1923:(Parliament of Germany) amended Article 146 and the Preamble of the Basic Law to state that German unification had now been fully achieved, while also adding a further clause 143(3) to entrench in the Basic Law the irreversibility of acts of expropriation undertaken by the Soviet occupying powers between 1945 and 1949. Hence when the GDR's nominal accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 came into effect on 3 October 1990, Article 23 was no longer in place. Strictly therefore, German reunification was effected by the Unification Treaty between two sovereign states, the GDR and the Federal Republic, and not by the GDR's prior declaration of accession under Article 23, although the former Article 23 was agreed by both parties to the Treaty as setting the constitutional model by which unification would be achieved.
2355:(one of only four women on the 70-strong panel) was eventually successful in a largely lone campaign to gain constitutional protection for sex equality. Notwithstanding this, there was a striking disjunction between the social context of two-parent, family households assumed in the Basic Law, and the everyday reality of German society in 1949, where over half of adult women were unmarried, separated or widowed, where the effective working population was overwhelmingly female, and where millions of expellees, refugees and displaced families were still without permanent accommodation. It was not until 1994 that constitutional protection was extended against discrimination on grounds of disability, while discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation is still not disallowed within the Basic Law.
2301:(special way): the proposition that Germany had followed a path to modernity radically different from that of its European neighbours, that had rendered it particularly susceptible to militaristic, anti-humanitarian, totalitarian and genocidal impulses. The theory is much contested, but formed the major context for the original formulation of the Basic Law. The Basic Law sought "to correct the course of Germany's Sonderweg—to reclaim the German State from its special historical path, and to realise in postwar West Germany the Liberal Democratic Republic that had proved unachievable for the Frankfurt patriots of 1848 or the Weimar revolutionaries of 1919." In interpreting it, the Federal Constitutional Court seemed to "have its eye on a Germany that might have been".
1975:
2402:. The Allies maintained in fact that sovereign authorities wielding state powers no longer existed in the former German Reich; so, as the 'highest authority' for Germany, they were entitled to assume all sovereign powers without limitation of duration or scope, and could legitimately impose whatever measures on the German people within German national territory as any government could legally do on its own people—including validly ceding parts of that territory and people to another country. They argued furthermore that international conventions constraining occupying powers in wartime from enforcing fundamental changes of governmental system, economic system or social institutions within the territory under their control—the
3182:, the two states discussed the possibility of drafting a new common constitution followed by a plebiscite, as envisioned in Article 146, but this path was ultimately not taken. Instead the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic decided to keep the Basic Law, amended in accordance with the terms of the Two plus Four Treaty, because it had proved to be effective in West Germany. To facilitate reunification and to reassure other states, the FRG made some changes to the Basic Law. Article 23 was fulfilled by reunification itself, and then withdrawn to indicate that there were no other parts of Germany that existed outside of the unified territory.
2569:
479:(Article 93 paragraph 1 No. 4a). Article 1 of these fundamental rights, which states that human dignity shall be inviolable and all state authority shall respect and protect it, cannot be changed or removed. The same is true of Article 20, which enshrines fundamental principles of the state—for example, that Germany is a state of law and a democracy. Laws which limit these basic rights are in no case allowed to affect the essence of these rights (Article 19 paragraph 2). Some people think every basic right cannot be changed or removed. However, that is a misconception as other fundamental rights are not protected by Article 79 paragraph 3 (
1987:
2638:) which is both an independent constitutional organ and at the same time part of the judiciary in the sectors of constitutional law and public international law. Its judgements have the legal status of ordinary law. It is required by law to declare statutes as null and void if they are in violation of the Basic Law. Although judgements of the Federal Constitutional Court are supreme over all other counts, it is not a court of appeal; the FCC only hears constitutional cases, and maintains sole jurisdiction in all such cases, to the exclusion of all other courts.
2817:, the “final stroke” or settlement on criminal affairs. While politicians raised concerns over granting amnesty to perpetrators who committed or abetted murderous policies under the Nazis, the Bundestag ended up approving Article 103, including an extension of a statute of limitations for Nazi-related murders. When the Basic Law extended its scope into East German regions upon reunification in 1990, concerns regarding Article 103 were enlivened. At the time, courts in the new unified state dealt with the legal dilemma of liability of border guards from the
1750:, maintaining that there remained separated parts of 'Germany as a whole' in the form of German peoples living outside the territory under the control of the Federal Republic of 1949, with whom the Federal Republic was constitutionally bound to pursue reunification, and in respect of whom mechanisms were provided by which such other parts of Germany might subsequently declare their accession to the Basic Law. Since initially the Basic Law did not apply for all of Germany, its legal provisions were only valid in its field of application (German:
1967:
2161:
2423:
approval of all the Allies. From the 1950s onwards, however, a school of German legal scholars developed the alternative view that the Allies had only taken custody of German sovereignty while the former German state had been rendered powerless to act, and that consequently, once a freely constituted German government had come into being in the form of the
Federal Republic, it could resume the identity and legal status of the former German Reich without reference to the Allied Powers.
522:
471:) are guaranteed in Germany by the Federal Constitution and in some state constitutions. In the Basic Law, most fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the same name (Articles 1 to 19). They are subjective public rights with the constitutional rank which bind all institutions and functions of the state. In cases where a federal or state law or public ordinance is alleged to be in violation of these fundamental rights, the Basic Law provides the
2370:
as embedding in the Basic Law both the proposition that
Germany in 1949 was neither unified nor free, and also as binding the new Federal Republic to a duty to pursue the creation of such a free and unified Germany "on behalf of those Germans to whom participation was denied". The Basic Law potentially provided two routes for the establishment of a reborn and unified German state: either under Article 23 whereby 'other parts of Germany' over and above the named
1693:
2589:" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81). Under Article 59 paragraph 1, the Federal President represents the Federal Republic of Germany in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats. Furthermore, all federal laws must be signed by the President before they can come into effect; however, he/she can only veto a law that he believes to violate the constitution.
2262:, and in particular, is no longer in Supreme Command of the armed forces. Indeed, the original text of the Basic Law of 1949 made no provision for federal armed forces; only in 1955 was the Basic Law amended with Article 87a to allow the creation of a German military for the Federal Republic. The government now depends only on the parliament; while the military, by contrast with their status in the Weimar Republic, are entirely under parliamentary authority.
2680:
the constitution. Under the Basic Law the fundamentals of the constitution in
Articles 1 and 20, the fundamental rights in Articles 1 to 19, and key elements of the federalist state, cannot be removed. Especially important is the protection of the division of state powers into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. This is provided by Article 20. A clear separation of powers was considered imperative to prevent measures like an over-reaching
2485:), and had the general effect of removing or rewording all the clauses (including Article 23) on which the Federal Constitutional Court had relied in support of its claim to the continued legal identity of the German Reich as an 'overall state'. Specifically too, the Basic Law was then amended such that the constitutional duty of the German people to strive for unity and freedom was stated as now fully realised, and consequently that the expanded '
261:
245:
1995:
3166:, or remove or otherwise affect the essence of, any of the fundamental rights originally specified in Articles 1 to 19, but may clarify, extend or refine those original principles and fundamental rights. Where however Articles 1 to 20 have subsequently been amended or extended, any additional words and phrases are not protected by the eternity clause but may be further amended or removed through the normal constitutional process.
1679:
2273:), i.e. the election of a new chancellor. The new procedure was intended to provide more stability than under the Weimar Constitution, when extremists on the left and right would vote to remove a chancellor, without agreeing on a new one, creating a leadership vacuum. In addition it was possible for the parliament to remove individual ministers by a vote of distrust, while it now has to vote against the cabinet as a whole.
453:
2284:
within
Germany, that were nevertheless different from the generality of rules and principles of international law as they might operate between Germany and other nations. Hence, the Federal Constitutional Court could recognise East Germany as a sovereign state in international law in the second sense, while still asserting that it was not a "sovereign state in international law" within Germany itself.
1911:, under which the Allied Powers had relinquished their residual German sovereignty. So, on the date of accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany Article 23 was repealed, representing an explicit commitment under Two-Plus-Four Treaty that, following the unification of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin, no "other parts of Germany" remained in east or west to which the
3175:
important reform was the introduction in 1968 of emergency competencies, for example
Article 115 paragraph (1). This was done by a grand coalition of the two main political parties (CDU/CSU and SPD) and was accompanied by heated debate. In the following year there were changes to the articles regarding the distribution of taxes between federal government and the states of Germany.
2972:
the constitutional court. In the Weimar
Republic, the public image of political parties was clearly negative and they were often regarded as vile. At the same time there was no obligation to adhere to democratic standards (in contrast, the Basic Law stipulates that parties' "... internal organisation must conform to democratic principles", which precludes any party using the
2615:, consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing a successor in a "constructive vote of no confidence".
1771:) at a later date. Therefore, although the Basic Law was considered provisional, it allowed more parts of Germany to join its field of application. On one side, it gave the Federal Republic of Germany—composed as it was in 1949—no right to negotiate, reject or deny another German state's declaration of its accession to the FRG, subject to the FRG's recognising that state
2054:. These papers—amongst other points—summoned the Ministerpräsidenten to arrange a constitutional assembly, that should work out a democratic and federal constitution for a West German state. According to Frankfurt Document No 1, the constitution should specify a central power of German government, but nevertheless respect the administration of the
42:
2330:) were inherently in conflict with one another, and the Parliamentary Council drafting the Basic Law were well aware that their militantly pro-democratic ideals were far from generally shared in the bleak context of Germany in 1949. Hence they built into the Basic Law a strong instrument for guardianship of the "
2200:, all state power is directly bound to guarantee these basic rights. Article 1 of the Basic Law, which establishes this principle that "human dignity is inviolable" and that human rights are directly applicable law, as well as the general principles of the state in Article 20, which guarantees democracy,
2467:
claim that the German Reich continued to exist as an 'overall state' such that the duty to strive for future German unity could not be abandoned while East and West
Germany remained disunited, albeit that without any institutional organs of itself the 'overall' Reich was currently not capable of action.
