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was generally agreed with, no real change took place. He repeated the charges a decade later, again with no results. In the meantime, in Europe, ethology was making strides in studying a multitude of species and a plethora of behaviors. There was friction between the two disciplines where there should have been cooperation, but comparative psychologists refused, for the most part, to broaden their horizons. This state of affairs ended with the triumph of ethology over comparative psychology, culminating in the Nobel Prize being given to ethologists, combined with a flood of informative books and television programs on ethological studies that came to be widely seen and read in the United States. At present, comparative psychology in the United States is moribund.
794:
attempts floundered; in retrospect it can be seen that they were not sufficiently sophisticated, either in their analysis of the demands of different tasks, or in their choice of species to compare. However, the definition of "intelligence" in comparative psychology is deeply affected by anthropomorphism; experiments focused on simple tasks, complex problems, reversal learning, learning sets, and delayed alternation were plagued with practical and theoretical problems. In the literature, "intelligence" is defined as whatever is closest to human performance and neglects behaviors that humans are usually incapable of (e.g.
989:
hard-and-fast line between their own nature and that of all other animals. Children have no scruples over allowing animals to rank as their full equals." With maturity however, humans find it hard to accept that they themselves are animals, so they categorize, separating humans from animals, and animals into wild animals and tame animals, and tame animals into house pets and livestock. Such divisions can be seen as similar to categories of humans: who is part of a human community and someone who is not—that is, the outsider.
3672:
861:. A criticism of Washoe's acquisition of sign language focused on the extent to which she actually understood what she was signing. Her signs may have just been based on an association to get a reward, such as food or a toy. Other studies concluded that apes do not understand linguistic input, but may form an intended meaning of what is being communicated. All great apes have been reported to have the capacity of allospecific symbolic production.
47:
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Behavioral ecology in the 1970s gave a more solid base of knowledge against which a true comparative psychology could develop. However, the broader use of the term "comparative psychology" is enshrined in the names of learned societies and academic journals, not to mention in the minds of psychologists of other specialisms, so the label of the field is never likely to disappear completely.
589:
798:). Specifically, comparative researchers encounter problems associated with individual differences, differences in motivation, differences in reinforcement, differences in sensory function, differences in motor capacities, and species-typical preparedness (i.e. some species have evolved to acquire some behaviors quicker than other behaviors).
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ask how the behavior contributes to the lifetime reproductive success of the individuals demonstrating the behavior (i.e. does the behavior result in animals producing more offspring than animals not displaying the behavior)? Theories addressing the ultimate causes of behavior are based on the answers to these two questions.
699:
Using a comparative approach to behavior allows one to evaluate the target behavior from four different, complementary perspectives, developed by Niko
Tinbergen. First, one may ask how pervasive the behavior is across species (i.e. how common is the behavior between animal species?). Second, one may
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significance, and development of behavior. The phrase comparative psychology may be employed in either a narrow or a broad meaning. In its narrow meaning, it refers to the study of the similarities and differences in the psychology and behavior of different species. In a broader meaning, comparative
911:
are interested in understanding the mental processes that control complex behavior, and much of their work parallels that of cognitive psychologists working with humans. For example, there is extensive research with animals on attention, categorization, concept formation, memory, spatial cognition,
785:
Although the field initially attempted to include a variety of species, by the early 1950s it had focused primarily on the white lab rat and the pigeon, and the topic of study was restricted to learning, usually in mazes. This stunted state of affairs was pointed out by Beach (1950) and although it
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ran an article that showed the psychological benefits of animals, more specifically of children with their pets. It has been proven that having a pet does in fact improve kids' social skills. In the article, Dr. Sue
Doescher, a psychologist involved in the study, stated, "It made the children more
979:
The relationship between humans and animals has long been of interest to anthropologists as one pathway to an understanding the evolution of human behavior. Similarities between the behavior of humans and animals have sometimes been used in an attempt to understand the evolutionary significance of
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did not only mimic vocalisations but understood the concepts of same and different between objects. The study of non-human mammals has also included the study of dogs. Due to their domestic nature and personalities, dogs have lived closely with humans, and parallels in communication and cognitive
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Throughout the long history of comparative psychology, repeated attempts have been made to enforce a more disciplined approach, in which similar studies are carried out on animals of different species, and the results interpreted in terms of their different phylogenetic or ecological backgrounds.
