Nuremberg trials - Knowledge

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international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole". The work of the judges was made more difficult due to the broadness of the crimes listed in the Nuremberg Charter. The judges did not attempt to define the crime of aggression and did not mention the retroactivity of the charges in the verdict. Despite the lingering doubts of some of the judges, the official interpretation of the IMT held that all of the charges had a solid basis in customary international law and that the trial was procedurally fair. The judges were aware that both the Allies and the Axis had planned or committed acts of aggression, writing the verdict carefully to avoid discrediting either the Allied governments or the tribunal.

1733:. The conspiracy charge caused significant dissent on the bench; Donnedieu de Vabres wanted to scrap it. Through a compromise proposed by the British judges, the charge of conspiracy was narrowed to a conspiracy to wage aggressive war. Only eight defendants were convicted on that charge; all of whom were also found guilty of crimes against peace. All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted. The war crimes and crimes against humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants charged on those grounds being acquitted. The judges determined that crimes against humanity concerning German Jews before 1939 were not under the court's jurisdiction because the prosecution had not proven a connection to aggressive war. 1569: 1816: 534: 2071:, deportation of civilians for forced labor, and violent suppression of anti-colonial uprisings would have been deemed illegal according to the definitions of international crimes in the Nuremberg charter. Another controversy resulted from trying defendants for acts that were not criminal at the time, particularly crimes against peace. Equally novel but less controversial were crimes against humanity, the conspiracy charge, and criminal penalties on individuals for breaches of international law. Besides these criticisms, the trials have been taken to task for the distortion that comes from fitting historical events into legal categories. 829:, absent from the charter, held together the wide array of charges and defendants and was used to charge the top Nazi leaders, as well as bureaucrats who had never killed anyone or perhaps even directly ordered killing. It was also an end run on the charter's limits on charging crimes committed before the beginning of World War II. Conspiracy charges were central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists: the former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of enabling Germany's war effort. The charge, a brainchild of 1972: 1243: 865: 87: 553: 545: 1083: 1558: 1129:. Because of the loose evidentiary rules, photographs, charts, maps, and films played an important role in making incredible crimes believable. After the American prosecution submitted many documents at the beginning of the trial, the judges insisted that all of the evidence be read into the record, which slowed the trial. The structure of the charges also caused delays as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both conspiracy and the other charges. 1500: 1485: 1577:

Some defendants denied involvement in certain crimes or implausibly claimed ignorance of them, especially the Final Solution. A few defense lawyers inverted the arguments of the prosecution to assert that the Germans' authoritarian mindset and obedience to the state exonerated them from any personal guilt. Most rejected that Germany had deviated from Western civilization, arguing that few Germans could have supported Hitler because Germany was a civilized country.

1705:, Ukraine. During the closing statements, most defendants disappointed the judges by their lies and denial. Speer managed to give the impression of apologizing without assuming personal guilt or naming any victims other than the German people. On 2 September, the court recessed; and the judges retreated into seclusion to decide the verdict and sentences, which had been under discussion since June. The verdict was drafted by British deputy judge 1337:. The British took four days to make their case, with Maxwell Fyfe detailing treaties broken by Germany. In mid-December the Americans switched to presenting the case against the indicted organizations, while in January both the British and Americans presented evidence against individual defendants. Besides the organizations mentioned in the indictment, American, and British prosecutors also mentioned the complicity of the German 620:. The British proposal to define crimes against humanity was largely accepted, with the final wording being "murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population". The final version of the charter limited the tribunal's jurisdiction over crimes against humanity to those committed as part of a war of aggression. Both the United States—concerned that its " 1737: 1175: 1401: 2125:, which stimulated technical advances in translation methods. The Palace of Justice houses a museum on the trial and the courtroom became a tourist attraction, drawing 13,138 visitors in 2005. The IMT is one of the most well-studied trials in history, and it has also been the subject of an abundance of books and scholarly publications, along with motion pictures such as 288:) tried 22 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite. 1074:(Wehrmacht). The aim was to have these organizations declared criminal, so that their members could be tried expeditiously for membership in a criminal organization. Senior American officials believed that convicting organizations was a good way of showing that not just the top German leaders were responsible for crimes, without condemning the entire German people. 1380:, which he argued was a crime against humanity. Unlike the British and American prosecution strategies, which focused on using German documents to make their cases, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports. Eleven witnesses, including victims of Nazi persecution, were called; resistance fighter and 453:, warning the Nazi leadership of the signatories' intent to "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth...in order that justice may be done". The declaration stated that those high-ranking Nazis who had committed crimes in several countries would be dealt with jointly, while others would be tried where they had committed their crimes. 1596:, trade unions, and other countries that maintained diplomatic relations with Germany. In contrast, most defendants avoided incriminating each other. Most defendants argued their own insignificance within the Nazi system, but Göring took the opposite approach, expecting to be executed but vindicated in the eyes of the German people. 1146:. Jackson maintained that while the United States did "not seek to convict the whole German people of crime", neither did the trial "serve to absolve the whole German people except 21 men in the dock". Nevertheless, defense lawyers (although not most of the defendants) often argued that the prosecution was trying to promote 822:(the Soviet Union). The United States delegation outlined the overall Nazi conspiracy and criminality of Nazi organizations. The British and American delegations decided to work jointly in drafting the charges of conspiracy to wage aggressive war. On 17 September, the various delegations met to discuss the indictment. 1277:, shocked both the defendants and the judges, who adjourned the trial. Indiscriminate selection and disorganized presentation of documentary evidence without tying it to specific defendants hampered the American prosecutors' work on the conspiracy to commit crimes against humanity. The Americans summoned 1997:

Many Germans at the time of the trials focused on finding food and shelter. Despite this, a majority read press reports about the trial. In a 1946 poll, 78 percent of Germans assessed the trial as fair, but four years later that had fallen to 38 percent, with 30 percent considering it unfair. As time

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efforts. The SA, the Reich Cabinet, and the General Staff and High Command were not ruled to be criminal organizations. Although the Wehrmacht leadership was not considered an organization within the meaning of the charter, misrepresentation of the verdict as an exoneration was one of the foundations

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In all, 249 journalists were accredited to cover the IMT and 61,854 visitor tickets were issued. In France, the sentence for Rudolf Hess and acquittal of organizations were met with outrage from the media and especially from organizations for deportees and resistance fighters, as they were perceived

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These trials emphasized the crimes committed during the Holocaust. The trials heard 1,300 witnesses, entered more than 30,000 documents into evidence, and generated 132,855 pages of transcripts, with the judgments totaling 3,828 pages. Of 177 defendants, 142 were convicted and 25 sentenced to death;

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and an imposition of collective guilt, which they rejected—instead considering themselves victims of the war. As the Cold War began, the rapidly changing political environment began to affect the effectiveness of the trials. The educational purpose of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals was a failure,

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From March to July 1946, the defense presented its counterarguments. Before the prosecution finished, it was clear that their general case was proven, but it remained to determine the individual guilt of each defendant. None of the defendants tried to assert that the Nazis' crimes had not occurred.

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trial, were released in 1958. The German public took the early releases as confirmation of what they saw as the illegitimacy of the trials. The IMT defendants required Soviet permission for release; Speer was not successful in obtaining early release, and Hess remained in prison until his death in

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Four organizations were ruled to be criminal: the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD, although some lower ranks and subgroups were excluded. The verdict only allowed for individual criminal responsibility if willing membership and knowledge of the criminal purpose

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On 8 February, the Soviet prosecution opened its case with a speech by Rudenko that covered all four prosecution charges, highlighting a wide variety of crimes committed by the German occupiers as part of their destructive and unprovoked invasion. Rudenko tried to emphasize common ground with the

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On 21 November, Jackson gave the opening speech for the prosecution. He described the fact that the defeated Nazis received a trial as "one of the most significant tributes that Power has ever paid to Reason". Focusing on aggressive war, which he described as the root of the other crimes, Jackson

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in starting World War II. Jackson also separated out an overall conspiracy charge from the other three charges, aiming that the American prosecution would cover the overall Nazi conspiracy while the other delegations would flesh out the details of Nazi crimes. The division of labor, and the haste

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and was considered even more disturbing than the American concentration camp film. Soviet witnesses included several survivors of German crimes, including two civilians who lived through the siege of Leningrad, a peasant whose village was destroyed in anti-partisan warfare, a Red Army doctor who

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not guilty. Jackson made it clear that the trial's purpose extended beyond convicting the defendants. Prosecutors wanted to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, establish individual responsibility and the crime of aggression in international law, provide a history lesson to the defeated

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The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgment that because "war is essentially an evil thing", "to initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme

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The problem of translating the indictment and evidence into the three official languages of the tribunal—English, French, and Russian—as well as German was severe due to the scale of the task and difficulty of recruiting interpreters, especially in the Soviet Union. Vyshinsky demanded extensive

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to serve their sentences. All three acquittals (Papen, Schacht, and Fritzsche) were based on a deadlock between the judges; these acquittals surprised observers. Despite being accused of the same crimes, Sauckel was sentenced to death, while Speer was given a prison sentence because the judges

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had committed suicide before the start of the trial. Former Nazis were allowed to serve as counsel and by mid-November all defendants had lawyers. The defendants' lawyers jointly appealed to the court, claiming it did not have jurisdiction against the accused; but this motion was rejected. The

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Over the summer, all of the national delegations struggled to gather evidence for the upcoming trial. The American and British prosecutors focused on documentary evidence and affidavits rather than testimony from survivors. This strategy increased the credibility of their case, since survivor

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On 31 August, closing arguments were presented. Over the course of the trial, crimes against humanity and especially against Jews (who were mentioned as victims of Nazi atrocities far more than any other group) came to upstage the aggressive war charge. In contrast to the opening prosecution

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Many defense lawyers complained about various aspects of the trial procedure and attempted to discredit the entire proceedings. In order to appease them, the defendants were allowed a free hand with their witnesses and a great deal of irrelevant testimony was heard. The defendants' witnesses

639:, responsible for breaches. The other three Allies' proposal to limit the definition of the crimes to acts committed by the defeated Axis was rejected by Jackson. Instead, the charter limited the jurisdiction of the court to Germany's actions. Article 7 prevented the defendants from claiming 1368:—criminal intent—of the crimes on trial. The French prosecutors, more than their British or American counterparts, emphasized the complicity of many Germans; they barely mentioned the charge of aggressive war and instead focused on forced labor, economic plunder, and massacres. Prosecutor 1388:

testified about crimes she had witnessed. The French charges of war crimes were accepted by the tribunal, except for the execution of hostages. Due to the narrow definition of crimes against humanity in the charter, the only part of the Germanization charges accepted by the judges was the

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At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the form that the trial would take. Until the end of the negotiations, it was not clear that any trial would be held at all.

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In early 1946, there were a thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two thirds were from the United States. Besides legal professionals, there were many social-science researchers, psychologists, translators, and interpreters, and

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From 17 January to 7 February 1946, France presented its charges and supporting evidence. In contrast to the other prosecution teams, the French prosecution delved into Germany's development in the nineteenth century, arguing that it had diverged from the West due to

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thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes. As the largest delegation, it would take on the bulk of the prosecutorial effort. At Jackson's recommendation, the United States appointed judges

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who had represented France at the London Conference. The French government tried to appoint staff who were not tainted by collaboration with the Vichy regime; some appointments, including Champetier de Ribes, were of those who had been in the

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as too lenient. In the United Kingdom, although a variety of responses were reported, it was difficult to sustain interest in a long trial. Where the prosecution was disappointed by some of the verdicts, the defense could take satisfaction.

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Sentences were debated at length by the judges. Twelve of the defendants were sentenced to death (Göring, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sauckel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, and Bormann). On 16 October,

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The British prosecution covered the charge of crimes against peace, which was largely redundant to the American conspiracy case. On 4 December, Shawcross gave the opening speech, much of which had been written by Cambridge professor

884:—had committed suicide and therefore could not be tried. The prosecutors wanted to try representative leaders of German politics, economy, and military. Most of the defendants had surrendered to the United States or United Kingdom. 813:

The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. The British worked on aggressive war; the other delegations were assigned the task of covering crimes against humanity and war crimes committed on the

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statements, all eight closing statements highlighted the Holocaust; and the French and British prosecutors made this the main charge, as opposed to that of aggression. All prosecutors except the Americans mentioned the concept of

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in part because of the resistance to war crimes trials in German society, but also because of the United States Army's refusal to publish the trial record in German for fear it would undermine the fight against communism.