3185:
The question of "using" Article 146 to draw a new constitution, and hold a referendum, was left to the twelfth (and first all-German) Bundestag, which after consideration decided against a new draft. However, the
Bundestag passed the constitutional reform of 1994, a minor change, but still fulfilling
2971:
In contrast to Weimar, political parties are explicitly mentioned in the constitution, i.e., officially recognized as important participants in politics. Parties are obliged to adhere to the democratic foundations of the German state. Parties found in violation of this requirement may be abolished by
2829:
had to decide whether there existed a violation of an inadmissibility of retroactive punishment in the criminal statute. Since
Article 103 only permitted prosecution for an offense when it occurred under the applicable law, the Constitutional Court rejected the appeals. The prohibition of retroactive
2342:
The Basic Law places at its head a guarantee of inviolable fundamental rights. Initially it was intended to limit these to classic formulations of civil freedoms, as with equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of occupation and freedom of religious conscience. In the
406:
In the preamble to the Basic Law, its adoption was declared as an action of the "German people", and
Article 20 states "All state authority is derived from the people". These statements embody the constitutional principles that 'Germany' is identical with the German people, and that the German people
1868:
between East Germany and West Germany, the Federal Constitutional Court justified the recognition of East Germany as a valid German state, on the basis that this would enable the GDR in the future to declare accession to the Basic Law under Article 23. But the Court then explicitly acknowledged that
1777:
and being satisfied that the declaration of accession resulted from the free self-determination of its people; while on the other side an acceding state would have to accept the Basic Law and all laws so far legislated under the institutions of the FRG as they were. As the Federal Republic could not
3093:
Although this is not explicitly spelled out in the Basic Law, a number of Constitutional Court cases in the 1990s established that the military may not be deployed by the government outside of NATO territory without a specific resolution of parliament, which describes the details of the mission and
2480:
of the GDR did indeed declare its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, but postdated to come into effect on 3 October 1990, and conditional on fundamental amendments being made to the Basic Law in the interim. These amendments were required to implement the series of
2470:
According to the 1973 decision of the Federal Constitutional Court, Article 23 of the Basic Law required the Federal Republic to be "legally open" to the accession of those former parts of Germany who were then organised into the German Democratic Republic, and they noted that this implied that the
2369:
As adopted by West Germany in 1949 as an interim constitution, the preamble of the Basic Law looked forward explicitly to a future free and united German state: "The entire German people is called upon to accomplish, by free self-determination, the unity and freedom of Germany." This was understood
2338:
the Federal Constitutional Court not only has jurisdiction in constitutional matters, but also exclusive jurisdiction in such matters; all other courts must refer constitutional cases to it. The intention of the framers of the Basic Law was that this court would range widely against any tendency to
2283:
shall be an integral part of federal law". The latter article was included in deference to the post-war actions of the occupying Western powers; but had the unintended consequence that the Federal Constitutional Court tended to define "rules of international law" as applicable to German federal law
2058:
and it should contain provisions and guarantees of individual freedom and individual rights of the German people in respect to their government. With the specific request of a federal structure of a future German state the Western Powers followed German constitutional tradition since the foundation
2679:
The Weimar Constitution did not institute a court with similar powers. When the Basic Law is amended, this has to be done explicitly; the concerning article must be cited. Under Weimar the constitution could be amended without notice; any law passed with a two-thirds majority vote was not bound by
2585:
integrative role and the controlling function of upholding the law and the constitution. It has also a "political reserve function" for times of crisis in the parliamentary system of government. The Federal President gives direction to general political and societal debates and has some important "
2475:
German State and as a valid state in international relations (albeit without then according it within West Germany with the status of a separate sovereign state) could be interpreted as furthering the long-term objective of eventual German unification, rather than as contradicting it. On 23 August
2320:
in his "illegal" seizure of dictatorial powers. Consequently, following the death of Hitler in 1945 and the subsequent capitulation of the German Armed Forces, the national institutions and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct,
1863:
The Basic Law, in its original form, maintained the continuing existence of a larger Germany and German people, only parts of whom were currently organised within the Federal Republic. Nevertheless, the full extent of the implied wider German nation is nowhere defined in the Basic Law, although it
407:
act constitutionally as the primary institution of the German state. Where the Basic Law refers to the territory under the jurisdiction of this German state, it refers to it as the 'federal territory', so avoiding any inference of there being a constitutionally defined 'German national territory'.
3194:
under Article 3, and environmental protection was made a policy objective of the state in the new Article 20a. Article 3 was also reworded to ban discrimination on grounds of disability. In 1992, membership in the European Union was institutionalised (new Article 23). For the privatisation of the
2466:
sovereign jurisdiction over East Germany. The Treaty was challenged in the Federal Constitutional court, as apparently contradicting the overriding aspirations of the Basic Law for a unified German state; but the Treaty's legality was upheld by the Court, heavily qualified by a reassertion of the
2435:
adopted a mirror image version of this claim, being framed in anticipation of a future all-German constitution on its own political terms, but it was replaced with a new constitution in 1968 that made no references to a wider national German nation, and from that date the GDR maintained that from
2422:
envisaged that an eventual self-governing state would emerge from the wreckage of WWII covering 'Germany as a whole', but that this new state would have no claim to sovereignty other than as derived from the sovereignty then being assumed by the Allies, and its constitution would also require the
1847:
then opened the way for the government of the Saar Protectorate to declare its accession to the West German state under Article 23, including the new Saarland into the field of application of the Basic Law. The Saar held no separate referendum on its accession. With effect from 1 January 1957 the
486:
According to this regulation the Federal Constitutional Court can be called not only because of a violation of fundamental rights, but also by violation "of the rights set out in Article 20 paragraph 4 and Articles 33, 38, 101, 103 and 104". Hence, these rights are called the rights identical to
2993:
to war service (Article 4), and prohibited the Federal Republic from activities preparing for or engaging in aggressive war (Article 26). These provisions remain in force. Also in the 1949 Basic Law, Article 24 empowered the federal government to join international systems for mutual collective
3213:
The most controversial debate arose concerning the limitation of the right to asylum in 1993 as in the current version of Article 16a. This change was later challenged and confirmed in a judgment by the constitutional court. Another controversy was spawned by the limitation of the right to the
3174:
The Basic Law had been amended 50 times as of 2003. Important changes to the Basic Law were the re-introduction of conscription and the establishment of the Bundeswehr in 1956. Therefore, several articles were introduced into the constitution, e.g., Articles 12a, 17, 45a-c, 65a, 87a-c. Another
2584:
runs the government and the day-to-day affairs of state. However, the German President's role is more than merely ceremonial. By his or her actions and public appearances, the Federal President represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. The President's office has an
2020:
of the three western occupying powers (US, United Kingdom, France) and the three Western neighbours of Germany (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg) was debating the political future of the three western occupation zones of Germany. The negotiations ended with the conclusion that a democratic and
374:
would adopt a proper constitution, enacted under the provisions of Article 146 of the Basic Law, which stipulates that such a constitution must be "freely adopted by the German people". Nevertheless, although the amended Basic Law was approved by all four Allied Powers in 1990 (who thereby
2339:
slip back toward non-democratic ways: "a strict but benevolent guardian of an immature democracy that cannot quite trust itself". As such the Federal Constitutional Court had the power to ban political parties whose objectives or actions threatened the 'free democratic basic order".
379:), it was never submitted to a popular vote, neither in 1949 nor in 1990. However, the Basic Law as passed in 1949 also contained Article 23 which provided for "other parts of Germany" to "join the area of applicability of the Basic Law" which was the provision that was used for
2321:
such that the Basic Law could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity. Nevertheless, although the Weimar Republic was now wholly irretrievable, avoiding its perceived constitutional weaknesses represented the predominant concern for the framers of the Basic Law.
3094:
limits its term. There are also strict restrictions on the intervention of the military within Germany (i.e. a ban of the military being used for police-type duties), which generally only allow the military to act in unarmed roles within Germany (such as disaster relief).
2894:(states) and participates in federal legislation. The Bundesrat's power has grown over the years, as the fields of federal legislation were extended at the expense of state legislation. In return, the number of laws requiring the assent of the Bundesrat was also extended.
2737:, of federal military criminal courts having jurisdiction only in a state of defense or on soldiers serving abroad, and of a federal disciplinary court. Article 92 establishes that all courts other than the federal courts established under the Basic Law are courts of the
2871:
The main body of the legislative branch is Germany's parliament, the Bundestag, which enacts federal legislation, including the budget. Each member of the Bundestag has the right to initiate legislation, as do the cabinet and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag also elects the
1907:) envisaged states within East Germany being included into the field of application of the Basic Law, but subject to the Basic Law first being amended in accordance with both the previously negotiated Unification Treaty between East and West Germany, and also the
2926:
as new chancellor. Surprisingly, two representatives of CDU/CSU voted for SPD's Willy Brandt so that the vote failed. Nevertheless, the coalition had no majority in the Bundestag, so that a new election was necessary. It was later revealed that the East German
2066:
were reluctant to fulfill what was expected from them, as they anticipated that the formal foundation of a West German state would mean a permanent disruption of German unity. A few days later they convened a conference of their own on Rittersturz ridge near
2390:
in creating a new permanent constitution that would replace the Basic Law. Adoption of a constitution under Article 146 would have implied that the legal validity of a unified German State would rest on "a free decision by the German people" as a whole.
