPI.com"
2058:
2056:
2054:
378:Since the 1990s, national governments hire
3373:Muhammed-Ally, Nur and Rachamalla, Teja.
3339:. Law and Government Division, Library of
3093:. Archived from the original on 2009-02-25
2816:"Could Bush Be Prosecuted for War Crimes?"
2756:Isikoff, Michael, and Taylor, Stuart, Jr.
2272:
2270:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1820:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
1642:
1628:
1164:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
1158:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
925:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
491:
295:specifically with command responsibility.
89:(1921) that included the trial of Captain
3529:"Robert Mugabe 'unlikely to flee Zimbabwe
3451:
3449:
3447:
3270:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2152:United States v. Captain Ernest L. Medina
1840:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
1453:of political opponents, it was suggested
836:International law developed two types of
832:: direct command of troops on the ground.
715:United Nations Convention Against Torture
609:
413:
156:
124:(1941–1945) of the Second World War. The
3382:
3296:American Servicemembers' Protection Act
3131:
3129:
3024:"Court 'can envisage' Blair prosecution"
2397:. Oxford University Press. p. 184.
2332:
2246:International Committee of the Red Cross
2051:
672:, because, by denying POWs the right of
648:
525:
433:
309:
297:
183:
25:
3493:"Mugabe unlikely to pay for his crimes"
3243:
2955:
2470:The 20th-century legal definition of a
2267:
2015:
1988:
1289:American Servicemembers' Protection Act
570:said that classifying al Qaeda POWs as
16:Doctrine of hierarchical accountability
3710:
3504:
3444:
3370:. December 2005. Volume 17, No. 17(A).
3354:
3271:Guilfoyle, Douglas (19 January 2021).
2935:"The CIA, the MCA, and Detainee Abuse"
2515:U.S. Supreme Court (4 February 1946),
2487:
2388:
2386:
2289:
2221:
1530:Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project
1437:Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008
198:
108:derived from the incorporation to the
42:In the practice of international law,
3599:Yamashita v. Styer, 327 U.S. 1 (1946)
3277:European Journal of International Law
3126:
2641:Brecher, Jeremy, and Smith, Brendan.
2251:
1952:, ICTY TC II, 10 June 2010 (case no.
1623:
947:
845:Prisoner-of-war (POW) camp commanders
302:Nazi Germany (1933–1945) created the
162:9th-century BC to 5th-century BC Asia
97:committed by his soldiers during the
3405:"Massacres suspect let into Britain"
2731:"US Lawyers Warn Bush on War Crimes"
1287:The Bush administration adopted the
711:Physicians for Social Responsibility
678:, the MCA retroactively rewrote the
502:
454:Application of Yamashita, 327 U.S. 1
3218:The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu
2870:Brecher Jeremy and Smith, Brendan.
2417:
2383:
2327:Georgia State University Law Review
2189:"The My Lai Massacre: A Case Study"
1966:van der Wilt, Harmen (2013-09-30).
54:of hierarchical accountability for
13:
3675:SUPERIOR OR COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY
3648:BY JOHN D. HUTSON AND JAMES CULLEN
3458:Walker, Peter and Sturcke, James.
3311:. Case Western Reserve University.
2721:"Memos Reveal War Crimes Warnings"
2393:Antonio Cassese (April 30, 2008).
1093:of the country where perpetrated.
1067:, or devastation not justified by
468:At Nuremberg, in the trial of the
81:, the legal doctrine and the term
65:, which are partly based upon the
63:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
14:
3739:
2917:Military Commissions Act of 2006
1959:
1099:Legally, the jurisdiction of the
722:United Nations special rapporteur
660:Moreover, in legal practice, the
374:Militias and irregular formations
3510:Robert Mugabe may be prosecuted
2182:"Human Rights and the Commander"
1503:
1489:
1475:
1441:For his conduct as President of
1348:in March 2008 reported that the
1298:
1175:and other serious violations of
662:Military Commissions Act of 2006
642:, for their legal liability for
562:(POWs). To justify flouting the
509:civilian control of the military
3486:
3427:
3264:
3237:
3208:
3191:United Nations Security Council
3170:
3033:
3016:
2911:
2891:
2832:
2808:
2783:
2767:
2750:
2681:
2657:
2609:
2524:
2508:
2481:
2464:
2450:
2436:
2411:
2372:
2306:
2196:
2171:
2142:
1459:United Nations Security Council
1101:International Military Tribunal
744:
292:Laws and Customs of War on Land
284:
3728:Legal doctrines and principles
3377:. Toronto: Human Rights Watch.
