Buddhist logico-epistemology

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the endorsement of a thesis and then tries to argue against it. On the way back, the respondent turns the tables, soliciting from the proponent the endorsement of the counter-thesis, and then trying argue against it. In the refutation, the respondent, continuing, seeks to refute the argument that the proponent had advanced against the thesis. The application and conclusion repeat and reaffirm that the proponent’s argument against the respondent’s thesis is unsound, while the respondent’s argument against the proponent’s counter-thesis is sound.

1909: 6700: 6711: 624: 4109: 4096: 4086: 21: 2549: 46: 2072:, who sought to "disclose the profound meaning of Dharmakirti's works and to reveal their concealed ultimate tendency." Unlike the Kashmiri school, which saw Dharmakīrti's work as primarily focused on epistemology and reasoning, the "religious" school used Dharmakīrti in order to develop and comment on the entirety of the metaphysics of Mahayana Buddhism. The founder of this school was the layman 2629: 635: 1893: 882:, from information supplied by evidence, evidence which in turn may be another item of knowledge. For this reason, other scholars use the term "logico-epistemology" to refer to this tradition, emphasizing the centrality of the epistemic project for Indian logical reasoning. According to Georges Dreyfus, while Western logic tends to be focused on formal validity and deduction: 2011:

epistemological enterprise positions itself not merely as a dialogical disputational method for avoiding unwarranted beliefs, but as a practice aimed at achieving concrete, pragmatic ends. As Dharmakīrti reminds his fellow Buddhists, the successful accomplishment of any human goal is wholly dependent on having correct knowledge.

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disagree on the types of cognition that can be considered valid, most recognize perception and inference as valid. Within this context, which is mostly epistemological and practically oriented, topics such as the nature and types of correct reasoning that pertain to logic in the large sense of the word are discussed.

1919:(c. 480 – 540 CE) is the founder of an eponymous tradition of Buddhist logic and epistemology which was widely influential in Indian philosophy due to the introduction of unique epistemological questions. According to B.K. Matilal, Dignāga "was perhaps the most creative logician in medieval (400-1100) India." 2010:

It is this praxis that leads a representative thinker such as Dharmakīrti to claim that the Buddha, whose view he and his successors claim to propound, is a true embodiment of the sources of knowledge. Thus, far from seeing a tension between empirical scrutiny and the exercise of reason, the Buddhist

1062:, this term refers "primarily to denote the reasoning that was employed to construct and defend metaphysical theories and perhaps meant the reasoning of sophists and dialecticians only in a secondary sense". The Buddha rejected metaphysical speculations, and put aside certain questions which he named 1791:

Nagarjuna's epistemic stance continues to be debated among modern scholars, his skepticism of the ability of reason and language to capture the nature of reality and his view of reality as being empty of true existence have led some to see him as a skeptic, mystic, nihilist or agnostic, while others

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Each such ‘opening’ now proceeds as an independent dialogue, and each is divided into five stages: the way forward (anuloma), the way back (patikamma), the refutation (niggaha), the application (upanayana) and the conclusion (niggamana). In the way forward, the proponent solicits from the respondent

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canonical sources make quite clear that several distinct factors play a crucial role in the acquisition of knowledge. These are variously identified with the testimony of sense experience, introspective or intuitive experience, inferences drawn from these two types of experience, and some form of

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is also taken as a criterion for truth in the Nikayas, which contains many instances of the Buddha debating opponents by showing how they have contradicted themselves. He also notes that the Buddha seems to have held that utility and truth go hand in hand, and therefore something which is true is

2005:

Vincent Eltschinger has argued that Buddhist epistemology, especially Dharmakīrti's, was an apologetic response to attacks by hostile Hindu opponents and thus was seen by Buddhists as "that which, by defeating the outsiders, removes the obstacles to the path towards liberation." Coseru meanwhile

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The principle of causal efficacy (kāryakāranayukti), which accounts for the difference between things in terms of the different causal conditions for their apprehension: it is a principle of reason, thus, that, in dependence upon form, a faculty of vision, and visual awareness, one has visual

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In the centuries following Dignāga’s work, virtually all philosophical questions were reconfigured as epistemological ones. That is, when making any claim at all, it came to be seen as incumbent on a philosopher to situate that claim within a fully developed theory of knowledge. The systematic

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The concern of Indian "logicians" is quite different. They intend to provide a critical and systematic analysis of the diverse means of correct cognition that we use practically in our quest for knowledge. In this task, they discuss the nature and types of pramana. Although Indian philosophers

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of Gotama (6th century BC – 2nd century CE) is the founding text of the Nyaya school. The text systematically lays out logical rules for argumentation in the form of a five-step schema and also sets forth a theory of epistemology. According to Jonardon Ganeri, the Nyaya sutra brought about a

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school's methodology, but where the Nyaya recognised a set of four pramanas—perception, inference, comparison, and testimony—the Buddhists (i.e. the school of Dignaga) only recognized two: perception and inference. For Dignaga, comparison and testimony are just special forms of inference.

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A key difference between Western Logic and Indian Logic is that certain epistemological issues are included within Indian Logic, whereas in modern Western Logic they are deliberately excluded. Indian Logic includes general questions regarding the "nature of the derivation of knowledge,"

1946:

His theory does not "make a radical distinction between epistemology and the psychological processes of cognition." As noted by Cristian Coseru, Dignāga's theory of knowledge is strongly grounded in perception "as an epistemic modality for establishing a cognitive event as knowledge".

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arguments and does not put forth positive arguments. Chandrakirti saw in the logico-epistemic tradition a commitment to a foundationalist epistemology and essentialist ontology. For Chandrakirti, a Mādhyamika's job should be to just deconstruct concepts which presuppose an essence.

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The Buddhist philosophers who are part of this pramāṇavāda tradition include numerous other figures who followed Dignāga and Dharmakīrti. They developed their theories further, commented on their works and defended their theories against Hindu and Buddhist opponents.

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In spite of Chandrakirti's critique, later Buddhist philosophers continued to explain Madhyamaka philosophy through the use of formal syllogisms as well as adopting the conceptual schemas of the Dignaga-Dharmakirti school along with those of the closely related

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According to Coseru "what we have here are examples of natural reasoning or of reasoning from experience, rather than attempts to use deliberative modes of reasoning for the purpose of justifying a given thesis or arguing for its conditions of satisfaction."

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saw it as unfair and also irrational (because if you argue against P, you must have a thesis, mainly not-P). According to Matilal, Nagarjuna's position of not putting forth any implied thesis through his refutations would be rational if seen as a form of

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was familiar with certain rules of reasoning used for debating purposes and made use of these against his opponents. He also seems to have held certain ideas about epistemology and reasoning, though he did not put forth a logico-epistemological system.

1330:). According to Jayatilleke, "in the Nikayas it is considered meaningless to make a statement unless the speaker could attach a verifiable content to each of its terms." This is why the Buddha held that statements about the existence of a self or soul ( 2517:

is a central topic of debate in Tibetan Buddhist philosophy. In Tibetan Buddhism, those who follow this method and also make use of Yogācāra doctrines are called Yogācāra-Svātantrika Mādhyamika (Tibetan: Rnal ’byor spyod pa’i dbu ma rang rgyud pa).

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in nature. The Buddhists in the Nikayas use this logical structure to analyze the truth of statements and classify them. When all four were denied regarding a statement or question, it was held to be meaningless and thus set aside or rejected (but

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When scholars talk a matter over one with another, then is there a winding up, an unravelling, one or other is convicted of error, and he then acknowledges his mistake; distinctions are drawn, and contra-distinctions; and yet thereby they are not

841:, is "the systematic study of informal inference-patterns, the rules of debate, the identification of sound inference vis-à-vis sophistical argument, and similar topics." As Matilal notes, this tradition developed out of systematic debate theory ( 1958:" (exclusion) theory of meaning was widely influential. For Dignāga, a word can express its own meaning only by repudiating other meanings. The word 'cow' gives its own meaning only by the exclusion of all those things which are other than cow. 1693:

The systematic discussions of the Nyaya school influenced the Medieval Buddhist philosophers who developed their own theories of inferential reasoning and epistemic warrant (pramana). The Nyaya became one of the main opponents of the Buddhists.

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coherentism, which demands that truth claims remain consistent across the entire corpus of doctrine. Thus, to the extent that Buddhists employ reason, they do so primarily in order further to advance the empirical investigation of phenomena.

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school of philosophy which sees itself as a continuation of Nagarjuna's thought. Nagarjuna also discusses the four modes of knowing of the Nyaya school, but he is unwilling to accept that such epistemic means bring us ultimate knowledge.

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Logic as the study of the form of correct arguments and inference patterns, developed in India from the methodology of philosophical debate. The art of conducting a philosophical debate was prevalent probably as early as the time of the

1186:) for these debates and that if someone does not abide by it they are unsuitable to be debated. There also seems to have been at least a basic conception of valid and invalid reasoning, including, according to Jayatilleke, fallacies ( 1950:

Since perception is information that is acquired through the senses, it is not susceptible to error. However, there is susceptibility to error in processes of interpretation, including mental construction and inferential thinking.

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arguments against numerous theories which posited essences to certain phenomena, such as causality and movement. In Nagarjuna's works and those of his followers, the four positions on a particular thesis are negated or ruled out

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The principle of dependence (apeksāyukti), which takes into account the fact that conditioned things necessarily arise in dependence upon conditions: it is a principle of reason, for instance, that sprouts depend on

874:-theory, a system in its own right. "Indian Logic" was also influenced by the study of grammar, whereas Classical Logic—which principally informed modern Western Logic—was influenced by the study of mathematics. 1625:

The Nyaya school considers perception, inference, comparison/analogy, and testimony from reliable sources as four means to correct knowledge, holding that perception is the ultimate source of such knowledge.

1140:. What is considered to constitute knowledge are direct inferences made on the basis of such perceptions." Jayatilleke argues the Buddhas statements in the Nikayas tacitly imply an adherence to some form of 789:("Commentary on Valid Cognition"). His work was influential on all later Buddhist philosophical systems as well as on numerous Hindu thinkers. It also became the main source of epistemology and reasoning in 998:, in his "Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge", uses the Pali Nikayas to glean the possible epistemological views of the historical Buddha and those of his contemporaries. According to his analysis of the 656: 708:(reasoning, logic). While the term may refer to various Buddhist systems and views on reasoning and epistemology, it is most often used to refer to the work of the "Epistemological school" (Sanskrit: 1303:) could be used in conventional everyday speech while at the same time not referring to anything that exists ultimately (such as the pronouns like "I" and "Me"). Richard Hayes likewise points to the 1922:

Dignāga's tradition of Buddhist logic is sometimes called the "School of Dignāga" or "The School of Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti". In Tibetan, it is often called “those who follow reasoning” (Tibetan:

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The principle of natural reasoning, or the principle of reality (dharmatāyukti), which concerns the phenomenal character of things as perceived (for instance, the wetness and fluidity of water).

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in the conduct of a dialogue and it recommends a strategy of argumentation which guarantees that both parties to a point of controversy have their arguments properly weighed and considered."

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The Buddha in the Nikayas seems to regard these as "'the four possible positions or logical alternatives that a proposition can take". Jayatilleke notes that the last two are clearly non-

2055:, which sought to "disclose the deep philosophic contents of the system of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti, regarding it as a critical system of logic and epistemology." Its founding figure was 266: 1403:). But when he is pointing out the misleading implications of speech or using language without these implications, his meaning is plain and direct and nothing is to be inferred ( 1803:

one of the first Buddhist texts on proper reasoning and argumentation. He also developed the Buddhist theory of two truths, defending ultimate truth as the truth of emptiness.

