585:. It continued until 1980 and the start of the second phase of the Cold War. It focused on a philosophical deepening of American foreign policy to adjust to the changing international order, as opposed to the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, which had been too single-minded in their pursuit of victory in Vietnam. That move away from focusing solely on military buildup heralded 12 years in which the world experienced a kind of peace by the decreased tensions between the Americans and the Soviets.
22:
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both were more concerned with cost. To avoid both escalation and humiliation, Kennedy highlighted the importance of adequate flexibility and disregarded cost. Prior to nuclear war, Kennedy wished to increase the range of available options. He also believed that the
European allies should contribute more to their own defense. Fundamentally, the notion of flexible response was to "increase the ability to confine the response to non-nuclear weapons."
432:. MacArthur believed that the United States should take the opportunity to wipe out communism permanently before it grew stronger by using all of its weapons such as turning the war into nuclear war. MacArthur was dismissed as a result of his continuous defiance to Truman and other superiors on April 11, 1951, after he sent an ultimatum to the Chinese Army without consent of Truman.
391:, and it called for military and economic aid to any country deemed to be resisting Communist threats, the Americans sent troops to South Korea after it was invaded by the North on June 25, 1950. That contradicted the report, in that the United States was once again at war (the report stated that the United States should avoid war), but US President
478:
an attempt to reunify Berlin. The United States refused to give up West Berlin. In 1961, Khrushchev met with
Kennedy and they continued to solve the issue on Berlin. Again, Khrushchev sent an ultimatum to the United States, asking them to leave West Berlin. As a result, Kennedy increased military and defense expenditures.
497:
to try to find a solution for the problem of Berlin. Kennedy suggested
Khrushchev to remove the Soviet troops, and the American troops would then be removed. However, no solution was found since neither side was ready to make concessions. The conference ended with Khrushchev issuing another ultimatum
357:
on July 27, 1953, the ceasefire was not a treaty under international law and so a technical state of war remains. The United States led the UN coalition supporting South Korea, while the Soviet Union and People's
Republic of China supported North Korea. The Korean War was the first armed conflict and
262:
In a conflict between two nations that were so ideologically opposed, drastic policies such as brinkmanship seemed to be the only way to come to any sense of agreement. Both the
Americans and the Soviets maintained strict policies not to respond immediately to military threats. However, by making the
596:
was inaugurated as US president on
January 20, 1981. His idea of nuclear relations was, from the outset, very different from détente's goal of stability. He effectively ended the previously-accepted agreement of mutually assured destruction by almost immediately increasing the pace of the buildup of
403:
If we let Korea down, the
Soviets will keep right on going and swallow up one piece of Asia after another.... If we were to let Asia go, the Near East would collapse and no telling what would happen in Europe.... Korea is like the Greece of the Far East. If we are tough enough now, if we stand up to
40:
is the practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict. The maneuver of pushing a situation with the opponent to the brink succeeds by forcing the opponent to back down and make concessions rather than risk engaging in a conflict that
477:
In 1959, the Big Four powers held a conference in Geneva in which the foreign ministers attempted to negotiate an agreement on Berlin. However, the conference did not do much other than open up talks between the Soviet Union and United States. The
Soviets wanted Western powers out of West Berlin in
325:
Flexible response required the continuous presence of substantial conventional forces. The forces were to serve both to deter and to fight limited wars. Kennedy hoped to deter all wars, regardless of their nature. Although
Eisenhower and Dulles wanted to achieve goals similar to those of Kennedy,
473:
On
November 10, 1958, Khrushchev delivered a speech in which he demanded that the Western Powers pulled out of Western Berlin within six months. Furthermore, Khrushchev declared that East Germany was to take control of all communication lines and so West Berlin would be accessible only with East
217:
In the spectrum of the Cold War, the concept of brinkmanship involved the West and the Soviet Union using tactics of fear and intimidation as strategies to make the opposing side back down. Each faction pushed dangerous situations to the brink, with the intention of making the other back down in
258:
The Soviet Union and the West spent nearly 50 years on the brink of war. During conflicts like the Cuban Missile Crisis, tensions escalated to the point that it seemed as if the Cold War would turn into an actual nuclear war. Brinkmanship was one of the steps prior to the point that war would
537:
The US was building up its missiles, with President Eisenhower issuing the National Defense Education Act in 1958, an attempt to close the missile gap with the Soviets. It gave funds to US. schools to start researching more so that the US military could catch up with the Soviet's technology.