2148:, but at the same time decided that it would still come into force in Bavaria if two-thirds of the other Länder ratified it. On 23 May 1949, in a solemn session of the Parliamentary Council, the German Basic Law was signed and promulgated. The time of
3137:—the words are to be understood meaning votes on legislative issues—are, by now, common practice on the level of the Länder. Claims of extending this practice also to the federal level have an undisputed constitutional basis in the Article 20, being
1848:
Federal Republic regarded itself as including almost all of Western Germany such that the only "other parts of Germany" to which Article 23 might be extended were now to the east, hence relinquishing all claims to those western parts of the former
2426:
From the 1950s, the claim that there was a single continuing German Reich, and that in some sense the Federal Republic and the Federal Republic alone could represent that Reich, was adopted both by the Federal Government itself and by the
2848:), and that a relative or a person in the confidence of the prisoner must be notified of a judicial decision imposing detention. The German Constitution (i.e. the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany) unmistakably outlines the
4145:
3133:. Yet Article 20 states that "All state authority is derived from the people. It shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes and through specific legislative, executive and judicial bodies". These
3278:
Translated by Christian Tomuschat, David P Currie, Donald P Kommers and Raymond Kerr, in cooperation with the Language Service of the German Bundestag. The translation includes the amendment(s) to the Act by the Act of
2128:
in Bonn on 8 May 1949—the museum was the only intact building in Bonn large enough to house the assembly—and after being approved by the occupying powers on 12 May 1949, it was ratified by the parliaments of all the
2813:, or the state molded by the rule of law. Thus, criminal justice issues such as amnesty towards former Nazis, were encompassed by Article 103’s ban on retroactive punishment. This was also echoed by the concept of
2664:
individual complaint – a suit brought by a person alleging that a law or any action of government violated his or her constitutional rights. All possible solutions in the regular courts must have been exhausted
2914:
governments. However, early elections have been called three times (1972, 1982, and 2005). The last two occasions were considered controversial moves and were referred to the constitutional court for review.
2876:, the head of government, usually (but not necessarily) the leader of the majority party or the party with a plurality of seats in the Bundestag, and takes part in the election of the Federal President.
2115:
On 1 September 1948 the Parlamentarischer Rat assembled and began working on the exact wording of the Basic Law. The 65 members of the Parlamentarischer Rat were elected by the parliaments of the German
1782:, nor could accession under Article 23 be achieved by international treaty with third party states, although the Federal Constitutional Court recognised that a future declared accession could be framed
2942:
examined the case, and decided that the vote was valid, but with reservations. It was decided that a vote of confidence could be so engineered only if it were based on an actual legislative impasse.
4199:
1788:
as a compact between the Federal Republic and the acceding state. It remained unclear whether accession under Article 23 could be achieved by a part of Germany whose government was not recognised
3865:
994:
989:
984:
1897:
declared the accession of the GDR according to Article 23 to the Federal Republic of Germany to come into effect on 3 October 1990, making unification an act unilaterally initiated by the last
2440:
supported its claims in part, as they acknowledged the Federal Republic as the sole legitimate democratically organised state within former German territory (the GDR being held to be a Soviet
4141:
3052:. The Chancellor is directly responsible to the parliament, the Minister is indirectly responsible to the parliament because it can remove the entire Cabinet by electing a new chancellor.
2276:
Article 32 of the Basic Law allows the states to conduct foreign affairs with states with regards to matters falling within their purview, under supervision of the Federal Government.
1875:
recognition of the GDR also implied acceptance of the constitutional power of the GDR in the interim to enter into international treaties on its own account, naming specifically the
4346:
2471:
Federal Republic could recognise the capability of the GDR state, as then constituted, of so declaring its accession. In this sense, the Basic Treaty's recognition of the GDR as a
410:
The authors of the Basic Law sought to ensure that a potential dictator would never again be able to come to power in the country. Although some of the Basic Law is based on the
2079:
instead of calling it a "constitution". By these provisions they made clear, that any West German state was not a definite state for the German people, and that future German
267:
4893:
3844:
4476:
4638:
1864:
was always clearly understood that the peoples of both East Germany and Berlin would be included. In its judgement of 1973, confirming the constitutional validity of the
2481:
constitutional changes to the Basic Law that had been agreed both in the Unification Treaty between the GDR and the Federal Republic, and in the 'Two Plus Four Treaty' (
2398:
in May 1945, no effective national government of any sort existed in Germany and all national military and civil authority and powers were thereon exercised by the four
1511:
3558:, had voted for the Basic Law, but the Western Allies denied West Berlin, as part of quadripartite Berlin, being included in the field of application of the Basic Law.
325:. However, when reunification took place in 1990, the Basic Law was retained as the definitive constitution of reunified Germany. Its original field of application (
1754:). This legal term was frequently used in West German legislation when West German laws did not apply to the entirety of German territory, as was usually the case.
4119:
1857:
1521:
707:
2071:. They decided that any of the Frankfurt requirements should only be implemented in a formally provisional way. So the constitutional assembly was to be called
2482:
1908:
342:
2324:
The experience of the Weimar Republic had resulted in a widespread public perception that the principles of representative democracy and of the rule of law (
414:, the first article is a protection of human dignity ("MenschenwĂĽrde") and human rights; they are core values protected by the Basic Law. The principles of
248:
1506:
1466:
778:
4172:
4195:
2521:
2279:
Article 24 states that the Federal Government may "transfer sovereign powers to international institutions" and Article 25 states that "general rules of
2922:'s coalition had lost its majority in the Bundestag, so that the opposition (CDU/CSU) tried to pass a constructive vote of no confidence, thus electing
2024:
As an immediate consequence of the London Six-Power Conference, the representatives of the three western occupation powers on 1 July 1948, convoked the
4681:
1926:
As part of the process, East Germany, which had been a unitary state since 1952, was re-divided into its initial five partially self-governing states (
5812:
2902:
The Basic Law contains no clear provision to call early elections. Neither the chancellor nor the Bundestag has the power to call elections, and the
2347:/CSU representatives) succeeded in inserting protection both for 'Marriage and the Family" and for parental responsibility for children's education,
1661:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1245:
1240:
2334:" of the Federal Republic, in the form of the Federal Constitutional Court, representing a 'staggering conferral of judicial authority'. Unlike the
1651:
3706:
1794:
by the Federal Republic, and if so how; but in practice this situation did not arise. Article 23, altered after 1990, originally read as follows:
5060:
4903:
4714:
3345:
2844:
must be provided for by statute and authorised by a judge before the end of the day following the arrest (analogous to the common law concept of
3668:
4493:
3226:, but the judges confirmed the changes. Other changes took place regarding a redistribution of competencies between federal government and the
2963:
for 18 September 2005. The constitutional court agreed to the validity of this procedure on 25 August 2005, and the elections duly took place.
2668:
referral by regular court – a court can refer the question as to whether a statute applicable to the case before that court is constitutional.
4033:
3814:
1733:
447:
4563:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1853:
391:, Article 23 was repealed the same day as reunification came into force. An unrelated article on the relationship between Germany and the
2165:
1235:
1110:
835:
3141:
general and unchangeable article on state structure. However, this could only be conferred by a constitutional amendment nevertheless.
3075:
are prohibited. From eleven defense commissioners until 2013 eight performed military or war services. Six hold an officer's rank (or
3584:
This authorisation has not been implemented by statute; German soldiers are under the jurisdiction of the civilian court system. See
1946:). After the changes of the Basic Law, mostly pertaining to the accession in 1990, additional major modifications were made in 1994 (
1115:
3781:
2660:
The Federal Constitutional Court decides on the constitutionality of laws and government actions under the following circumstances:
5551:
4791:
4699:
3313:
3114:
was founded following a 1952 referendum that approved the fusion of three separate states. In a 1996 referendum the inhabitants of
3071:
who can be petitioned directly by soldiers, bypassing the chain of command. Disciplinary measures against soldiers petitioning the
3049:
2873:
2598:
2581:
2532:
438:("Ewigkeitsklausel") Article 79 (3) that prohibits any sort of change or removal of the principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20.
4454:
3836:
2295:
In seeking to come to terms with Germany's catastrophic recent history, much discussion has focused on the key theory of a German
1778:
itself declare the accession of another part of Germany under Article 23, this provision could not be applied as an instrument of
5732:
3210:
added in 2009, which became fully effective in 2016. In 2002, the protection of animals was explicitly mentioned in Article 20a.
2939:
2715:
2551:
545:
4473:
4374:
2152:
ended, as the new West German state, the Federal Republic of Germany, came into being, although still under Western occupation.
5874:
4674:
3930:
3834:
3107:
2316:
was characterised as having been a 'failed' state, whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by
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German states, initially not included in the field of application of the Basic Law, with the right to declare their accession (
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The court is famous for nullifying several high-profile laws, passed by large majorities in the parliament. An example is the
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to shoot down civilian aircraft in case of a terrorist attack. It was ruled to be in violation of the guarantee of life and
337:—consisted of the three Western Allies' zones of occupation, but at the insistence of the Western Allies, formally excluded
5332:
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The Federal Disciplinary Court was abolished in 2003 and its jurisdiction merged into the administrative court system. See
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of German institutions and legal structures had been agreed by the Allies as absolute moral imperatives. Consequently, the
2221:
2212:, remain under the guarantee of perpetuity stated in Article 79 paragraph 3, i.e., the principles underlying these clauses
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2675:'s members can bring suit against a law. In this case the suit need not refer to a specific case of the law's application.
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intentionally lost a confidence vote in order to call an early election to strengthen his position in the Bundestag. The
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rejected a proposed merger of the two states. After referendums on reestablishing to Länder borders as existed in the
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is permitted against anyone seeking to abolish constitutional order, if other remedies were to fail under Article 20.
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19:"Constitution of Germany" redirects here. For the constitution that governed Germany during the Weimar Republic, see
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abstract regulation control – the federal government, a government of one of the federal states or a quarter of the
1974:
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3301:
2719:
1886:
1860:, were reunited with the Federal Republic in 1963 by means of an international treaty without invoking Article 23.
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with the GDR, recognising it as one of two German states within one German nation, and relinquishing any claim to
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regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state, illegal and illegitimate from the outset, while the
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The Basic Law was amended in 1955 with Article 87a allowing the creation from new of federal armed forces, the
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1516:
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The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Returning of German Archives after the Second World War
2524:, the head of government, normally (but not necessarily) the leader of the largest grouping in the Bundestag.
345:
between the two parts of Germany and all four Allies stipulated the implementation of a number of amendments.
6234:
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The denial of referendums in other cases was designed to avoid the kind of populism that allowed the rise of
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2106:. The delegates at the convention were appointed by the leaders of the newly formed (or newly reconstituted)
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representatives then amended this to protect additionally the rights of children born outside marriage, and
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3510:
being included in the field of application, let alone East Berlin, whose rulers clearly rejected this idea.
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might validly be extended. Rather than adopting a new constitution under Article 146 of the Basic Law, the
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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR), 22 February 1996. Introduction: paragraph 6.
