Ancient Greek temple

2883: 2546: 2906: 5637: 5608: 2506: 5099: 3794: 2647: 3736:

awarding of individual contracts, the practical supervision of the construction, the inspection and acceptance of completed parts, and the paying of wages. The original advert contained all the information necessary to enable a contractor to make a realistic offer for completing the task. Contracts were normally awarded to the competitor offering the most complete service for the cheapest price. In the case of public buildings, the materials were normally provided by the public sponsor, exceptions were clarified in the contract. Contractors were usually only responsible for specific parts of the overall construction, as most businesses were small. Originally, payment was by person and day, but from the 5th century onward, payment by piece or construction stage became common.

5576: 3131: 223:. A multitude of different ground plans were developed, each of which could be combined with the superstructure in the different orders. Temples would be destroyed due to warfare in the Greek World or from lack of repairs. Some of these temples such as the temple of Poseidon Soter (The Savior) would be rebuilt outside of Athens after the defeat of the Persian Empire in 449. From the 3rd century onward, the construction of large temples became less common; after a short 2nd century BC flourish, it ceased nearly entirely in the 1st century BC. Thereafter, only smaller structures were started, while older temples continued to be renovated or brought to completion if in an unfinished state. 2926: 3162: 20: 4917: 3111: 2696: 2339: 3679: 2487: 2367: 2730: 2324: 5010: 2620: 2671: 3032: 2534: 148: 4939:. The columns had between 40 and 48 flutings, some of them cut to alternate between a wider and a narrower fluting. The oldest marble architraves of Greek architecture, found at the Artemision, also spanned the widest distances ever achieved in pure stone. The middle architrave block was 8.74 m long and weighed 24 metric tons; it had to be lifted to its final position, 20 m above ground, with a system of pulleys. Like its precedents, the temple used differentiated column widths in the front, and had a higher number of columns at the back. According to ancient sources, 4823:, the back even had ten columns. The front used differing column distances, with a wider central opening. In proportion to the bottom diameter, the columns reached three times the height of a Doric counterpart. 40 flutings enriched the complex surface structure of the column shafts. Samian column bases were decorated with a sequence of horizontal flutings, but in spite of this playfulness they weighed 1,500 kg a piece. The capitals of this structure were probably still entirely of wood, as was the entablature. Ionic volute capitals survive from the outer 3051: 5404: 4676: 295: 4692: 4712: 2351: 4285: 1112: 3150: 4134: 5328: 1765: 467: 4963: 3067: 1973:. Columns could reach a height of 20 m. To design such large architectural bodies harmoniously, a number of basic aesthetic principles were developed and tested already on the smaller temples. The main measurement was the foot, varying between 29 and 34 cm from region to region. This initial measurement was the basis for all the units that determined the shape of the temple. Important factors include the lower diameter of the columns and the width of their plinths. The distance between the column axes ( 1576: 39: 5232: 3964: 3020: 3185: 574: 1652: 1184: 554: 4860: 10481: 4242: 2432:, separate individual tableaux that could usually not contain more than three figures each, usually depicted individual scenes belonging to a broader context. It is rare for scenes to be distributed over several metopes; instead, a general narrative context, usually a battle, is created by the combination of multiple isolated scenes. Other thematical contexts could be depicted in this fashion. For example, the metopes at the front and back of the 10491: 784: 10501: 176: 3381: 4058:). All parts of this building are bulky and heavy, its columns reach a height of barely five times their bottom diameter and were very closely spaced with an intercolumniation of a single column width. The individual members of its Doric orders all differ considerably from the later canon, although all essential Doric features are present. Its ground plan of 8 by 17 columns, probably pseudoperipteral, is unusual. 4732: 4438:. Generally, Doric temples followed a tendency to become lighter in their superstructures. Columns became narrower, intercolumniations wider. This shows a growing adjustment to the proportion and weight of Ionic temples, mirrored by a progressive tendency among Ionic temples to become somewhat heavier. In the light of this mutual influence it is not surprising that in the late 4th century BC temple of 4414: 1851: 2303:) might be painted in different colours. The frieze was clearly structured by use of colours. In a Doric triglyph frieze, blue triglyphs alternated with red metopes, the latter often serving as a background for individually painted sculptures. Reliefs, ornaments, and pedimental sculptures were executed with a wider variety of colours and nuances. Recessed or otherwise shaded elements, like 321:, often around a sacred grove, cave or spring, and perhaps defined only by marker stones at intervals, with an altar for offerings. Many rural sanctuaries probably stayed in this style, but the more popular were gradually able to afford a building to house a cult image, especially in cities. This process was certainly under way by the 9th century BC, and probably started earlier. 1310: 3490: 1146: 5565:

attractive for the purposes of royals' self-aggrandisement. The demise of the Hellenistic monarchies and the increasing power of Rome and her allies placed mercantile elites and sanctuary administrations in the positions of building sponsors. The construction of Corinthian temples became a typical expression of self-confidence and independence. As an element of