3123:. 19 January 2009 (in German).
2902:"Pushing Back on Detainee Act"
2112:
1982:10.1093/obo/9780199796953-0088
1939:
1881:International humanitarian law
1825:Special Court for Sierra Leone
942:
847:: With the application of the
766:
589:Guantanamo military commission
552:enhanced interrogation methods
1:
3588:The Berkeley Electronic Press
3548:
1395:, accusing him of sponsoring
1317:Timeline of the War in Darfur
1031:, murder or ill-treatment of
614:In 2006, a prosecutor of the
334:fulfilling these conditions:
85:were applied and used in the
3244:Walters, Paul (April 2005).
2961:"Bush's War Crimes Cover-up"
1973:Oxford Bibliographies Online
1845:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
1830:International Criminal Court
1385:International Criminal Court
1358:Abdel Rahim Mohammed Hussein
1232:International Criminal Court
1226:International Criminal Court
1055:, the wanton destruction of
929:International Criminal Court
692:International Criminal Court
318:(1899–1902) in South Africa.
36:International Criminal Court
30:Command responsibility: the
7:
3576:The Haditha Double Standard
3416:"Darfur, The $ 64 Question"
2123:"Sugamo and the River Kwai"
1950:Prosecutor v. Popović et al
1886:International speech crimes
1667:Customary international law
1468:
1445:, including allegations of
1418:
980:
958:Subsequent Nuremberg trials
908:: the ICTY established the
480:subsequent Nuremberg trials
10:
3744:
3718:International criminal law
3478:International Law Observer
2708:November 14, 2007, at the
2395:International Criminal Law
2284:Cambridge University Press
1707:Convention Against Torture
1651:International criminal law
1422:
1302:
1229:
1161:
1110:
951:
495:
248:– General Orders No. 100:
240:19th-century United States
38:at The Hague, Netherlands.
18:
3686:Sugamo and the River Kwai
3682:by Major Bruce D. Landrum
3660:by MAJOR MICHAEL L. SMIDT
3082:
2984:"The John McCain Charade"
2741:October 20, 2008, at the
2643:"Command Responsibility?"
2570:"The Quaint Mr. Gonzales"
2418:Yee, Sienho, ed. (2003).
1920:10 September 2006 at the
1876:Joint criminal enterprise
1858:
1789:
1720:
1657:
1520:Joint criminal enterprise
891:Capacity to issue orders.
397:Political scientists and
87:Leipzig war crimes trials
3341:The Parliament of Canada
2878:20 November 2006 at the
2859:14 November 2007 at the
2261:. '"Harvard Law Bulletin
1968:"Command Responsibility"
1902:
1796:(in order of foundation)
1433:Zimbabwean Fifth Brigade
1425:Human rights in Zimbabwe
1376:, of the Janjaweed, and
542:, arguing that captured
19:Not to be confused with
2872:"War Criminals, Beware"
2838:Universal jurisdiction
2118:The Yamashita standard
1946:Superior responsibility
1734:Crimes against humanity
1584:Parental responsibility
1405:crimes against humanity
1251:Crimes against humanity
1189:crimes against humanity
1077:Crimes against humanity
937:crimes against humanity
521:crimes against humanity
492:Superior responsibility
392:crimes against humanity
349:laws and customs of war
265:crimes against humanity
48:superior responsibility
3626:"FROM THE TOP ON DOWN"
3607:The Yamashita Standard
3205: 8 November 1994.
3003:Alexandrovna, Larisa.
2671:March 7, 2008, at the
2312:Bassiouni, M. Cherif.
2131:The Yamashita Standard
1976:: 9780199796953–0088.
1891:Universal jurisdiction
1866:Command responsibility
1759:Incitement to genocide
1697:United Nations Charter
1614:War Crimes Act of 1996
1535:Crime against humanity
1365:
1342:in March 2006 and the
1335:
1277:
1216:incitement to genocide
1198:The judgement against
773:command responsibility
760:
730:head-of-state immunity
680:War Crimes Act of 1996
664:(MCA) functions as an
657:
632:universal jurisdiction
610:Universal jurisdiction
576:War Crimes Act of 1996
535:
440:
414:The Yamashita standard
371:
362:
353:
319:
307:
282:
233:command responsibility
195:
190:
157:Historical development
83:command responsibility
44:command responsibility
39:
3638:on September 27, 2007
3471:Zimmermann, Dominik.