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2051:
2017:
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1835:
Whereas the West German state had gained restricted sovereignty in May 1955, the Saarlanders rejected in
1574:
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1120:
910:
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The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
2568:
2444:), but they did not accept the associated arguments for the Reich's continuing 'metaphysical' existence
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3705:. Association of the Councils of State and Supreme Administrative Jurisdictions of the European Union.
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all failed, this institution has not been used, as minor border changes can be done by state contract.
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rejected the Basic Law mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual
6239:
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German Bundestag: Official English Translation of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany:
3835:
Stiftung Deutsches Historisches Museum, Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
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the constitutional question together with some other amendments between 1990 and 1994. For example,
2454:, the Federal Republic in the early 1970s sought to end hostile relations with the countries of the
1986:
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are key components of the Basic Law (Article 20). Articles 1 and 20 are protected by the so-called
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3162:. Such a vote may not remove any of the principles underlying Articles 1 and 20 as defined by the
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International law aspects of the German reunification alternative answers to the German question.
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who himself was not dependent on the parliament. Under the Basic Law, during times of peace, the
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on 8 May 1949 and came into effect on 23 May after having been approved by the occupying western
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Wikisource:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany#II. THE FEDERATION AND THE L.C3.84NDER
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2399:
2245:. The suspension of human rights would also be illegal under Articles 20 and 79, as above. The
920:
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100:
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Article 79 states the Basic Law may be amended by an absolute two-thirds majority of both the
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1949 there had existed two entirely separate sovereign German states. The Federal Republic's
2343:
event particular interests pushed for additional consideration: the Catholic Church (through
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while shielded from the public. The basic law formed the central part of the constitution of
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and the most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the
1998:
Facsimile of the Basic Law of 1949 as received by each member of the Parliamentary Council
1824:
383:
from the constitutional standpoint. As the overwhelming consensus thereafter was that the
8:
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This is the original 1949 text, as distinguished from the amended version in force today.
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2489:' could no longer be "legally open" to further accessions of former German territories.
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1979:
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the transformation of their protectorate into an independent state within the emerging
1456:
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2688:. This act had given the government legislative powers which effectively finished the
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2196:, which listed them merely as "state objectives". Pursuant to the mandate to respect
2107:
2003:
We must be sure that what we construct will some day be a good house for all Germans.
1966:
1476:
809:
112:
3939:
2011:
speaking about the objective of the West German Basic Law at the Koenig Museum, 1948
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There were, in the original version, no emergency powers such as those used by the
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prevailed and the Western Powers gave in concerning this highly symbolic question.
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4347:"To Prosecute Nazis; Jurist Suggests a Constitutional Amendment to Permit Trials"
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For the time being, this Basic Law shall apply in the territory of the Länder of
1697:
1605:
464:
435:
384:
326:
314:
287:
4196:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Role in the international arena"
2956:
2160:
362:. The term "constitution" (Verfassung) was avoided as the drafters regarded the
5779:
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5644:
5307:
5065:
3572:
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The constitutional position of the federal government was strengthened, as the
2169:
1939:
1808:
1683:
653:
396:
392:
4591:
3752:"Article 93 of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland)"
2394:
Following the surrender of the German High Command and the dissolution of the
387:
was settled, and to reaffirm the renunciation of any residual German claim to
6203:
5020:
4307:
4291:
3405:
3206:
Since then, there have only been minor amendments, with the exception of the
3083:
2923:
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2835:
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2201:
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with one deputy representing about 750,000 people. After being passed by the
635:
419:
122:
5821:
5405:
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4743:
4659:
3669:"Right to Have Rights – The German Constitutional Concept of Human Dignity"
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2317:
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82:
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4003:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3990:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3977:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3964:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3917:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3904:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3891:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3878:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
2634:
The guardian of the Basic Law is the German Federal Constitutional Court (
1831:. In other parts of Germany it shall be put into force on their accession.
521:
5415:
5129:
4964:
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3555:
3507:
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3119:
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2935:
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2448:
within the organs of the Federal Republic alone. Subsequently, under the
2378:) could subsequently declare their accession, or under Article 146 where
2326:
2173:
2095:
2008:
1898:
1894:
1844:
1804:
1747:
614:
431:
338:
321:) to indicate that it was a provisional piece of legislation pending the
1692:
395:
was instead inserted in its place two years later. As a heritage of the
5624:
5245:
4642:
4582:
3103:
3041:
3029:
3015:
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3003:
2949:
engineered a defeat in a vote of confidence after a power shift in the
2650:
2544:
2450:
2386:) could be exercised by elected representatives of the entirety of the
2229:
of 1933 to suspend basic rights and to remove communist members of the
1779:
490:
427:
388:
274:
252:
196:
97:
92:
4058:. Translated by Seyer, D. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219ff.
1799:
Former Article 23 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
5235:
4883:
4142:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Constitutional basis"
4096:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4081:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4017:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
3554:. The Stadtverordnetenversammlung von Berlin, then only competent in
3155:
3087:
3068:
3021:
2866:
2672:
2528:
2297:
2155:
1918:
679:
415:
162:
139:
4648:
3568:
3106:, concerning the federal level of legislation, on a single issue: a
3013:
therefore has no constitutional or legal continuity with either the
2497:
The Basic Law established Germany as a parliamentary democracy with
2075:(lit. parliamentary council) and the constitution given the name of
1752:
Geltungsbereich des Grundgesetzes fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
4769:
4628:
3798:
The Constitutional Jursiprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany
2181:
2099:
1994:
3063:), reporting once a year to parliament, not to the executive. The
2192:
Basic rights are fundamental to the Basic Law, in contrast to the
1938:, with East and West Berlin reuniting into a new city-state (like
5514:
4934:
4878:
4800:
4624:
2387:
2177:
2137:
2130:
2103:
2068:
1943:
1812:
1760:
452:
400:
299:
3932:
How a constitution can safeguard democracy:The German Experience
3258:
Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany — Amendments to 28
2083:
and the reunification of Germany was still on their agenda. The
1990:
German stamp commemorating the work of the Parlamentarischer Rat
5825:
4649:
Staatsrecht for you – Introduction to german constitutional law
3130:
3115:
2234:
1856:). The towns of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, which had been
457:
3086:, were high-ranking and decorated admirals or generals of the
2760:
General provisions for the judiciary and rights of the accused
2733:
Article 96 authorizes the establishment by federal law of the
41:
4894:
Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples
4873:
3539:
2928:
2730:
as supreme courts in their respective areas of jurisdiction.
3055:
The Basic Law also institutes the parliamentary post of the
2906:
can do so only if the chancellor so requests after losing a
2265:
To remove the chancellor, the parliament has to engage in a
3837:"Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Das lebendige Museum Online"
2410:—did not apply, and could not apply, as the termination of
306:
4031:
Moving the law of occupation into the twenty-first century
3571:'. The "Herren" in question were "Augustiner Chorherren",
2168:
drew up the draft for the Basic Law in summer 1948 at the
1970:
Article 1, sentence 1: "Human dignity shall be inviolable"
333:)—that is, the states that were initially included in the
3102:
Unlike the Weimar Constitution, the Basic Law only names
2038:
in Frankfurt am Main and committed to them the so-called
2910:. This was designed to avoid the chronic instability of
2516:
The executive branch consists of the largely ceremonial
3754:. Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection.
3700:"Administrative Justice in Europe – Report for Germany"
2989:
From the outset, the Basic Law guaranteed the right of
2483:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
1932:), being granted equal status as the already existing
1852:
that had been surrendered to France and Denmark. (cf.
4044:, publisher: U.S. Naval Justice School. pp. 21, 28–30
3243:. Duke University Press, 3rd edition (2nd ed. 1997),
2258:
has only a small fraction of the former power of the
4639:
Introduction to the basic and the constitutional law
491:
Extensions of the field of application by Article 23
4621:
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany
4562:Original text of the Basic Law, as adopted in 1949
2216:even if the normal amendment process is followed.
2156:Important differences from the Weimar Constitution
2458:, in the course of which it negotiated in 1972 a
2287:
2021:federal West German state was to be established.
23:. For the constitution of the German Empire, see
6201:
4292:"The Basic Law and the Process of Reunification"
3254:
2554:, which oversees the constitutionality of laws.
16:Constitution for the Federal Republic of Germany
4592:Constitution of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
4169:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3651:
3628:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3346:Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)
3028:The Weimar Constitution had contributed to the
2931:had bribed the two dissenting representatives.
2825:between the former East-West border. Thus, the
2623:
4601:Excerpts from the 1968 Constitution of the GDR
4474:Periodic reports of States parties due in 1993
3735:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
3097:
2830:punishment in Article 103 has been likened to
2492:
292:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
268:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
65:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
5806:
4785:
4675:
4579:Constitution of the German Empire (1871–1919)
4266:"X v. The Federal Republic of Germany (1971)"
3239:Donald P. Kommers, Russell A. Miller (2012):
2994:security; but made no specific provision for
2785:multiple punishment for the same criminal act
2527:The legislative branch is represented by the
1901:. East Germany's "declaration of accession" (
1727:
448:Fundamental rights in the German Constitution
305:The West German Constitution was approved in
284:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
249:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
35:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
4689:
4430:. Manchester University Press. p. 146.
4230:, Oxford University Press, pp. 93–154,
4193:Website of the Federal President of Germany
4139:Website of the Federal President of Germany
3733:
3520:
2966:
2642:
2238:
1953:
1947:
1933:
1927:
1916:
1902:
1766:
366:as an interim arrangement for a provisional
265:
63:
5820:
4904:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
2166:Constitutional Convention at Herrenchiemsee
1982:debating the Frankfurt Documents in Koblenz
1870:
1858:occupied and annexed by Netherlands in 1949
1789:
1783:
1772:
1758:
1757:Article 23 of the Basic Law provided other
5813:
5799:
4792:
4778:
4682:
4668:
4047:
2431:. Initially, the 1949 constitution of the
2358:
2090:The draft was prepared at the preliminary
1734:
1720:
40:
4098:, Princeton University Press, p. 14]
4083:, Princeton University Press, p. 13]
3928:
3575:, which ruled the region in former times.
3108:new delimitation of the federal territory
2539:participating in legislation through the
4423:
4221:
4111:Texas Law: Foreign Law Translations 1973
4019:, Princeton University Press, p. 12
3525:(field of application) of the Basic Law.