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defense lawyers saw themselves as acting on behalf of their clients, but also the German nation. Initially, the Americans had planned to try fourteen organizations and their leaders, but this was narrowed to six: the

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Much of the American case focused on the development of the Nazi conspiracy before the outbreak of war. The American prosecution became derailed during attempts to provide evidence on the first act of aggression,

770:, a show trial prosecutor chosen for his skill as an orator. The Soviet judges and prosecutors were not permitted to make any major decisions without consulting a commission in Moscow led by Soviet politician 1440:, at times they blurred the fate of Jews with that of other Soviet nationalities. Although these aspects had already been covered by the American prosecution, Soviet prosecutors introduced new evidence from 2098:

was much more restricted than Lemkin's original concept and its effectiveness was further limited by Cold War politics. In the 1990s, a revival of international criminal law included the establishment of

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The International Military Tribunal began trial on 20 November 1945, after postponement requests from the Soviet prosecution, who wanted more time to prepare its case, were rejected. All defendants

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repeatedly tried to disclose the secret protocols of the German–Soviet pact; although he was eventually successful, it was legally irrelevant and the judges rejected his attempt to bring up the

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considered that he could reform. Nikichenko released a dissent approved by Moscow that rejected all the acquittals, called for a death sentence for Hess, and convicted all the organizations.

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The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trial—more than the top five defendants combined. Other absent and dead men, including Himmler,

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in Poland, for an active role in the trial justified by their representation of victims of Nazi crimes were rejected. The Soviet Union invited prosecutors from its allies, including Poland,

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The selective prosecution exclusively of the defeated Axis and hypocrisy of all four Allied powers has garnered the most persistent criticism. Such actions as the German–Soviet pact the

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argues that the trials' greatest achievement was "their inestimable contribution to the form and substance of international criminal law", which had been left underdeveloped by the IMT.

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to demand an international court to try the German crimes committed in occupied countries. The United States and United Kingdom refused to endorse this proposal, citing the failure of

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unanimously passed a resolution affirming "the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and the judgment of the Tribunal". In 1950, the

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view of the Nazi state and its overall criminal conspiracy. The speech was favorably received by the prosecution, the tribunal, the audience, historians, and even the defendants.

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testimony was considered less reliable and more vulnerable to accusations of bias, but reduced public interest in the proceedings. The American prosecution drew on reports of the

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The judges ruled that there had been a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order" and "the creation of a

1549:. The Soviet prosecution case was generally well received and presented compelling evidence about the suffering of the Soviet people and the Soviet contributions to victory. 1606:—asking for exoneration on the grounds that the Allies had committed the same crimes with which the defendants were charged. Although defense lawyers repeatedly equated the 955:. While the British were skeptical of prosecuting economic leaders, the French had a strong interest in highlighting German economic imperialism. The military leaders were 591: 1022:

Although the list of defendants was finalized on 29 August, as late as October, Jackson demanded the addition of new names, but this was rejected. Of the 24 men indicted,

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not be labeled a crime against humanity—and the Soviet Union wanted to avoid giving an international court jurisdiction over a government's treatment of its own citizens.

6072: 8305: 406:, mostly civilians, which was one seventh of the prewar population. The legal reckoning was premised on the extraordinary nature of Nazi criminality, particularly the 7061: 6444: 6304: 859: 151: 609:. A Soviet proposal for a charge of "crimes against civilians" was renamed "crimes against humanity" at Jackson's suggestion after previous uses of the term in the 6664: 1656:; Dönitz's counsel successfully argued that this meant that it could not be a crime. The judges barred most evidence on Allied misdeeds from being heard in court. 1111: 161: 1729:". Contrary to Jackson's argument that the conspiracy began with the founding of the Nazi Party in 1920, the verdict dated the planning of aggression to the 1937 7096: 1503: 1834:

Initially, it was planned to hold a second international tribunal for German industrialists, but this was never held because of differences between the Allies.

8910: 8695: 8340: 472:, the Soviet Union lobbied most intensely for trying the defeated German leaders for aggression in addition to war crimes. The Soviet Union wanted to hold a 684:, the last to make the many charts used during the trial. Each state appointed a prosecution team and two judges, one being a deputy without voting rights. 8875: 6888: 2006:

The German churches, both Catholic and Protestant, were vocal proponents of amnesty. The pardon of convicted war criminals also had cross-party support in

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throughout eastern Europe. The Soviet prosecution emphasized the racist aspect of policies such as the deportation of millions of civilians to Germany for

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with which the indictment was prepared, resulted in duplication, imprecise language, and lack of attribution of specific charges to individual defendants.

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More so than other delegations, Soviet prosecutors showed the gruesome details of German atrocities, especially the death by starvation of 3 million

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identified 2,500 major war criminals, of whom 177 were tried. Many of the worst offenders were not prosecuted, for logistical or financial reasons.

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of aggression, the trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law is considered "the true beginning of

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were conducted by the United States against lower-level perpetrators, which focused more on the Holocaust. Controversial at the time for their

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describes as "a versatile politician and a remarkable orator, if not a great legal thinker". The United States prosecution believed that

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dictatorship, run by society's lunatic fringe, of which the Germans had been the first victims rather than agents, collaborators, and

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to legislation found in other countries, Nazi concentration camps to Allied detention facilities, and the deportation of Jews to the

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Sharples, Caroline (2013). "Holocaust on Trial: Mass Observation and British Media Responses to the Nuremberg Tribunal, 1945–1946".

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to codify international criminal law, although the Cold War prevented the adoption of these principles until the 1990s. The 1948

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were convened solely by the United States in the same courtroom that had hosted the International Military Tribunal. Pursuant to

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was drawing up plans for an international tribunal in late 1944 and early 1945. The British government still preferred the

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that would include "the crime of war". On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States issued the

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other Allies while rejecting any similarity between Nazi and Soviet rule. The next week, the Soviet prosecution produced

1269: 1235: 723: 671:; it had an attached prison where the defendants could be held. On 8 August, the Nuremberg Charter was signed in London. 426: 395: 331: 206: 7796: 6923: 1593: 1318: 1099: 651:. The negotiators decided that the tribunal's permanent seat would be in Berlin, while the trial would be held at the 371: 1568: 7577: 7322: 6414: 6108:

The Crime of Aggression in International Criminal Law: Historical Development, Comparative Analysis and Present State

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Inspired by the films shown by the American prosecution, the Soviet Union commissioned three films for the trial:

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and new revelations of Nazi criminality, including the first trials of Nazi perpetrators in West German courts.

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threatened the United States' withdrawal if aggression was not prosecuted because it had been the rationale for

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Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the

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In the Shadow of the Holocaust: Poland, the United Nations War Crimes Commission, and the Search for Justice

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Männer von Ehre?: die Wehrmachtgeneralität im Nürnberger Prozess 1945/46 : zur Entstehung einer Legende

533: 8880: 8595: 8158: 7786: 7655: 7630: 7508: 7091: 7076: 6905: 5972: 2115: 2087: 2078:(Tokyo Trial) borrowed many of its ideas from the IMT, including all four charges, and was intended by the 2053: 1538: 1457: 1264: 1260: 1154:. According to Priemel, the conspiracy charge "invited apologetic interpretations: narratives of absolute, 1095: 948: 819: 815: 652: 578:, and war crimes. At the conference, it was debated whether wars of aggression were prohibited in existing 336: 92: 8228: 8777: 8762: 8663: 8509: 8433: 7645: 7602: 7563: 7463: 7297: 7163: 7132: 6913: 6790: 6704: 6404: 6382: 5863: 2122: 2026:

1987. By the late 1950s, the West German consensus on release began to erode, due to greater openness in

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Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg: A New History of the International Military Tribunal after World War II

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Germans, delegitimize the traditional German elite, and allow the Allies to distance themselves from

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the severity of sentencing was related to the defendant's proximity to mass murder. Legal historian

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and imperialism. They argued that Nazi ideology, which derived from these earlier ideas, was the

1342: 1334: 1147: 916: 575: 304: 125: 100: 57: 7812: 5887:"« Notre combat pour la paix » : la France et le procès de Nuremberg (1945–1946)" 1588:, and Bormann, were also blamed. To counter claims that conservative defendants had enabled the 8456: 8223: 7702: 7280: 7274: 7156: 7137: 7112: 7005: 6853: 6585: 6497: 6080: 6005: 5790:

Men of honor?: the Wehrmacht generals in the Nuremberg trial 1945/46: the emergence of a legend

2015: 1971: 1843: 908: 904: 900: 896: 846: 727: 469: 238: 7967: 6376: 5793: 1985: 1709:. All eight judges participated in the deliberations, but the deputies could not cast a vote. 734: 667:. The Palace of Justice was relatively intact but needed to be renovated for the trial due to 8865: 8690: 8315: 8268: 7932: 7683: 6845: 6182: 6046: 5968: 5819: 2133: 2127: 2079: 1453: 1294: 1289:, who testified about the murder of 80,000 people by those under his command, and SS general 864: 826: 688: 402:

was accompanied by immense brutality in occupied areas; war losses in the Soviet Union alone

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corrections to the charges of crimes against peace, especially regarding the role of the

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Postwar Soldiers: Historical Controversies and West German Democratization, 1945–1955

5823: 5797: 5770: 2027: 2014:, beginning early releases of Nuremberg Military Tribunal convicts in 1949. In 1951, 1854: 1677: 1637:; a cover-up prevented the defense from capitalizing on this argument. Fleet Admiral 1600: 1581: 1542: 1461: 1322: 1059: 1027: 759: 754: 711: 664: 632: 617: 587: 497: 493: 399: 316: 265: 6622: 6261: 2060:

The International Military Tribunal, and its charter, "marked the true beginning of

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overturned most of the sentences and the last three prisoners, all convicted at the

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were tried for the murder of more than one million people behind the Eastern Front.

1684:—the trial became a means of condemning not only Germany but also the Soviet Union. 1561: 956: 544: 8702: 8499: 8489: 8218: 8206: 8188: 8125: 7000: 6689: 6605: 6590: 6399: 6213: 6144: 6084: 5984: 5920: 5898: 5811: 5744: 5727:"At the Origins of Crimes Against Humanity: Clues to a Proper Understanding of the 1960: 1874: 1866: 1808: 1514:

The German Fascist Destruction of the Cultural Treasures of the Peoples of the USSR

1464:. The Soviet prosecution also attempted to fabricate German responsibility for the 1414: 1159: 1126: 976: 920: 877: 838: 771: 766:, who had presided over the Moscow trials, but he was made a judge and replaced by 763: 762:. Expecting a show trial, the Soviet Union initially appointed as chief prosecutor 681: 501: 199: 113: 7871: 7833: 6002:

The Nuremberg moment: The international trial, the lawyers and the racial question

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on the culpability of bureaucrats of German government ministries, especially the

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A documentary produced in 1950, available online in the National Archives Catalog

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The defendants, who were largely unrepentant, included former cabinet ministers:

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of Nazi leaders, citing the failure of trials after World War I and qualms about

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Le moment Nuremberg: Le procès international, les lawyers et la question raciale

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Aerial view of the Palace of Justice in 1945, with the prison attached behind it

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The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law

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War crimes already existed in international law as criminal violations of the

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The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust

1940: 1846:, United States forces arrested almost 100,000 Germans as war criminals. The 1405: 1377: 1359: 1055: 952: 912: 767: 477: 411: 308: 245:

for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries across Europe and

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grouped together various German policies, such as the German annexation of

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alone. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from a

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Crimes against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application

5749: 5726: 2641: 1633:, and their lawyers argued that this invasion was undertaken to prevent a 687:

Jackson was appointed the United States' chief prosecutor, whom historian

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as its legal instrument. Between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the

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announced the formation of an international military tribunal. On 8 May,

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Britain and the Holocaust: Remembering and Representing War and Genocide

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One set of trials focused on the actions of German professionals: the

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was left for the judges to decide. The trial was held under modified

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sometimes managed to exculpate them, but other witnesses—including

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endured several prisoner-of-war camps and two Holocaust survivors—

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The offenses that would be prosecuted were crimes against peace,

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The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial and its Policy Consequences Today

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expulsion of millions of Germans from central and eastern Europe

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The prosecution called 37 witnesses compared to the defense's 83

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Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR

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Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR

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destroyed thousands of villages and murdered their inhabitants

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Musa, Shavana (2016). "The British and the Nuremberg Trial".

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to shore up the IMT's legal legacy. On 11 December 1946, the

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Handing over the indictment to the tribunal, 18 October 1945

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and in failed efforts to prosecute the perpetrators of the

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was little more than a cover for the mass murder of Jews.

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The IMT verdict followed the prosecution in declaring the

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International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia

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went on, more Germans considered the trials illegitimate

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A member of the Soviet delegation addresses the tribunal.

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List of defendants at the International Military Tribunal

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was the product of a German deviation from the West (the

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The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence

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in Czechoslovakia, adding that the German invaders had

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International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals

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Presenting information on German aggression, 4 December

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for using slave labor and deporting civilians. In the

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reports and interrogations of senior enemy officers.