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Third, what mechanisms are involved in the behavior (i.e. what physiological, behavioral, and environmental components are necessary and sufficient for the generation of the behavior)? Fourth, a researcher may ask about the development of the behavior within an individual (i.e. what maturational,
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Ingold remarks that in all societies children have to learn to differentiate and separate themselves from others. In this process, strangers may be seen as "not people", and like animals. Ingold quoted
Sigmund Freud: "Children show no trace of arrogance which urges adult civilized men to draw a
754:
was central in the development of comparative psychology; it is thought that psychology should be spoken in terms of "pre-" and "post-Darwin" because his contributions were so influential. Darwin's theory led to several hypotheses, one being that the factors that set humans apart, such as higher
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were selected from three suburbs and interviewed by telephone. Pet ownership was found to be positively associated with some forms of social contact and interaction, and with perceptions of neighborhood friendliness. After adjustment for demographic variables, pet owners scored higher on social
793:
A persistent question with which comparative psychologists have been faced is the relative intelligence of different species of animal. Indeed, some early attempts at a genuinely comparative psychology involved evaluating how well animals of different species could learn different tasks. These
686:
Comparative psychology is sometimes assumed to emphasize cross-species comparisons, including those between humans and animals. However, some researchers feel that direct comparisons should not be the sole focus of comparative psychology and that intense focus on a single
885:
behaviours have therefore been recognised and further researched. Joly-Mascheroni and colleagues (2008) demonstrated that dogs may be able to catch human yawns and suggested a level of empathy in dogs, a point that is strongly debated. Pilley and Reid found that a
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to understand its behavior is just as desirable; if not more so. Donald
Dewsbury reviewed the works of several psychologists and their definitions and concluded that the object of comparative psychology is to establish principles of generality focusing on both
810:'s early work used dogs; although they have been the subject of occasional studies, since then they have not figured prominently. Increasing interest in the study of abnormal animal behavior has led to a return to the study of most kinds of domestic animal.
841:. Cross-fostering studies have shown similarities between human infants and infant chimpanzees. Kellogg and Kellogg (1933) aimed to look at heredity and environmental effects of young primates. They found that a cross-fostered chimpanzee named
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and time estimation. Much research in these and other areas is related directly or indirectly to behaviors important to survival in natural settings, such as navigation, tool use, and numerical competence. Thus, comparative psychology and
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was better at recognizing human smells and clothing and that the
Kelloggs' infant (Donald) recognised humans better by their faces. The study ended nine months after it had begun, after the infant began to imitate the noises of Gua.
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have been known to ruin gardens and houses if they are not allowed enough activity. Dogs are also prone to psychological damage if they are subjected to violence. If they are treated very badly, they may become dangerous.
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animals are lack of stimulation, inappropriate stimulation, or overstimulation. These conditions can lead to disorders, unpredictable and unwanted behavior, and sometimes even physical symptoms and diseases. For example,
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learning, social experiences must an individual undergo in order to demonstrate a behavior)? Theories addressing the proximate causes of behavior are based on answers to these two questions. For more details see
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has been of particular interest. For example, it has been argued that, as animals became domesticated, humans treated them as property and began to see them as inferior or fundamentally different from humans.
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capital and civic engagement scales." Results like these let us know that owning a pet provides opportunities for neighborly interaction, among many other chances for socialization among people.
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particular behaviors. Differences in the treatment of animals have been said to reflect a society's understanding of human nature and the place of humans and animals in the scheme of things.