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A treatise on Buddhist logic (pramana) by Sakya Pandita, which is probably the most important work of its kind in Tibet except for the major works of Dignaga and Dharmakirti.

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Dignāga also influenced non-Buddhist Sanskrit thinkers. According to Lawrence J. McCrea, and Parimal G. Patil, Dignāga set in motion an "epistemic turn" in Indian philosophy:

2123:Śubhakara (650–750), was particularly noteworthy because he composed a work which aimed at proving the objective reality of external things and thus attempted to disprove 2301: 1994:

He was also one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist or be ultimately real are momentary particulars (

2102: 1983:

Dharmakīrti's theory of epistemology differed from Dignāga's by introducing the idea that for something to be a valid cognition it must "confirm causal efficacy" (

1450:) is a Pali Buddhist text which discusses the proper method for critical discussions on doctrine. Its date is debated by scholars but it might date to the time of 1399:

when he is speaking about things or persons we should not presume that he is speaking about entities or substances; to this extent his meaning is to be inferred (

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is the author of a commentary on this text entitled Tshad ma rig pa'i gter mchan gyis 'grel pa, written at the Sakya monastery of rDzong gsar bkra shis lha rtse)

1544:, 1st century BCE) which is a dialogue between the Buddhist monk Nagasena and an Indo-Greek King. In describing the art of debate and dialogue, Nagasena states: 2286: 2607:

school such as Gyeltsap and Kaydrup attempted a synthesis of the two traditions, with varying results. This is because the views of Chapa were mostly that of

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articulation and interrogation of the underlying presuppositions of all knowledge claims thus became the central preoccupation of most Sanskrit philosophers.

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transformation in Indian thinking about logic. First, it began a shift away from interest in argumentation and debate towards the formal properties of sound

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The Buddha also made use of various terms which reveal some of his views on meaning and language. For example, he held that many concepts or designations (

4850: 959:) is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference. The Buddhist logical tradition of Dignaga and Dharmakirti accept scriptural tradition 3997:

Van Der Kuijp, Leonard W.J. (March 1987). "An early Tibetan view of the soteriology of Buddhist epistemology: The case of 'Bri-gung 'jig-rten mgon-po'".

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Later Buddhist thinkers like Vasubandhu would see several of these steps as redundant and would affirm that only the first two or three were necessary.

5765: 4240: 2184: 2160: 2130: 2042:) focused on "exactly rendering the direct meaning of the commented text without losing oneself in its deeper implications". They all commented on the 2039: 1219:' reasoning is rejected by the Buddha as a source of knowledge. While reason could be useful in deliberation, it could not establish truth on its own. 2675: 2096: 2559:, in discussing the Tibetan translation and assimilation of the logico-epistemological tradition, identifies two currents and transmission streams: 1514:

These help clarify the attitude of someone towards their thesis in the proceeding argumentative process. Jonardon Ganeri outlines the process thus:

1028:

The "Experientialists" who held that besides reasoning, a kind of supra-normal yogic insight was able to bring about unique forms of knowledge (the

2175: 2108: 2035: 5769: 2220: 2151: 5993: 723: 2451:. To develop his arguments for emptiness, Bhāvaviveka drew on the work of Dignāga which put forth a new way of presenting logical arguments. 1599:

The realization of evidence from experience (sāksātkriyāsādhanayukti). We realize the presence of water from moisture and of fire from smoke.

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Ganeri, Jonardon. Argumentation, dialogue and the "Kathāvatthu", Journal of Indian Philosophy August 2001, Volume 29, Issue 4, pp. 485–493

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This synthesis is one of the last major developments in Indian Buddhist thought, and has been influential on Tibetan Buddhist philosophy.

1098:(MN.I.392–4) the Buddha states that a belief should only be accepted if it leads to wholesome consequences. This has led scholars such as 2363:(active c. 6th century) meanwhile, may have been influenced by Buddhist reasoning to move away from some of the realistic views of older 1767:

only seeks to disprove his opponents arguments without putting forward a thesis of his own, the Hindu Nyaya school philosophers such as

1569:

The Buddhist Abhidharma schools developed a classification of four types of reasoning which became widely used in Buddhist thought. The

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The various elements outlined here make up the standard procedure of Buddhist debate theory. There is an 'unravelling' or explication (

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states that verification through one's own personal experience (and the experiences of the wise) is an important means of knowledge.

2930:. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen: Philologisch-Historische Klasse. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 1998:) including material atoms and momentary states of consciousness (dharmas). Everything else is considered to be only conventional ( 1345:) logical structure as a tool in argumentation. According to Jayatilleke, these "four forms of predication" can be rendered thus: 746:

contains some rules on debate and reasoning. The first Buddhist thinker to discuss logical and epistemic issues systematically was

2076:(740–800 C.E.), an important and original thinker who introduced various new perspectives into the Pramāṇavāda tradition, such as 6585: 6037: 2917:; and: Muroya, Y. The Nyāyamukha and udghaṭitajña . J Indian Philos 45, 281–311 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-016-9309-8 1751:

Entities of any kind are not ever found anywhere produced from themselves, from another, from both , and also from no cause.

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7th c.) along with facets of Yogācāra/Cittamātra thought into one internally consistent, yet fundamentally Madhyamaka system.

3755: 3613: 3481: 2928:

Texte der erkenntnistheoretischen Schule des Buddhismus: systematische Übersicht über die buddhistische Sanskrit-Literatur II

2006:

simply notes the inseparability of epistemic concerns from spiritual praxis for Buddhist epistemologists such as Dharmakīrti:

1094:

However, the Buddha's view of truth was also based on the soteriological and therapeutic concern of ending suffering. In the

3802: 4403: 4245: 2926:

In German, it is also known as "Erkenntnistheoretischen Schule", see: Steinkellner, Ernst, and Michael Torsten Much. 1995.

2528:Śāntarakṣita attempted to integrate the anti-essentialism of Nāgārjuna with the logico-epistemological thought of Dignāga ( 649: 3591: 2584:-based logical architecture and epistemology. These two scholars (whose works are now lost) strengthened the influence of 6580: 1970:(c. 7th century), contributed significantly to the development and application of Buddhist pramana theory. Dharmakīrti's 3747: 1407:). This is a valid distinction which certainly holds good for the Nikäyas at least, in the light of the above-statement. 6477: 6027: 4122: 3357: 2334: 1825:

Vasubandhu was influenced by the system of the Nyaya school. Vasubandhu introduced the concept of 'logical pervasion' (

1099: 1481:) is structured as follows: there is a point of contention – whether A is B; this is divided into several 'openings' ( 4323: 3935: 3121: 3081: 3036: 3024: 2495: 416: 6570: 6255: 6000: 3408:

Tillemans, Tom J.F. (2011). "Buddhist Epistemology (pramāṇavāda)". In Edelglass, William; Garfield, Jay L. (eds.).

3976:

Van Der Kuijp, Leonard W.J. (August 1978). "Phya-pa Chos-kyi seng-ge's impact on Tibetan epistemological theory".

2059:(8th century), a philosopher from Kashmir who wrote some independent works and also a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 486: 6647: 6637: 4466: 3300:

James P. McDermott, KATHAVATTHU; Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume VII: Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D.

909:) is often translated as "valid cognition" or "instrument of knowledge" and refers to epistemic ways of knowing. 805:(1930s) initially employed terms such as “Indian Logic” and “Buddhist Logic” to refer to the Indian tradition of 722:

which developed from the 5th through 7th centuries and remained the main system of Buddhist reasoning until the

6592: 6245: 6047: 5938: 5883: 4456: 1747:) as exemplified by the first verse of Nagarjuna's Middle way verses which focuses on a critique of causation: 6562: 6260: 5943: 4235: 4068: 2502:(c.1000). Another thinker who worked on both pramana and Madhyamaka was the Kashmiri pandita Parahitabhadra. 1006:

3.60), during the Buddha's time, Indian views were divided into three major camps with regards to knowledge:

994:

The time of the Gautama Buddha was a lively intellectual culture with many differing philosophical theories.

2574:(English: "Summaries of Epistemology and Logic") became the groundwork for the "Collected Topics" (Tibetan: 2570:(1059–1109) and Chapa Chögyi Sengge (1109–69) and their disciples, mainly located at Sangpu Neutok. Chapa's 2371:

who attacked the realism of Nyāya may have been influenced by the Buddhists as well. Even the "New Reason" (

1621: 1103: 6017: 5988: 5690: 3473:

Dialectical Practice in Tibetan Philosophical Culture: An Ethnomethodological Inquiry into Formal Reasoning

1814:

was one of the first Buddhist thinkers to write various works on sound reasoning and debate, including the

1710:(c. 150 – c. 250 CE), one of the most influential Buddhist thinkers, defended the theory of the emptiness ( 569: 29: 4039:

Tobden, Tashi (Ed.in Chief); Sadhukhan, Sanjit Kumar (compiler); Dokham, Rigzin Ngodub (compiler) (1994).

2443: 5836: 5745: 5215: 4860: 4373: 4268: 4034:

Vidhabhusana, Satis Chandra (1907). History of the Mediaeval School of Indian Logic. Calcutta University.

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schools, were in constant debate with the Buddhist epistemologists, developing arguments to defend their

1458:, have argued that there is an "anticipations of propositional logic" in the text. However, according to 1278:

The early texts also mention that the Buddha held there to be "four kinds of explanations of questions."

1269:

and also were relative, that is, they were true or false depending on the standpoint one viewed it from (

5380: 1930:"pramāṇavāda", often translated as "the epistemological school" or "the logico-epistemological school." 6751: 6685: 6165: 5641: 5127: 4250: 4083: 3422:

Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti’s Philosophy and its Tibetan Interpretations, (Suny: 1997), pp. 15–16.

3266:

Coseru, Christian (2013). "Reason and Experience in Buddhist Epistemology". In Emmanuel, Steven (ed.).

2416: 1838:

The trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (

1763:) and presuppositions of his opponents' own theories and showing them to be self refuting. Because the 5575: 3780: 1014:) who regarded knowledge as being derived from scriptural sources (the Brahmins who upheld the Vedas). 599: 584: 6575: 6388: 6378: 6250: 5233: 4813: 4574: 4549: 2524:

Probably the most influential figure in this tradition is Śāntarakṣita. According to James Blumenthal

2425:(c. 500 – c. 578) appears to be the first Buddhist logician to employ the "formal syllogism" (Wylie: 2359:

is almost entirely focused on outlining and defeating the arguments of the Buddhist epistemologists.

1312: 1226:'. He held that after proper rational analysis, assertions could be classified in the following way: 1216: 4599: 2599:(English: "Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition"). Sakya pandita secured the place of Dharmakirti's 6680: 6032: 5846: 5824: 5817: 5720: 5253: 4873: 4689: 4634: 4255: 4061: 3703: 3454: 2654: 1178:

show that during this period many different kinds of philosophers often engaged in public debates (

1073:

The Buddha's epistemological view has been a subject of debate among modern scholars. Some such as

1063: 3855: 1939: 1587:) that one may use to inquire about the nature of things. According to Cristian Coseru these are: 775: 451: 6736: 6617: 6597: 5928: 5908: 5665: 5395: 4639: 3836: 3219: 1980:

as a central text on pramana and was widely commented on by various Indian and Tibetan scholars.