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Series of military trials at the end of World War II

3293: 2989: 2602: 2305: 2278: 2227: 2215: 1169: 663:, Nuremberg was a symbolic location as the site of 307:, and the systematic murder of millions of Jews in 7052:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials) 6025:British Influences on International Law, 1915–2015 2118:(ICC), proposed in 1953, was established in 2002. 741:; he resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by 5891:Revue d'Allemagne et des pays de langue allemande 1905:that oversaw SS economic activity, including the 947:, along with Speer's subordinate and head of the 8847: 7082:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia 7057:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 6796:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 2076:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 181:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 68:International Military Tribunal for the Far East 8316:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare 6278:Bibliography of the Holocaust § Primary Sources 1522:The German Fascist Destruction of Soviet Cities 6896: 1789: 8676:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law 7164: 6882: 6298: 737:, had just overseen trials of the leaders of 8911:International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg 6272:Nuremberg: Army Television - Release Version 6160:'Crimes Against Peace' and International Law 1975:Press at the International Military Tribunal 1278: 631:The charter upended the traditional view of 8876:Courts and tribunals disestablished in 1946 8375:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust 5836: 5261: 5225: 4910: 1438:systematic murder of Jews in eastern Europe 1108:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation 15: 7171: 7157: 7067:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 6889: 6875: 6672: 6305: 6291: 6131:"Imperfect Justice at Nuremberg and Tokyo" 6067: 5783: 5213: 4886: 4874: 1903:SS Main Economic and Administrative Office 1664:, the former commandant of Auschwitz, and 1468:, which had in fact been committed by the 1164:Germans must have been aware of this crime 749:, a professor of criminal law, and deputy 16: 7087:Special Panels of the Dili District Court 6217: 6206:Journal of International Criminal Justice 6199: 6148: 5902: 5884: 5757: 5748: 5736:Journal of International Criminal Justice 5724: 5654: 5567: 5480: 5162: 4695: 4048: 4024: 4009: 3979: 3967: 3943: 3514: 3437: 2959: 2935: 2671: 2635: 2596: 2584: 2536: 2497: 2299: 1966: 1951:for plotting wars of aggression, issuing 1273:. The film, compiled from footage of the 674: 412:the systematic murder of millions of Jews 91:Judges' bench during the tribunal at the 8871:Courts and tribunals established in 1945 6176: 5995: 5967: 5702: 5678: 5630: 5174: 4806: 4524: 3656: 3632: 3545: 3473: 2804: 2787: 2647: 2037: 1978: 1970: 1822:prisoners unload cement from trains for 1814: 1799: 1735: 1567: 1556: 1400: 1299: 1241: 1173: 1081: 863: 804: 787:Provisional Government of National Unity 551: 543: 532: 330: 241:against representatives of the defeated 24:This is an accepted version of this page 6157: 6128: 6105: 6045: 5862: 5810: 5690: 5642: 5618: 5606: 5579: 5555: 5543: 5531: 5519: 5504: 5468: 5456: 5441: 5429: 5405: 5369: 5345: 5333: 5297: 5273: 5186: 5138: 5078: 5066: 5018: 4946: 4922: 4898: 4862: 4850: 4782: 4731: 4719: 4707: 4683: 4659: 4647: 4623: 4608: 4584: 4572: 4560: 4548: 4536: 4488: 4476: 4464: 4452: 4440: 4428: 4416: 4404: 4375: 4360: 4348: 4336: 4324: 4309: 4297: 4282: 4270: 4111: 4075: 4036: 3994: 3955: 3931: 3854: 3842: 3818: 3806: 3794: 3782: 3767: 3755: 3743: 3731: 3719: 3707: 3695: 3683: 3668: 3593: 3581: 3569: 3557: 3533: 3502: 3490: 3410: 3398: 3386: 3362: 3350: 3338: 3323: 3287: 3263: 3234: 3186: 3174: 3162: 3150: 3138: 3121: 3094: 3070: 3058: 3046: 2971: 2947: 2920: 2908: 2884: 2867: 2852: 2840: 2828: 2746: 2731: 2707: 2695: 2521: 2509: 2485: 2473: 2458: 2410: 2398: 2374: 2350: 2326: 2260: 2245: 2197: 2185: 2170: 2155: 1629:. Six defendants were charged with the 1614:, the judges rejected their arguments. 1493:, 57 minutes; shown on 19 February 1946 1308:'s crimes is presented, 2 January 1946. 417:In early 1942, representatives of nine 14: 8848: 6226: 5945: 5919: 5666: 5594: 5492: 5417: 5393: 5381: 5357: 5321: 5309: 5285: 5249: 5237: 5198: 5150: 5126: 5114: 5102: 5090: 5054: 5042: 5030: 5006: 4994: 4982: 4970: 4958: 4934: 4835: 4818: 4794: 4770: 4743: 4671: 4596: 4512: 4500: 4387: 4258: 4246: 4234: 4222: 4210: 4198: 4183: 4171: 4159: 4147: 4135: 4123: 4099: 4087: 4060: 3914: 3902: 3644: 3617: 3605: 3461: 3449: 3422: 3374: 3311: 3299: 3275: 3246: 3222: 3210: 3198: 3106: 3082: 3034: 3022: 3010: 2998: 2983: 2896: 2816: 2775: 2758: 2719: 2683: 2659: 2623: 2572: 2560: 2548: 2446: 2434: 2422: 2386: 2362: 2338: 2314: 2287: 2272: 2233: 2221: 2209: 1848:Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes 1275:liberation of Nazi concentration camps 1132: 1009:Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands 716:Attorney General for England and Wales 277: 8540: 8361: 7992: 7483: 7482: 7152: 6870: 6286: 6136:European Journal of International Law 1989:reporting the verdict, 1 October 1946 1396: 1352: 339:, 1944. According to legal historian 7963:Reich Association of Jews in Germany 6312: 6022: 5731:Principle in the Nuremberg Judgment" 4755: 4635: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3830: 2608: 1871:role of the judiciary in Nazi crimes 722:. Although the chief British judge, 528: 445:arguing for a broader definition of 435:United Nations War Crimes Commission 8768:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust 6646:Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach 1947:. Other generals were tried in the 1393:and other parts of Western Europe. 1270:Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps 1236:Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps 975:. Also on trial were propagandists 710:. The British chief prosecutor was 514:Germany surrendered unconditionally 504:in February 1945. On 2 May, at the 421:from German-occupied Europe issued 48: 8891:International courts and tribunals 8362: 2650:, pp. 102–103, 114, 120, 135. 1901:, which focused on members of the 1594:Social Democratic Party of Germany 1100:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research 959:—the most infamous surviving Nazi— 474:trial with a predetermined outcome 49: 8932: 7178: 6255: 2121:The trials were the first use of 1883:Also on trial were industrialists 1807:opens for the prosecution in the 872:Some of the most prominent Nazis— 8331:Polish leaders and intellectuals 7821:Concentration Camps Inspectorate 5045:, pp. 3, 4, 92–94, 100–101. 2104:international criminal tribunals 1635:British invasion of that country 1599:The charter did not recognize a 1498: 1483: 1170:American and British prosecution 592:American entry into World War II 523: 85: 6720:Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier 2084:United Nations General Assembly 1826:, presented as evidence at the 1391:deportation of Jews from France 1386:Marie Claude Vaillant-Couturier 1121:of any evidence deemed to have 643:, and the plea of acting under 596:United Nations Security Council 490:United States Department of War 356:invaded many European countries 282:International Military Tribunal 79:International Military Tribunal 8259:Attack on the twentieth convoy 8072:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland 7128:International humanitarian law 7072:Special Court for Sierra Leone 6162:. Cambridge University Press. 5870:. Cambridge University Press. 1760:could be proved, complicating 1647:unrestricted submarine warfare 1504:Testimony of Abraham Sutzkever 1442:Extraordinary State Commission 1150:and forcefully countered this 1042:, the Leadership Corps of the 718:, assisted by his predecessor 614:Commission of Responsibilities 311:was significant to the trial. 13: 1: 6200:Tomuschat, Christian (2006). 5718:Nuremberg Trials bibliography 4237:, pp. 233, 236–237, 239. 2140: 1592:, defense lawyers blamed the 1432:and several hundred thousand 853: 800: 561: 8596:Jewish war conspiracy theory 7787:Extermination through labour 7092:Special Tribunal for Lebanon 7077:International Criminal Court 6791:Nuremberg Military Tribunals 5996:Mouralis, Guillaume (2019). 5885:Gemählich, Matthias (2019). 4889:, pp. 405–406, 447–448. 2116:International Criminal Court 2088:International Law Commission 1539:Treblinka extermination camp 1096:Office of Strategic Services 337:Auschwitz concentration camp 7: 8778:Righteous Among the Nations 7993: 7464:Righteous Among the Nations 7133:International speech crimes 6914:Customary international law 6705:Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski 6383:Auguste Champetier de Ribes 6069:Safferling, Christoph J. M. 6053:. Oxford University Press. 5953:. Oxford University Press. 2123:simultaneous interpretation 1796:Subsequent Nuremberg trials 1790:Subsequent Nuremberg trials 1293:, who admitted that German 1291:Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski 1077: 743:Auguste Champetier de Ribes 580:customary international law 518:an end to the war in Europe 317:retroactive criminalization 177:Subsequent Nuremberg trials 10: 8937: 8515:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police 8485:Lithuanian Security Police 8404:Reich Security Main Office 7371:Evidence and documentation 6954:Convention Against Torture 6898:International criminal law 6786:international criminal law 5767:Cambridge University Press 5715: 5711: 2062:international criminal law 2045:, chief prosecutor of the 1924:, in which members of the 1793: 1771:its systematic criminality 1755:Newsreel of the sentencing 1712: 1687: 1552: 1448:presented evidence on the 1327:League of Nations Covenant 1265:invasion of Czechoslovakia 1017:Reich Main Security Office 1015:, the leader of Himmler's 991:, governor-general of the 868:The defendants in the dock 857: 783:World Zionist Organization 508:, United States president 321:international criminal law 249:against their citizens in 162:37 prosecution, 83 defense 65: 55: 8731:Books and other resources 8718: 8634: 8563: 8559: 8536: 8470: 8442: 8383: 8370: 8357: 8296: 8244: 8197: 8134: 8104: 8042: 8014: 8005: 8001: 7988: 7946: 7905: 7857: 7843: 7805: 7764: 7664: 7621: 7499: 7495: 7478: 7394: 7363: 7263:Bulgarian-occupied Greece 7190: 7186: 7123:Joint criminal enterprise 7105: 7036: 6967: 6904: 6814: 6777: 6663: 6638: 6551: 6525: 6485: 6478: 6452: 6443: 6430:Henri Donnedieu de Vabres 6392: 6351: 6320: 6202:"The Legacy of Nuremberg" 6158:Sellars, Kirsten (2013). 6129:Sellars, Kirsten (2010). 5784:Brüggemann, Jens (2018). 5725:Acquaviva, Guido (2011). 5471:, pp. 148, 343, 402. 5081:, pp. 247, 310, 315. 4213:, pp. 180, 202, 233. 2033: 1631:German invasion of Norway 1497: 1482: 1477: 1104:American Jewish Committee 747:Henri Donnedieu de Vabres 745:. The French judges were 460:developed the concept of 326: 191: 186: 172: 167: 157: 147: 139: 131: 107: 84: 77: 8321:People with disabilities 8254:Aid and Rescue Committee 7043:(in order of foundation) 6841:" (1959 television play) 6227:Weinke, Annette (2006). 6106:Sayapin, Sergey (2014). 6089:10.5771/9783845280400-41 5069:, pp. 294–296, 298. 4937:, pp. 387, 390–391. 4746:, pp. 371–372, 387. 4174:, pp. 225–226, 335. 3401:, pp. 83, 106, 133. 2587:, pp. xxx–xxxi, 94. 2512:, pp. 84–85, 88–89. 