3414:Suleiman, Mahmoud A.
3022:Chamberlain, Gethin.
2490:Politics & Policy
1569:List of war criminals
1423:Further information:
1387:'s chief prosecutor,
1378:Ahmad Muhammad Haroun
1361:
1330:
1303:Further information:
1293:Article 98 agreements
1273:
819:Joint Chiefs of Staff
792:military and civilian
755:
751:Additional Protocol I
701:said that the report
652:
529:
496:Further information:
459:At Nuremberg, in the
437:
366:
357:
324:
313:
301:
277:
271:of Confederate POWs,
187:
141:of U.S. Army Captain
29:
3690:Princeton University
3146:May 2, 2009, at the
3028:The Sunday Telegraph
2276:Schabas, William A.
2187:Maj. Tony Raimondo,
2177:The Medina standard
1792:International courts
1692:Nuremberg principles
1579:Nuremberg Principles
1261:Crimes of aggression
993:Crimes against peace
855:Executive commanders
734:criminal proceedings
344:To carry arms openly
273:irregular combatants
254:1806 Articles of War
3563:MILITARY LAW REVIEW
3400:report on UN Panel
3327:Dolin, Benjamin R.
3299:Scharf, Michael P.
3165:. January 21, 2009.
3154:. January 21, 2009.
3120:SĂĽddeutsche Zeitung
2959:(8 December 2006).
2952:. 20 February 2007.
2930:. October 11, 2006.
2745:. January 28, 2003.
2735:Global Policy Forum
2678:. 23 February 2006.
2576:, 19 November 2004.
2574:La Prensa San Diego
2367:Global Policy Forum
2238:University of Turin
1739:Crime of aggression
1702:Genocide Convention
1604:Vicarious liability
1599:The Buck Stops Here
1589:Respondeat superior
1540:Crime against peace
1350:UN Panel of Experts
1037:persons on the seas
824:Operational command
741:and the U.S. Code.
624:crime against peace
600:Mohammed al-Qahtani
572:unlawful combatants
548:unlawful combatants
209:Peter von Hagenbach
199:15th-century Europe
3618:by Anne E. Mahle,
3609:by Anne E. Mahle,
3578:by Victor Hansen,
3368:Human Rights Watch
3335:2008-06-05 at the
3307:2008-02-27 at the
3220:(Trial Judgement)"
3138:Marinero, Ximena.
3074:. 19 January 2009.
3046:2008-07-04 at the
2990:2007-08-03 at the
2941:. 8 November 2006.
2886:. 3 November 2006.
2867:. 9 November 2006.
2821:2008-05-13 at the
2797:2006-07-05 at the
2778:Human Rights Watch
2719:Isikoff, Michael.
2648:2009-09-10 at the
2636:Human Rights First
2625:on October 2, 2006
2590:2005-12-16 at the
2565:. 27 February 2006
2545:2006-03-02 at the
2502:10.1111/polp.12100
2474:is in Article 47,
2320:2008-09-10 at the
2297:"Judge and master"
2068:2007-06-10 at the
2044:2006-02-23 at the
1744:Crime of apartheid
1682:Geneva Conventions
1564:List of war crimes
1545:Geneva Conventions
1413:Luis Moreno-Ocampo
1389:Luis Moreno-Ocampo
1326:Human Rights Watch
1266:Article 28 of the
1236:Following several
1133:The Prosecutor v.
1122:The Prosecutor v.
1069:military necessity
1029:occupied territory
948:Nuremberg tribunal
896:Power of influence
859:High Command Trial
771:In discussions of
707:Human Rights First
688:Luis Moreno-Ocampo
658:
596:Human Rights Watch
584:Hamdan v. Rumsfeld
564:Geneva Conventions
536:
462:High Command Trial
449:Yamashita standard
441:
429:Tomoyuki Yamashita
408:Geneva Conventions
380:mercenary soldiers
320:
308:
196:
118:Tomoyuki Yamashita
106:Yamashita standard
75:American Civil War
40:
3433:Jurand, Deirdre.