930:
Veterinary surgeons recognize that the psychological state of a captive or domesticated animal must be taken into account if its behavior and health are to be understood and optimized.
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who set out to demonstrate that animals possessed a "rudimentary human mind". Romanes is most famous for two major flaws in his work: his focus on anecdotal observations and entrenched
965:
studies of natural behavior. However, at least in the case of familiar domestic animals, it also draws on the accumulated experience of those who have worked closely with the animals.
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Nonhuman primates have also been used to show the development of language in comparison with human development. For example, Gardner (1967) successfully taught the female chimpanzee
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continued to believe that music was a distinctly human phenomenon, but experiments since then have vindicated Ibn al-Haytham's view that music does indeed have an effect on animals.
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mental, moral and spiritual faculties, could be accounted for by evolutionary principles. In response to the vehement opposition to
Darwinism was the "anecdotal movement" led by
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The systematic study of disordered animal behavior draws on research in comparative psychology, including the early work on conditioning and instrumental learning, but also on
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2117:
Haque, Amber (2004), "Psychology from
Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists",
1976:
1263:
880:. Alex (Avian Learning EXperiment) is a well known case study (1976–2007) which was developed by Pepperberg, who found that the African gray parrot
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cooperative and sharing." It was also shown that these kids were more confident with themselves and able to be more empathic with other children.
1194:
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was called the "first experimental biologist", and worked mostly with birds; studying instinct, imprinting, and visual and auditory development.
675:. Research in this area addresses many different issues, uses many different methods and explores the behavior of many different species, from
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2015:
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2176:"Common territories in comparative and developmental psychology: The quest for shared means and meaning in behavioral investigations"
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who are exposed to loud music for a long period will ultimately develop unwanted behaviors that have been compared with human
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Abramson, Charles. (2015) A crisis in comparative psychology: Where have all the undergraduates gone? Additional comments. '
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A wide variety of species have been studied by comparative psychologists. However, a small number have dominated the scene.
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Pepperberg, I. M. 1991 A communicative approach to animal cognition: a study of conceptual abilities of a grey parrot. In:
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Many of these were active in fields other than animal psychology; this is characteristic of comparative psychologists.
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Interest in primate studies has increased with the rise in studies of animal cognition. Other animals thought to be
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2078:
Wood, Lisa; Giles-Corti, Billie; Bulsara, Max (2005). "The Pet
Connection: Pets as a Conduit for Social Capital?".
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825:, and they continue to be important in some fields. There has always been interest in studying various species of
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818:, which remained the almost invariable subject for the first half of the 20th century and continues to be used.
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Fields of psychology and other disciplines that draw upon, or overlap with, comparative psychology include:
744:, experimenting with horses, birds and reptiles. Through to the 19th century, a majority of scholars in the
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began his studies with cats, but
American comparative psychologists quickly shifted to the more economical
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1836:"Assessment of Stress Caused by Environmental Changes for Improving the Welfare of Laboratory Beagle Dogs"
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1707:(Ed. Carolyn A. Ristau), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale New Jersey; Hove and London England.
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Near the end of the 19th century, several scientists existed whose work was also very influential.
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Simon, Armando. (2017) A brief essay on how comparative psychology became an endangered species. '
736:. In the treatise, he demonstrates how a camel's pace could be hastened or slowed with the use of
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psychology includes comparisons between different biological and socio-cultural groups, such as
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The Ape and The Child: A Comparative Study of the
Environmental Influence Upon Early Behavior
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is thought to be "the first ethologist in the sense in which we presently use the word".
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857:. Washoe subsequently passed on some of this teaching to her adopted offspring,
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Lee, Gwang-Hoon; Jo, Woori; Kang, Tae-Ku; Oh, Taeho; Kim, KilSoo (2023-03-19).
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829:; important contributions to social and developmental psychology were made by
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The way dogs behave when understimulated is widely believed to depend on the
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is credited with first using mazes and puzzle devices to study learning and
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Discipline of psychology dedicated to the study of non-human animal behavior
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was able to successfully identify and retrieve 1022 distinct objects/toys.