589: 461: 163: 2994: 1003: 65: 6627: 6467: 6135: 6105: 5878: 5829: 5670: 5618: 5613: 5375: 5196: 5093: 4845: 4840: 4589: 3114:

Reason and Tradition in Indian Thought: An Essay on the Nature of Indian Philosophical Thinking

2671: 456: 188: 168: 4957: 4038: 3650: 2499: 1427:). This theory of double truth became very influential in later Buddhist epistemic discourse. 436: 115: 6632: 6602: 6183: 6115: 5948: 5863: 5858: 5782: 5777: 5695: 4225: 2958:

Tucci, Giuseppe (1929). "Buddhist Logic before Dinnaga (Asanga, Vasubandhu, Tarka-sastras)".

2608: 2487: 1912:

Buddhist epistemology holds that perception and inference are the means to correct knowledge.

1530:

Another Buddhist text which depicts the standards for rational debate among Buddhists is the

1141: 1129: 838: 411: 341: 5248: 2230: 6655: 6622: 6607: 6125: 6022: 5968: 5853: 5792: 5760: 5755: 5740: 5725: 5715: 5680: 5593: 5285: 5208: 4511: 4451: 4200: 4167: 4117: 3963: 3919:

Buddhist Logic and Epistemology. Studies in the Buddhist Analysis of Inference and Language

3559: 2464: 2352: 2024: 1737: 1727: 1641:

B.K. Matilal outlines the five steps or limbs of the Nyaya method of reasoning as follows:

1579: 1557:) of one's thesis and stances and then there is also a 'winding up' ending in the censure ( 1322:) into two types with regards to their meaning: those which were intelligible, meaningful ( 1175: 1111: 1081:

because of his teaching that knowledge required verification through the six sense fields (

802: 504: 6495: 5110: 4979: 4905: 4781: 4519: 3779:

Blumenthal, James; Apple, James (Spring 2018). "Śāntarakṣita". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).

2233:(10th century), a prolific author of at least 17 texts, known as "the second Dharmakīrti." 758:). A mature system of Buddhist logic and epistemology was founded by the Buddhist scholar 8: 6462: 6341: 6175: 6150: 6140: 6100: 6077: 5960: 5933: 5893: 5812: 5802: 5730: 5657: 5088: 4945: 4726: 4704: 4656: 4476: 4276: 4132: 4112: 2050: 1416: 1136:

in Buddhism are based on a theory of causation. These inferences are made on the data of

953:), but for some schools of orthodox Hinduism the "received textual tradition" (Sanskrit: 834: 604: 213: 208: 37: 6746: 4436: 4363: 4033: 3862:

arthasya bahudharmasca sarve lingannakalpitam. yo'nubandho'nyasmat vyatireka'dhigamyate.

2364: 1332: 6525: 6430: 6272: 6235: 6230: 6160: 6110: 6057: 6052: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5903: 5888: 5873: 5868: 5807: 5787: 5750: 5675: 5480: 5181: 5105: 4983: 4925: 4766: 4666: 4594: 4569: 4215: 4145: 2975: 2804: 2680: 2381:

shows an influence from the Buddhist epistemological school, in his arrangement of his

2378: 1395:

The early texts mention two modes of discourse used by the Buddha. Jayatilleke writes:

1379: 867: 261: 243: 238: 178: 85: 6324: 3097:

Matilal, Bimal Krishna (2013). "Introducing Indian Logic". In Ganeri, Jonardon (ed.).

2261: 2073: 1149: 6703: 6665: 6361: 6346: 6309: 6294: 6067: 5983: 5898: 5735: 5700: 5685: 5412: 5402: 5083: 4930: 4915: 4786: 4709: 4629: 4564: 4496: 4383: 4140: 4006: 3985: 3931: 3751: 3477: 3353: 3117: 3077: 2979: 2809: 2567: 1850:

It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (

1780: 1773: 1733: 1630: 1341: 1222:

In contrast to his opponents, the Buddha termed himself a defender of 'analysis' or '

1192: 1117: 639: 559: 198: 5647: 4441: 4341: 4047: 2224: 1638:. Secondly, the Nyaya sutra led a shift to rule-governed forms of logical thinking. 1561:) of one side based on premises he has accepted and the rejoinders of his opponent. 70: 6351: 6304: 6299: 6155: 6120: 6095: 6090: 5841: 5797: 5710: 5385: 5041: 5034: 4818: 4808: 4694: 4358: 4230: 3743: 3150: 2967: 2867:

The Ornament of the Middle Way: A Study of the Madhyamaka Thought of Shantarakshita

2483: 1074: 790: 564: 406: 296: 223: 5430: 3621: 2236: 1908: 1157:

also useful (and vice versa, something false is not useful for ending suffering).

426: 90: 6715: 6660: 6612: 6540: 6410: 6208: 6188: 6130: 6042: 5705: 5603: 5450: 5186: 5169: 5154: 5132: 4684: 4554: 4388: 4368: 3808: 3655:

Philadelphia Museum of Art: Acarya Bhavaviveka Converts a Nonbeliever to Buddhism

3497:

Eltschinger, Vincent (2010). "Dharmakīrti: Revue internationale de philosophie".

3471: 2491: 1972: 1793: 1459: 1125: 863: 785: 628: 609: 594: 534: 441: 158: 5460: 4614: 4604: 331: 193: 60: 6741: 6670: 6373: 6223: 6005: 5585: 5565: 5485: 5174: 5164: 5098: 4935: 4421: 4284: 2077: 995: 858:(Jina), but it became more systematic and methodical a few hundred years later. 730: 554: 529: 514: 381: 3390:

The Buddhist Philosophy of the Middle: Essays on Indian and Tibetan Madhyamaka

3232:

Emmanuel, Steven M (editor); A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, 2013, p. 228.

2971: 2422: 2373: 2027:

divided the followers and commentators on Dharmakirti into three main groups:

1937:(instruments of knowledge), perception and inference, in his magnum opus, the 1934: 1442: 898: 742: 690: 75: 6730: 6440: 6289: 5598: 5500: 5358: 5159: 5137: 5073: 4744: 4539: 4534: 4426: 4095: 4010: 3989: 3879:

Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations

3453:

Tillemans, Tom J.F. (Spring 2014). "Dharmakīrti". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).

2897:

Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and Its Tibetan Interpretations

2644: 2592: 2556: 2346: 2305: 1070:), including questions about the soul and if the universe is eternal or not. 579: 539: 481: 466: 446: 233: 4898: 4888: 4260: 2914: 2434: 2360: 2280: 1415:

literature began to use this distinction as an epistemic one. They spoke of

431: 316: 6530: 6515: 6485: 6435: 6425: 6267: 6062: 5555: 5390: 5268: 5056: 5051: 4878: 4749: 4624: 4085: 2664: 2612: 2459: 2455: 2412: 2240: 1532: 1455: 1271: 1087: 1042: 977: 918: 910: 879: 814: 697: 549: 509: 346: 286: 5313: 5298: 5258: 4955: 4619: 4195: 4043:

New Series, no.3. Gangtok, Sikkim: Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology

3072:

Matilal, Bimal Krishna (1998). Ganeri, Jonardon; Tiwari, Heeraman (eds.).

2789: 2178:(7th century), wrote various commentaries, including one on Dharmakīrti's 1832: 1339:

The Buddha, like his contemporaries, also made use of the "four corners" (

896: 709: 688: 336: 6500: 6329: 5470: 5455: 5238: 5046: 4974: 4754: 4584: 4486: 4333: 4205: 2824: 2819: 2603:

as the foundational text on epistemology in Tibet. Later thinkers of the

2585: 2326: 2056: 1967: 1882: 1212: 1153: 780: 719: 326: 311: 306: 80: 6490: 4950: 4041:

Bulletin of Tibetology: Special Volume on the History of Buddhist Logic.

3599: 1054:

school. The Buddha also seems to have criticized those who used reason (

6445: 6403: 6279: 6085: 6010: 5624: 5608: 5570: 5550: 5445: 5420: 5328: 5263: 5243: 4989: 4920: 4791: 4674: 4644: 4579: 4529: 4187: 4177: 4150: 2909:

for examples of this usage of "epistemological school", see: Ratié, I.

2814: 2368: 2349:

critiqued the views of Dignaga as they developed their own philosophy.

2342: 2338: 1811: 1784: 1768: 1539: 1412: 1308: 1137: 1121: 1107: 1078: 1033: 938: 747: 574: 471: 351: 291: 228: 203: 173: 100: 5465: 4461: 3851: 3801:

Tillemans, Tom J.F. (1998). "Tibetan philosophy". In Craig, E. (ed.).

3350:

Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism

1682: 1110:. This sense of truth as what is useful is also shown by the Buddha's 759: 715: 321: 6420: 6393: 5560: 5435: 5147: 5063: 4940: 4830: 4803: 4796: 4759: 4716: 4679: 4446: 4411: 4378: 4353: 4308: 3702:

Hayes, Richard (Fall 2019). "Madhyamaka". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).

3375:

The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change

2479: 2438: 1717: 1707: 1635: 1438: 1133: 806: 738: 544: 276: 105: 6193: 5029: 4883: 4649: 4431: 4300: 4292: 3679:: A Translation of Chapter One: "Examinations of Causal Conditions ( 3637:

Buddhist Philosophy of Language in India: Jñanasrimitra on Exclusion

3008:(3). Gangtok, Sikkim: Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology: 7–8. 2437:

view, which he employed to considerable effect in his commentary to

2267: 1755:

Nagarjuna also famously relied upon refutation based argumentation (

1664:

The Naiyayikas (the Nyaya scholars) also accepted four valid means (

1059: 183: 6710: 6550: 6505: 6450: 6415: 6319: 5978: 5545: 5540: 5490: 5425: 5343: 5308: 5303: 4964: 4835: 4823: 4734: 4393: 4090: 3651:"1959-156-1: Acarya Bhavaviveka Converts a Nonbeliever to Buddhism" 2705: 2580:; Wylie: bsdus grwa) literature, which in large part furnished the 1927: 1722: 1712: 1570: 1336:) were ultimately meaningless, because they could not be verified. 1200:

or "reasons for censure" by which one could lose the debate. Other

1082: 1050:) was not a source of knowledge, as was claimed by the later Hindu 914: 855: 683: 623: 524: 366: 356: 281: 271: 218: 135: 95: 5535: 5525: 5510: 5333: 5203: 4471: 2271: 1864:

It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (

1454:(C. 240 BC). Western scholarship by St. Schayer and following him 926: 921:

recognize various sets of "valid justifications for knowledge" or

421: 401: 396: 6455: 6398: 6383: 5530: 5520: 5495: 5370: 5365: 5323: 5293: 5225: 5191: 5078: 5019: 5014: 4868: 4771: 4609: 4559: 4346: 4172: 3928:

Epistemology, Logic, and Grammar in Indian Philosophical Analysis

3514:

Dharmakirti's Theory of Inference: Revaluation and Reconstruction

2960:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

2773: 2581: 2563: 2402: 2330: 2092:

Some of the other figures of the epistemological school include:

1916: 1878: 1843: 1720:

and attacked theories that posited an essence or true existence (

1051: 1029: 818: 810: 476: 120: 5142: 4910: 3310: 3308: 3306: 1315:

view which tended to see language as reflecting real existents.