3314:Constitution of the German Confederation
2567:
2533:mixed-member proportional representation
2159:
1993:
1985:
1973:
1965:
1889:in East Germany fell in 1990. Following
1003:Federal Republic of Germany (since 1949)
451:
4392:
4289:
3795:
3307:
3214:invulnerability of the private domain (
2984:
500:This article is part of a series on the
456:The Grundrechte at Jakob Kaiser House,
6202:
4053:
3758:from the original on 24 September 2015
3744:
3691:
3666:
3567:Explanation of the German meaning of '
2304:In the dominant post-war narrative of
313:on 12 May. It was termed "Basic Law" (
5794:
4773:
4663:
4122:from the original on 20 December 2016
4093:
4078:
4014:
3784:from the original on 2 November 2011.
3203:, amendments were necessary as well.
2979:
2855:
2550:The judicial branch is headed by the
1879:which confirmed the transfer of the "
441:
4799:
4175:from the original on 3 November 2012
3800:, Duke University Press, p. 309
3218:) by means of acoustic observation (
3019:of the Weimar Republic, or with the
2599:Chancellor of Germany (1949–present)
2016:Between February and June 1948, the
1895:parliament of the GDR (East Germany)
4222:Collings, Justin (5 January 2021),
3741: of 23 May 1949 (in German)
3697:
3388:Second Constitution of East Germany
3268:. Berlin, Germany: German Bundestag
2834:in common law systems, such as the
2827:Federal German Constitutional Court
2592:
2188:and subsequently reunified Germany.
1961:
13:
4236:10.1093/oso/9780198858850.003.0004
4148:from the original on 14 April 2014
3712:from the original on 27 March 2014
3382:First Constitution of East Germany
2897:
2787:. During the establishment of the
2618:
2572:Political system of Germany, chart
2267:Constructive vote of no confidence
2233:from power, an important step for
2046:). The handover took place in the
1854:Little Reunification with the Saar
1746:The 1949 Basic Law was explicitly
520:
48:Federal Agency for Civic Education
14:
6261:
4520:
3938:, Goethe-Institut, archived from
3488:United Kingdom constitutional law
3351:Constitution of the German Empire
2404:Hague Regulations of Land Warfare
2050:on the Campus Westend of today's
25:Constitution of the German Empire
4427:The Länder and German federalism
4202:from the original on 16 May 2014
3847:from the original on 20 May 2013
3519:These states formed the initial
3302:German language in the Basic Law
3283:June 2022 (Federal Law Gazette I
3048:, and during war-time under the
2807:—advocated for the ideal of the
2781:retroactive criminal legislation
1691:
1677:
259:
243:
232:Constitution of the German Reich
4996:German revolutions of 1848–1849
4965:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)
4486:
4467:
4444:
4417:
4386:
4364:
4339:
4314:
4290:Steiner, Udo (1 January 2000).
4283:
4258:
4215:
4187:
4161:
4133:
4102:
4087:
4072:
4023:
4008:
3995:
3982:
3969:
3956:
3922:
3909:
3896:
3883:
3870:
3859:
3828:
3804:
3789:
3780:(in German). 1949. Article 23.
3654:Eine kleine Geschichte PreuĂźens
3591:
3578:
3561:
3528:
2842:deprivation of personal liberty
2699:
2692:and led to the dictatorship of
2649:, which would have allowed the
399:, neither was unification with
4981:Early modern period, 1500–1800
4869:List of early Germanic peoples
4541:non-official table of contents
4461:pp. 11 footnote 18, & 26.
3770:
3724:
3660:
3645:
3620:
3513:
3500:
3363:Constitution of Prussia (1920)
3333:Constitution of Prussia (1850)
3320:Constitution of Prussia (1848)
2372:States of the Federal Republic
2271:Konstruktives Misstrauensvotum
1596:Politics of the European Union
412:Weimar Republic's constitution
1:
5104:History of Germany since 1990
4393:Roberts, Geoffrey K. (2000).
3880:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxii
3811:International: Berlin to Bonn
3613:
3233:
3216:Unverletzlichkeit der Wohnung
3144:
2890:The Bundesrat represents the
2799:—the federal chairman of the
2557:
2531:, elected directly through a
370:, expecting that an eventual
4715:Constitution of January 1871
4424:Gunlicks, Arthur B. (2003).
4322:"K.-H. W. v. Germany (2001)"
3992:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxv
3979:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxvi
3966:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxii
3906:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxiv
3476:Rule according to higher law
3224:Federal Constitutional Court
3044:is under the command of the
2879:
2860:
2716:Federal Administrative Court
2630:Federal Constitutional Court
2624:Federal Constitutional Court
2552:Federal Constitutional Court
2429:Federal Constitutional Court
1547:Foreign relations by country
739:Federal Constitutional Court
546:Federal Constitutional Court
477:Federal Constitutional Court
375:relinquished their reserved
354:may be translated as either
180:Federal Administrative Court
172:Federal Constitutional Court
46:Basic Law. Published by the
7:
4401:Manchester University Press
4029:Breven C. Parsons, (2009),
4005:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxv
3893:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. 287
3796:Kommers, Donald P. (2012),
3295:
3098:Referendums and plebiscites
2929:Ministry for State Security
2805:Federal Minister of Justice
2801:Free Democratic Party (FDP)
2710:Article 95 establishes the
2493:Constitutional institutions
2336:United States Supreme Court
2332:free democratic basic order
2094:(10–23 August 1948) on the
2018:London Six-Power Conference
1841:European Economic Community
951:Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
389:land east of Oder and NeiĂźe
335:Federal Republic of Germany
300:Federal Republic of Germany
76:Federal Republic of Germany
10:
6266:
5011:North German Confederation
4991:Confederation of the Rhine
4720:Constitution of April 1871
4171:. Gesetze-im-internet.de.
4054:Eckert, Astrid M. (2012).
3919:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xv
3667:Enders, Christoph (2010).
3656:. Klett-Cotta. p. 17.
3632:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
3506:The Western Allies denied
3169:
3149:
3079:'s rank), two of them, as
2883:
2864:
2840:Article 104 mandates that
2703:
2627:
2596:
2561:
2433:German Democratic Republic
2362:
1819:, North Rhine-Westphalia,
628:Vice Chancellor of Germany
445:
18:
6245:May 1949 events in Europe
6210:German constitutional law
6181:
6133:
6095:
5832:
5745:
5605:
5485:
5476:
5359:
5350:
5231:
5222:
5158:
5149:
5112:
5091:
4973:
4927:
4851:
4820:
4811:
4695:
4479:15 September 2016 at the
4224:"After Hitler: 1951–1975"
3550:, WĂĽrttemberg-Baden, and
3471:Reconstruction of Germany
3394:
3340:North German Constitution
3255:German Bundestag (2022).
3208:Balanced Budget Amendment
2967:Role of political parties
2520:as head of state and the
2102:, a lake in southeastern
2092:Herrenchiemsee convention
1883:" to Polish sovereignty.
869:Collective municipality (
258:
242:
237:
227:
217:
212:Herrenchiemsee convention
207:
195:
161:
149:
133:
121:
111:
106:
91:
81:
71:
59:
54:
39:
34:
6230:Constitutions of Germany
5163:Administrative divisions
4690:Constitutions of Germany
3652:Eberhard Straub (2011).
3600:Bundesdisziplinargericht
3552:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
3546:, Rhineland-Palatinate,
3493:
3416:Constitutional economics
2850:presumption of innocence
2823:killed escaping refugees
2768:. Article 102 abolishes
2764:Article 97 provides for
2712:Federal Court of Justice
2636:Bundesverfassungsgericht
1829:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
1432:State and local politics
977:East Germany (1949–1960)
473:constitutional complaint
323:reunification of Germany
176:Federal Court of Justice
168:6 Supreme federal courts
4450:Johnson, Edward Elwyn.
4212:Retrieved 28 April 2014
4158:Retrieved 13 April 2014
4094:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4079:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4015:Quint, Peter E (1991),
3817:1 February 2011 at the
3456:Legal status of Germany
2991:conscientious objection
2775:Article 103 mandates a
2543:, reflecting Germany's
2365:Legal status of Germany
2359:Legal status of Germany
2186:Allied-occupied Germany
2176:(Isle of Lords) in the
1588:International Relations
578:Frank-Walter Steinmeier
343:Two Plus Four Agreement
5875:Bosnia and Herzegovina
5424:Science and technology
5125:History of Brandenburg
5016:Unification of Germany
5006:Frankfurt Constitution
4633:Univ. of Chicago Press
4549:Official Translation:
4543:(status: August 2006)
4457:9 October 2007 at the
3734:
3544:North Rhine-Westphalia
3521:
3446:German nationality law
3327:Frankfurt Constitution
2996:West German rearmament
2643:
2607:The Chancellor is the
2573:
2239:
2189:
2172:Abbey on the secluded
2136:with the exception of
2059:of the Reich in 1871.
2014:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1971:
1954:
1948:
1934:
1928:
1917:
1903:
1899:East German parliament
1871:
1833:
1823:, Schleswig-Holstein,
1790:
1784:
1773:
1767:
1759:
1751:
1492:North Rhine-Westphalia
1487:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
1102:Parliamentary election
943:Presidential elections
525:
475:with an appeal to the
468:
460:
397:Lesser German solution
330:
318:
311:Allies of World War II
291:
266:
101:parliamentary republic
64:
5061:Flight and expulsions
4396:German politics today
3482:Streitbare Demokratie
3441:German Emergency Acts
3436:Constitution of Japan
3430:Constitution of Italy
3368:Reichstag Fire Decree
2766:judicial independence
2720:Federal Finance Court
2645:Luftsicherheitsgesetz
2571:
2288:Basic Law and German
2227:Reichstag Fire Decree
2206:social responsibility
2163:
2122:Parliamentary Council
2073:Parlamentarischer Rat
2044:Frankfurter Dokumente
2032:) of the West German
2001:
1997:
1989:
1977:
1969:
1796:
1646:Agrarian Conservatism
716:Gemeinsamer Ausschuss
709:Vermittlungsausschuss
602:Chancellor of Germany
524:
455:
424:social responsibility
377:constitutional rights
222:Parlamentarischer Rat
191:Federal Finance Court
6235:1949 in West Germany
5733:World Heritage Sites
5411:German states by GDP
5001:German Confederation
4730:Enabling Act of 1933
4725:Constitution of 1919
4710:Constitution of 1867
4705:Constitution of 1849
4700:Constitution of 1815
4574:Former constitutions
4494:"www.dukeupress.edu"
4377:19 June 2017 at the
4036:3 March 2016 at the
3825:. 13 September 1948.