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1895:"A Review of Medical Conditions and Behavioral Problems in Dogs and Cats"
1409:"The origin of the phrase comparative psychology: an historical overview"
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have also been increasingly studied. Examples include various species of
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2047:"HEALTH; Children and Their Pets: Unexpected Psychological Benefits"
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2007:
Mullin, Molly. "Animals and Anthropology." Society and Animals:
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Noted comparative psychologists, in this broad sense, include:
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as well as on the individual animal's character. For example,
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2235:
2174:
Johnson-Pynn, J.; Fragaszy, D.M.; Cummins-Sebree, S. (2003).
1768:
Animal Thinking: Contemporary Issues in Comparative Cognition
730:
Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals
648:
2013:
http://www.societyandanimalsforum.org/sa/sa10.4/mullin.shtml
1719:"Border collie comprehends object names as verbal referents"
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emphasized the importance of objectively studying behavior,
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3235:
2813:
1150:
494:
2147:
Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism
1893:
Camps, TomĂ s; Amat, Marta; Manteca, Xavier (2019-12-12).
1513:
Tinbergen, N. (1963). "On aims and methods of ethology".
939:
934:
815:
668:
1481:
Handbook of Research Methods in Experimental Psychology
2077:
1503:. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company. Stroudsburg, PA.
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it was stated, "A random survey of 339 residents from
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1159:
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1462:
1460:
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1454:
933:Common causes of disordered behavior in captive or
740:, and shows other examples of how music can affect
1954:"Interview - Siberian Husky Club of Great Britain"
1661:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science
1651:
3688:
1892:
1486:
1479:Papini, M.R. (2003). Comparative Psychology. In
1451:
732:, an early treatise dealing with the effects of
2183:International Journal of Comparative Psychology
1501:Comparative Psychology in the Twentieth Century
919:
1804:Canadian Council on Animal Care (April 2021).
1705:Cognitive Ethology: the Minds of Other Animals
1565:Beach, Frank. (1950) The snark was a boojum. '
1483:. Ed. Stephen F. Davis. Blackwell. Malden, MA.
3607:Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
3251:
2251:
1624:. Hafner Publishing Co., New York and London.
1609:Animal Cognition: The Mental Lives of Animals
1099:Evolution of sexual characteristics/behaviors
968:
916:are heavily overlapping research categories.
613:
1407:Raffaele d'Isa; Charles I. Abramson (2023).
1833:
1792:Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior (2nd Ed)
1125:Neural and endocrine correlates of behavior
720:wrote works on the social organization and
3612:International Society for Applied Ethology
3258:
3244:
2258:
2244:
1807:CCAC guidelines: Animal welfare assessment
1766:p. 2, Menzel, R. & Fischer, J. (2010)
1654:"Linguistic capacity of non-human animals"
1026:Orientation (interaction with environment)
724:like ants. The 11th century Arabic writer
620:
606:
1928:
1910:
1869:
1851:
1717:John W. Pilley; Alliston K. Reid (2011).
1680:
1512:
1470:. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York, NY.
1434:
1424:
1580:Revista Interamericana de Psicologia, 51
1533:
2044:
1620:Kellogg, W.N. and L.A. Kellogg. (1933)
14:
3689:
1778:Wasserman & Zentall (eds) (2006);
1760:
1143:Qualitative and functional comparisons
3239:
2239:
2144:
2116:
1975:Dass, Dr. Amrita (October 23, 2008).
1553:
1540:
1974:
1772:
654:, especially as these relate to the
1951:
896:
24:
2167:
1527:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x
1013:
801:
671:, developmental stages, ages, and
25:
3718:
2224:
1368:Experimental analysis of behavior
1333:
1160:Notable comparative psychologists
3671:
3670:
2467:
722:communication methods of animals
694:proximate and ultimate causation
587:
45:
2092:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.01.017
2071:
2038:
2025:
2009:Journal of Human-Animal Studies
2001:
1968:
1945:
1886:
1827:
1797:
1784:
1710:
1697:
1645:
1636:
1627:
1614:
1588:
1515:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Tierpsychologie
1059:Other miscellaneous behaviors (
3316:Bee learning and communication
2265:
2119:Journal of Religion and Health
2045:Goleman, Daniel (1990-01-11).