1230:

Those assertions which can be asserted or denied categorically (

1196:. Various fallacies were further covered under what were called 1182:). The early texts also mention that there was a set procedure ( 1040:

The Buddha rejected the first view in several texts such as the

975:. This view is thus in line with the Buddha's injunction in the 862:"Indian Logic" is a different system than modern derivatives of 6535: 6520: 6356: 6218: 6198: 5973: 5635: 5515: 5505: 5440: 5068: 5024: 5009: 4999: 4969: 4893: 4776: 4544: 4416: 4160: 4155: 3748:

10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-5150

2548: 2458:(540-600) for his use of these positive logical arguments. For 1901: 1897: 1827: 1574: 1451: 851: 386: 376: 361: 301: 125: 45: 20: 783:

further developed this system with several innovations in his

6675: 6510: 6368: 6334: 6314: 6284: 6213: 5630: 5475: 5353: 5348: 5318: 5273: 5120: 5115: 4994: 4699: 4524: 4491: 4481: 3303: 2834: 2829: 2604: 2591:

There is also another tradition of interpretation founded by

2408: 1977: 1955: 1651:(Wherever there is smoke, there is fire), as in the kitchen. 1616: 1285:

a question which ought to be answered with a counter question

1262: 830: 826: 519: 391: 371: 3904:

Jayatilleke, K.N. (1967). "The Logic of Four Alternatives".

2945:

Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor

2938: 2936: 1987:) which "consists in compliance with perform a function" ( 6545: 5338: 5004: 4501: 2002:) and thus he has been seen as a nominalist, like Dignāga. 1892: 1208:

or "shifting the topic", and not giving a coherent reply.

6203: 4739: 2933: 2227:

writer on pramana who wrote a proof of the external world

1857:

It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (

130: 3926:

Matilal, Bimal Krishna (2005) . Ganeri, Jonardon (ed.).

2304:, a Kashmiri pandita who was the teacher of the Tibetan 2145:

Anandavardhana, wrote a sub commentary to Dharmottara's

1237:

Those which cannot be asserted or denied categorically (

3917:

Matilal, Bimal Krishna; Evans, Robert D., eds. (1986).

3241:

Poussin; Bouddhisme, Third Edition, Paris, 1925, p. 129

3116:. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. p. 106. 3076:. Albany, NY, USA: State University of New York Press. 2785:

Pervading/pervasion/logical pervasion: vyapti, khyab pa

2763:

Invariable concomitance: avinabhava, med na mi 'byun ba

2325:

The Hindu philosophers, especially those of the Nyāya,

1311:

perspective on language and meaning in contrast to the

1307:

as an example of the Early Buddhist tendency towards a

981:

not to accept anything on mere tradition or scripture.

917:

pramana from orthodox Hindu philosophy. All schools of

3618:

Epistemology and Argumentation in South Asia and Tibet

3596:

Epistemology and Argumentation in South Asia and Tibet

3527:

Bisschop, Peter (2015). "Review: Vincent Eltschinger,

2575: 2249:

Jñanasribhadra (1000–1100), wrote a commentary on the

1926:); in modern literature, it is sometimes known by the 904: 110: 3505: 2993:

Sadhukhan, Sanjit Kumar (1994). Tobden, Tashi (ed.).

2193:

Manorathanandin, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's

1657:

Therefore, it is so, i.e., there is fire on the hill.

925:. Buddhist logico-epistemology was influenced by the 3796: 3794: 3792: 3578:

Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes

2341:

of the Buddhists. Nyāya-Vaiseshika thinkers such as

2133:(ca. 700 C.E.), wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 1282:

a question which ought to be explained categorically

3734:Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. (2017-07-20), 3201: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 2755:

Inference for others, demonstration: parārthānumāna

2743:

Exclusion: Apoha, sel ba (Anya-apoha: gzhan sel ba)

2154:(8th century), wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 2099:, a disciple of Dignāga, and teacher of Dharmakīrti 1462:"the leading concern of the text is with issues of 1295:

a question which ought to be explained analytically

3691:(3). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers: 210. 3177: 3175: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3159: 2472: 1842:) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' ( 1736:("four corners" or "four positions") to construct 1596:rather than, say, auditory or tactile experiences. 682:is a term used in Western scholarship to describe 3789: 3639:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 5. 3430: 3428: 3037:"Tibetan Epistemology and Philosophy of Language" 2670:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 2111:(7th or 8th century), a commentator on Dignāga's 2015: 1954:Dignāga also wrote on language and meaning. His " 6728: 2947:. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 31. 2080:. He is the author of the large commentary, the 1796:analyst, an anti-realist, or deconstructionist. 1779:Nagarjuna's reductions and the structure of the 1261:This view of analysis differed from that of the 1120:sees Buddha's epistemological view as a kind of 1046:, arguing that a claim to scriptural authority ( 3962: 3778: 3635:McCrea, Lawrence J.; Patil, Parimal G. (2010). 3554: 3552: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3156: 2752:Inference for oneself, reasoning: svārthānumāna 2199:Śakyamati, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 2169:Jinamitra, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 1799:Nagarjuna is also said to be the author of the 1697: 3448: 3446: 3425: 3403: 3401: 3399: 2860:. Somerville, Mass., USA: Wisdom Publications. 1742: 970: 964: 954: 948: 942: 702: 4069: 3996: 3975: 3377:. Harvard University Press. pp. 221–222. 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3140:, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2007, p. 209. 3067: 3065: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2880: 2878: 2277:Durvekamiśra (970–1030), a disciple of Jitāri 1374:(there neither is nor is there no next world) 1326:) and those meaningless or incomprehensible ( 657: 4851:Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna 3916: 3833:. Wisdom Publications. p. 469, footnote 83. 3733: 3543: 3516:. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. 3437:The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy 3281: 3279: 3277: 3043:(Spring 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) 2995:"A Short History of Buddhist Logic in Tibet" 2794:Universal, General attribute: Samanyalaksana 2405:Bhāviveka Converts a Nonbeliever to Buddhism 2205:Arcaṭa, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 1160:Echoing this view, Christian Coseru writes: 984: 825:). This tradition developed in the orthodox 3903: 3634: 3496: 3443: 3396: 3332: 2543: 4076: 4062: 3774: 3772: 3434: 3333:Gabbay, Dov M.; Woods, John, eds. (2004). 3317: 3244: 3046: 2875: 2864: 2856:Bronkhorst, Johannes (2009) . "Mahayana". 2855: 2505:This tendency within Madhyamaka is termed 2311: 2295:Vidyākaraśānti (1100–1200), author of the 2283:(11th century), a student of Jñanasrimitra 2105:, wrote an introduction to Dignāga's logic 1933:Dignāga defended the validity of only two 1686:) and word/testimony of reliable sources ( 1241:), which the Buddha further divided into: 664: 650: 3800: 3452: 3407: 3274: 2992: 2915:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-007-9017-5 2911:Otherness in the Pratyabhijñā philosophy. 2387: 2127:(the doctrine of consciousness, idealism) 1702: 1124:which also includes a particular view of 1077:, have seen him first and foremost as an 1058:). According to Jayatilleke, in the Pali 3675:Ames, William L. (1993). "Bhāvaviveka's 3580:. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 298–311. 3575: 3558: 3526: 3476:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 52. 3469: 2722:Demonstrandum: sadhya, bsgrub par bya ba 2547: 2509:, while Chandrakirti's stance is termed 2396: 2214:Ravigupta, a follower of Prajñakaragupta 1907: 1891: 1783:became very influential in the Buddhist 1729:The Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way 1654:This is such a case (smoke on the hill). 1620: 1288:a question which ought to be set aside ( 6038:Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal 3944: 3925: 3921:. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company. 3899:. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company. 3888:Foundations of Dharmakirti's Philosophy 3876: 3782:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3769: 3705:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3456:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3439:. Oxford University Press. p. 217. 3372: 3290:. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company. 3138:Buddhism as Philosophy: An Introduction 3111: 3096: 3071: 3041:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2986: 2942: 2894: 2734:Direct perception: pratyaksa, mngon sum 2139:Chandragomin, purported author of the * 2032:The philological school of commentators 1255:-theses, which could not be thus known. 729:The early Buddhist texts show that the 6729: 6241:List of Buddhist architecture in China 4017: 3953: 3897:Dignāga on the Interpretation of Signs 3828: 3511: 3352:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 129. 3347: 3288:Dignāga on the Interpretation of Signs 3265: 2187:, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 2163:, wrote a commentary on Dharmakīrti's 1390: 1248:) could be known to be true or false. 1169: 1106:to see the Buddha's view as a form of 4057: 3954:Rogers, Katherine Manchester (2009). 3949:. State University of New York Press. 3894: 3885: 3701: 3387: 3285: 2957: 2899:. State University of New York Press. 2869:. Snow Lion Publications. p. 81. 2289:(11th–12th centuries), author of the 2274:and author of numerous pramana texts. 2217:Yamari, a follower of Prajñakaragupta 2117:Bāhuleya, a commentator on Dignāga's 3804:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3740:The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism 3718: 3674: 3529:Buddhist Epistemology as Apologetics 2913:J Indian Philos 35, 313–370 (2007). 2851: 2849: 2749:Inference: anumana, rjes su dpag pa 2716:Causal function, purpose: arthakriyā 2622: 2454:Bhāvaviveka was later criticized by 2070:The religious school of commentators 1318:The Buddha also divided statements ( 3850: 3807:. London: Routledge. Archived from 3410:Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy 2760:Interference: vyavakirana, 'dres pa 2710:Characteristic: laksana, mtshan nid 2256:Jayanta (1020–1080), author of the 2211:Jina, a follower of Prajñakaragupta 1610: 1564: 837:. Logic in classical India, writes 13: 6028:Silk Road transmission of Buddhism 3870: 3565:. Vol. I. Dover Publications. 3392:. Wisdom Publications. p. 41. 3268:A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy 3207:Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge 2740:Event-associate: dharmin, chos can 2660:for transliterated languages, and 2640:of its non-English content, using 2562:The first is the tradition of the 2515:Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction 1726:) to phenomena in his magnum opus 14: 6763: 4027: 3736:"Yogācāra-Svātantrika-Madhyamaka" 2846: 2728:Dialectician: tartika, rtog ge ba 2588:in Tibetan Buddhist scholarship. 2270:or Jetāri (940–1000), teacher of 1265:, which held that all views were 801:Scholars such as H.N. Randle and 676:Epistemological study of Buddhism 6709: 6699: 6698: 6256:Thai temple art and architecture 6001:Huichang persecution of Buddhism 4241:Iconography in Laos and Thailand 4107: 4094: 4084: 3592:"Pramāṇavārttika by Dharmakīrti" 2769:Justification: hetu, gtan-tshigs 2725:Demonstrator: sadhaka, grub byed 2627: 2243:who wrote several original works 2239:(975–1025), a "gate-scholar" at 1759:) drawing out the consequences ( 1668:) of obtaining valid knowledge ( 1370:S neither is nor is not P, e.g. 1367:(there is and is no next world). 1025:(the skeptics and materialists). 633: 622: 44: 19: 4108: 3947:The Character of Logic in India 3945:Matilal, Bimal Krishna (1998). 3844: 3822: 3727: 3712: 3695: 3668: 3643: 3628: 3606: 3584: 3569: 3520: 3490: 3463: 3416: 3381: 3366: 3341: 3294: 3235: 3226: 3212: 3143: 3130: 3112:Mohanty, Jitendra Nath (1992). 3105: 3090: 3074:The Character of Logic in India 3015:from the original on 2018-06-27 2779:Means of evidence: linga, rtags 2482:school). These figures include 2473:Yogācāra-svātantrika Mādhyamika 1583:, outlines these four reasons ( 1523: 1372:n'ev'atthi na natthi paro loko 1144:, this is most explicit in the 989: 6246:Japanese Buddhist architecture 6048:Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism 5128:Seven Factors of Enlightenment 4319:Places where the Buddha stayed 4050:with an annotated bibliography 4020:A Millennium of Buddhist Logic 3877:Dreyfus, Georges B.J. (1997). 3742:, Princeton University Press, 3335:Greek, Indian and Arabic Logic 3221:A Buddhist tract on empiricism 3029: 2951: 2920: 2903: 2895:Dreyfus, Georges B.J. (1997). 2766:Judgment: prajnanana, shes-rab 2746:Exemplification: drstanta, dpe 2676:multilingual support templates 2462:, a true Mādhyamika only uses 2392: 2016:Later figures of the tradition 1961: 1872: 1477:, a proper reasoned dialogue ( 1430: 1: 6261:Tibetan Buddhist architecture 4022:. Delhi: Matilal Barnassidas. 3723:. APH Publishing. p. 31. 3388:Ruegg, David Seyfort (2010). 3337:. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). 2840: 2611:, while Sakya pandita was an 2367:thought. The Vedanta scholar 2147:Pramana-viniscaya commentary. 1818:(Methods of Debate), and the 1806: 1365:atthi ca natthi ca paro loko 1021:) who only used reasoning or 947:) and "inference" (Sanskrit: 796: 763: 6018:Buddhism and the Roman world 5994:Decline of Buddhism in India 5989:History of Buddhism in India 4089: Topics in 3999:Journal of Indian Philosophy 3978:Journal of Indian Philosophy 3831:Mipham's Beacon of Certainty 3685:Journal of Indian Philosophy 1698:Mahayana Buddhist philosophy 1244:Those which after analysis ( 1096:"Discourse to Prince Abhaya" 913:justification distinguishes 821:), and "science of causes" ( 724:decline of Buddhism in India 680:Buddhist logico-epistemology 154:Buddhist logico-epistemology 7: 5216:Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar 4956: 3984:(4). Springer Netherlands. 3930:. Oxford University Press. 3721:Saints and Sages of Kashmir 3719:Dhar, Triloki Nath (2004). 2798: 2595:(1182–1251), who wrote the 2576: 2357:Nyāya-vārtika-tātparya-tikā 2258:Pramāṇavārttikālaṅkāraṭīkā, 1835:(triple inferential sign). 1743: 1645:There is fire on the hill. 1411:The later commentarial and 1211:According to Jayatilleke, ' 971: 965: 955: 949: 943: 897: 710: 703: 700:tool, valid cognition) and 689: 10: 6768: 6166:The unanswerable questions 3470:Liberman, Kenneth (2007). 2865:Blumenthal, James (2004). 2858:Buddhist Teaching in India 2772:Means of valid cognition: 2731:Dialectics: tarka, rtog ge 2713:Condition: pratyaya, rkyen 2618: 2568:Ngok Lodzawa Loden Shayrap 2417:Philadelphia Museum of Art 1887: 1876: 1831:). He also introduced the 1614: 1353:(there is a next world). 891: 756:A Method for Argumentation 189:Interdependent origination 6694: 6646: 6561: 6476: 6251:Buddhist temples in Korea 6174: 6076: 5959: 5656: 5584: 5411: 5284: 5224: 4859: 4814:Chinese Esoteric Buddhism 4725: 4717:Three planes of existence 4665: 4510: 4402: 4332: 4324:Buddha in world religions 4186: 4131: 4103: 3576:Nakamura, Hajime (1987). 3512:Prasad, Rajendra (2002). 3373:Collins, Randall (2000). 3348:Fowler, Jeaneane (2002). 3101:. Routledge. p. 184. 2972:10.1017/S0035869X00151524 2943:Anacker, Stefan (2005) . 2532:6th c.) and Dharmakīrti ( 2034:, these figures (such as 1924:rigs pa rjes su ‘brang ba 1510:Is A not B in everything? 1360:(there is no next world). 985:Early Buddhist background 6033:Persecution of Buddhists 5254:Four stages of awakening 4635:Three marks of existence 4221:Physical characteristics 3964:Stcherbatsky, Fyodor Th. 3906:Philosophy East and West 3560:Stcherbatsky, Fyodor Th. 3501:. 2010.3 (253): 397–440. 3435:Westerhoff, Jan (2018). 2701:Argument: Vada, rtsod pa 2544:In the Tibetan tradition 2246:Paṇḍita Aśoka (980–1040) 1363:S is and is not P, e.g. 1152:60). He also notes that 5396:Ten principal disciples 4279:(aunt, adoptive mother) 3895:Hayes, Richard (1982). 3886:Dunne, John D. (2004). 3286:Hayes, Richard (1982). 2788:Perception, Sensation: 2312:Influence and reception 1732:. He used the Buddhist 590:Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo 256:Pre-modern philosophers 164:Buddhism and psychology 6106:Buddhism and democracy 5619:Tibetan Buddhist canon 5614:Chinese Buddhist canon 4846:Pre-sectarian Buddhism 4841:Early Buddhist schools 3890:. Wisdom Publications. 