424:, the UN Forces arrived along with the US Forces on July 1, 1950. Truman believed that the North Korean atomic threat was "a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assume it to be" and so did not use brinkmanship but also continuously opted for
286:
To enforce the tactic, the Americans made alliances with many countries that were considered to be vulnerable to the Soviets' sphere of influence. The Soviets were now known to have nuclear weapons and so both superpowers were on a more even playing field. To combat this problem, Eisenhower
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That was a bold move as it established the stakes to be extremely high, as the action could cause massive destruction for both sides. The threat caused an increase and a buildup of tension, with neither side wanting to pull the trigger on the other for fear of the other's reaction.
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pressured the Soviet Union to help with Berlin and emigration. Khrushchev wanted the Western Allies to leave Berlin or sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany. He feared that West Germany would economically and politically overwhelm East Germany and in turn undermine the
248:
Since the nuclear stalemate became apparent, the governments of East and West have adopted the policy which Mr. Dulles calls 'brinksmanship.' This is a policy adapted from a sport which, I am told, is practiced by some youthful degenerates. This sport is called 'Chicken!'.
486:. The United States heavily condemned the Berlin Wall and responded by placing troops on the West German side. The actions were followed by Soviet Union, which placed its troops and tanks on the East German side. That led to the iconic image of tanks facing each other at "
516:. Both superpowers were armed with nuclear weapons and practiced brinkmanship during the conflict. The Cuban Missile Crisis was not only the closest that the Americans and the Soviets came to an armed conflict but also the "closest the world has come to nuclear war."
597:
American arms to an unprecedented rate. Besides the buildup of conventional arms, military technology was improved. With the introduction of the stealth bomber and neutron bomb, the US again began to pull away from the Soviet Union. The most pivotal of them was the
443:, and wanted to show off its power to the world and to exhibit that it could still tame the communist threat, which was now also present in Asia. Similarly, the Soviet Union wanted to demonstrate its newly built military strength to the United States.
457:
Between 1950 and 1961, "the refugee flow continued at a rate of 100,000 to 200,000 annually" with people moving from the East to the West. The economic conditions were better in West Berlin than in East Berlin and so attracted more young workers.
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The problem, however, was that yielding would result in being labelled as the weaker side. During the Cold War, both the Soviets and the Americans had a reputation to uphold to their populations and also to their neighboring countries and allies.
481:
On August 13, 1961, Ulbricht had ordered barbed wire between East and West Berlin. The barbed wire was later changed to cement walls. This prevented the movement between the two sides. The division between the two Berlins was known as the
229:, both parties had to respond with more force. The principle of the tactic was that neither party would prefer to yield to the other, but one of them would simply have to yield, or the outcome would be the worst possible for both of them.
218:
matters of international politics and foreign policy and obtaining concessions. Nevertheless, in the Cold War both parties were confronted with devastating consequences since the threats of nuclear war were unmanageable in any situation.
167:
For brinkmanship to be effective, both sides continuously escalate their threats and actions. However, a threat is ineffective unless it is credible, and, at some point, an aggressive party may have to prove its commitment to action.
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into backing down militarily. Eventually, the threats involved might become so huge as to be unmanageable, at which point, both sides are likely to back down. That was the case during the Cold War, since the escalation of threats of
134:, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship in these terms: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." During the Cold War, it was used as a policy by the United States to coerce the
528:
was also an act of brinkmanship since the Americans, instead of succumbing to the pressure from the Soviets, decided to see how the Soviets would react to the Americans stopping their vessels from entering Cuba.
193:, continually issuing warnings with increasing force about impending nuclear exchanges without necessarily validating their statements. Thomas Schelling called that "the threat that leaves something to chance."