3401:Abolition of Prussia
3308:Former constitutions
3220:GroĂźer Lauschangriff
3061:defense commissioner
3034:state within a state
2985:Role of the military
2976:, even internally).
2945:In 2005, Chancellor
2940:constitutional court
2934:In 1982, Chancellor
2918:In 1972, Chancellor
2886:Bundesrat of Germany
2748:extraordinary courts
2735:Federal Patent Court
2728:Federal Social Court
2724:Federal Labour Court
2706:Judiciary of Germany
2578:parliamentary system
2564:President of Germany
2499:separation of powers
2396:Flensburg Government
2048:I.G. Farben building
1909:Two-Plus-Four Treaty
1887:The Communist regime
1821:Rhineland-Palatinate
1618:Political ideologies
1497:Rhineland-Palatinate
931:Federal Convention (
570:President of Germany
487:fundamental rights.
463:Fundamental rights (
381:German reunification
208:Commissioned by
188:Federal Social Court
184:Federal Labour Court
128:President of Germany
107:Government structure
6096:States with limited
5369:Automobile industry
4955:Carolingian dynasty
4889:History of the Huns
4116:University of Texas
3945:on 20 December 2016
3586:German military law
3461:Politics of Germany
3357:Weimar Constitution
3046:Minister of Defence
2795:, politicians like
2580:of government, the
2384:pouvoir constituant
2194:Weimar Constitution
2085:Ministerpräsidenten
2064:Ministerpräsidenten
2040:Frankfurt Documents
2030:ministers-president
2026:Ministerpräsidenten
1980:ministers-president
1881:Eastern Territories
1837:a referendum (1955)
1698:Politics portal
21:Weimar Constitution
6250:Anti-fascist works
5439:Telecommunications
5120:History of Prussia
5036:Revolution of 1918
5031:War guilt question
4950:Carolingian Empire
4919:Sack of Rome (410)
4828:History of Germany
4351:The New York Times
4326:hudoc.echr.coe.int
4270:hudoc.echr.coe.int
3548:Schleswig-Holstein
3451:History of Germany
3434:Post-World War II
3411:Bundesrechnungshof
3188:affirmative action
3050:Federal Chancellor
2980:Other stipulations
2908:vote of confidence
2856:Legislative branch
2770:capital punishment
2657:in the Basic Law.
2613:Federal Government
2609:head of government
2603:Cabinet of Germany
2582:Federal Chancellor
2574:
2535:, with the German
2522:Federal Chancellor
2408:Geneva Conventions
2190:
2142:Landtag of Bavaria
2081:self-determination
2000:
1992:
1984:
1972:
1955:Föderalismusreform
1952:), 2002 and 2006 (
1904:Beitrittserklärung
1877:treaty with Poland
1811:, Greater Berlin,
1684:Germany portal
1517:Schleswig-Holstein
1362:European elections
827:State Parliament (
822:Minister president
526:
461:
442:Fundamental rights
6197:
6196:
5788:
5787:
5741:
5740:
5472:
5471:
5386:Chemical Triangle
5346:
5345:
5333:Political parties
5281:Foreign relations
5218:
5217:
5145:
5144:
5056:Allied occupation
4960:Holy Roman Empire
4767:
4766:
4763:
4737:Basic Law of 1949
4581:. Full text from
4437:978-0-7190-6533-0
4245:978-0-19-885885-0
4065:978-1-107-62920-2
4001:Justin Collings,
3988:Justin Collings,
3975:Justin Collings,
3962:Justin Collings,
3915:Justin Collings,
3902:Justin Collings,
3889:Justin Collings,
3876:Justin Collings,
3421:Constitutionalism
3112:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
3025:of WWII Germany.
2746:Article 101 bans
2684:, as happened in
2518:Federal President
2420:Potsdam Agreement
2380:constituent power
2353:Elisabeth Selbert
2281:international law
2214:cannot be removed
2124:assembled at the
2052:Goethe University
1949:Verfassungsreform
1825:WĂĽrttemberg-Baden
1744:
1743:
1624:Political culture
1537:Foreign relations
1447:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
933:Bundesversammlung
916:Political parties
511:
372:reunified Germany
368:West German state
280:
279:
6257:
6240:1949 in politics
6134:Dependencies and
5833:Sovereign states
5815:
5808:
5801:
5792:
5791:
5768:
5761:
5754:
5718:Prussian virtues
5483:
5482:
5391:Economic history
5357:
5356:
5251:
5229:
5228:
5180:Cities and towns
5156:
5155:
5136:Baden Revolution
4940:Treaty of Verdun
4909:Marcomannic Wars
4864:Migration Period
4859:Germanic peoples
4843:Military history
4818:
4817:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4771:
4770:
4762:
4748:
4684:
4677:
4670:
4661:
4660:
4654:
4617:Currie, David P.
4606:
4597:
4588:
4568:
4559:
4546:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4509:
4500:. Archived from
4490:
4484:
4471:
4465:
4464:
4448:
4442:
4441:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4390:
4384:
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4311:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4262:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4228:Scales of Memory
4219:
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4209:
4207:
4191:
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4182:
4180:
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4159:
4157:
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4091:
4085:
4084:
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4070:
4069:
4051:
4045:
4042:Naval Law Review
4027:
4021:
4020:
4012:
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3993:
3986:
3980:
3973:
3967:
3960:
3954:
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3763:
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3719:
3717:
3711:
3704:
3698:Herbert, Georg.
3695:
3689:
3688:
3686:
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3658:
3657:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3638:
3624:
3607:
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3595:
3589:
3582:
3576:
3565:
3559:
3542:, Lower Saxony,
3534:The others were
3532:
3526:
3524:
3517:
3511:
3504:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3277:
3275:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3073:Wehrbeauftragter
3065:Wehrbeauftragter
3057:Wehrbeauftragter
2947:Gerhard Schröder
2753:Volksgerichtshof
2648:
2593:Executive branch
2244:
2012:
1978:The West German
1962:Drafting process
1957:
1951:
1937:
1931:
1922:
1906:
1874:
1793:
1787:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1736:
1729:
1722:
1700:
1696:
1695:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1680:
1662:Social Democracy
1538:
911:Electoral system
904:
847:Regierungsbezirk
802:
732:
661:Federal agencies
539:
538:
514:
509:
501:
495:
494:
403:aspired for.
348:The German word
271:
263:
262:
247:
246:
67:
44:
32:
31:
6265:
6264:
6260:
6259:
6258:
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6254:
6200:
6199:
6198:
6193:
6177:
6135:
6129:
6115:Northern Cyprus
6097:
6091:
6007:North Macedonia
5828:
5819:
5789:
5784:
5771:
5764:
5757:
5750:
5737:
5601:
5552:Life expectancy
5468:
5342:
5313:Law enforcement
5249:
5214:
5141:
5108:
5087:
5071:Divided Germany
5041:Weimar Republic
4969:
4935:Frankish Empire
4923:
4847:
4813:
4807:
4798:
4768:
4761:
4741:
4691:
4688:
4652:
4604:
4595:
4586:
4566:
4557:
4544:
4531:Official text:
4523:
4518:
4517:
4507:
4505:
4492:
4491:
4487:
4481:Wayback Machine
4472:
4468:
4462:
4459:Wayback Machine
4449:
4445:
4438:
4422:
4418:
4411:
4391:
4387:
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4379:Wayback Machine
4369:
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4073:
4066:
4052:
4048:
4038:Wayback Machine
4028:
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4000:
3996:
3987:
3983:
3974:
3970:
3961:
3957:
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3929:Jutta Limbach,
3927:
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3897:
3888:
3884:
3875:
3871:
3864:
3860:
3850:
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3819:Wayback Machine
3809:
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3673:NUJS Law Review
3665:
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3522:Geltungsbereich
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3284:
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3271:
3269:
3265:
3259:
3236:
3190:was allowed in
3172:
3164:eternity clause
3152:
3147:
3124:Weimar Republic
3100:
3077:reserve officer
3067:is a soldiers'
2987:
2982:
2969:
2912:Weimar Republic
2900:
2898:Early elections
2888:
2882:
2869:
2863:
2858:
2832:double jeopardy
2762:
2708:
2702:
2690:Weimar Republic
2686:Germany in 1933
2632:
2626:
2621:
2619:Judicial branch
2605:
2597:Main articles:
2595:
2566:
2560:
2495:
2487:Berlin Republic
2438:Cold-war Allies
2367:
2361:
2314:Weimar Republic
2293:
2260:Reichspräsident
2255:Bundespräsident
2247:right to resist
2241:Machtergreifung
2222:Reichspräsident
2158:
2150:legal nonentity
2013:
2007:
1964:
1913:Berlin Republic
1740:
1711:
1707:Other countries
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481:Eternity Clause
450:
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436:eternity clause
385:German question
360:Fundamental Law
341:. In 1990, the
331:Geltungsbereich
260:
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190:
186:
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50:
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5:
6263:
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6220:1949 documents
6217:
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6189:European Union
6185:
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6182:Other entities
6179:
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6136:other entities
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5649:Cultural icons
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4522:
4521:External links
4519:
4516:
4515:
4504:on 15 May 2013
4498:dukeupress.edu
4485:
4466:
4443:
4436:
4416:
4409:
4403:. p. 39.