3002:Bulletin of Tibetology 2782:Particular: svalakṣaṇa 2553: 2538: 2419: 2388:Svātantrika Mādhyamika 2323: 2082:Pramāṇavārttikālaṅkāra 2013: 1913: 1905: 1753: 1703:Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka 1626: 1551: 1521: 1504:Is A not B everywhere? 1409: 1167: 1032:, the middle and late 905: 889: 860: 714:), i.e. the school of 169:Buddhist vegetarianism 6116:Eight Consciousnesses 4226:Life of Buddha in art 4018:Wayman, Alex (1999). 3829:Pettit, John (1999). 3099:Indian logic A Reader 2609:Philosophical realism 2551: 2526: 2400: 2337:position against the 2318: 2008: 1911: 1896:Dignaga. A statue in 1895: 1749: 1624: 1546: 1516: 1501:Is A B in everything? 1448:Points of Controversy 1397: 1162: 1142:correspondence theory 1130:dependent origination 1010:The Traditionalists ( 884: 847: 839:Bimal Krishna Matilal 640:Philosophy portal 342:Dharmapala of Nalanda 6593:East Asian religions 6023:Buddhism in the West 5594:Early Buddhist texts 5209:Four Right Exertions 4675:Ten spiritual realms 4168:Noble Eightfold Path 3533:Indo-Iranian Journal 2704:Basis of cognition: 2638:specify the language 2636:This article should 2465:reductio ad absurdum 2444:Mūlamadhyamakakārikā 2433:) in expounding the 2053:school of philosophy 1738:reductio ad absurdum 1648:For there is smoke. 1580:Abhidharma-samuccaya 1423:, and the absolute ( 1419:, the conventional ( 1176:Early Buddhist Texts 1112:parable of the arrow 803:Fyodor Shcherbatskoy 505:Anagarika Dharmapala 6716:Religion portal 6463:Temple of the Tooth 6342:Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi 5381:Upāsaka and Upāsikā 4874:Bodhipakkhiyādhammā 4657:Two truths doctrine 4477:Mahapajapati Gotamī 4277:Mahapajapati Gotamī 3499:Buddhist Philosophy 3205:Jayatilleke, K. N. 2737:Event: dharma, chos 2572:Tshad ma’i bsdus pa 2078:backwards causation 2025:Fyodor Stcherbatsky 1966:Following Dignāga, 1822:(Rules of Debate). 1792:interpret him as a 1417:two levels of truth 1391:Two levels of Truth 1170:Debate and analysis 963:if it accords with 835:Buddhist philosophy 829:tradition known as 629:Religion portal 499:Modern philosophers 209:Two truths doctrine 38:Buddhist philosophy 6638:Western philosophy 6236:Dzong architecture 6058:Vipassana movement 6053:Buddhist modernism 5481:Emperor Wen of Sui 5249:Pratyekabuddhayāna 5182:Threefold Training 4984:Vipassana movement 4700:Hungry Ghost realm 4520:Avidyā (Ignorance) 4467:Puṇṇa Mantānīputta 4216:Great Renunciation 4211:Eight Great Events 4093: 3412:. pp. 233–44. 3270:. Wiley-Blackwell. 3218:D. J. Kalupahana, 2805:Logical connective 2597:Tshad-ma rigs-gter 2554: 2420: 2084:("Ornament of the 1914: 1906: 1627: 1507:Is A not B always? 1495:Is A B everywhere? 1358:natthi paro loko 1356:S is not P, e.g. 1017:The Rationalists ( 868:predicate calculus 262:Moggaliputta-Tissa 244:Buddhist modernism 6752:Religious debates 6724: 6723: 6362:Om mani padme hum 6068:Women in Buddhism 5984:Buddhist councils 5854:Western countries 5642:Madhyamakālaṃkāra 5403:Shaolin Monastery 4980:Samatha-vipassanā 4590:Pratītyasamutpāda 4394:Metteyya/Maitreya 4312: 4304: 4296: 4288: 4280: 4272: 4264: 4141:Four Noble Truths 3857:Pramāṇa-samuccaya 3757:978-0-691-15786-3 3483:978-0-7425-7686-5 2698: 2697: 2678:may also be used. 2552:Ngok Loden Sherab 2379:Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya 2223:(720–780), was a 2065:Pramanaviniscaya. 1940:Pramāṇa-samuccaya 1774:illocutionary act 1193:petitio principii 1118:K. N. Jayatilleke 1064:the unanswerables 776:Pramāṇa-samuccaya 731:historical Buddha 674: 673: 560:K. N. Jayatilleke 457:Acariya Anuruddha 6759: 6714: 6713: 6702: 6701: 6541:Sacred languages 6389:Maya Devi Temple 6352:Mahabodhi Temple 6156:Secular Buddhism 6121:Engaged Buddhism 4961: 4809:Tibetan Buddhism 4760:Vietnamese Thiền 4359:Mahāsthāmaprāpta 4310: 4302: 4294: 4286: 4278: 4270: 4262: 4111: 4110: 4098: 4088: 4078: 4071: 4064: 4055: 4054: 4023: 4014: 3993: 3971: 3959: 3950: 3941: 3922: 3913: 3900: 3891: 3882: 3865: 3864: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3816: 3798: 3787: 3786: 3776: 3767: 3766: 3765: 3764: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3672: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3620:. Archived from 3610: 3604: 3603: 3598:. Archived from 3588: 3582: 3581: 3573: 3567: 3566: 3556: 3541: 3540: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3494: 3488: 3487: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3450: 3441: 3440: 3432: 3423: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3405: 3394: 3393: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3345: 3339: 3338: 3330: 3315: 3312: 3301: 3298: 3292: 3291: 3283: 3272: 3271: 3263: 3242: 3239: 3233: 3230: 3224: 3216: 3210: 3203: 3154: 3151:Anguttara Nikaya 3147: 3141: 3136:Sidertis, Mark. 3134: 3128: 3127: 3109: 3103: 3102: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3069: 3044: 3035:Hugon, Pascale, 3033: 3027: 3023: 3021: 3020: 3014: 2999: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2940: 2931: 2924: 2918: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2873: 2870: 2861: 2853: 2693: 2690: 2684: 2669: 2663: 2659: 2653: 2649: 2643: 2631: 2630: 2623: 2579: 2427:sbyor ba'i tshig 2415:painting in the 2383:Tattvacintāmaṇi. 2260:a commentary on 2251:Pramāṇaviniścaya 2141:Nyāyasiddhyāloka 2113:Pramanasamuccaya 2086:Pramāṇavārttikā" 2044:Pramāṇavārttika. 1985:arthakriyāsthiti 1746: 1672:) - perception ( 1611:Nyaya influences 1565:Abhidharma views 1324:sappatihirakatam 1305:Potthapada sutta 1075:David Kalupahana 974: 968: 958: 952: 946: 908: 902: 866:(such as modern 791:Tibetan Buddhism 769:–540 CE) in his 768: 765: 713: 706: 694: 666: 659: 652: 638: 637: 636: 627: 626: 565:David Kalupahana 224:Buddhist atomism 48: 23: 16: 15: 6767: 6766: 6762: 6761: 6760: 6758: 6757: 6756: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6720: 6708: 6690: 6642: 6557: 6472: 6209:Ordination hall 6170: 6072: 6043:Buddhist crisis 5955: 5652: 5604:Mahayana sutras 5580: 5576:Thích Nhất Hạnh 5407: 5280: 5220: 5170:Bodhisattva vow 4855: 4721: 4661: 4620:Taṇhā (Craving) 4555:Five hindrances 4506: 4398: 4328: 4182: 4127: 4099: 4082: 4030: 3938: 3873: 3871:Further reading 3868: 3849: 3845: 3827: 3823: 3814: 3812: 3799: 3790: 3777: 3770: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3732: 3728: 3717: 3713: 3700: 3696: 3673: 3669: 3659: 3657: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3633: 3629: 3612: 3611: 3607: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3574: 3570: 3557: 3544: 3525: 3521: 3510: 3506: 3495: 3491: 3484: 3468: 3464: 3451: 3444: 3433: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3406: 3397: 3386: 3382: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3346: 3342: 3331: 3318: 3313: 3304: 3299: 3295: 3284: 3275: 3264: 3245: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3217: 3213: 3204: 3157: 3148: 3144: 3135: 3131: 3124: 3110: 3106: 3095: 3091: 3084: 3070: 3047: 3034: 3030: 3018: 3016: 3012: 2997: 2991: 2987: 2956: 2952: 2941: 2934: 2925: 2921: 2908: 2904: 2893: 2876: 2854: 2847: 2843: 2801: 2694: 2688: 2685: 2679: 2667: 2661: 2657: 2655:transliteration 2651: 2647: 2641: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2601:Pramanavarttika 2546: 2521: 2475: 2395: 2390: 2353:Vācaspati Miśra 2314: 2262:Prajñakaragupta 2201:Pramāṇavārttika 2195:Pramāṇavārttika 2189:Pramāṇavārttika 2180:Pramāṇavārttika 2135:Pramāṇavārttika 2074:Prajñakaragupta 2018: 1989:Pramāṇavārttika 1973:Pramāṇavārttika 1964: 1890: 1885: 1875: 1809: 1794:Wittgensteinian 1705: 1700: 1680:), comparison ( 1619: 1613: 1567: 1528: 1460:Jonardon Ganeri 1435: 1393: 1351:atthi paro loko 1328:appatihirakatam 1251:Those like the 1172: 1100:Mrs Rhys Davids 1000:Saṅgārava-sutta 992: 987: 911:Epistemological 894: 864:classical logic 799: 786:Pramanavarttika 766: 677: 670: 634: 632: 621: 615: 614: 610:14th Dalai Lama 595:Jamgon Kongtrul 585:Thích Nhất Hạnh 535:Keiji Nishitani 500: 492: 491: 442:Abhayakaragupta 257: 249: 248: 159:Buddhist ethics 149: 141: 140: 56: 12: 11: 5: 6765: 6755: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6737:Buddhist logic 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6706: 6695: 6692: 6691: 6689: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6652: 6650: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6589: 6588: 6583: 6573: 6567: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6554: 6553: 6548: 6538: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6482: 6480: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6338: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6273:Greco-Buddhist 6265: 6264: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6227: 6226: 6224:Burmese pagoda 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6180: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6082: 6080: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6006:Greco-Buddhism 6003: 5998: 5997: 5996: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5965: 5963: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5953: 5952: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5939:United Kingdom 5936: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5884:Czech Republic 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5844: 5834: 5833: 5832: 5822: 5821: 5820: 5815: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5763: 5758: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5662: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5650: 5648:Abhidharmadīpa 5645: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5590: 5588: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5566:B. R. Ambedkar 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5486:Songtsen Gampo 5483: 5478: 5473: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5417: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5405: 5400: 5399: 5398: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5362: 5361: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5296: 5290: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5278: 5277: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5230: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5218: 5213: 5212: 5211: 5201: 5200: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5165:Eight precepts 5162: 5152: 5151: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5060: 5059: 5054: 5044: 5039: 5038: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4953: 4943: 4938: 4936:Five Strengths 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4903: 4902: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4876: 4871: 4865: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4827: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4811: 4801: 4800: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4763: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4731: 4729: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4719: 4714: 4713: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4677: 4671: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4660: 4659: 4654: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4575:Mental factors 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4516: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4427:Mahamoggallāna 4424: 4419: 4414: 4408: 4406: 4400: 4399: 4397: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4350: 4349: 4342:Avalokiteśvara 4338: 4336: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4306: 4298: 4290: 4282: 4274: 4266: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4198: 4192: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4143: 4137: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4104: 4101: 4100: 4081: 4080: 4073: 4066: 4058: 4052: 4051: 4048:Buddhist logic 4045: 4036: 4029: 4028:External links 4026: 4025: 4024: 4015: 3994: 3973: 3968:Buddhist Logic 3960: 3951: 3942: 3936: 3923: 3914: 3901: 3892: 3883: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3843: 3821: 3788: 3768: 3756: 3726: 3711: 3694: 3667: 3642: 3627: 3624:on 2021-10-29. 3605: 3602:on 2021-10-30. 3583: 3568: 3563:Buddhist Logic 3542: 3519: 3504: 3489: 3482: 3462: 3442: 3424: 3415: 3395: 3380: 3365: 3359:978-1898723943 3358: 3340: 3316: 3302: 3293: 3273: 3243: 3234: 3225: 3211: 3209:, London, 1963 3155: 3149:Kalama Sutta, 3142: 3129: 3122: 3104: 3089: 3082: 3045: 3028: 3004:. New Series. 2985: 2966:(3): 451–488. 