3411:. March 12, 2006.
3180:. United Nations.
3054:. 28 August 2007.
3011:. 2 October 2006.
3000:. 1 October 2006.
2982:Kuttner, Robert.
2944:Mariner, Joanne.
2933:Mariner, Joanne.
2920:Dorf, Michael C.
2908:. 4 October 2006.
2712:. June 30, 2005.
2663:Shapiro, Walter.
2472:mercenary soldier
2429:978-0-7618-2570-8
2404:978-0-19-920310-9
2361:Levine, Eugenia.
2232:Greppi, Eduardo.
2180:Barry McCaffrey,
2102:Stuart E Hendin,
1899:
1898:
1725:international law
1687:Nuremberg Charter
1677:Hague Conventions
1574:Nuremberg Charter
1291:and entered into
1282:Jean-Pierre Bemba
1200:Jean-Paul Akayesu
1177:international law
1097:
1096:
1039:, the killing of
999:war of aggression
976:Nuremberg Charter
962:Nuremberg defense
811:Strategic command
790:(legal) command,
503:Legalized torture
269:summary execution
205:Holy Roman Empire
79:international law
21:Command hierarchy
3735:
3647:
3645:
3643:
3637:
3631:. Archived from
3630:
3543:
3532:
3525:. April 30, 2008
3508:
3502:
3501:. April 4, 2008.
3490:
3484:
3481:. July 14, 2008.
3468:. July 14, 2008.
3455:Bashir indicted
3453:
3442:
3431:
3425:
3422:. March 3, 2008.
3409:The Sunday Times
3391:
3380:
3358:
3352:
3314:Krasnor, Emily.
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3212:
3206:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3174:
3168:
3133:
3124:
3115:
3109:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3087:
3086:
3078:Kaleck, Wolfgang
3061:
3055:
3037:
3031:
3030:. 17 March 2007.
3020:
3014:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2967:. Archived from
2915:
2909:
2895:
2889:
2836:
2830:
2812:
2806:
2789:Lindorff, Dave.
2787:
2781:
2780:. 14 April 2006.
2771:
2765:
2754:
2748:
2685:
2679:
2661:
2655:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2621:. Archived from
2613:
2607:
2583:
2568:Cohn, Marjorie.
2528:
2522:
2521:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2485:
2479:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2390:
2381:
2376:
2370:
2369:. February 2005.
2359:
2330:
2310:
2304:
2293:
2287:
2274:
2265:
2255:
2249:
2230:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2206:. Archived from
2200:
2194:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2165:
2156:. Archived from
2146:
2140:
2116:
2110:
2100:
2073:
2060:
2049:
2036:
2013:
2003:
1986:
1985:
1963:
1957:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1912:
1859:Related concepts
1797:
1754:Genocidal intent
1644:
1637:
1630:
1621:
1620:
1513:
1508:
1507:
1499:
1494:
1493:
1485:
1480:
1479:
1352:determined that
1339:The Sunday Times
1173:Rwandan genocide
1053:private property
1033:prisoners of war
981:
968:Nuremberg trials
954:Nuremberg trials
927:(ICTR), and the
900:Ministries Trial
830:Tactical command
682:, which defined
638:, and CIA chief
620:Benjamin Ferencz
616:Nuremberg trials
568:Alberto Gonzáles
560:prisoners of war
399:military jurists
229:Charles the Bold
203:In 1474, in the
193:
114:Nuremberg trials
77:(1861–1865). As
3743:
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3734:
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3708:
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3641:
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3491:
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3441:. June 8, 2008.
3432:
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3337:Wayback Machine
3309:Wayback Machine
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3209:
3203:S/RES/955(1994)
3189:
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3157:Horton, Scott.
3148:Wayback Machine
3134:
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3066:Horton, Scott.
3062:
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2898:Ratner, Michael
2896:
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2880:Wayback Machine
2861:Wayback Machine
2841:Zagorin, Adam.
2837:
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2829:. 10 July 2006.
2823:Wayback Machine
2813:
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2799:Wayback Machine
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2764:. 17 July 2006.