4385:
4372:Article 20 (2)
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4296:SMU Law Review
4282:
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3738: (GG)
3723:
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3573:Canons Regular
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3252:
3249:978-0822352662
3235:
3232:
3201:postal service
3192:women's rights
3171:
3168:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3099:
3096:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
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2884:Main article:
2881:
2878:
2865:Main article:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2761:
2758:
2750:, such as the
2704:Main article:
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2698:
2677:
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2669:
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2628:Main article:
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2591:
2587:reserve powers
2562:Main article:
2559:
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2491:
2416:Denazification
2414:and the total
2363:Main article:
2360:
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2292:
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2170:Herrenchiemsee
2157:
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2005:
1963:
1960:
1891:free elections
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1438:State Politics
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907:
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899:
896:
895:
892:
891:
890:
889:
878:Municipality (
875:
866:
865:
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841:
840:
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838:
824:
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817:
805:
798:
797:
794:
793:
790:
789:
782:
781:
775:
774:
769:
764:
759:
757:Administrative
754:
748:
747:
746:Federal courts
742:
741:
735:
728:
727:
724:
723:
720:
719:
712:
703:
702:
695:
694:
693:
688:
686:constituencies
675:
672:
671:
668:
667:
664:
663:
658:
657:
656:
644:
643:
632:
631:
623:
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611:
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597:
594:
593:
590:
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586:
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574:
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565:
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561:
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554:
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548:
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531:
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517:
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492:
489:
446:Main article:
443:
440:
393:European Union
278:
277:
256:
255:
240:
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109:
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103:
95:
89:
88:
85:
79:
78:
73:
69:
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61:
60:Original title
57:
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52:
51:
45:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6262:
6251:
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6180:
6174:
6171:
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6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6148:Faroe Islands
6146:
6144:
6141:
6140:
6138:
6132:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6120:South Ossetia
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6102:
6100:
6094:
6088:
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5988:
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5970:
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5967:Liechtenstein
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5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5822:Constitutions
5816:
5811:
5809:
5804:
5802:
5797:
5796:
5793:
5781:
5778:
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5773:
5772:
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5608:
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5595:
5593:
5592:Social issues
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5520:Ethnic groups
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5128:
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5111:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5099:Reunification
5097:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5082:
5079:
5077:
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5069:
5067:
5064:
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5047:
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5042:
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5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5021:German Empire
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
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4703:
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4694:
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4678:
4673:
4671:
4666:
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4647:
4644:
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4602:
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4456:
4453:
4447:
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4433:
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4428:
4420:
4412:
4410:0-7190-4961-X
4406:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4389:
4380:
4376:
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4317:
4309:
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4225:
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4201:
4197:
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4147:
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4018:
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3998:
3991:
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3925:
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3899:
3892:
3886:
3879:
3873:
3867:
3862:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3824:
3823:Tone Magazine
3820:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3799:
3792:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3757:
3753:
3747:
3740:
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3732:
3727:
3708:
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3694:
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3648:
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3602:
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3433:
3431:
3428:
3424:
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3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3406:Bremen clause
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3375:
3372:
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3366:
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3328:
3325:
3321:
3318:
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3312:
3311:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3264:
3263:
3253:
3250:
3246:
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3231:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3204:
3202:
3198:
3193:
3189:
3183:
3181:
3180:reunification
3176:
3167:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3095:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3084:Hellmuth Heye
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2997:
2992:
2977:
2975:
2974:FĂĽhrerprinzip
2964:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2932:
2930:
2925:
2924:Rainer Barzel
2921:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2895:
2893:
2887:
2877:
2875:
2868:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2846:Habeas corpus
2843:
2838:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2797:Thomas Dehler
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2744:
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2736:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2674:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2655:human dignity
2652:
2647:
2646:
2639:
2637:
2631:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2600:
2590:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2576:In Germany's
2570:
2565:
2555:
2553:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2538:
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2530:
2525:
2523:
2519:
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2500:
2490:
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2468:
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2461:
2457:
2453:
2452:
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2434:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2389:
2388:German people
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2291:
2285:
2282:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2243:
2242:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2202:republicanism
2199:
2198:human dignity
2195:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2162:
2153:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2127:
2126:Museum Koenig
2123:
2119:
2113:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2019:
2010:
2004:
1996:
1988:
1981:
1976:
1968:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:this limited
1867:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1795:
1792:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1753:
1749:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1694:
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1663:
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1629:
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1568:
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1561:
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1556:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1532:
1531:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1512:Saxony-Anhalt
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
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1453:
1450:
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1444:
1439:
1436:
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1429:
1428:
1419:
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1414:
1412:
1409:
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1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
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1384:
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1379:
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1374:
1372:
1369:
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1363:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1004:
1001:
1000:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
982:
978:
975:
974:
970:
967:
965:
962:
960:
957:
956:
952:
949:
948:
944:
941:
940:
936:
934:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
908:
905:
898:
897:
888:
885:
884:
883:
881:
876:
874:
872:
867:
863:
860:
859:
858:
856:
851:
849:
848:
844:
843:
837:
834:
833:
832:
830:
825:
823:
820:
819:
816:
815:
813:
807:
806:
803:
796:
795:
788:
785:
784:
780:
777:
776:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
749:
745:
744:
740:
737:
736:
733:
726:
725:
718:
717:
713:
711:
710:
706:
705:
701:
700:
696:
692:
689:
687:
684:
683:
682:
681:
677:
676:
670:
669:
662:
659:
655:
652:
651:
650:
647:
646:
641:
637:
636:Robert Habeck
634:
633:
630:
629:
625:
624:
620:
616:
613:
612:
608:
604:
603:
599:
598:
592:
591:
583:
579:
576:
575:
572:
571:
567:
566:
563:Head of State
560:
559:
552:
549:
547:
544:
543:
540:
535:Constitution
530:
529:
523:
519:
518:
515:
506:
505:
502:
497:
496:
488:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
459:
454:
449:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:republicanism
417:
413:
408:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
352:
346:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
276:
272:
270:
269:
257:
254:
250:
241:
236:
233:
230:
226:
223:
220:
216:
213:
210:
206:
203:
200:
198:
194:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
166:
164:
160:
157:
154:
152:
148:
145:
141:
138:
136:
132:
129:
126:
124:
123:Head of state
120:
116:
114:
110:
105:
102:
99:
96:
94:
90:
86:
84:
80:
77:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
6225:West Germany
6125:Transnistria
6087:Vatican City
5924:
5766:Bibliography
5640:Coat of arms
5620:Architecture
5597:Trade unions
5577:Prostitution
5537:Homelessness
5500:Demographics
5449:Trade unions
5416:
5406:German model
5379:Central bank
5323:Conservatism
5286:Human rights
5271:Court system
5266:Constitution
5265:
5246:
5092:Contemporary
5081:West Germany
5076:East Germany
5051:World War II
5046:Nazi Germany
4986:18th-century
4945:East Francia
4899:Cimbrian War
4744:East Germany
4742:
4736:
4653:(in English)
4611:
4605:(in English)
4596:(in English)
4587:(in English)
4573:
4567:(in English)
4558:(in English)
4526:
4506:. Retrieved
4502:the original
4497:
4488:
4469:
4463:(in English)
4446:
4426:
4419:
4395:
4388:
4382:(in English)
4366:
4354:. Retrieved
4350:
4341:
4329:. Retrieved
4325:
4316:
4299:
4295:
4285:
4273:. Retrieved
4269:
4260:
4249:, retrieved
4227:
4217:
4204:. Retrieved
4189:
4177:. Retrieved
4163:
4150:. Retrieved
4135:
4124:, retrieved
4110:
4104:
4095:
4089:
4080:
4074:
4055:
4049:
4041:
4025:
4016:
4010:
4002:
3997:
3989:
3984:
3976:
3971:
3963:
3958:
3947:, retrieved
3940:the original
3931:
3924:
3916:
3911:
3903:
3898:
3890:
3885:
3877:
3872:
3861:
3849:. Retrieved
3840:
3830:
3822:
3806:
3797:
3791:
3772:
3762:30 September
3760:. Retrieved
3746:
3739:
3731:Art. 79
3726:
3714:. Retrieved
3693:
3681:. Retrieved
3676:
3672:
3662:
3653:
3647:
3635:. Retrieved
3631:
3622:
3598:
3593:
3580:
3563:
3530:
3515:
3502:
3480:
3427:World War II
3374:Enabling Act
3270:. Retrieved
3257:
3240:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3205:
3184:
3177:
3173:
3153:
3138:
3134:
3128:
3101:
3092:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3054:
3027:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
3000:
2988:
2970:
2959:then called
2957:Horst Köhler
2955:. President
2950:
2944:
2933:
2920:Willy Brandt
2917:
2901:
2891:
2889:
2870:
2839:
2815:SchluĂźstrich
2814:
2808:
2793:West Germany
2788:
2774:
2763:
2752:
2745:
2739:
2732:
2709:
2700:Other courts
2694:Nazi Germany
2682:Enabling act
2678:
2659:
2640:
2635:
2633:
2606:
2575:
2549:
2536:
2526:
2515:
2496:
2477:
2472:
2469:
2463:
2460:Basic Treaty
2456:Eastern Bloc
2449:
2445:
2442:puppet state
2425:
2412:Nazi Germany
2393:
2383:
2376:Bundesländer
2375:
2368:
2341:
2325:
2323:
2306:West Germany
2303:
2296:
2294:
2289:
2278:
2275:
2270:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2251:
2220:
2218:
2191:
2149:
2145:
2133:
2117:
2114:
2108:
2089:
2084:
2076:
2063:
2061:
2055:
2043:
2034:
2025:
2023:
2015:
2002:
1929:Bundesländer
1925:
1885:
1866:Basic Treaty
1862:
1850:German Reich
1834:
1817:Lower Saxony
1802:
1798:
1797:
1756:
1745:
1642:Conservatism
1587:
1546:
1482:Lower Saxony
1437:
1416:
1361:
1351:
1101:
1091:
942:
932:
879:
870:
854:
846:
828:
811:
808:
801:Subdivisions
787:Other courts
779:Joint Senate
715:
708:
697:
678:
626:
600:
568:
551:Human rights
533:
510:Politics of
498:
485:
462:
409:
405:
363:
359:
355:
350:
349:
347:
304:
296:constitution
283:
281:
264:
72:Jurisdiction
29:
6215:1949 in law
6163:Isle of Man
6098:recognition
6067:Switzerland
6002:Netherlands
5567:Pornography
5542:Immigration
5505:Drug policy
5417:Mittelstand
5364:Agriculture
5328:Nationalism
5301:Transgender
5185:Earthquakes
5132:, 1583-1588
5130:Cologne War
5026:World War I
4928:Middle Ages
4914:Gothic Wars
4612:Other links
4545:(in German)
4179:22 November
3778:"Basic Law"
3604:(in German)
3556:West Berlin
3538:, Hamburg,
3508:West Berlin
3466:Rechtsstaat
3272:14 November
3135:other votes
3120:Brandenburg
3104:referendums
3081:Vizeadmiral
3032:becoming a
2936:Helmut Kohl
2810:Rechtsstaat
2789:Grundgesetz
2665:beforehand.