2950: 2932: 2919: 2902: 2874: 2872: 2871: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2838: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2795: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2756: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2719:Debate: Vivada 2717: 2714: 2711: 2708: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2674:. Knowledge's 2635: 2633: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2545: 2542: 2500:Ratnākaraśānti 2474: 2471: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2308: 2302:Śākyaśrībhadra 2299: 2293: 2287:Mokṣākaragupta 2284: 2278: 2275: 2265: 2254: 2247: 2244: 2234: 2231:Śaṅkaranandana 2228: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2182: 2176:Devendrabuddhi 2173: 2167: 2158: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2128: 2121: 2115: 2109:Jinendrabuddhi 2106: 2100: 2090: 2089: 2067: 2046: 2036:Devendrabuddhi 2017: 2014: 1963: 1960: 1889: 1886: 1874: 1871: 1870: 1869: 1862: 1855: 1808: 1805: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1676:), inference ( 1659: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1615:Main article: 1612: 1609: 1604: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1593: 1566: 1563: 1538:"Questions of 1527: 1522: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1499: 1498:Is A B always? 1496: 1493: 1490: 1434: 1429: 1392: 1389: 1376: 1375: 1368: 1361: 1354: 1297: 1296: 1293: 1286: 1283: 1259: 1258: 1257: 1256: 1249: 1235: 1213:pure reasoning 1202:nigrahasthanas 1171: 1168: 1146:Apannaka Sutta 1132:): "inductive 1104:Vallée-Poussin 1038: 1037: 1026: 1019:takki vimamsi 1015: 996:KN Jayatilleke 991: 988: 986: 983: 893: 890: 833:as well as in 798: 795: 675: 672: 671: 669: 668: 661: 654: 646: 643: 642: 617: 616: 613: 612: 607: 605:Gendün Chöphel 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 555:Mahasi Sayadaw 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 530:Kitaro Nishida 527: 522: 517: 515:B. R. Ambedkar 512: 507: 501: 498: 497: 494: 493: 490: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 459: 454: 449: 444: 439: 437:Ratnākaraśānti 434: 429: 424: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 382:Guifeng Zongmi 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 269: 267:Katyāyāniputra 264: 258: 255: 254: 251: 250: 247: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 150: 147: 146: 143: 142: 139: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 57: 54: 53: 50: 49: 41: 40: 34: 33: 25: 24: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6764: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6732: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6705: 6697: 6696: 6693: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6649: 6645: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6578: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6560: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6479: 6478:Miscellaneous 6475: 6469: 6468:Vegetarianism 6466: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6312: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6290:Buddha in art 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6274: 6271: 6270: 6269: 6266: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6186: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6173: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6083: 6081: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5966: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5944:United States 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5835: 5831: 5828: 5827: 5826: 5823: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5659: 5655: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5643: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5591: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5501:Padmasambhava 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5413:Major figures 5410: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5360: 5359:Western tulku 5357: 5356: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5287: 5283: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5217: 5214: 5210: 5207: 5206: 5205: 5202: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5160:Five precepts 5158: 5157: 5156: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5138:Dhamma vicaya 5136: 5134: 5131: 5130: 5129: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5049: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5006: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4985: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4906:Buddhābhiṣeka 4904: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4858: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4805: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4736: 4733: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4724: 4718: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4672: 4670: 4668: 4664: 4658: 4655: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4550:Enlightenment 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4540:Dhamma theory 4538: 4536: 4535:Buddha-nature 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4517: 4515: 4513: 4509: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4413: 4410: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4401: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4374:Samantabhadra 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4345: 4344: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4331: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4307: 4305: 4299: 4297: 4291: 4289: 4283: 4281: 4275: 4273: 4267: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4148: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4130: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4106: 4105: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4079: 4074: 4072: 4067: 4065: 4060: 4059: 4056: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4031: 4021: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3956:Tibetan Logic 3952: 3948: 3943: 3939: 3937:0-19-566658-5 3933: 3929: 3924: 3920: 3915: 3912:(1–4): 69–83. 3911: 3907: 3902: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3881:. SUNY Press. 3880: 3875: 3874: 3863: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3847: 3840: 3838: 3832: 3825: 3811:on 2009-08-12 3810: 3806: 3805: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3784: 3783: 3775: 3773: 3759: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3722: 3715: 3707: 3706: 3698: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3677:Prajñāpradīpa 3671: 3656: 3652: 3646: 3638: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3609: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3587: 3579: 3572: 3564: 3561: 3555: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3515: 3508: 3500: 3493: 3485: 3479: 3475: 3474: 3466: 3458: 3457: 3449: 3447: 3438: 3431: 3429: 3419: 3411: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3391: 3384: 3376: 3369: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3336: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3297: 3289: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3269: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3238: 3229: 3223: 3222: 3215: 3208: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3152: 3146: 3139: 3133: 3125: 3123:0-19-823960-2 3119: 3115: 3108: 3100: 3093: 3085: 3083:0-7914-3739-6 3079: 3075: 3068: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3042: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2996: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2954: 2946: 2939: 2937: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2912: 2906: 2898: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2868: 2863: 2862: 2859: 2852: 2850: 2845: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2802: 2793: 2791: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2754: 2751: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2739: 2736: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2700: 2699: 2692: 2682: 2677: 2673: 2666: 2656: 2646: 2639: 2634: 2625: 2624: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2593:Sakya Pandita 2589: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2558: 2557:Tom Tillemans 2550: 2541: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2470: 2467: 2466: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2450: 2449:Prajñāpradīpa 2447:entitled the 2446: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2431:prayoga-vākya 2428: 2424: 2418: 2414: 2411:18th-century 2410: 2406: 2404: 2399: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2348: 2347:Prashastapada 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2322: 2317: 2307: 2306:Sakya Pandita 2303: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2273: 2269: 2266: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2253:(Dharmakīrti) 2252: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2238: 2237:Jñanasrimitra 2235: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2168: 2166: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2142: 2138: 2136: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2103:Śaṅkarasvāmin 2101: 2098: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2052: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2012: 2007: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1992: 1990: 1986: 1981: 1979: 1976:, remains in 1975: 1974: 1969: 1959: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1943: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1918: 1910: 1903: 1899: 1894: 1884: 1880: 1867: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1853: 1849: 1848: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1829: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1804: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1789: 1786: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1752: 1748: 1745: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1730: 1725: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1714: 1709: 1695: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1684: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1632: 1623: 1618: 1608: 1601: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1589: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1550: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1535: 1534: 1526: 1520: 1515: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1444: 1440: 1433: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1396: 1388: 1386: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1355: 1352: 1349:S is P, e.g. 1348: 1347: 1346: 1344: 1343: 1337: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1294: 1291: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1280: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1233: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1225: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1209: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1198:nigrahasthana 1195: 1194: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1166: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1044: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1007: 1005: 1001: 997: 982: 980: 979: 973: 967: 962: 957: 951: 945: 941:" (Sanskrit: 940: 936: 931: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 907: 901: 900: 888: 883: 881: 875: 873: 869: 865: 859: 857: 853: 846: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 794: 792: 788: 787: 782: 778: 777: 772: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 744: 740: 735: 732: 727: 725: 721: 717: 712: 707: 705: 699: 695: 693: 692: 685: 681: 667: 662: 660: 655: 653: 648: 647: 645: 644: 641: 631: 630: 625: 619: 618: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 580:P. A. Payutto 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 540:Hajime Tanabe 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 496: 495: 488: 485: 483: 482:Sakya Chokden 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 467:Je Tsongkhapa 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 447:Sakya Pandita 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 427:Jñanasrimitra 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 259: 253: 252: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 234:Buddha-nature 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 214:Dharma theory 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 151: 145: 144: 137: 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 91:Lokottaravāda 89: 87: 86:Prajñaptivāda 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 69: 67: 64: 62: 59: 58: 52: 51: 47: 43: 42: 39: 36: 35: 31: 27: 26: 22: 18: 17: 6656:Bodhisattvas 6576:Christianity 6571:Baháʼí Faith 6436:Dharmachakra 6426:Prayer wheel 6416:Prayer beads 6184:Architecture 6145: 6063:969 Movement 5847:Saudi Arabia 5825:Central Asia 5818:South Africa 5640: 5623: 5556:Panchen Lama 5461:Buddhapālita 5057:Satipatthana 5052:Mindful Yoga 4965:Recollection 4879:Brahmavihara 4750:Japanese Zen 4745:Chinese Chan 4705:Animal realm 4512:Key concepts 4334:Bodhisattvas 4146:Three Jewels 4040: 4019: 4002: 3998: 3981: 3977: 3967: 3958:. Snow Lion. 3955: 3946: 3927: 3918: 3909: 3905: 3896: 3887: 3878: 3861: 3856: 3846: 3834: 3830: 3824: 3813:. Retrieved 3809:the original 3803: 3781: 3761:, retrieved 3739: 3729: 3720: 3714: 3704: 3697: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3670: 3658:. Retrieved 3654: 