1907:Nazi concentration camps 1117:The charter allowed the 939:, and economic planners 661:American occupation zone 635:by holding individuals, 506:San Francisco Conference 441:and Czech legal scholar 404:included 27 million dead 31:latest accepted revision 8886:Crimes against humanity 8462:Order Police battalions 6981:Crimes against humanity 6343:Crimes against humanity 6229:Die Nürnberger Prozesse 5977:Critique Internationale 5929:Oxford University Press 5093:, pp. 87, 96, 104. 3165:, pp. 18, 69, 111. 1564:under cross-examination 1530:liberation of Auschwitz 1430:Soviet prisoners of war 1267:, and instead screened 1148:German collective guilt 893:brought Hitler to power 781:, the president of the 733:The French prosecutor, 603:laws and customs of war 576:crimes against humanity 498:retroactive criminality 427:war crimes prosecutions 351:Between 1939 and 1945, 305:crimes against humanity 295:of plotting and waging 126:crimes against humanity 101:Allied-occupied Germany 8916:Nazi war crimes trials 8311:Soviet urban residents 7402:International response 7376:Contemporary knowledge 7138:Universal jurisdiction 7113:Command responsibility 7006:Incitement to genocide 6944:United Nations Charter 6586:Joachim von Ribbentrop 6498:Konstantin von Neurath 6047:Priemel, Kim Christian 6006:Presses de Sciences Po 5904:10.4000/allemagne.2053 2341:, pp. 31, 36, 54. 2057: 1990: 1976: 1967:Contemporary reactions 1844:Allied Control Council 1836:Twelve military trials 1831: 1812: 1756: 1676:—for example, in 1947 1573: 1565: 1434:residents of Leningrad 1409: 1408:opens the Soviet case. 1309: 1279: 1247: 1239: 1166:while it was ongoing. 1090: 905:Konstantin von Neurath 897:Joachim von Ribbentrop 869: 810: 728:Lord Justice of Appeal 675:Judges and prosecutors 567: 549: 541: 348: 264:(the Soviet Union) to 8832:49.45444°N 11.04833°E 8758:Memorials and museums 8696:Reparations Agreement 8691:Holocaust restitution 8269:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon 7792:Human experimentation 7631:Auschwitz II-Birkenau 6846:Judgment at Nuremberg 6839:Judgment at Nuremberg 6264:and other documents ( 6183:Palgrave Macmillan UK 5989:10.3917/crii.073.0159 5820:Yale University Press 5716:Further information: 2401:, pp. 67, 74–75. 2389:, pp. 26–27, 31. 2134:The Memory of Justice 2128:Judgment at Nuremberg 2080:Truman Administration 2041: 1982: 1974: 1926:mobile killing squads 1859:human experimentation 1818: 1803: 1773:in the German press. 1754: 1727:the frontiers of 1914 1571: 1560: 1404: 1376:, under the label of 1303: 1295:anti-partisan warfare 1245: 1233: 1085: 927:(of the conglomerate 867: 808: 724:Sir Geoffrey Lawrence 689:Kim Christian Priemel 555: 547: 536: 476:similar to the 1930s 408:perceived singularity 334: 313:Twelve further trials 8901:History of Nuremberg 7958:Jewish Ghetto Police 7827:Politische Abteilung 7722:Risiera di San Sabba 7583:Natzweiler-Struthof 7039:International courts 6939:Nuremberg principles 6823:That Justice Be Done 6801:Nuremberg principles 6760:Seweryna Szmaglewska 6735:Friedrich von Paulus 6601:Arthur Seyss-Inquart 6333:Crimes against peace 6233:The Nuremberg trials 6031:. pp. 367–386. 5759:Bassiouni, M. Cherif 5546:, pp. 402, 417. 5495:, pp. 205, 348. 5165:, paragraphs 27, 34. 5021:, pp. 273, 308. 4973:, pp. 353, 400. 4722:, pp. 109, 144. 4599:, pp. 370, 372. 4587:, pp. 138, 141. 4551:, pp. 119, 150. 4261:, pp. 240, 242. 4249:, pp. 237, 239. 4186:, pp. 247, 329. 4114:, pp. 116, 118. 3073:, pp. 209, 220. 2899:, p. 53, 73–74. 2599:, pp. xxxi, 33. 2092:Nuremberg principles 1915:Nazi racial policies 1767:clean Wehrmacht myth 1627:Treaty of Versailles 1612:expulsion of Germans 1423:Battle of Stalingrad 1089:clerks with evidence 1005:Arthur Seyss-Inquart 949:forced labor program 462:crimes against peace 419:governments-in-exile 118:crimes against peace 8881:Crime of aggression 8828: / 8736:Days of remembrance 8649:Holocaust survivors 8644:Depopulated shtetls 8495:Rollkommando Hamann 8341:Jehovah's Witnesses 8159:Kamianets-Podilskyi 7221:Bohemia and Moravia 6986:Crime of aggression 6949:Genocide Convention 6695:Walter Schellenberg 6576:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 6506:Baldur von Schirach 6377:François de Menthon 6235:] (in German). 6219:10.1093/jicj/mql051 6150:10.1093/ejil/chq070 6004:] (in French). 5969:Mouralis, Guillaume 5794:Ferdinand Schöningh 5792:] (in German). 5750:10.1093/jicj/mqr010 5483:, pp. 833–834. 5420:, pp. 111–112. 5384:, pp. 366–367. 5312:, pp. 105–107. 5300:, pp. 356–357. 5288:, pp. 372–373. 5276:, pp. 353–354. 5264:, pp. 172–173. 5189:, pp. 146–147. 5153:, pp. 400–401. 4913:, pp. 163–164. 4901:, pp. 147–148. 4865:, pp. 143–144. 4838:, pp. 383–384. 4785:, pp. 150–151. 4710:, pp. 164–165. 4698:, pp. 840–841. 4686:, pp. 142–143. 4611:, pp. 160–161. 4563:, pp. 62, 120. 4491:, pp. 129–130. 4443:, pp. 131–132. 4431:, pp. 149–150. 4378:, pp. 133–134. 4351:, pp. 130–131. 4339:, pp. 127–128. 4225:, pp. 231–232. 4150:, pp. 230–231. 4090:, pp. 221–222. 4063:, pp. 216–218. 4051:, paragraphs 17–18. 4027:, paragraphs 20–21. 3958:, pp. 110–111. 3917:, pp. 199–200. 3869:, pp. 380–381. 3857:, pp. 121–122. 3821:, pp. 89, 108. 3809:, pp. 118–119. 3770:, pp. 104–105. 3746:, pp. 107–108. 3505:, pp. 116–117. 3365:, pp. 121–122. 3353:, pp. 82, 127. 3326:, pp. 82, 139. 3237:, pp. 100–101. 3153:, pp. 112–113. 2962:, paragraphs 11–12. 2674:, pp. 839–840. 2638:, pp. 884–885. 2500:, pp. 832–833. 2200:, pp. 151–159. 2096:Genocide Convention 1986:Süddeutsche Zeitung 1731:Hossbach Memorandum 1682:Iron Curtain speech 1666:Hans Bernd Gisevius 1641:testified that the 1421:captured after the 1335:Kellogg–Briand Pact 1306:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 1133:Course of the trial 1013:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 1001:Baldur von Schirach 993:General Governorate 735:François de Menthon 433:. The London-based 220:Donnedieu de Vabres 21:Page version status 8837:49.45444; 11.04833 8719:History and memory 8623:Forced euthanasia 8571:Nazi racial policy 8274:Danish underground 8121:Operation Reinhard 8116:Wannsee Conference 6991:Crime of apartheid 6929:Geneva Conventions 6834:(1947 documentary) 6740:Erich Buschenhagen 6405:Alexander Volchkov 6185:. pp. 31–50. 6112:T.M.C. Asser Press 6083:. pp. 41–54. 5033:, pp. 85, 89. 2950:, pp. 75, 89. 2843:, pp. 71, 90. 2819:, pp. 2, 112. 2575:, pp. 68, 73. 2551:, pp. 30, 34. 2524:, pp. 98–100. 2365:, pp. 4, 107. 2248:, pp. 32, 64. 2058: 1991: 1977: 1949:High Command Trial 1863:euthanasia murders 1832: 1813: 1757: 1668:, a member of the 1643:United States Navy 1590:Nazi rise to power 1574: 1566: 1506:, 27 February 1946 1410: 1397:Soviet prosecution 1353:French prosecution 1315:Hersch Lauterpacht 1310: 1248: 1240: 1091: 1087:United States Army 870: 847:German–Soviet pact 811: 720:David Maxwell Fyfe 641:sovereign immunity 637:rather than states 626:racial segregation 568: 550: 542: 451:Moscow Declaration 349: 266:summary executions 56:For the film, see 27: 8921:Trials in Germany 8896:Ex post facto law 8811: 8810: 8807: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8654:Sh'erit ha-Pletah 8601:Jewish emigration 8591:Hitler's prophecy 8586:Haavara Agreement 8532: 8531: 8528: 8527: 8520:Ypatingasis būrys 8417:Sicherheitsdienst 8353: 8352: 8349: 8348: 8292: 8291: 8212:Bielski partisans 7984: 7983: 7980: 7979: 7976: 7975: 7815:Totenkopfverbände 7474: 7473: 7146: 7145: 6972:international law 6934:Nuremberg Charter 6924:Hague Conventions 6864: 6863: 6857:(2000 miniseries) 6773: 6772: 6755:Abraham Sutzkever 6659: 6658: 6634: 6633: 6627: 6619: 6518: 6510: 6502: 6494: 6410:Geoffrey Lawrence 6365:Hartley Shawcross 6359:Robert H. Jackson 6352:Chief prosecutors 6328:Nuremberg Charter 6246:978-3-406-53604-5 6192:978-1-137-35077-0 6169:978-1-107-02884-5 6121:978-90-6704-927-6 6098:978-3-8487-3688-1 6060:978-0-19-256374-3 6038:978-90-04-28417-3 6015:978-2-7246-2422-9 5960:978-0-19-937795-4 5938:978-0-19-923233-8 5921:Heller, Kevin Jon 5877:978-1-009-11660-2 5855:978-1-78920-558-9 5838:Echternkamp, Jörg 5829:978-0-300-10984-9 5812:Douglas, Lawrence 5803:978-3-506-79259-4 5776:978-1-139-49893-7 5705:, pp. 31–32. 5177:, pp. 46–47. 4997:, pp. 11–12. 4527:, pp. 23–24. 3797:, pp. 69–70. 3758:, pp. 20–21. 3464:, pp. 24–26. 3425:, pp. 27–28. 3413:, pp. 92–93. 3389:, pp. 83–84. 3290:, pp. 81–82. 3278:, pp. 28–29. 3213:, pp. 84–86. 3201:, pp. 82–83. 3109:, pp. 80–81. 3037:, pp. 88–89. 3013:, pp. 9, 78. 2488:, pp. 87–88. 2476:, pp. 85–86. 2437:, pp. 45–46. 2329:, pp. 49–50. 2275:, pp. 30–31. 2212:, pp. 27–28. 2054:Palace of Justice 2028:political culture 2016:High Commissioner 1811:, 6 January 1948. 1752: 1678:Winston Churchill 1670:German resistance 1582:Reinhard Heydrich 1543:Abraham Sutzkever 1510: 1509: 1462:cultural heritage 1231: 1160:fellow travellers 1125:value, including 917:interior minister 835:Murray C. Bernays 818:(France) and the 785:, as well as the 760:French resistance 755:Cour de Cassation 753:, a judge of the 712:Hartley Shawcross 682:graphic designers 659:. Located in the 653:Palace of Justice 633:international law 618:Armenian genocide 588:Robert H. Jackson 529:Nuremberg charter 494:summary execution 335:Jews arriving at 278:Nuremberg Charter 237:were held by the 231: 230: 207:Geoffrey Lawrence 93:Palace of Justice 18: 8928: 8906:Holocaust trials 8861:1940s in Germany 8856:Nuremberg trials 8843: 8842: 8840: 8839: 8838: 8833: 8829: 8826: 8825: 8824: 8821: 8703:Holocaust denial 8681:Nuremberg trials 8671:Postwar violence 8626: 8561: 8560: 8538: 8537: 8500:Special Brigades 8490:Nederlandsche SS 8457:Police Regiments 8381: 8380: 8359: 8358: 8219:Ghetto uprisings 8207:Jewish partisans 8154:Harvest Festival 8126:Holocaust trains 8012: 8011: 8003: 8002: 7990: 7989: 7855: 7854: 7751: 7729: 7711: 7692: 7674: 7497: 7496: 7480: 7479: 7188: 7187: 7173: 7166: 7159: 7150: 7149: 7106:Related concepts 7044: 7001:Genocidal intent 6891: 6884: 6877: 6868: 6867: 6831:Nuremberg Trials 6750:Eugene Kivelisha 6690:Dieter Wisliceny 6670: 6669: 6625: 6613: 6606:Julius Streicher 6591:Alfred Rosenberg 6516: 6508: 6500: 6492: 6483: 6482: 6450: 6449: 6400:Iona Nikitchenko 6367:(United Kingdom) 6314:Nuremberg trials 6307: 6300: 6293: 6284: 6283: 6250: 6223: 6221: 6196: 6173: 6154: 6152: 6143:(4): 1085–1102. 6125: 6102: 6064: 6042: 6019: 5992: 5964: 5947:Hirsch, Francine 5942: 5916: 5906: 5881: 5864:Fleming, Michael 5859: 5833: 5807: 5780: 5754: 5752: 5706: 5700: 5694: 5688: 5682: 5676: 5670: 5664: 5658: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5592: 5583: 5577: 5571: 5565: 5559: 5553: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5427: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5343: 5337: 5331: 5325: 5319: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5295: 5289: 5283: 5277: 5271: 5265: 5262:Echternkamp 2020 5259: 5253: 5247: 5241: 5235: 5229: 5226:Echternkamp 2020 5223: 5217: 5211: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5106: 5105:, pp. 1, 4. 5100: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5058: 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2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2871: 2865: 2856: 2855:, pp. 3, 6. 2850: 2844: 2838: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2762: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2686:, pp. 9–10. 