2547:structure.
2507:legislative
2478:Volkskammer
2327:Rechtsstaat
2174:Herreninsel
2096:Herreninsel
2009:Karl Arnold
1845:Saar Treaty
1807:, Bavaria,
1748:irredentist
1462:Brandenburg
1221:1932 (July)
921:Referendums
836:composition
673:Legislature
615:Olaf Scholz
537:(Basic Law)
469:Grundrechte
432:rule of law
364:Grundgesetz
351:Grundgesetz
339:West Berlin
319:Grundgesetz
6204:Categories
6037:San Marino
5997:Montenegro
5977:Luxembourg
5957:Kazakhstan
5860:Azerbaijan
5728:Television
5713:Philosophy
5688:Literature
5547:Irreligion
5532:Healthcare
5495:Corruption
5261:Chancellor
5250:(military)
5247:Bundeswehr
4643:JurisPedia
4583:Wikisource
4302:(2): 461.
4126:7 December
3949:7 December
3841:www.hdg.de
3614:References
3234:Literature
3145:Amendments
3042:Bundeswehr
3030:Reichswehr
3016:Reichswehr
3010:Bundeswehr
3004:Bundeswehr
2874:Chancellor
2779:, forbids
2777:fair trial
2651:Bundeswehr
2558:Presidency
2513:branches.
2451:Ostpolitik
2210:federalism
2112:(states).
1780:annexation
1657:Liberalism
1628:Federalism
1236:1933 (Nov)
1231:1933 (Mar)
1226:1932 (Nov)
1206:1924 (Dec)
1201:1924 (May)
1116:1867 (Aug)
1111:1867 (Feb)
926:Coalitions
853:District (
428:federalism
275:Wikisource
273:at German
253:Wikisource
228:Supersedes
197:Federalism
156:Chancellor
87:8 May 1949
6153:Gibraltar
5972:Lithuania
5683:Libraries
5663:Festivals
5510:Education
5454:Transport
5419:companies
5338:President
5276:Elections
5241:Bundesrat
5236:Bundestag
5205:Mountains
5173:Districts
5151:Geography
4884:Visigoths
4821:Overviews
4527:Full text
4308:1066-1271
3637:6 January
3262:June 2022
3160:Bundesrat
3156:Bundestag
3088:Wehrmacht
3069:ombudsman
3038:President
3022:Wehrmacht
2961:elections
2952:Bundesrat
2904:president
2880:Bundesrat
2867:Bundestag
2861:Bundestag
2673:Bundestag
2541:Bundesrat
2529:Bundestag
2503:executive
2476:1990 the
2298:Sonderweg
2290:Sonderweg
2231:Reichstag
2077:Basic Law
1919:Bundestag
1815:, Hesse,
1652:Far-right
1637:Communism
1522:Thuringia
903:Elections
731:Judiciary
699:Bundesrat
680:Bundestag
595:Executive
416:democracy
356:Basic Law
294:) is the
238:Full text
218:Author(s)
163:Judiciary
151:Executive
144:Bundesrat
140:Bundestag
6173:Svalbard
6158:Guernsey
6105:Abkhazia
6052:Slovenia
6047:Slovakia
6022:Portugal
5880:Bulgaria
5775:Category
5693:Internet
5678:Language
5668:Folklore
5587:Religion
5562:Pensions
5557:Naturism
5434:Taxation
5318:Lobbying
5291:Intersex
5224:Politics
4833:Timeline
4812:General
4805:articles
4631: :
4619:(1994):
4477:Archived
4455:Archived
4375:Archived
4206:29 April
4200:Archived
4173:Archived
4152:29 April
4146:Archived
4120:archived
4034:Archived
3845:Archived
3815:Archived
3782:Archived
3756:Archived
3707:Archived
3683:16 April
3296:See also
3199:and the
3197:railways
3158:and the
2726:and the
2511:judicial
2406:and the
2182:Chiemsee
2180:lake of
2178:Bavarian
2131:Trizonal
2100:Chiemsee
2006:—
1785:de facto
1768:Beitritt
1606:Passport
1502:Saarland
880:Gemeinde
752:Ordinary
135:Chambers
113:Branches
83:Ratified
55:Overview
6077:Ukraine
6027:Romania
5987:Moldova
5945:Ireland
5940:Iceland
5935:Hungary
5925:Germany
5920:Georgia
5910:Finland
5905:Estonia
5900:Denmark
5885:Croatia
5870:Belgium
5865:Belarus
5855:Austria
5850:Armenia
5845:Andorra
5840:Albania
5752:Outline
5658:Fashion
5645:Cuisine
5607:Culture
5572:Poverty
5515:Germans
5478:Society
5459:Welfare
5444:Tourism
5401:Exports
5374:Banking
5352:Economy
5256:Cabinet
5195:Islands
5190:Geology
5113:Regions
4879:Teutons
4852:Ancient
4814:History
4801:Germany
4635:, 1994:
4625:Chicago
3359:(1919)
3329:(1849)
3316:(1815)
3178:During
3170:History
3150:Process
2545:federal
2473:de jure
2464:de jure
2446:de jure
2225:in the
2138:Bavaria
2104:Bavaria
2098:in the
2069:Koblenz
1944:Hamburg
1872:de jure
1813:Hamburg
1791:de jure
1774:de jure
1761:de jure
1472:Hamburg
1452:Bavaria
829:Landtag
810:State (
691:members
649:Cabinet
513:Germany
401:Austria
298:of the
98:Federal
6168:Jersey
6110:Kosovo
6072:Turkey
6062:Sweden
6042:Serbia
6032:Russia
6017:Poland
6012:Norway
5992:Monaco
5962:Latvia
5930:Greece
5915:France
5890:Cyprus
5826:Europe
5780:Portal
5635:Cinema
5615:Anthem
5582:Racism
5396:Energy
5210:Rivers
5168:States
5138:, 1848
4974:Modern
4803:
4434:
4407:
4356:13 May
4331:13 May
4306:
4275:13 May
4251:13 May
4242:
4062:
3536:Bremen
3395:Others
3390:(1968)
3384:(1949)
3376:(1933)
3370:(1933)
3353:(1871)
3342:(1867)
3289:
3285:
3281:
3260:
3247:
3228:Länder
3131:Hitler
3116:Berlin
3007:. The
2892:Länder
2740:Länder
2722:, the
2718:, the
2714:, the
2537:Länder
2509:, and
2400:Allies
2318:Hitler
2308:, the
2235:Hitler
2146:Länder
2140:. The
2134:Länder
2118:Länder
2109:Länder
2056:Länder
2035:Länder
1940:Bremen
1935:Länder
1843:. The
1827:, and
1809:Bremen
1580:Russia
1555:France
1507:Saxony
1467:Bremen
1457:Berlin
772:Social
767:Labour
762:Fiscal
654:Scholz
465:German
458:Berlin
327:German
315:German
288:German
93:System
6143:Ă…land
6057:Spain
5982:Malta
5952:Italy
5759:Index
5723:Sport
5708:Names
5703:Music
5698:Media
5653:Dance
5525:Women
5490:Crime
5464:Women
5200:Lakes
4874:Goths
4508:4 May
3943:(PDF)
3936:(PDF)
3851:4 May
3716:6 May
3710:(PDF)
3703:(PDF)
3540:Hesse
3494:Notes
3425:Post-
3291:968).
3266:(PDF)
2501:into
1805:Baden
1575:China
1560:Italy
1477:Hesse
855:Kreis
640:GrĂĽne
5673:Flag
5630:Arts
5296:LGBT
4755:1968
4750:1949
4641:(on
4551:HTML
4533:HTML
4510:2018
4432:ISBN
4405:ISBN
4358:2024
4333:2024
4304:ISSN
4277:2024
4253:2024
4240:ISBN
4208:2014
4181:2012
4154:2014
4128:2016
4060:ISBN
3951:2016
3853:2018
3764:2015
3718:2014
3685:2024
3639:2020
3569:Herr
3274:2022
3245:ISBN
3118:and
2836:U.S.
2821:who
2803:and
2783:and
2601:and
2310:Nazi
2208:and
2164:The
2062:The
1942:and
1893:the
1601:Visa
1417:2024
1411:2019
1406:2014
1401:2009
1396:2004
1391:1999
1386:1994
1381:1989
1376:1984
1371:1979
1352:Next
1346:2021
1341:2017
1336:2013
1331:2009
1326:2005
1321:2002
1316:1998
1311:1994
1306:1990
1301:1987
1296:1983
1291:1980
1286:1976
1281:1972
1276:1969
1271:1965
1266:1961
1261:1957
1256:1953
1251:1949
1246:1938
1241:1936
1216:1930
1211:1928
1196:1920
1191:1919
1186:1912
1181:1907
1176:1903
1171:1898
1166:1893
1161:1890
1156:1887
1151:1884
1146:1881
1141:1878
1136:1877
1131:1874
1126:1871
1121:1868
1092:2022
1086:2017
1081:2012
1076:2010
1071:2009
1066:2004
1061:1999
1056:1994
1051:1989
1046:1984
1041:1979
1036:1974
1031:1969
1026:1964
1021:1959
1016:1954
1011:1949
995:1957
990:1953
985:1949
969:1932
964:1925
959:1919
887:list
862:list
812:Land
607:list
430:and
307:Bonn
282:The
5824:of
5625:Art
5308:Law
4629:Ill
4564:PDF
4555:PDF
4537:PDF
4232:doi
3679:(3)
3139:the
2852:.
2819:GDR
2791:in
2772:.
2349:SPD
2345:CDU
2237:'s
1958:).
1570:USA
871:Amt
619:SPD
582:SPD
483:).
358:or
251:at
202:Yes
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