523:
and launching distance. That was arguably an act of brinkmanship by the Soviets to intimidate the US with weapons within the region. The US responded to the presence of the weapons by blockading Cuba. The
498:
to the United States that gave six months to get out of Berlin. As a result, Kennedy refused to back down and instead prepared for military action, which led to further military escalation by Khrushchev.
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at tactical, strategic, and conventional levels and bestowing upon the United States the ability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of symmetrical conventional warfare and nuclear warfare.
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That made brinkmanship utterly risky since if neither country budged, the only way to avoid mutually assured destruction was to compromise. The British philosopher, mathematician, and intellectual
41:
would no longer be beneficial to either side. That might be achieved through diplomatic maneuvers, by creating the impression that one is willing to use extreme methods rather than concede. The
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Any action taken by either side's had the possibility of resulting in a nuclear war between the Soviets and the Americans. As a result, in the summer of 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in
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was still assumed to be aiming at further expanding Soviet influence. The tactic was supposed to isolate the Soviet Union so that communism would not spread but would collapse in on itself.
439:
noted, the Korean War heightened the Cold War and brought both nations closer to a nuclear war. The United States wanted to ensure that the United Nations would succeed, unlike the
474:
German permission. Interpreting Khrushchev's speech as an ultimatum, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom declined and said that they would remain in West Berlin.
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The chance of things sliding out of control is often used in itself as a tool of brinkmanship, because it can provide credibility to an otherwise incredible threat. During the
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A prime example of brinkmanship during the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), a 13-day conflict between the United States, the Soviet Union, and
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The essence of such a crisis is that it leads neither side to be in full control of events, which creates a serious risk of miscalculation and escalation.
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of both sides threatened massive destruction on each other. Ultimately, brinkmanship worsened the relationship between the Soviets and the Americans.
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428:. His beliefs in ceasefire and peacekeeping between the North and the South were cause for great conflict with MacArthur, who sought
420:. The UN, supported by the United States, freely passed a resolution requesting military action against North Korea. Led by General
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The détente was essentially a stilling of the waters between the Americans and the Soviets. It was started by US President
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Brinkmanship is the ostensible escalation of threats to achieve one's aims. The word was probably coined, on the model of
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possibility of a war more and more likely, both nations were able to make significant progress in discussions and peace.
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387:. In accordance with NSC 68, a report that stated that all communist activities were controlled by Soviet Premier
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Jackson, Michael Gordon (2005). "Beyond Brinkmanship: Eisenhower, Nuclear War Fighting, and Korea, 1953–1968".
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The crisis was caused by the placement of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba, an island that was within the US
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because neither side of the conflict could contemplate mutual assured destruction in a nuclear war. The
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Russell, Bertrand W. (1959) Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare London: George Allen & Unwin, p. 30
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1072:"Timeline of the Cuban Missile Crisis | The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Look Back from the Brink"
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Policy reverted to the older notion that the Soviet Union could be contained if Soviet Premier
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in his criticism of the philosophy described as "going to the brink" during an interview with
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of the Cold War and escalated tensions between the West and the East. In September 1949, the
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1043:"Khrushchev's Speech on Berlin, 1961." Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts.
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601:- later called 'Star Wars' because of its improbability - which simultaneously brought the
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threatened to use all of the American arsenal if the Soviets took offensive measures.
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Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938, Ninth Revised Edition
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has been described as a representation of brinkmanship between US President
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them like we did in Greece three years ago, they won't take any more steps.
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Trying to find a way to stop the people from moving, East German President
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that started on June 25, 1950. Although armed hostilities ended with the
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Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War
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Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War
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1178:"North Korea Hits New Level of Brinkmanship in Reacting to Trump"
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held towards Eisenhower's New Look: specifically its policy of
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defined brinkmanship as "manipulating the shared risk of war."
413:
383:, indirectly calling for a policy to limit Communist Threat:
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North Korea Blows Up Liaison Office Shared With South Korea
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1274:, Choe Sang-hun, June 16, 2020. Retrieved June 16, 2020.
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1230:"North Korea returns US troops slain in the Korean War"
1204:"Under Trump, nuclear brinkmanship is the new normal"
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in 1961. Its aim was to address skepticism that the
412:because the Americans had refused the entry of the
345:The Korean War was a military conflict between the
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546:, several research laboratories, and parts of the
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898:. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
603:Americans to the brink of war against the Soviets
366:, which made a limited war virtually impossible.