2681: 2675: 2669: 2663: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2612: 2606: 2600: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2384: 2378: 2372: 2366: 2360: 2354: 2348: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2303: 2297: 2291: 2285: 2276: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2231: 2225: 2219: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2174: 2168: 2159: 2153: 2043:Benjamin Ferencz 2000:victor's justice 1961:Kevin Jon Heller 1875:Ministries trial 1809:Ministries trial 1753: 1624: 1537:, a survivor of 1502: 1501: 1487: 1486: 1475: 1474: 1415:Friedrich Paulus 1284: 1232: 977:Julius Streicher 921:Alfred Rosenberg 909:foreign minister 901:foreign minister 878:Heinrich Himmler 839:securities fraud 772:Andrei Vyshinsky 764:Iona Nikitchenko 611:post-World War I 566: 563: 502:Yalta Conference 274:occupied Germany 235:Nuremberg trials 223: 203: 200:Iona Nikitchenko 187:Court membership 135:20 November 1945 89: 80: 75: 74: 59:Nuremberg Trials 8936: 8935: 8931: 8930: 8929: 8927: 8926: 8925: 8846: 8845: 8836: 8834: 8830: 8827: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8815: 8814: 8812: 8799: 8714: 8630: 8624: 8613:Madagascar Plan 8606:Kindertransport 8555: 8554: 8524: 8466: 8438: 8423:Ordnungspolizei 8379: 8366: 8345: 8288: 8240: 8193: 8164:Maly Trostenets 8135:Mass executions 8130: 8100: 8038: 7997: 7972: 7942: 7901: 7839: 7801: 7760: 7749: 7727: 7709: 7690: 7672: 7660: 7617: 7491: 7470: 7390: 7381:Hidden children 7359: 7217:Czechoslovakia 7182: 7177: 7147: 7142: 7118:Superior orders 7101: 7045: 7042: 7041: 7032: 6974: 6971: 6963: 6919:Peremptory norm 6900: 6895: 6865: 6860: 6810: 6769: 6700:Alois Hollriege 6655: 6630: 6547: 6521: 6474: 6470:Hjalmar Schacht 6465:Franz von Papen 6439: 6388: 6361:(United States) 6347: 6316: 6311: 6258: 6253: 6247: 6193: 6170: 6122: 6099: 6061: 6039: 6016: 5961: 5939: 5878: 5856: 5830: 5804: 5777: 5720: 5714: 5709: 5701: 5697: 5689: 5685: 5677: 5673: 5665: 5661: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5617: 5613: 5605: 5601: 5593: 5586: 5578: 5574: 5566: 5562: 5554: 5550: 5542: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5522:, p. 1089. 5518: 5511: 5503: 5499: 5491: 5487: 5479: 5475: 5467: 5463: 5455: 5448: 5444:, p. 1091. 5440: 5436: 5428: 5424: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5380: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5332: 5328: 5320: 5316: 5308: 5304: 5296: 5292: 5284: 5280: 5272: 5268: 5260: 5256: 5248: 5244: 5236: 5232: 5224: 5220: 5214:Safferling 2020 5212: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5149: 5145: 5137: 5133: 5129:, pp. 1–2. 5125: 5121: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5089: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5065: 5061: 5053: 5049: 5041: 5037: 5029: 5025: 5017: 5013: 5005: 5001: 4993: 4989: 4981: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4933: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4909: 4905: 4897: 4893: 4887:Brüggemann 2018 4885: 4881: 4875:Brüggemann 2018 4873: 4869: 4861: 4857: 4849: 4842: 4834: 4825: 4817: 4813: 4805: 4801: 4793: 4789: 4781: 4777: 4769: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4742: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4718: 4714: 4706: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4634: 4630: 4622: 4615: 4607: 4603: 4595: 4591: 4583: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4559: 4555: 4547: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4523: 4519: 4511: 4507: 4499: 4495: 4487: 4483: 4475: 4471: 4463: 4459: 4451: 4447: 4439: 4435: 4427: 4423: 4415: 4411: 4403: 4394: 4386: 4382: 4374: 4367: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4343: 4335: 4331: 4323: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4296: 4289: 4281: 4277: 4269: 4265: 4257: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4221: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4197: 4190: 4182: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4154: 4146: 4142: 4134: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4086: 4082: 4074: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4016: 4012:, paragraph 18. 4008: 4001: 3993: 3986: 3982:, paragraph 17. 3978: 3974: 3970:, paragraph 16. 3966: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3946:, paragraph 15. 3942: 3938: 3930: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3901: 3897: 3889: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3853: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3781: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3754: 3750: 3742: 3738: 3730: 3726: 3718: 3714: 3706: 3702: 3694: 3690: 3682: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3655: 3651: 3643: 3639: 3631: 3624: 3616: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3556: 3552: 3544: 3540: 3532: 3521: 3517:, paragraph 19. 3513: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3489: 3480: 3472: 3468: 3460: 3456: 3448: 3444: 3436: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3361: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3337: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3310: 3306: 3298: 3294: 3286: 3282: 3274: 3270: 3262: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3149: 3145: 3137: 3128: 3120: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3021: 3017: 3009: 3005: 2997: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2938:, paragraph 10. 2934: 2927: 2919: 2915: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2874: 2866: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2794: 2786: 2782: 2774: 2765: 2757: 2753: 2745: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2694: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2634: 2630: 2622: 2615: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2559: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2528: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2472: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2445: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2421: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2397: 2393: 2385: 2381: 2373: 2369: 2361: 2357: 2349: 2345: 2337: 2333: 2325: 2321: 2313: 2306: 2298: 2294: 2286: 2279: 2271: 2267: 2259: 2252: 2244: 2240: 2232: 2228: 2220: 2216: 2208: 2204: 2196: 2192: 2188:, p. 1092. 2184: 2177: 2169: 2162: 2154: 2147: 2143: 2056:courtroom, 2012 2036: 1969: 1953:criminal orders 1891:IG Farben trial 1842:adopted by the 1828:IG Farben trial 1798: 1792: 1779:ten were hanged 1736: 1723:Greater Germany 1715: 1690: 1618: 1555: 1499: 1484: 1478:External videos 1450:Lidice massacre 1399: 1374:Alsace–Lorraine 1355: 1304:Evidence about 1261:against Austria 1174: 1172: 1135: 1080: 1072:German military 937:Hjalmar Schacht 889:Franz von Papen 882:Joseph Goebbels 862: 856: 803: 677: 645:superior orders 564: 531: 526: 510:Harry S. Truman 484:to rebuild the 482:war reparations 372:the Netherlands 341:Kirsten Sellars 329: 226: 218: 198: 179: 173:Related actions 103: 78: 71: 64: 52: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 42: 26: 12: 11: 5: 8934: 8924: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8809: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8801: 8800: 8798: 8797: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8749: 8748: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8722: 8720: 8716: 8715: 8713: 8712: 8711: 8710: 8708:trivialization 8700: 8699: 8698: 8688: 8686:Eichmann trial 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8667: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8646: 8640: 8638: 8632: 8631: 8629: 8628: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8609: 8608: 8598: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8581:Nuremberg Laws 8578: 8573: 8567: 8565: 8564:Early elements 8557: 8556: 8553: 8552: 8549: 8546: 8545:Early elements 8542: 8534: 8533: 8530: 8529: 8526: 8525: 8523: 8522: 8517: 8512: 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8480:Arajs Kommando 8476: 8474: 8468: 8467: 8465: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8451:Einsatzgruppen 8446: 8444: 8440: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8420: 8414: 8413: 8412: 8401: 8393: 8387: 8385: 8378: 8377: 8371: 8368: 8367: 8364:Responsibility 8355: 8354: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8346: 8344: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8294: 8293: 8290: 8289: 8287: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8250: 8248: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8238: 8237: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8216: 8215: 8214: 8203: 8201: 8195: 8194: 8192: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8143:Einsatzgruppen 8138: 8136: 8132: 8131: 8129: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8112: 8110: 8107:Final Solution 8102: 8101: 8099: 8098: 8097: 8096: 8086: 8085: 8084: 8079: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8046: 8044: 8040: 8039: 8037: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8020: 8018: 8009: 7999: 7998: 7986: 7985: 7982: 7981: 7978: 7977: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7970: 7968:Ústredňa Židov 7965: 7960: 7954: 7952: 7944: 7943: 7941: 7940: 7935: 7933:Theresienstadt 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7909: 7907: 7903: 7902: 7900: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7863: 7861: 7852: 7841: 7840: 7838: 7837: 7830: 7823: 7818: 7809: 7807: 7803: 7802: 7800: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7772:Einsatzgruppen 7768: 7766: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7758: 7753: 7746: 7741: 7736: 7731: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7668: 7666: 7662: 7661: 7659: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7627: 7625: 7619: 7618: 7616: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7578:Mittelbau-Dora 7575: 7566: 7561: 7559:Kraków-Płaszów 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7505: 7503: 7493: 7492: 7476: 7475: 7472: 7471: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7449:Rescue of Jews 7446: 7445: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7398: 7396: 7392: 7391: 7389: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7367: 7365: 7361: 7360: 7358: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7350: 7342: 7341: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7272: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7194: 7192: 7184: 7183: 7176: 7175: 7168: 7161: 7153: 7144: 7143: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7109: 7107: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7048: 7046: 7037: 7034: 7033: 7031: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7003: 6993: 6988: 6983: 6977: 6975: 6970:Crimes against 6968: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6910: 6908: 6902: 6901: 6894: 6893: 6886: 6879: 6871: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6858: 6850: 6842: 6835: 6827: 6818: 6816: 6812: 6811: 6809: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6781: 6779: 6775: 6774: 6771: 6770: 6768: 6767: 6765:Samuel Rajzman 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6725:Francisco Boix 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6685:Otto Ohlendorf 6682: 6680:Erwin Lahousen 6676: 6674: 6667: 6661: 6660: 6657: 6656: 6654: 6653: 6648: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6628: 6623:Hermann Göring 6620: 6611:Martin Bormann 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6581:Wilhelm Keitel 6578: 6573: 6568: 6563: 6557: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6529: 6527: 6523: 6522: 6520: 6519: 6511: 6503: 6495: 6486: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6460:Hans Fritzsche 6456: 6454: 6447: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6425:John J. Parker 6422: 6420:Francis Biddle 6417: 6415:Norman Birkett 6412: 6407: 6402: 6396: 6394: 6390: 6389: 6387: 6386: 6380: 6374: 6373:(Soviet Union) 6368: 6362: 6355: 6353: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6324: 6322: 6318: 6317: 6310: 6309: 6302: 6295: 6287: 6281: 6280: 6275: 6269: 6266:Avalon Project 6257: 6256:External links 6254: 6252: 6251: 6245: 6224: 6212:(4): 830–844. 