1790:Shettleworth, Sara J. (2010);
1572:
1559:
1546:
1506:
1473:
1400:
1001:Furthermore, in an edition of
821:Skinner introduced the use of
13:
1:
2563:Industrial and organizational
2110:
330:Industrial and organizational
3265:
2804:Human factors and ergonomics
1738:10.1016/j.beproc.2010.11.007
1122:Sensory-perceptual processes
946:, like biting their owners.
920:Disorders of animal behavior
485:Human factors and ergonomics
7:
2080:Social Science and Medicine
1468:Comparative Animal Behavior
1003:Social Science and Medicine
10:
3723:
1652:Klaus ZuberbĂĽhler (2015).
1426:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1174115
972:
969:Human-animal relationships
923:
900:
768:Douglas Alexander Spalding
711:
706:Tinbergen's four questions
3666:
3620:
3599:
3478:
3373:Evolutionary neuroscience
3273:
3190:
3127:
2834:
2744:
2656:
2493:Applied behavior analysis
2476:
2465:
2301:
2273:
2131:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z
1611:. Palgrave. New York, NY.
1567:American Psychologist, 5'
1363:Evolutionary neuroscience
1284:Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe
872:, parrots—especially the
260:Applied behavior analysis
3326:Behavioral endocrinology
1982:The Telegraph (Calcutta)
1607:Wynne, C. D. L. (1978).
1596:Innovative Teaching, 4,'
1393:
1388:Trans-species psychology
1378:Physiological psychology
1244:Emil Wolfgang Menzel Jr.
1079:Developmental psychology
1007:Perth, Western Australia
716:The 9th century scholar
3521:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt
3301:Animal sexual behaviour
2769:Behavioral neuroscience
2333:Behavioral neuroscience
2035:Routledge, 1994. 14–15.
1413:Frontiers in Psychology
450:Behavioral neuroscience
107:Behavioral neuroscience
3697:Comparative psychology
3460:Tool use by non-humans
3413:Philosophical ethology
3358:Comparative psychology
3306:Animal welfare science
2819:Psychology of religion
2759:Behavioral engineering
2696:Human subject research
2352:Cognitive neuroscience
2318:Affective neuroscience
1642:Savage-Rumbaugh (1987)
1314:Margaret Floy Washburn
1072:Reproductive behavior
926:Animal psychopathology
907:Researchers who study
855:American Sign Language
633:Comparative psychology
500:Psychology of religion
440:Behavioral engineering
126:Cognitive neuroscience
92:Affective neuroscience
3195:Wiktionary definition
2731:Self-report inventory
2726:Quantitative research
1952:Ian (16 April 2008).
1794:, Oxford Univ. Press.
1780:Comparative Cognition
1726:Behavioural Processes
1499:Dewsbury, D. (1984).
1466:Dewsbury, D. (1978).
924:Further information:
594:Psychology portal
3702:Behavioural sciences
3566:William Homan Thorpe
3331:Behavioural genetics
3291:Animal consciousness
3286:Animal communication
2721:Qualitative research
2676:Behavior epigenetics
1353:Operant conditioning
1075:General descriptions
1023:General descriptions
1020:Individual behavior
835:maternal deprivation
728:(Alhazen) wrote the
3321:Behavioural ecology
3200:Wiktionary category
2764:Behavioral genetics
2736:Statistical surveys
2593:Occupational health
2328:Behavioral genetics
2151:Motilal Banarsidass
1989:on October 25, 2008
1853:10.3390/ani13061095
1309:Edward L. Thorndike
445:Behavioral genetics
360:Occupational health
102:Behavioral genetics
33:Part of a series on
3650:Behavioral Ecology
3571:Nikolaas Tinbergen
3363:Emotion in animals
3341:Cognitive ethology
3172:Schools of thought
3075:Richard E. Nisbett
2955:Donald T. Campbell
2633:Sport and exercise
2145:Plott, C. (2000),
2051:The New York Times
2033:What Is an Animal?