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201:Brinkmanship was an effective tactic during the
955:Greenpeace Archives: History of Nuclear Weapons
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399:and wanted to prevent the spread of communism:
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1308:Foreign policy doctrines of the United States
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1052:
1061:, U.S. Department of State. Web. Mar. 2010.
996:Douglas MacArthur – The American Experience
84:. Dulles sought to deter aggression by the
746:Shepley, James. "How Dulles Averted War."
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143:, if carried out, were likely to lead to
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636:. The nuclear crisis was followed by a
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369:Fears of communism had risen after the
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364:Soviets tested their first atomic bomb
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623:2017–2018 North Korean nuclear crisis
589:Ronald Reagan and end of the Cold War
1288:Analysis of the Cuban Missile Crisis
1176:Choe, Sang-Hun (22 September 2017).
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470:, which the Soviet Union dominated.
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179:was an example of opposing leaders,
72:The term is chiefly associated with
1074:. Atomicarchive.com. Archived from
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29:has been described as brinkmanship.
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931:. Nuclearfiles.org. Archived from
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306:strategy executed by US President
88:by warning that the cost might be
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1024:American History Notes: the 1950s
558:Aftermath of Cuban Missile Crisis
330:Practices and effects of Cold War
1120:"The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962"
795:Louisiana State University Press
713:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00235.x
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267:Eisenhower's "New Look" policy
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822:Schelling, Thomas C. (1966).
727:"Online Etymology Dictionary"
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548:Army Ballistic Missile Agency
318:. Flexible response required
150:The pioneering game theorist
80:from 1953 to 1956 during the
16:Political and military tactic
599:Strategic Defense Initiative
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123:. In the article written in
61:(by involving the threat of
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760:Stephen E. Ambrose (2010).
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640:, which saw mixed results.
617:North Korean nuclear crisis
295:Kennedy's flexible response
240:compared it to the game of
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1264:February 14, 2021, at the
1100:. State.gov. 13 April 2007
980:'Kelly Rogers, Jo Thomas,
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414:People's Republic of China
408:The Soviets boycotted the
355:Korean Armistice Agreement
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145:mutual assured destruction
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1142:"Office of the Historian"
1098:"Office of the Historian"
1008:Kelly Rogers, Jo Thomas,
828:. Yale University Press.
750:16 January 1956 pp. 70ff.
579:National Security Advisor
221:By escalating threats of
121:Eisenhower administration
82:Eisenhower administration
892:Watry, David M. (2014).
872:Harvard University Press
867:The Strategy of Conflict
787:Watry, David M. (2014).
766:. Penguin. p. 109.
538:Eisenhower also started
92:against Soviet targets.
1166:(Routledge, 1996) p. 51
104:"gamesmanship", by the
1010:History: The Cold War,
982:History: The Cold War,
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335:Korean War (1950–1953)
312:Kennedy administration
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47:international politics
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453:Berlin Crisis of 1961
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114:US Secretary of State
78:US Secretary of State
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1303:Cold War terminology
665:International crisis
508:Cuban Missile Crisis
502:Cuban Missile Crisis
273:Dwight D. Eisenhower
259:actually break out.
177:Cuban Missile Crisis
27:Cuban Missile Crisis
25:The handling of the
864:Schelling, Thomas,
834:10.2307/j.ctt5vm52s
631:North Korean leader
521:sphere of influence
410:UN Security Council
316:massive retaliation
227:massive retaliation
90:massive retaliation
1271:The New York Times
1030:2017-07-29 at the
960:2005-11-21 at the
825:Arms and Influence
488:Checkpoint Charlie
207:nuclear deterrence
117:John Foster Dulles
74:John Foster Dulles
31:
1078:on 14 August 2010
843:978-0-300-00221-8
650:Balance of terror
607:Mikhail Gorbachev
441:League of Nations
435:As the historian
422:Douglas MacArthur
320:mutual deterrence
300:Flexible response
281:Nikita Khrushchev
254:Contextualization
213:Conceptualization
191:Nikita Khrushchev
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