6197: 6191: 6174: 6168: 6155: 6126: 6120: 6103: 6097: 6065: 6059: 6043: 6037: 6020: 6014: 5993: 5965: 5959: 5943: 5937: 5917: 5897:(2): 507–525. 5882: 5876: 5860: 5854: 5846:Berghahn Books 5834: 5828: 5808: 5802: 5781: 5775: 5755: 5743:(4): 881–903. 5721: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5707: 5695: 5683: 5671: 5669:, p. 114. 5659: 5657:, p. 896. 5655:Acquaviva 2011 5647: 5645:, p. 290. 5635: 5633:, p. 207. 5623: 5611: 5609:, p. 411. 5599: 5597:, p. 117. 5584: 5582:, p. 175. 5572: 5570:, p. 837. 5568:Tomuschat 2006 5560: 5558:, p. 412. 5548: 5536: 5534:, p. 137. 5524: 5509: 5507:, p. 343. 5497: 5485: 5481:Tomuschat 2006 5473: 5461: 5459:, p. 172. 5446: 5434: 5422: 5410: 5408:, p. 368. 5398: 5396:, p. 360. 5386: 5374: 5372:, p. 367. 5362: 5360:, p. 351. 5350: 5348:, p. 366. 5338: 5336:, p. 365. 5326: 5324:, p. 105. 5314: 5302: 5290: 5278: 5266: 5254: 5252:, p. 100. 5242: 5230: 5228:, p. 167. 5218: 5203: 5201:, p. 149. 5191: 5179: 5167: 5163:Gemählich 2019 5155: 5143: 5141:, p. 306. 5131: 5119: 5107: 5095: 5083: 5071: 5059: 5047: 5035: 5023: 5011: 5009:, p. 370. 4999: 4987: 4975: 4963: 4961:, p. 380. 4951: 4949:, p. 146. 4939: 4927: 4925:, p. 145. 4915: 4903: 4891: 4879: 4877:, p. 405. 4867: 4855: 4853:, p. 147. 4840: 4823: 4821:, p. 383. 4811: 4799: 4797:, p. 386. 4787: 4775: 4773:, p. 387. 4760: 4758:, p. 378. 4748: 4736: 4734:, p. 144. 4724: 4712: 4700: 4696:Tomuschat 2006 4688: 4676: 4674:, p. 371. 4664: 4662:, p. 142. 4652: 4650:, p. 161. 4640: 4638:, p. 375. 4628: 4626:, p. 150. 4613: 4601: 4589: 4577: 4575:, p. 120. 4565: 4553: 4541: 4539:, p. 171. 4529: 4517: 4505: 4493: 4481: 4469: 4467:, p. 144. 4457: 4455:, p. 178. 4445: 4433: 4421: 4419:, p. 148. 4409: 4407:, p. 131. 4392: 4390:, p. 287. 4380: 4365: 4363:, p. 135. 4353: 4341: 4329: 4327:, p. 132. 4314: 4302: 4300:, p. 126. 4287: 4285:, p. 125. 4275: 4273:, p. 121. 4263: 4251: 4239: 4227: 4215: 4203: 4201:, p. 372. 4188: 4176: 4164: 4162:, p. 232. 4152: 4140: 4138:, p. 230. 4128: 4126:, p. 225. 4116: 4104: 4102:, p. 223. 4092: 4080: 4078:, p. 109. 4065: 4053: 4049:Gemählich 2019 4041: 4029: 4025:Gemählich 2019 4014: 4010:Gemählich 2019 3999: 3997:, p. 115. 3984: 3980:Gemählich 2019 3972: 3968:Gemählich 2019 3960: 3948: 3944:Gemählich 2019 3936: 3934:, p. 119. 3919: 3907: 3905:, p. 185. 3895: 3893:, p. 383. 3883: 3881:, p. 382. 3871: 3859: 3847: 3845:, p. 108. 3835: 3833:, p. 384. 3823: 3811: 3799: 3787: 3785:, p. 116. 3772: 3760: 3748: 3736: 3734:, p. 107. 3724: 3722:, p. 106. 3712: 3710:, p. 150. 3700: 3698:, p. 149. 3688: 3686:, p. 133. 3673: 3671:, p. 159. 3661: 3659:, paragraph 3. 3649: 3637: 3622: 3620:, p. 124. 3610: 3608:, p. 138. 3598: 3586: 3574: 3572:, p. 104. 3562: 3550: 3538: 3536:, p. 148. 3519: 3515:Gemählich 2019 3507: 3495: 3493:, p. 105. 3478: 3466: 3454: 3452:, p. 205. 3442: 3440:, p. 841. 3438:Tomuschat 2006 3427: 3415: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3367: 3355: 3343: 3328: 3316: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3268: 3251: 3239: 3227: 3215: 3203: 3191: 3179: 3167: 3155: 3143: 3141:, p. 111. 3126: 3124:, p. 102. 3111: 3099: 3097:, p. 101. 3087: 3075: 3063: 3061:, p. 209. 3051: 3049:, p. 117. 3039: 3027: 3025:, p. 217. 3015: 3003: 2988: 2986:, p. 204. 2976: 2964: 2960:Gemählich 2019 2952: 2940: 2936:Gemählich 2019 2925: 2923:, p. 115. 2913: 2901: 2889: 2872: 2857: 2845: 2833: 2831:, p. 100. 2821: 2809: 2792: 2780: 2763: 2751: 2736: 2724: 2712: 2700: 2698:, p. 101. 2688: 2676: 2672:Tomuschat 2006 2664: 2652: 2640: 2636:Acquaviva 2011 2628: 2613: 2611:, p. 373. 2601: 2597:Bassiouni 2011 2589: 2585:Bassiouni 2011 2577: 2565: 2553: 2541: 2539:, p. 834. 2537:Tomuschat 2006 2526: 2514: 2502: 2498:Tomuschat 2006 2490: 2478: 2463: 2451: 2439: 2427: 2415: 2403: 2391: 2379: 2367: 2355: 2343: 2331: 2319: 2304: 2302:, paragraph 4. 2300:Gemählich 2019 2292: 2277: 2265: 2250: 2238: 2226: 2214: 2202: 2190: 2175: 2173:, p. 148. 2160: 2158:, p. 165. 2144: 2142: 2139: 2048:Einsatzgruppen 2035: 2032: 2023:Einsatzgruppen 2019:John J. McCloy 1968: 1965: 1920:Einsatzgruppen 1879:Foreign Office 1855:Doctors' trial 1805:Telford Taylor 1794:Main article: 1791: 1788: 1783:Spandau Prison 1762:denazification 1714: 1711: 1707:Norman Birkett 1699:Raphael Lemkin 1689: 1686: 1680:delivered the 1654:in the Pacific 1645:had also used 1639:Chester Nimitz 1608:Nuremberg Laws 1586:Adolf Eichmann 1562:Hermann Göring 1554: 1551: 1535:Samuel Rajzman 1508: 1507: 1495: 1494: 1480: 1479: 1466:Katyn massacre 1398: 1395: 1354: 1351: 1339:Foreign Office 1331:Locarno Treaty 1287:Otto Ohlendorf 1281:Einsatzgruppen 1253:intentionalist 1171: 1168: 1134: 1131: 1079: 1076: 1024:Martin Bormann 981:Hans Fritzsche 961:Wilhelm Keitel 957:Hermann Göring 858:Main article: 855: 852: 831:War Department 825:The charge of 802: 799: 791:Czechoslovakia 779:Chaim Weizmann 704:Francis Biddle 676: 673: 530: 527: 525: 522: 486:Soviet economy 466:aggressive war 456:Soviet jurist 439:Marcel de Baer 328: 325: 297:aggressive war 229: 228: 225: 224: 216: 213:Francis Biddle 210: 204: 202:(Soviet Union) 195: 193: 192:Judges sitting 189: 188: 184: 183: 174: 170: 169: 165: 164: 159: 155: 154: 149: 145: 144: 143:1 October 1946 141: 137: 136: 133: 129: 128: 111: 105: 104: 90: 82: 81: 50: 39:22 August 2024 28: 22: 19: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8933: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8853: 8851: 8844: 8841: 8795: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8747: 8744: 8743: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8723: 8721: 8717: 8709: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8701: 8697: 8694: 8693: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8651: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8633: 8627: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8607: 8604: 8603: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8576:Nazi eugenics 8574: 8572: 8569: 8568: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8550: 8547: 8544: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8505:Topf and Sons 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8477: 8475: 8473: 8472:Collaborators 8469: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8452: 8448: 8447: 8445: 8441: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8424: 8421: 8418: 8415: 8411: 8410:Referat IV B4 8408: 8407: 8406: (RSHA) 8405: 8402: 8400: 8398: 8397:Schutzstaffel 8394: 8392: 8389: 8388: 8386: 8384:Organizations 8382: 8376: 8373: 8372: 8369: 8365: 8360: 8356: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8326:Romani people 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8299: 8295: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8279:Working Group 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8264:Kastner train 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8243: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8221: 8220: 8217: 8213: 8210: 8209: 8208: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8144: 8140: 8139: 8137: 8133: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8103: 8095: 8092: 8091: 8090: 8087: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8074: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8052: 8051:Kristallnacht 8048: 8047: 8045: 8041: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8017: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7991: 7987: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7955: 7953: 7951: 7950: 7945: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7910: 7908: 7904: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7864: 7862: 7860: 7856: 7853: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7836: 7835: 7834:Sanitätswesen 7831: 7829: 7828: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7810: 7808: 7804: 7798: 7797:Death marches 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7712: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7693: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7670: 7669: 7667: 7663: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7628: 7626: 7624: 7623:Extermination 7620: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7598:Sachsenhausen 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7539:Herzogenbusch 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7514:Bergen-Belsen 7512: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7504: 7502: 7501:Concentration 7498: 7494: 7490: 7486: 7481: 7477: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7437:United States 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7404: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7393: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7366: 7362: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7345: 7343: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7277:and colonies 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7264: 7261: 7260: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7180:The Holocaust 7174: 7169: 7167: 7162: 7160: 7155: 7154: 7151: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7110: 7108: 7104: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7068: 7065: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7040: 7035: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7018:Slave trading 7016: 7014: 7011: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6966: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6892: 6887: 6885: 6880: 6878: 6873: 6872: 6869: 6856: 6855: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6833: 6832: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6820: 6819: 6817: 6813: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784:Invention of 6783: 6782: 6780: 6776: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6745:Joseph Orbeli 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6730:Hans Cappelen 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6715:Maurice Lampe 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6662: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6637: 6624: 6621: 6617: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6596:Fritz Sauckel 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6566:Wilhelm Frick 6564: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6554: 6550: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6515: 6512: 6507: 6504: 6499: 6496: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6484: 6481: 6477: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6457: 6455: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6442: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6391: 6384: 6381: 6378: 6375: 6372: 6371:Roman Rudenko 6369: 6366: 6363: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6350: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6325: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6308: 6303: 6301: 6296: 6294: 6289: 6288: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6273: 6270: 6267: 6263: 6260: 6259: 6248: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6175: 6171: 6165: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6104: 6100: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6034: 6030: 6029:Brill Nijhoff 6026: 6021: 6017: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5979:(in French). 