2018:2012-03-22 at the
1912:10.3390/ani9121133
1383:Psychopharmacology
1348:Behavioral ecology
1214:Richard Herrnstein
1190:James Mark Baldwin
1034:Ingestive behavior
994:The New York Times
780:Conwy Lloyd Morgan
562:Schools of thought
400:Sport and exercise
246:Applied psychology
3684:
3683:
3576:Jakob von UexkĂĽll
3346:Comfort behaviour
3233:
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3210:Wikimedia Commons
3137:Counseling topics
3100:Ronald C. Kessler
3090:Shelley E. Taylor
3015:Lawrence Kohlberg
2990:Stanley Schachter
2789:Consumer behavior
2671:Archival research
2439:Psycholinguistics
2323:Affective science
2231:Animal Psychology
2031:Ingold, Ted, ed.
2011:. 2002. Web. <
1820:978-0-919087-89-7
1289:Sara Shettleworth
1180:F.J.J. Buytendijk
1113:Behavior genetics
1061:personal grooming
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527:Counseling topics
470:Consumer behavior
211:Psycholinguistics
97:Affective science
18:Animal psychology
16:(Redirected from
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3629:Animal Behaviour
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3281:Animal cognition
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3110:Richard Davidson
3105:Joseph E. LeDoux
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2865:Edward Thorndike
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1104:Social behavior
1089:endocrine system
1054:Tonic immobility
914:animal cognition
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903:Animal cognition
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761:anthropomorphism
734:music on animals
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1373:Neuroethology
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151:Developmental
149:
147:
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3641:
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3586:E. O. Wilson
3536:Jane Goodall
3496:Donald Broom
3465:Zoosemiotics
3418:Sociobiology
3357:
3070:Larry Squire
3065:Bruce McEwen
3060:Amos Tversky
3030:Jerome Kagan
3020:Noam Chomsky
2960:Hans Eysenck
2930:Harry Harlow
2910:Erik Erikson
2809:Intelligence
2706:Neuroimaging
2449:Quantitative
2414:Mathematical
2409:Intelligence
2399:Experimental
2394:Evolutionary
2384:Differential
2363:
2293:Psychologist
2214:. Retrieved
2207:the original
2186:
2182:
2146:
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2073:
2062:. Retrieved
2050:
2040:
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2008:
2003:
1991:. Retrieved
1987:the original
1980:
1977:"Pet Peeves"
1970:
1958:. Retrieved
1947:
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1902:
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1000:
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772:Jacques Loeb
765:
750:
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656:phylogenetic
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490:Intelligence
221:Quantitative
186:Mathematical
181:Intelligence
171:Experimental
166:Evolutionary
156:Differential
3707:Comparisons
3526:Dian Fossey
3491:Marc Bekoff
3479:Ethologists
3142:Disciplines
3115:Susan Fiske
3005:Roger Brown
2905:Carl Rogers
2890:Jean Piaget
2855:Ivan Pavlov
2711:Observation
2691:Experiments
2638:Suicidology
2533:Educational
2488:Anomalistic
2459:Theoretical
2434:Personality
2364:Comparative
2347:Cognitivism
2338:Behaviorism
1846:(6): 1095.
1419:: 1174115.