3645: 3636: 3630: 3622:the original 3617: 3608: 3600:the original 3595: 3586: 3577: 3571: 3562: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3513: 3507: 3498: 3492: 3472: 3465: 3455: 3436: 3418: 3409: 3389: 3383: 3374: 3368: 3349: 3343: 3334: 3296: 3287: 3267: 3237: 3228: 3220: 3214: 3206: 3145: 3137: 3132: 3113: 3107: 3098: 3092: 3073: 3040: 3031: 3017:. Retrieved 3005: 3001: 2988: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2944: 2927: 2922: 2910: 2905: 2896: 2866: 2857: 2686: 2672:ISO 639 code 2668:}} 2662:{{ 2658:}} 2652:{{ 2648:}} 2642:{{ 2637: 2613:anti-realist 2600: 2596: 2590: 2571: 2561: 2555: 2539: 2533: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2520: 2510: 2506: 2504: 2488:Śāntarakṣita 2476: 2463: 2460:Chandrakirti 2456:Chandrakirti 2453: 2448: 2442: 2430: 2429:; Sanskrit: 2426: 2421: 2401: 2382: 2372: 2356: 2351: 2324: 2319: 2315: 2296: 2290: 2257: 2250: 2241:Vikramashila 2206: 2200: 2194: 2188: 2185:Karṇakagomin 2179: 2170: 2164: 2155: 2146: 2140: 2134: 2124: 2118: 2112: 2091: 2085: 2081: 2069: 2064: 2060: 2048: 2043: 2031: 2023: 2019: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1993: 1988: 1984: 1982: 1971: 1965: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1938: 1932: 1923: 1921: 1915: 1865: 1858: 1851: 1839: 1837: 1826: 1824: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1800: 1798: 1790: 1778: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1728: 1721: 1711: 1706: 1692: 1687: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1640: 1631:Nyāya Sūtras 1628: 1605: 1584: 1578: 1573:philosopher 1568: 1558: 1554: 1552: 1547: 1537: 1533:Milindapanha 1531: 1529: 1525:Milindapanha 1524: 1517: 1513: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1456:A. K. Warder 1447: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1424: 1420: 1410: 1404: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1384: 1380:Aristotelian 1377: 1371: 1364: 1357: 1350: 1340: 1338: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1317: 1304: 1300: 1298: 1289: 1277: 1272:anekantavada 1270: 1266: 1260: 1252: 1245: 1238: 1231: 1224:vibhajjavada 1223: 1221: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1173: 1163: 1159: 1145: 1116: 1095: 1093: 1088:Kalama sutta 1086: 1072: 1067: 1055: 1047: 1043:Kalama sutta 1041: 1039: 1022: 1018: 1011: 999: 993: 990:Epistemology 978:Kalama Sutta 976: 960: 934: 932: 922: 919:Indian logic 895: 885: 880:epistemology 876: 871: 861: 848: 842: 822: 815:epistemology 800: 784: 774: 770: 755: 751: 741: 736: 728: 711:Pramāṇa-vāda 701: 687: 679: 678: 620: 550:D. T. Suzuki 510:Ledi Sayadaw 412:Śāntarakṣita 347:Chandrakirti 332:Buddhapālita 297:Saṃghabhadra 153: 61:Vibhajyavāda 6501:Dharma talk 6330:Asalha Puja 6126:Eschatology 5929:Switzerland 5909:New Zealand 5837:Middle East 5746:Philippines 5666:Afghanistan 5471:Bodhidharma 5456:Buddhaghosa 5376:Householder 5286:Monasticism 5239:Bodhisattva 5094:Prostration 5047:Mindfulness 4975:Anapanasati 4958:Kammaṭṭhāna 4755:Korean Seon 4695:Asura realm 4690:Human realm 4630:Ten Fetters 4585:Parinirvana 4487:Uppalavanna 4452:Mahākaccana 4437:Mahākassapa 4369:Kṣitigarbha 4364:Ākāśagarbha 4261:Suddhodāna 4206:Four sights 4133:Foundations 3966:(1930–32). 2825:Kathavatthu 2820:Dharmakirti 2586:Dharmakirti 2507:Svātantrika 2490:(725–788), 2486:(700–760), 2484:Jñanagarbha 2423:Bhāvaviveka 2393:Bhāvaviveka 2374:Navya Nyāya 2343:Uddyotakara 2297:Tarkasopāna 2161:Śāntabhadra 2131:Śākyabuddhi 2125:Vijñānavāda 2063:and on his 2057:Dharmottara 2040:Śākyabuddhi 1968:Dharmakīrti 1962:Dharmakīrti 1883:Dharmakirti 1873:Pramāṇavāda 1820:Vādavidhāna 1801:Upāyaśṛdaya 1555:nibbethanam 1492:Is A not B? 1475:Kathāvatthu 1443:Kathāvatthu 1432:Kathāvatthu 1385:not negated 1313:Brahmanical 1206:arthantaram 1188:hetvabhasah 1154:Coherentism 1034:Upanishadic 935:pramanavada 933:Most Indic 781:Dharmakirti 771:magnum opus 743:Kathāvatthu 720:Dharmakirti 686:systems of 487:Mikyö Dorje 407:Jñānagarbha 327:Dharmakirti 312:Buddhadatta 307:Buddhaghosa 111:Pramāṇavāda 81:Pudgalavada 76:Sautrāntika 6731:Categories 6618:Psychology 6598:Gnosticism 6586:Comparison 6581:Influences 6563:Comparison 6446:Bhavacakra 6404:Kushinagar 6379:Pilgrimage 6325:Māgha Pūjā 6280:Bodhi Tree 6096:Buddhology 6086:Abhidharma 6078:Philosophy 6011:Menander I 5879:Costa Rica 5830:Uzbekistan 5671:Bangladesh 5625:Dhammapada 5609:Pali Canon 5571:Ajahn Chah 5551:Dalai Lama 5451:Kumārajīva 5446:Vasubandhu 5421:The Buddha 5329:Zen master 5264:Sakadagami 5244:Buddhahood 5175:Pratimokṣa 4990:Shikantaza 4946:Meditation 4921:Deity yoga 4792:Madhyamaka 4685:Deva realm 4580:Mindstream 4530:Bodhicitta 4442:Aṅgulimāla 4309:Devadatta 4285:Yaśodharā 4188:The Buddha 4178:Middle Way 3815:2009-03-14 3763:2024-03-17 3019:2009-03-14 2841:References 2815:Tetralemma 2776:, tshad ma 2689:April 2023 2511:Prasangika 2496:Haribhadra 2492:Kamalaśīla 2435:Mādhyamaka 2377:) scholar 2361:Prabhākara 2339:nominalism 2327:Vaiseshika 2291:Tarkabhāṣā 2281:Ratnakīrti 2225:Vaibhāṣika 2221:Śubhagupta 2171:Nyāyabindu 2165:Nyāyabindu 2156:Nyāyabindu 2152:Vinītadeva 2119:Nyāyamukha 2097:Īśvarasena 2061:Nyāyabindu 2000:saṃvṛtisat 1996:svalakṣaṇa 1877:See also: 1812:Vasubandhu 1807:Vasubandhu 1785:Madhyamaka 1769:Vatsyayana 1765:vaitandika 1744:pratiṣedha 1483:atthamukha 1425:paramattha 1413:Abhidharma 1401:neyyattha- 1309:nominalist 1267:anekamsika 1239:anekamsika 1190:) such as 1138:perception 1134:inferences 1122:empiricism 1108:Pragmatism 1079:empiricist 1012:anussavika 939:perception 823:hetu-vidyā 797:Definition 767: 480 752:Vāda-vidhi 748:Vasubandhu 704:hetu-vidya 575:Buddhadasa 472:Longchenpa 432:Ratnakīrti 417:Haribhadra 352:Shantideva 317:Dhammapāla 292:Vasubandhu 287:Harivarman 204:Middle Way 174:Abhidharma 101:Madhyamaka 71:Vaibhāṣika 55:Traditions 6686:Festivals 6666:Buddhists 6628:Theosophy 6431:Symbolism 6421:Hama yumi 6394:Bodh Gaya 6161:Socialism 6136:Evolution 6111:Economics 5949:Venezuela 5864:Australia 5859:Argentina 5783:Sri Lanka 5778:Singapore 5696:Indonesia 5658:Countries 5599:Tripiṭaka 5561:Ajahn Mun 5436:Nagarjuna 5431:Aśvaghoṣa 5314:Anagārika 5309:Śrāmaṇerī 5304:Śrāmaṇera 5299:Bhikkhunī 5259:Sotāpanna 5148:Passaddhi 5089:Offerings 5064:Nekkhamma 4941:Iddhipada 4861:Practices 4831:Theravada 4804:Vajrayana 4797:Yogachara 4767:Pure Land 4680:Six Paths 4667:Cosmology 4447:Anuruddha 4422:Sāriputta 4412:Kaundinya 4404:Disciples 4379:Vajrapāṇi 4231:Footprint 4196:Tathāgata 4011:0022-1791 3990:0022-1791 3972:(2 vols.) 3660:5 October 3614:"Persons" 2980:162557402 2810:Catuṣkoṭi 2790:pratyaksa 2439:Nagarjuna 2207:Hetubindu 1833:trairūpya 1816:Vādavidhi 1781:catuṣkoṭi 1734:catuṣkoṭi 1718:phenomena 1708:Nagarjuna 1674:pratyakṣa 1636:inference 1479:vadayutti 1439:Theravada 1405:nitattha- 1342:catuṣkoṭi 1290:thapaniya 1246:vibhajja- 1204:included 1126:causation 1068:avyakatas 966:pratyakṣa 944:pratyakṣa 843:vadavidyā 807:inference 739:Theravada 698:epistemic 600:Ju Mipham 570:Ñāṇananda 545:Masao Abe 337:Bhāviveka 277:Nagarjuna 229:Suffering 194:Emptiness 116:Vajrayana 106:Yogachara 66:Theravāda 6704:Category 6633:Violence 6603:Hinduism 6551:Sanskrit 6506:Hinayana 6491:Amitābha 6451:Swastika 6320:Uposatha 6310:Holidays 6295:Calendar 6141:Humanism 5979:Kanishka 5969:Timeline 5793:Thailand 5761:Kalmykia 5756:Buryatia 5741:Pakistan 5726:Mongolia 5721:Maldives 5716:Malaysia 5681:Cambodia 5546:Shamarpa 5541:Nichiren 5491:Xuanzang 5426:Nagasena 5344:Rinpoche 5074:Pāramitā 4916:Devotion 4836:Navayana 4824:Dzogchen 4787:Nichiren 4735:Mahayana 4727:Branches 4605:Saṅkhāra 4354:Mañjuśrī 4311:(cousin) 4303:(cousin) 4271:(mother) 4263:(father) 4251:Miracles 4201:Birthday 4118:Glossary 4091:Buddhism 3860:. 2.13. 3681:Pratyaya 3010:Archived 2799:See also 2706:Alambana 2566:scholar 2480:Yogacara 2369:Śrīharṣa 2264:'s text. 2051:Kashmiri 1991:2.1ac). 1935:pramāṇas 1928:Sanskrit 1761:prasaṅga 1723:svabhava 1713:shunyata 1571:Mahayana 1549:angered. 1540:Menander 1468:fairness 1421:samutti) 1320:bhasitam 1301:paññatti 1253:avyakata 1232:ekamsika 1217:a priori 1184:patipada 1083:ayatanas 937:accept " 915:Buddhist 906:tshad ma 856:Mahavira 854:and the 684:Buddhist 525:Yin Shun 367:Xuanzang 357:Sengzhao 282:Aryadeva 272:Nagasena 219:Svabhava 184:Not-self 136:Dzogchen 131:Zen/Chán 96:Mahayana 30:a series 28:Part of 6747:Nāstika 6681:Temples 6661:Buddhas 6623:Science 6613:Judaism 6608:Jainism 6526:Lineage 6486:Abhijñā 6456:Thangka 6399:Sarnath 6384:Lumbini 6305:Funeral 6300:Cuisine 6176:Culture 6151:Reality 6101:Creator 6091:Atomism 5961:History 5934:Ukraine 5894:Germany 5813:Senegal 5803:Vietnam 5731:Myanmar 5531:Shinran 5521:Karmapa 5496:Shandao 5466:Dignāga 5391:Śrāvaka 5371:Donchee 5366:Kappiya 5324:Sayadaw 5294:Bhikkhu 5269:Anāgāmi 5226:Nirvana 5192:Samadhi 5079:Paritta 5020:Tonglen 5015:Mandala 4970:Smarana 4951:Mantras 4899:Upekkha 4869:Bhavana 4819:Shingon 4772:Tiantai 4625:Tathātā 4615:Śūnyatā 4610:Skandha 4600:Saṃsāra 4595:Rebirth 4570:Kleshas 4560:Indriya 4462:Subhūti 4347:Guanyin 4301:Ānanda 4293:Rāhula 4173:Nirvana 4113:Outline 3852:Dignāga 3025:Alt URL 2774:pramana 2681:See why 2619:Lexicon 2582:Gelugpa 2564:Kadampa 2365:Mīmāṃsā 2335:realist 2331:Vedanta 1917:Dignāga 1888:Dignāga 1879:Dignaga 1866:vipakṣa 1859:sapakṣa 1844:pramana 1757:vitanda 1683:upamāna 1678:anumāna 1670:pramana 1666:pramaṇa 1577:in his 1559:niggaho 1489:Is A B? 1473:In the 1464:balance 1085:). The 1060:Nikayas 1052:Mimamsa 1036:sages). 972:anumāna 950:anumāna 923:pramana 899:Pramāṇa 892:Pramana 872:anumāna 819:pramana 811:anumāna 760:Dignāga 750:in his 716:Dignaga 691:pramāṇa 477:Gorampa 462:Dolpopa 452:Rongzom 322:Dignāga 239:Nirvana 121:Tiāntāi 6676:Sutras 6671:Suttas 6536:Siddhi 6521:Koliya 6496:Brahmā 6411:Poetry 6357:Mantra 6347:Kasaya 6219:Pagoda 6199:Kyaung 6194:Vihāra 6189:Temple 6131:Ethics 5974:Ashoka 5924:Sweden 5919:Poland 5914:Norway 5904:Mexico 5889:France 5874:Canada 5869:Brazil 5808:Africa 5788:Taiwan 5751:Russia 5676:Bhutan 5636:Vinaya 5516:Naropa 5506:Saraha 5441:Asanga 5197:Prajñā 5106:Refuge 5069:Nianfo 5030:Tertön 5025:Tantra 5010:Ganana 5000:Tukdam 4926:Dhyāna 4894:Mudita 4889:Karuṇā 4782:Risshū 4777:Huayan 4710:Naraka 4650:Anattā 4645:Dukkha 4640:Anicca 4545:Dharma 4497:Channa 4432:Ānanda 4417:Assaji 4384:Skanda 4287:(wife) 4256:Family 4236:Relics 4161:Sangha 4156:Dharma 4151:Buddha 4009: 3988: 3934: 3837:Mipham 3754: 3480: 3356: 3153:III.65 3120: 3080: 2978: 2513:. The 2403:Ācārya 2272:Atisha 2268:Jitāri 1902:Russia 1898:Elista 1828:vyapti 1592:seeds. 1575:Asanga 1452:Ashoka 1215:' or ' 1180:vivada 956:āgamāḥ 903:(Tib. 852:Buddha 773:, the 387:Wonhyo 377:Fazang 362:Jizang 302:Asanga 179:Ahimsa 148:Themes 126:Huayan 6742:Nyaya 6648:Lists 6516:Kalpa 6511:Iddhi 6374:Music 6369:Mudra 6335:Vassa 6315:Vesak 6285:Budai 6231:Candi 6214:Stupa 6146:Logic 5899:Italy 5798:Tibet 5736:Nepal 5706:Korea 5701:Japan 5691:India 5686:China 5631:Sutra 5586:Texts 5536:Dōgen 5526:Hōnen 5511:Atiśa 5476:Zhiyi 5386:Achar 5354:Tulku 5349:Geshe 5334:Rōshi 5319:Ajahn 5274:Arhat 5234:Bodhi 5204:Vīrya 5121:Sacca 5116:Satya 5111:Sādhu 5099:Music 5042:Merit 5035:Terma 4995:Zazen 4931:Faith 4884:Mettā 4565:Karma 4525:Bardo 4492:Asita 4482:Khema 4472:Upāli 4457:Nanda 4295:(son) 4269:Māyā 4246:Films 4123:Index 4005:(1). 3683:)"". 3013:(PDF) 2998:(PDF) 2976:S2CID 2835:Apoha 2830:Nyaya 2605:Gelug 2409:Gelug 1978:Tibet 1956:apoha 1852:pakṣa 1840:linga 1716:) of 1688:śabda 1617:Nyaya 1585:yukti 1333:atman 1263:Jains 1056:takka 1048:sadda 1030:Jains 1023:takka 927:Nyāya 831:Nyaya 827:Hindu 520:Taixu 422:Atiśa 402:Dōgen 397:Kūkai 392:Jinul 372:Zhiyi 199:Karma 6546:Pāḷi 6531:Māra 6441:Flag 5842:Iran 5766:Tuva 5711:Laos 5339:Lama 5187:Śīla 5155:Śīla 5143:Pīti 5133:Sati 5084:Puja 5005:Koan 4911:Dāna 4502:Yasa 4389:Tārā 4007:ISSN 3986:ISSN 3932:ISBN 3752:ISBN 3662:2014 3478:ISBN 3354:ISBN 3118:ISBN 3078:ISBN 2645:lang 2577:Düra 2498:and 2413:Qing 2345:and 2329:and 2049:The 2038:and 1881:and 1629:The 1466:and 1437:The 1174:The 1102:and 969:and 961:only 737:The 718:and 6268:Art 6204:Wat 4740:Zen 3744:doi 3531:". 2968:doi 2665:IPA 2534:ca. 2530:ca. 2441:'s 2355:'s 1846:): 1690:). 1485:): 1387:). 1275:). 870:): 845:): 813:), 793:. 6733:: 5770:ru 4003:15 4001:. 3980:. 3910:17 3908:. 3854:. 3791:^ 3771:^ 3750:, 3738:, 3689:21 3687:. 3653:. 3616:. 3594:. 3545:^ 3537:58 3535:. 3445:^ 3427:^ 3398:^ 3319:^ 3305:^ 3276:^ 3246:^ 3158:^ 3048:^ 3039:, 3006:30 3000:. 2974:. 2964:61 2962:. 2935:^ 2877:^ 2848:^ 2650:, 2615:. 2494:, 2407:, 2088:). 1900:, 1776:. 1150:MN 1114:. 1004:AN 779:. 764:c. 726:. 32:on 5772:) 5768:( 4986:) 4982:( 4077:e 4070:t 4063:v 4013:. 3992:. 3982:5 3970:. 3940:. 3818:. 3785:. 3746:: 3708:. 3664:. 3539:. 3486:. 3459:. 3362:. 3126:. 3086:. 3022:. 2982:. 2970:: 2691:) 2687:( 2683:. 1942:. 1904:. 1868:) 1861:) 1854:) 1741:( 1542:" 1536:( 1446:( 1292:) 1234:) 1148:( 1128:( 1066:( 1002:( 817:( 809:( 762:( 754:( 696:( 665:e 658:t 651:v

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