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5896: 5893:(in French). 5892: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5737: 5732: 5730: 5729:Nullum Crimen 5723: 5722: 5719: 5704: 5703:Sharples 2013 5699: 5693:, p. 16. 5692: 5687: 5681:, p. 31. 5680: 5679:Sharples 2013 5675: 5668: 5663: 5656: 5651: 5644: 5639: 5632: 5631:Mouralis 2019 5627: 5620: 5615: 5608: 5603: 5596: 5591: 5589: 5581: 5576: 5569: 5564: 5557: 5552: 5545: 5540: 5533: 5528: 5521: 5516: 5514: 5506: 5501: 5494: 5489: 5482: 5477: 5470: 5465: 5458: 5453: 5451: 5443: 5438: 5432:, p. vi. 5431: 5426: 5419: 5414: 5407: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5383: 5378: 5371: 5366: 5359: 5354: 5347: 5342: 5335: 5330: 5323: 5318: 5311: 5306: 5299: 5294: 5287: 5282: 5275: 5270: 5263: 5258: 5251: 5246: 5240:, p. 99. 5239: 5234: 5227: 5222: 5216:, p. 42. 5215: 5210: 5208: 5200: 5195: 5188: 5183: 5176: 5175:Sharples 2013 5171: 5164: 5159: 5152: 5147: 5140: 5135: 5128: 5123: 5116: 5111: 5104: 5099: 5092: 5087: 5080: 5075: 5068: 5063: 5057:, p. 90. 5056: 5051: 5044: 5039: 5032: 5027: 5020: 5015: 5008: 5003: 4996: 4991: 4984: 4979: 4972: 4967: 4960: 4955: 4948: 4943: 4936: 4931: 4924: 4919: 4912: 4907: 4900: 4895: 4888: 4883: 4876: 4871: 4864: 4859: 4852: 4847: 4845: 4837: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4820: 4815: 4809:, p. 25. 4808: 4807:Mouralis 2019 4803: 4796: 4791: 4784: 4779: 4772: 4767: 4765: 4757: 4752: 4745: 4740: 4733: 4728: 4721: 4716: 4709: 4704: 4697: 4692: 4685: 4680: 4673: 4668: 4661: 4656: 4649: 4644: 4637: 4632: 4625: 4620: 4618: 4610: 4605: 4598: 4593: 4586: 4581: 4574: 4569: 4562: 4557: 4550: 4545: 4538: 4533: 4526: 4525:Mouralis 2019 4521: 4515:, p. 14. 4514: 4509: 4503:, p. 10. 4502: 4497: 4490: 4485: 4479:, p. 15. 4478: 4473: 4466: 4461: 4454: 4449: 4442: 4437: 4430: 4425: 4418: 4413: 4406: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4389: 4384: 4377: 4372: 4370: 4362: 4357: 4350: 4345: 4338: 4333: 4326: 4321: 4319: 4312:, p. 20. 4311: 4306: 4299: 4294: 4292: 4284: 4279: 4272: 4267: 4260: 4255: 4248: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4224: 4219: 4212: 4207: 4200: 4195: 4193: 4185: 4180: 4173: 4168: 4161: 4156: 4149: 4144: 4137: 4132: 4125: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4101: 4096: 4089: 4084: 4077: 4072: 4070: 4062: 4057: 4050: 4045: 4039:, p. 70. 4038: 4033: 4026: 4021: 4019: 4011: 4006: 4004: 3996: 3991: 3989: 3981: 3976: 3969: 3964: 3957: 3952: 3945: 3940: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3924: 3916: 3911: 3904: 3899: 3892: 3887: 3880: 3875: 3868: 3863: 3856: 3851: 3844: 3839: 3832: 3827: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3803: 3796: 3791: 3784: 3779: 3777: 3769: 3764: 3757: 3752: 3745: 3740: 3733: 3728: 3721: 3716: 3709: 3704: 3697: 3692: 3685: 3680: 3678: 3670: 3665: 3658: 3657:Mouralis 2016 3653: 3647:, p. 40. 3646: 3641: 3635:, p. 23. 3634: 3633:Mouralis 2019 3629: 3627: 3619: 3614: 3607: 3602: 3596:, p. 16. 3595: 3590: 3584:, p. 18. 3583: 3578: 3571: 3566: 3560:, p. 30. 3559: 3554: 3547: 3546:Mouralis 2016 3542: 3535: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3516: 3511: 3504: 3499: 3492: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3476:, p. 39. 3475: 3474:Sharples 2013 3470: 3463: 3458: 3451: 3446: 3439: 3434: 3432: 3424: 3419: 3412: 3407: 3400: 3395: 3388: 3383: 3377:, p. 29. 3376: 3371: 3364: 3359: 3352: 3347: 3341:, p. 82. 3340: 3335: 3333: 3325: 3320: 3314:, p. 76. 3313: 3308: 3301: 3296: 3289: 3284: 3277: 3272: 3266:, p. 81. 3265: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3249:, p. 27. 3248: 3243: 3236: 3231: 3225:, p. 87. 3224: 3219: 3212: 3207: 3200: 3195: 3189:, p. 99. 3188: 3183: 3177:, p. 69. 3176: 3171: 3164: 3159: 3152: 3147: 3140: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3123: 3118: 3116: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3091: 3085:, p. 80. 3084: 3079: 3072: 3067: 3060: 3055: 3048: 3043: 3036: 3031: 3024: 3019: 3012: 3007: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2985: 2980: 2974:, p. 87. 2973: 2968: 2961: 2956: 2949: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2930: 2922: 2917: 2911:, p. 88. 2910: 2905: 2898: 2893: 2887:, p. 90. 2886: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2870:, p. 91. 2869: 2864: 2862: 2854: 2849: 2842: 2837: 2830: 2825: 2818: 2813: 2807:, p. 22. 2806: 2805:Mouralis 2019 2801: 2799: 2797: 2790:, p. 21. 2789: 2788:Mouralis 2019 2784: 2778:, p. 74. 2777: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2761:, p. 31. 2760: 2755: 2749:, p. 76. 2748: 2743: 2741: 2734:, p. 85. 2733: 2728: 2722:, p. 11. 2721: 2716: 2710:, p. 87. 2709: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2685: 2680: 2673: 2668: 2662:, p. 70. 2661: 2656: 2649: 2648:Mouralis 2019 2644: 2637: 2632: 2626:, p. 73. 2625: 2620: 2618: 2610: 2605: 2598: 2593: 2586: 2581: 2574: 2569: 2563:, p. 34. 2562: 2557: 2550: 2545: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2523: 2518: 2511: 2506: 2499: 2494: 2487: 2482: 2475: 2470: 2468: 2461:, p. 84. 2460: 2455: 2449:, p. 10. 2448: 2443: 2436: 2431: 2425:, p. 40. 2424: 2419: 2413:, p. 70. 2412: 2407: 2400: 2395: 2388: 2383: 2376: 2371: 2364: 2359: 2353:, p. 63. 2352: 2347: 2340: 2335: 2328: 2323: 2316: 2311: 2309: 2301: 2296: 2289: 2284: 2282: 2274: 2269: 2263:, p. 64. 2262: 2257: 2255: 2247: 2242: 2236:, p. 22. 2235: 2230: 2224:, p. 56. 2223: 2218: 2211: 2206: 2199: 2194: 2187: 2182: 2180: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2157: 2152: 2150: 2145: 2138: 2136: 2135: 2130: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2103: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2072: 2070: 2065: 2063: 2055: 2051: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2031: 2029: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2004: 2001: 1995: 1988: 1987: 1983:Germans read 1981: 1973: 1964: 1962: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1941:Hostages case 1938: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1921: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1867:Judges' trial 1864: 1860: 1856: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1787: 1784: 1780: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1763: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1622: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1603: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1570: 1563: 1559: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1505: 1496: 1492: 1491: 1481: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1419:field marshal 1416: 1407: 1406:Roman Rudenko 1403: 1394: 1392: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1378:Germanization 1375: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1360:pan-Germanism 1350: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1282: 1276: 1272: 1271: 1266: 1262: 1256: 1254: 1244: 1238: 1237: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1140: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1119:admissibility 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1088: 1084: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1064:General Staff 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1040:Reich Cabinet 1036: 1032: 1031: 1025: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 953:Fritz Sauckel 950: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 913:Wilhelm Frick 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 885: 883: 879: 875: 866: 861: 851: 848: 842: 840: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 820:Eastern Front 817: 816:Western Front 807: 798: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 775: 773: 769: 768:Roman Rudenko 765: 761: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 731: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 700: 699: 694: 690: 685: 683: 672: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 629: 627: 623: 619: 615: 612: 608: 604: 599: 597: 593: 589: 585: 584:Supreme Court 581: 577: 572: 559: 554: 546: 539: 535: 524:Establishment 521: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 478:Moscow trials 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 454: 452: 448: 444: 443:Bohuslav Ečer 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 423:a declaration 420: 415: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 354: 346: 342: 338: 333: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 309:the Holocaust 306: 302: 298: 294: 289: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 254: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 221: 217: 214: 211: 208: 205: 201: 197: 196: 194: 190: 185: 182: 178: 175: 171: 166: 163: 160: 156: 153: 152:24 (see list) 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 127: 123: 119: 115: 112: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 88: 83: 76: 73: 69: 62: 60: 54: 40: 36: 32: 25: 20: 8866:1940s in law 8813: 8788:Yizkor books 8680: 8449: 8396: 8141: 8089:in Lithuania 8049: 7947: 7832: 7825: 7814: 7748: 7726: 7707: 7688: 7671: 7454:by Catholics 7323:Soviet Union 7191:By territory 7051: 6959:Rome Statute 6852: 6844: 6829: 6821: 6806:Bibliography 6615: 6543:Erich Raeder 6533:Walther Funk 6514:Albert Speer 6435:Robert Falco 6313: 6232: 6228: 6209: 6205: 6178: 6159: 6140: 6134: 6107: 6076: 6050: 6024: 6001: 5997: 5980: 5976: 5950: 5924: 5894: 5890: 5867: 5841: 5815: 5789: 5785: 5762: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5698: 5691:Priemel 2016 5686: 5674: 5662: 5650: 5643:Sellars 2013 5638: 5626: 5621:, p. 7. 5619:Priemel 2016 5614: 5607:Priemel 2016 5602: 5580:Sellars 2013 5575: 5563: 5556:Priemel 2016 5551: 5544:Priemel 2016 5539: 5532:Sellars 2013 5527: 5520:Sellars 2010 5505:Priemel 2016 5500: 5488: 5476: 5469:Priemel 2016 5464: 5457:Sellars 2013 5442:Sellars 2010 5437: 5430:Priemel 2016 5425: 5413: 5406:Priemel 2016 5401: 5389: 5377: 5370:Priemel 2016 5365: 5353: 5346:Priemel 2016 5341: 5334:Priemel 2016 5329: 5317: 5305: 5298:Priemel 2016 5293: 5281: 5274:Priemel 2016 5269: 5257: 5245: 5233: 5221: 5194: 5187:Priemel 2016 5182: 5170: 5158: 5146: 5139:Priemel 2016 5134: 5122: 5117:, p. 4. 5110: 5098: 5086: 5079:Priemel 2016 5074: 5067:Priemel 2016 5062: 5050: 5038: 5026: 5019:Priemel 2016 5014: 5002: 4990: 4985:, p. 1. 4978: 4966: 4954: 4947:Priemel 2016 4942: 4930: 4923:Priemel 2016 4918: 4906: 4899:Priemel 2016 4894: 4882: 4870: 4863:Priemel 2016 4858: 4851:Priemel 2016 4814: 4802: 4790: 4783:Sayapin 2014 4778: 4751: 4739: 4732:Priemel 2016 4727: 4720:Priemel 2016 4715: 4708:Sellars 2013 4703: 4691: 4684:Priemel 2016 4679: 4667: 4660:Priemel 2016 4655: 4648:Sellars 2013 4643: 4631: 4624:Sayapin 2014 4609:Sellars 2013 4604: 4592: 4585:Priemel 2016 4580: 4573:Priemel 2016 4568: 4561:Priemel 2016 4556: 4549:Priemel 2016 4544: 4537:Sellars 2013 4532: 4520: 4508: 4496: 4489:Priemel 2016 4484: 4477:Douglas 2001 4472: 4465:Sellars 2013 4460: 4453:Sellars 2013 4448: 4441:Priemel 2016 4436: 4429:Sellars 2013 4424: 4417:Sellars 2013 4412: 4405:Priemel 2016 4383: 4376:Priemel 2016 4361:Priemel 2016 4356: 4349:Priemel 2016 4344: 4337:Priemel 2016 4332: 4325:Priemel 2016 4310:Douglas 2001 4305: 4298:Priemel 2016 4283:Priemel 2016 4278: 4271:Priemel 2016 4266: 4254: 4242: 4230: 4218: 4206: 4179: 4167: 4155: 4143: 4131: 4119: 4112:Priemel 2016 4107: 4095: 4083: 4076:Priemel 2016 4056: 4044: 4037:Douglas 2001 4032: 3995:Priemel 2016 3975: 3963: 3956:Priemel 2016 3951: 3939: 3932:Priemel 2016 3910: 3898: 3886: 3874: 3862: 3855:Sellars 2013 3850: 3843:Priemel 2016 3838: 3826: 3819:Priemel 2016 3814: 3807:Priemel 2016 3802: 3795:Douglas 2001 3790: 3783:Priemel 2016 3768:Priemel 2016 3763: 3756:Douglas 2001 3751: 3744:Priemel 2016 3739: 3732:Priemel 2016 3727: 3720:Priemel 2016 3715: 3708:Priemel 2016 3703: 3696:Priemel 2016 3691: 3684:Priemel 2016 3669:Sellars 2013 3664: 3652: 3640: 3613: 3601: 3594:Douglas 2001 3589: 3582:Douglas 2001 3577: 3570:Priemel 2016 3565: 3558:Douglas 2001 3553: 3541: 3534:Priemel 2016 3510: 3503:Priemel 2016 3498: 3491:Priemel 2016 3469: 3457: 3445: 3418: 3411:Priemel 2016 3406: 3399:Priemel 2016 3394: 3387:Priemel 2016 3382: 3370: 3363:Priemel 2016 3358: 3351:Priemel 2016 3346: 3339:Priemel 2016 3324:Priemel 2016 3319: 3307: 3302:, p. 5. 