1269:Ivan Pavlov
1229:Linus Kline
1209:Donald Hebb
1175:Frank Beach
1065:hibernation
1045:Exploration
963:ethological
874:grey parrot
866:intelligent
808:Ivan Pavlov
673:ethnicities
532:Disciplines
405:Suicidology
300:Educational
255:Anomalistic
231:Theoretical
206:Personality
137:Comparative
121:Cognitivism
112:Behaviorism
3691:Categories
3428:Structures
3423:Stereotypy
3205:Wikisource
3050:Paul Ekman
2885:Kurt Lewin
2779:Competence
2701:Interviews
2681:Case study
2558:Humanistic
2538:Ergonomics
2523:Counseling
2498:Assessment
2480:psychology
2429:Perception
2389:Ecological
2305:psychology
2283:Philosophy
2267:Psychology
2216:2007-05-16
2111:References
2064:2023-02-06
1956:. Preloved
1682:10023/8091
1554:Plott 2000
1541:Haque 2004
1129:Motivation
1095:Imprinting
1030:Locomotion
637:scientific
460:Competence
325:Humanistic
305:Ergonomics
290:Counseling
265:Assessment
201:Perception
161:Ecological
39:Psychology
3657:Behaviour
3600:Societies
3438:Honeycomb
3225:Wikibooks
3215:Wikiquote
3085:Ed Diener
2870:Carl Jung
2774:Cognition
2603:Political
2513:Community
2343:Cognitive
2059:0362-4331
1921:2076-2615
1862:2076-2615
1584:107-110.'
1569:, 115-24.
1170:Aristotle
1134:Evolution
1118:Instincts
1108:Imitation
1083:Control (
944:psychosis
812:Thorndike
658:history,
455:Cognition
370:Political
280:Community
117:Cognitive
67:Subfields
3676:Category
3621:Journals
3448:Instinct
3398:Learning
3393:Instinct
3368:Ethogram
3351:Grooming
3274:Branches
3267:Ethology
3220:Wikinews
3177:Timeline
2799:Feelings
2794:Emotions
2754:Behavior
2745:Concepts
2623:Religion
2608:Positive
2598:Pastoral
2583:Military
2548:Forensic
2543:Feminist
2528:Critical
2518:Consumer
2508:Coaching
2503:Clinical
2478:Applied
2374:Cultural
2313:Abnormal
2189:: 1–27.
2139:38740431
2100:15970228
2016:Archived
1939:31842492
1880:36978636
1871:10044678
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1746:21145379
1691:26263232
1445:37255515
1436:10225565
1358:Ethology
1139:Learning
1038:Hoarding
878:dolphins
718:al-Jahiz
689:organism
681:primates
660:adaptive
641:behavior
567:Timeline
480:Feelings
475:Emotions
435:Behavior
429:Concepts
390:Religion
375:Positive
365:Pastoral
350:Military
315:Forensic
310:Feminist
295:Critical
285:Consumer
275:Coaching
270:Clinical
146:Cultural
87:Abnormal
3378:Feeding
3152:Outline
2648:Traffic
2643:Systems
2578:Medical
2404:Gestalt
2278:History
2203:6674770
1930:6941081
1899:Animals
1840:Animals
1067:, etc.)
955:huskies
827:primate
823:pigeons
712:History
677:insects
665:species
652:animals
647:of non-
635:is the
542:Outline
415:Traffic
410:Systems
345:Medical
176:Gestalt
62:History
57:Outline
3182:Topics
2628:School
2553:Health
2454:Social
2357:Social
2303:Basic
2288:Portal
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1993:May 4,
1960:May 4,
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851:Washoe
572:Topics
395:School
320:Health
226:Social
131:Social
3455:Swarm
3383:Hover
3336:Breed
3129:Lists
2588:Music
2573:Media
2568:Legal
2419:Moral
2210:(PDF)
2199:S2CID
2179:(PDF)
2135:S2CID
2022:>.
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1722:(PDF)
1657:(PDF)
1394:Notes
1195:Allen
951:breed
876:—and
738:music
669:sexes
649:human
518:Lists
355:Music
340:Media
335:Legal
191:Moral
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2814:Mind
2155:ISBN
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2055:ISSN
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1962:2015
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