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2121:Robin Rowland,
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2010:Wayback Machine
2004:
1989:
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1913:
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1871:Superior orders
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1672:Peremptory norm
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1594:Superior orders
1511:Politics portal
1509:
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1497:Genocide portal
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1370:arrest warrants
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1305:Darfur conflict
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1234:
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964:
952:Main articles:
950:
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769:
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644:U.S. war crimes
612:
581:In the case of
505:
500:
494:
424:act of omission
416:
376:
332:volunteer corps
316:Second Boer War
287:
242:
201:
164:
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147:My Lai Massacre
134:Medina standard
122:Pacific Theatre
99:First World War
24:
17:
12:
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3535:
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3514:Ellis, Mark S.
3503:
3498:Brisbane Times
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3426:
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3378:
3371:
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3351:
3350:
3344:
3343:. 14 May 2002.
3325:
3312:
3289:
3263:
3246:"Introduction"
3236:
3207:
3183:
3169:
3167:
3166:
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3125:
3117:
3116:
3075:
3056:
3039:Hentoff, Nat.
3032:
3015:
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3001:
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2805:. 3 July 2006.
2782:
2766:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2728:
2727:. May 19, 2004
2717:
2699:
2680:
2665:"Parsing Pain"
2656:
2654:
2653:
2639:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2604:, 22 May 2004.
2596:Conason, Joe.
2594:
2577:
2566:
2562:The New Yorker
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2507:
2496:(6): 824–849.
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2303:. 8 July 2002.
2288:
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2257:Grant, Linda.
2250:
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2014:
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1723:Crimes against
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1486:
1470:
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1420:
1417:
1393:Omar al-Bashir
1300:
1297:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1230:Main article:
1227:
1224:
1162:Main article:
1159:
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1111:Main article:
1108:
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903:
893:
880:
879:
866:
863:Hostages Trial
852:
834:
833:
827:
821:
808:
805:heads of state
801:Policy command
781:
779:is defined as
768:
765:
746:
743:
628:aggressive war
611:
608:
594:Moreover, the
540:prisoner abuse
504:
501:
493:
490:
420:legal doctrine
415:
412:
375:
372:
352:
351:
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286:
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213:legal doctrine
200:
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169:The Art of War
163:
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95:prisoner abuse
52:legal doctrine
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3692:, May 9, 2003
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3539:The Telegraph
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3420:Sudan Tribune
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3403:Jaber, Hala.
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3398:Sudan Tribune
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3252:on 2006-09-26
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3052:Village Voice
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3019:
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3006:
3002:
2999:
2998:
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2989:
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2971:on 2008-06-17
2970:
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2965:Village Voice
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2865:Democracy Now
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2714:Democracy Now
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2295:Murray, Don.
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2273:
2271:
2264:
2260:
2254:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2210:on 2009-02-12
2209:
2205:
2199:
2190:
2186:
2184:, autumn 1995
2183:
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2178:
2174:
2160:on 2007-08-04
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1771:Slave trading
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1551:Jus ad bellum
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1345:Sudan Tribune
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1313:War in Darfur
1310:
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1299:War in Darfur
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1150:perpetrator.
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1083:extermination
1080:
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972:the Holocaust
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904:
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867:
865:at Nuremberg.
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742:
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731:
727:
726:Manfred Nowak
723:
718:
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712:
708:
704:
700:
695:
693:
689:
685:
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676:
675:habeas corpus
671:
670:War on Terror
667:
663:
655:
654:Manfred Nowak
651:
647:
645:
641:
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633:
629:
625:
621:
618:(1945–1946),
617:
607:
605:
604:Dave Lindorff
601:
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579:
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546:fighters are
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532:habeas corpus
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514:
513:War on Terror
510:
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471:Hostages Case
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217:customary law
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172:(5th century
171:
170:
154:
153:(1955–1975).
152:
148:
144:
143:Ernest Medina
140:
139:court martial
135:
130:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
102:
101:(1914–1918).
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
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76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
37:
33:
32:war criminals
28:
22:
3642:February 18,
3640:. Retrieved
3633:the original
3537:
3520:
3506:
3496:
3488:
3476:
3465:The Guardian
3463:
3438:
3429:
3419:
3408:
3397:
3394:Sunday Times
3393:
3367:
3356:
3319:
3292:
3280:. Retrieved
3276:
3266:
3254:. Retrieved
3250:the original
3239:
3228:. Retrieved
3223:
3217:
3210:
3198:
3194:
3186:
3172:
3162:
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