3295: 3288:Priemel 2016 3283: 3271: 3264:Priemel 2016 3242: 3235:Priemel 2016 3230: 3218: 3206: 3194: 3187:Priemel 2016 3182: 3175:Sellars 2013 3170: 3163:Priemel 2016 3158: 3151:Priemel 2016 3146: 3139:Priemel 2016 3122:Priemel 2016 3102: 3095:Priemel 2016 3090: 3078: 3071:Fleming 2022 3066: 3059:Fleming 2022 3054: 3047:Priemel 2016 3042: 3030: 3018: 3006: 3001:, p. 9. 2979: 2972:Priemel 2016 2967: 2955: 2948:Priemel 2016 2943: 2921:Sellars 2013 2916: 2909:Priemel 2016 2904: 2892: 2885:Priemel 2016 2868:Priemel 2016 2853:Priemel 2016 2848: 2841:Priemel 2016 2836: 2829:Priemel 2016 2824: 2812: 2783: 2754: 2747:Priemel 2016 2732:Sellars 2013 2727: 2715: 2708:Sellars 2013 2703: 2696:Sellars 2013 2691: 2679: 2667: 2655: 2643: 2631: 2604: 2592: 2580: 2568: 2556: 2544: 2522:Sellars 2013 2517: 2510:Sellars 2013 2505: 2493: 2486:Sellars 2013 2481: 2474:Sellars 2013 2459:Sellars 2013 2454: 2442: 2430: 2418: 2411:Priemel 2016 2406: 2399:Sellars 2013 2394: 2382: 2377:, p. 3. 2375:Priemel 2016 2370: 2358: 2351:Priemel 2016 2346: 2334: 2327:Sellars 2013 2322: 2317:, p. 8. 2295: 2290:, p. 9. 2268: 2261:Priemel 2016 2246:Priemel 2016 2241: 2229: 2217: 2205: 2198:Sayapin 2014 2193: 2186:Sellars 2010 2171:Sayapin 2014 2156:Sellars 2013 2132: 2126: 2120: 2101: 2090:drafted the 2073: 2066: 2059: 2047: 2022: 2012:Western Bloc 2008:West Germany 2005: 1996: 1992: 1984: 1957: 1934:Erhard Milch 1919: 1852: 1833: 1775: 1758: 1720: 1716: 1691: 1658: 1616:Alfred Seidl 1601: 1598: 1579: 1575: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1511: 1489: 1458:forced labor 1427: 1411: 1363: 1356: 1311: 1268: 1257: 1251:promoted an 1249: 1234: 1156:totalitarian 1136: 1116: 1092: 1068:High Command 1029: 1021: 997:Hitler Youth 969:Erich Raeder 945:Walther Funk 941:Albert Speer 925:Gustav Krupp 886: 874:Adolf Hitler 871: 843: 824: 812: 777:Requests by 776: 751:Robert Falco 739:Vichy France 732: 696: 686: 678: 665:Nazi rallies 630: 624:" system of 600: 573: 569: 538:Aron Trainin 458:Aron Trainin 455: 416: 396:Soviet Union 358:, including 353:Nazi Germany 350: 290: 285: 281: 258:Soviet Union 255: 251:World War II 243:Nazi Germany 234: 232: 227:and deputies 168:Case history 72: 58: 53: 38: 29:This is the 23: 8835: / 8794:Never again 8625:(Action T4) 8551:Remembrance 8336:Homosexuals 8306:Soviet POWs 8234:Częstochowa 7782:Gas chamber 7593:Ravensbrück 7534:Gross-Rosen 7529:Flossenbürg 7412:Philippines 7344:Yugoslavia 7303:Netherlands 7231:Sudetenland 6849:(1961 film) 6826:(1945 film) 6710:Franz Blaha 6673:Prosecution 6639:No decision 6616:in absentia 6571:Alfred Jodl 6538:Rudolf Hess 6490:Karl Dönitz 6321:Legal basis 5667:Hirsch 2020 5595:Weinke 2006 5493:Hirsch 2020 5418:Weinke 2006 5394:Heller 2011 5382:Heller 2011 5358:Heller 2011 5322:Weinke 2006 5310:Weinke 2006 5286:Heller 2011 5250:Weinke 2006 5238:Weinke 2006 5199:Hirsch 2020 5151:Heller 2011 5127:Heller 2011 5115:Heller 2011 5103:Heller 2011 5091:Heller 2011 5055:Heller 2011 5043:Heller 2011 5031:Heller 2011 5007:Heller 2011 4995:Heller 2011 4983:Heller 2011 4971:Hirsch 2020 4959:Hirsch 2020 4935:Hirsch 2020 4836:Hirsch 2020 4819:Hirsch 2020 4795:Hirsch 2020 4771:Hirsch 2020 4744:Hirsch 2020 4672:Hirsch 2020 4597:Hirsch 2020 4513:Hirsch 2020 4501:Hirsch 2020 4388:Hirsch 2020 4259:Hirsch 2020 4247:Hirsch 2020 4235:Hirsch 2020 4223:Hirsch 2020 4211:Hirsch 2020 4199:Hirsch 2020 4184:Hirsch 2020 4172:Hirsch 2020 4160:Hirsch 2020 4148:Hirsch 2020 4136:Hirsch 2020 4124:Hirsch 2020 4100:Hirsch 2020 4088:Hirsch 2020 4061:Hirsch 2020 3915:Hirsch 2020 3903:Hirsch 2020 3645:Weinke 2006 3618:Hirsch 2020 3606:Hirsch 2020 3462:Weinke 2006 3450:Hirsch 2020 3423:Weinke 2006 3375:Weinke 2006 3312:Hirsch 2020 3300:Hirsch 2020 3276:Weinke 2006 3247:Weinke 2006 3223:Hirsch 2020 3211:Hirsch 2020 3199:Hirsch 2020 3107:Hirsch 2020 3083:Hirsch 2020 3035:Hirsch 2020 3023:Hirsch 2020 3011:Hirsch 2020 2999:Hirsch 2020 2984:Hirsch 2020 2897:Hirsch 2020 2817:Hirsch 2020 2776:Hirsch 2020 2759:Weinke 2006 2720:Heller 2011 2684:Hirsch 2020 2660:Hirsch 2020 2624:Hirsch 2020 2573:Hirsch 2020 2561:Hirsch 2020 2549:Hirsch 2020 2447:Heller 2011 2435:Hirsch 2020 2423:Hirsch 2020 2387:Hirsch 2020 2363:Hirsch 2020 2339:Hirsch 2020 2315:Hirsch 2020 2288:Heller 2011 2273:Hirsch 2020 2234:Hirsch 2020 2222:Hirsch 2020 2210:Hirsch 2020 2131:(1961) and 2110:(ICTY) and 1911:RuSHA trial 1895:Krupp trial 1887:Flick trial 1857:focused on 1662:Rudolf Höss 1619: [ 1541:, and poet 1446:Lev Smirnov 1370:Edgar Faure 1144:appeasement 1127:depositions 1030:in absentia 995:of Poland; 985:Rudolf Hess 973:Karl Dönitz 965:Alfred Jodl 708:John Parker 669:bomb damage 607:German Jews 565: 1945 516:, bringing 431:World War I 345:death camps 276:, with the 8850:Categories 8823:11°02′54″E 8820:49°27′16″N 8783:Yad Vashem 8763:Uniqueness 8618:Nisko Plan 8391:Nazi Party 8199:Resistance 8169:Ninth Fort 8034:Vel' d'Hiv 7806:Nazi units 7744:Westerbork 7734:Amersfoort 7588:Neuengamme 7569:Mauthausen 7549:Kaiserwald 7519:Buchenwald 7298:Luxembourg 7023:Starvation 6651:Robert Ley 6561:Hans Frank 6517:(20 years) 6509:(20 years) 6501:(15 years) 6493:(10 years) 6445:Defendants 6338:War crimes 6262:Transcript 5983:(4): 159. 2141:References 2108:Yugoslavia 1917:; and the 1899:Pohl trial 1893:, and the 1873:, and the 1840:Law No. 10 1417:—a German 1333:, and the 1285:commander 1062:, and the 1044:Nazi Party 1035:Robert Ley 989:Hans Frank 935:president 933:Reichsbank 931:), former 854:Defendants 827:conspiracy 801:Indictment 795:Yugoslavia 649:common law 447:war crimes 400:aggression 394:, and the 388:Yugoslavia 380:Luxembourg 301:war crimes 262:show trial 247:atrocities 148:Defendants 122:war crimes 114:Conspiracy 109:Indictment 8741:Education 8636:Aftermath 8548:Aftermath 8510:Trawnikis 8434:Wehrmacht 8429:Waffen-SS 8229:Białystok 8057:Bucharest 8029:Marseille 7906:Elsewhere 7867:Białystok 7679:Breendonk 7656:Treblinka 7509:Auschwitz 7293:Lithuania 7028:War crime 6854:Nuremberg 6778:Aftermath 6665:Witnesses 6626:(suicide) 6479:Sentenced 6453:Acquitted 5913:0035-0974 4756:Musa 2016 4636:Musa 2016 3891:Musa 2016 3879:Musa 2016 3867:Musa 2016 3831:Musa 2016 2609:Musa 2016 2052:, in the 1937:was tried 1930:Luftwaffe 1824:IG Farben 1602:tu quoque 1384:survivor 1382:Auschwitz 1123:probative 891:(who had 698:Sonderweg 657:Nuremberg 558:Nuremberg 556:Ruins of 398:. German 270:Nuremberg 158:Witnesses 97:Nuremberg 8726:Academia 8179:Piaśnica 8149:Babi Yar 8077:Jedwabne 8016:Roundups 7949:Judenrat 7913:Budapest 7684:Mechelen 7646:Majdanek 7603:Stutthof 7564:Majdanek 7459:by Poles 7417:Portugal 7395:Response 7386:Timeline 7364:Overview 7226:Slovakia 7213:Bulgaria 6996:Genocide 6385:(France) 6379:(France) 6237:C.H.Beck 6071:(2020). 6049:(2016). 5971:(2016). 5949:(2020). 5923:(2011). 5866:(2022). 5840:(2020). 5814:(2001). 5761:(2011). 3548:, fn 82. 2137:(1976). 1932:general 1885:—in the 1820:Monowitz 1695:genocide 1674:Cold War 1649:against 1528:and the 1526:Majdanek 1365:mens rea 1152:strawman 1102:and the 1078:Evidence 1058:and the 929:Krupp AG 622:Jim Crow 586:justice 464:(waging 222:(France) 35:reviewed 8753:Lessons 8189:Rumbula 8062:Dorohoi 8043:Pogroms 7995:Victims 7845:Ghettos 7777:Gas van 7765:Methods 7739:Schoorl 7717:Bolzano 7665:Transit 7651:Sobibor 7641:Chełmno 7608:Vaivara 7544:Hinzert 7489:ghettos 7442:Vatican 7348:Croatia 7338:Ukraine 7328:Belarus 7318:Romania 7270:Hungary 7253:Germany 7243:Estonia 7238:Denmark 7208:Belgium 7203:Austria 7198:Albania 6906:Sources 5712:Sources 1945:Balkans 1869:on the 1765:of the 1725:beyond 1713:Verdict 1688:Closing 1604:defense 1553:Defense 1139:pleaded 1070:of the 1048:Gestapo 999:leader 919:), and 833:lawyer 376:Belgium 364:Denmark 140:Decided 132:Started 8659:Bricha 8425:(Orpo) 8298:Others 8284:Żegota 8246:Rescue 8224:Warsaw 8184:Ponary 8094:Kaunas 7897:Warsaw 7882:Lublin 7872:Kraków 7859:Poland 7703:Drancy 7636:Belzec 7613:Warsaw 7524:Dachau 7432:Turkey 7427:Sweden 7353:Serbia 7333:Russia 7313:Poland 7308:Norway 7288:Latvia 7258:Greece 7248:France 7013:Piracy 6393:Judges 6243: 6189: 6166: 6118: 6095: 6057: 6035: 6012: 5957: 5935: 5911: 5874: 5852: 5826: 5800: 5773: 2112:Rwanda 2102:ad hoc 2034:Legacy 1909:; the 1889:, the 1865:, the 1520:, and 1345:, and 1329:, the 1325:, the 1323:Geneva 1054:, the 1050:, the 1046:, the 1028:tried 1011:; and 971:, and 880:, and 793:, and 693:Nazism 470:Allies 429:after 392:Greece 384:France 368:Norway 360:Poland 343:, the 327:Origin 239:Allies 61:(film) 8773:Humor 8746:Films 8443:Units 8174:Odesa 8024:Izieu 7938:Vilna 7923:Minsk 7918:Kovno 7892:Radom 7756:Sereď 7573:Gusen 7554:Kauen 7485:Camps 7422:Spain 7407:Japan 7281:Libya 7275:Italy 6815:Films 6553:Death 6231:[ 6081:Nomos 6000:[ 5788:[ 2050:trial 1922:trial 1703:Dubno 1651:Japan 1623:] 1547:Vilna 1319:Hague 293:crime 8664:List 8419:(SD) 8399:(SS) 8082:Lviv 8067:Iași 8007:Jews 7928:Riga 7887:Lwów 7877:Łódź 7849:list 7698:Gurs 7571:and 7487:and 6526:Life 6241:ISBN 6187:ISBN 6164:ISBN 6116:ISBN 6093:ISBN 6055:ISBN 6033:ISBN 6010:ISBN 5955:ISBN 5933:ISBN 5909:ISSN 5872:ISBN 5850:ISBN 5824:ISBN 5798:ISBN 5771:ISBN 2106:for 2074:The 1861:and 1470:NKVD 1347:navy 1343:army 1321:and 1066:and 1026:was 979:and 943:and 911:). 706:and 410:of 303:and 233:The 215:(US) 209:(UK) 7813:SS- 6214:doi 6145:doi 6085:doi 5985:doi 5899:doi 5745:doi 1913:of 903:), 895:); 655:in 378:, 323:". 286:IMT 95:in 37:on 8852:: 7750:sk 7728:nl 7710:it 7691:fr 7673:be 6239:. 6208:. 6204:. 6181:. 6141:21 6139:. 6133:. 6114:. 6110:. 6091:. 6079:. 6075:. 6027:. 6008:. 5981:73 5931:. 5927:. 5907:. 5895:51 5848:. 5844:. 5822:. 5818:. 5796:. 5769:. 5765:. 5739:. 5733:. 5587:^ 5512:^ 5449:^ 5206:^ 4843:^ 4826:^ 4763:^ 4616:^ 4395:^ 4368:^ 4317:^ 4290:^ 4191:^ 4068:^ 4017:^ 4002:^ 3987:^ 3922:^ 3775:^ 3676:^ 3625:^ 3522:^ 3481:^ 3430:^ 3331:^ 3254:^ 3129:^ 3114:^ 2991:^ 2928:^ 2875:^ 2860:^ 2795:^ 2766:^ 2739:^ 2616:^ 2529:^ 2466:^ 2307:^ 2280:^ 2253:^ 2178:^ 2163:^ 2148:^ 1881:. 1621:de 1584:, 1516:, 1349:. 1341:, 1110:. 1060:SD 1056:SS 1052:SA 1007:, 1003:; 983:; 967:, 963:, 951:, 876:, 714:, 598:. 562:c. 560:, 520:. 414:. 390:, 386:, 382:, 374:, 370:, 366:, 362:, 272:, 253:. 124:, 120:, 116:, 99:, 33:, 8796:" 8792:" 8109:" 8105:" 7851:) 7847:( 7172:e 7165:t 7158:v 6890:e 6883:t 6876:v 6837:" 6618:) 6614:( 6306:e 6299:t 6292:v 6268:) 6249:. 6222:. 6216:: 6210:4 6195:. 6172:. 6153:. 6147:: 6124:. 6101:. 6087:: 6063:. 6041:. 6018:. 5991:. 5987:: 5963:. 5941:. 5915:. 5901:: 5880:. 5858:. 5832:. 5806:. 5779:. 5753:. 5747:: 5741:9 1830:. 915:( 907:( 899:( 726:( 284:( 70:. 63:. 41:.

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Index