5515:. Its columns, mostly still upright, stand on Attic bases without plinths, exceptional for the period. The 24 flutings of the columns are only indicated by facets in the lower third. Each of the Corinthian capitals is made of three separate parts, an exceptional form. The entablature of the temple was probably in the Doric order, as is suggested by fragments of 1829:, sometimes painted or decorated with relief sculpture. In the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the frieze possesses no triglyphs and is simply left flat, sometimes decorated with paintings or reliefs. With the introduction of stone architecture, the protection of the porticos and the support of the roof construction was moved upwards to the level of the 3995:) exemplifies the transition from wood to stone construction. This building, initially constructed entirely of wood and mudbrick, had its wooden columns gradually replaced with stone ones over time. Like a museum of Doric columns and Doric capitals, it contains examples of all chronological phases, up to the Roman period. One of the columns in the 1090: 1074: 2545: 631:, who redefined the principles of Ionic temple construction both practically and through theoretical work. At the same time, the rulers of the various Hellenistic kingdoms provided copious financial resources. Their self-aggrandisation, rivalry, desires to stabilise their spheres of influence, as well as the increasing conflict with 4669:. Only in the colonies could the Doric corner conflict be ignored. If South Italian architects tried to solve it, they used a variety of solutions: broadening of the corner metopes or triglyphs, variation of column distance or metopes. In some cases, different solutions were used on the broad and narrow sides of the same building. 3316:. Such exceptions are probably connected with cult practice. Study of the soils around temple sites, is evidence that temple sites were chosen with regard to particular deities: for example, amid arable soils for the agricultural deities Dionysos and Demeter, and near rocky soils for the hunter gatherer deities Apollo and Artemis. 2410:, surrounded by lions and perhaps other animals. On the other hand, the Ionic temples of Asia Minor did not possess a separate frieze to allow space for relief decoration. The most common area for relief decoration remained the frieze, either as a typical Doric triglyph frieze, with sculpted metopes, or as a continuous frieze on 3914:. The earliest stone columns did not display the simple squatness of the high and late Archaic specimens, but rather mirror the slenderness of their wooden predecessors. Already around 600, the demand of viewability from all sides was applied to the Doric temple, leading to the mirroring of the frontal 1997:

proper. The rules regarding vertical proportions, especially in the Doric order, also allow for a deduction of the basic design options for the entablature from the same principles. Alternatives to this very rational system were sought in the temples of the late 7th and early 6th centuries, when

3861:

The beginnings of Greek temple construction in the Doric order can be traced to early in the 7th century BC. With the transition to stone architecture around 600, the order was fully developed; from then on, only details were changed, developed and refined, mostly in the context of solving

5652:

Though extremely solidly built, apart from the roof, relatively few Greek temples have left very significant remains; these are often those which were converted to other uses such as churches or mosques. There are many where the platforms are reasonably complete, and some round drum elements of the

5000:

with figural decoration, like those at Ephesos. Construction ceased around 500, but was restarted in 331 and finally completed in the 2nd century. The enormous costs involved may have been one of the reasons for the long period of construction. The building was the first Ionic temple to follow

4519:

The technical possibilities of the western Greeks, which had progressed beyond those in the motherland, permitted many deviations. For example, innovations regarding the construction of the entablature developed in the west allowed the spanning of much wider spaces than before, leading to some very

3525:

It was typically necessary to make a sacrifice or gift, and some temples restricted access either to certain days of the year, or by class, race, gender (with either men or women forbidden), or even more tightly. Garlic-eaters were forbidden in one temple, in another women unless they were virgins;

3458:

shows another variation, where the two column rows are indicated by half-columns protruding from the side walls and crowned with Corinthian capitals. An early form of this solution can be seen at Bassae, where the central column of the back portico remains free-standing, while the columns along the

2207:

of the whole building, hardly visible with the naked eye, was introduced. The ancient architects had realised that long horizontal lines tend to make the optical impression of sagging towards their centre. To prevent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or entablature were raised by a

2078:

The basic proportions of the building were determined by the numeric relationship of columns on the front and back to those on the sides. The classic solution chosen by Greek architects is the formula "frontal columns : side columns = n : (2n+1)", which can also be used for the number of

3299:

For cultic reasons, but also to use the light of the rising sun, virtually all Greek temples were oriented with the main door to the east. Another reason for the orientation of temples facing east is because of the west was seen as the entrance to the Underworld, such as seen in the Odyssey. Some

2258:

also reflect it. Not one block of the building, not a single architrave or frieze element could be hewn as a simple rectilinear block. All architectural elements display slight variations from the right angle, individually calculated for each block. As a side effect, each preserved building block

549:

The observable change of form indicates the search for a harmonious form of all architectural elements: the development led from simpler early forms which often appear coarse and bulky up to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures; from simple experimentation to the strict

4623:

partially closed off by walls. With external dimensions of 56 × 113 m, it was the largest Doric building ever to be completed. If the colonies showed remarkable independence and will to experiment in basic terms, they did so even more in terms of detail. For example, the lower surfaces of Doric

4501:

Sicily and Southern Italy hardly participated in these developments. Here, most temple construction took place during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Later, the Western Greeks showed a pronounced tendency to develop unusual architectural solutions, more or less unthinkable in the mother

3735:

Building contracts were advertised after a popular or elected assembly had passed the relevant motion. An appointed committee would choose the winner among the submitted plans. Afterwards, another committee would supervise the building process. Its responsibilities included the advertising and

230:

or by the dimensions of the foundation levels. The nearly mathematical strictness of the basic designs thus reached was lightened by optical refinements. In spite of the still widespread idealised image, Greek temples were painted, so that bright reds and blues contrasted with the white of the

5564:

The few Greek temples in the Corinthian order are almost always exceptional in form or ground plan and are initially usually an expression of royal patronage. The Corinthian order permitted a considerable increase of the material and technical effort invested in a building, which made its use

337:

and Classical Greek temples, but during the Greek Dark Age the buildings became smaller and less monumental. The basic principles for the development of Greek temple architecture have their roots between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC. In its simplest form as a

1681:

are cut into the column shaft: Doric columns have 18 to 20 flutings, Ionic and Corinthian ones normally have 24. Early Ionic columns had up to 48 flutings. While Doric columns stand directly on the stylobate, Ionic and Corinthian ones possess a base, sometimes additionally placed atop a

5547:

of 8 × 11 columns. Its architectural members are entirely in keeping with the Asian/Ionic canon. Its distinctive feature, a rich figural frieze, makes this building, erected around 100 BC, an architectural gem. Further late Greek temples in the Corinthian order are known e.g. at

2805:. After the mid-6th century, the compositional scheme changes: animal scenes are now placed in the corners, soon they disappear entirely. The central composition is now taken over by mythological fights or by rows of human figures, and the figures become free-standing, as in the 2047:

walls and columns, but the introduction of stone architecture broke that connection. Nevertheless, it did survive throughout Ionic architecture. In Doric temples, however, the wooden roof construction, originally placed behind the frieze, now started at a higher level, behind the

5657:, or re-erecting fallen materials, has sometimes been used. The rectangular wall blocks have usually been carried off for re-use, and some buildings have been destroyed or weakened merely to get the bronze pins linking blocks. Marble sculpture has often been removed to make 3772:

chosen as their basic aesthetic principle. This choice, which was rarely entirely free, but normally determined by tradition and local habit, would lead to widely differing rules of design. According to the three major orders, a basic distinction can be made between the

3517:

of a Greek temple was limited to the priests, and it was entered only rarely by other visitors, except perhaps during important festivals or other special occasions. In recent decades this picture has changed, and scholars now stress the variety of local access rules.

4953:

of ten or more steps was erected. Older Ionic temples normally lacked a specific visible substructure. This emphasised basis had to be balanced out be a heightened entablature, producing not only a visual contrast to, but also a major weight upon the slender columns.

5309:. Its architect combined the dentils, typical of Asia Minor, with an Attic frieze, thus proving that the colonies were quite capable of partaking in the developments of the motherland. A small Ionic Hellenistic prostyle temple was found on the Poggetto San Nicola at 2905: 3702:

The sponsors of Greek temples usually belonged to one of two groups: on the one hand public sponsors, including the bodies and institutions that administrated important sanctuaries; on the other hand influential and affluent private sponsors, especially Hellenistic

5607: 3104:. Here, already on the Archaic temples, the lower parts of the column shafts were decorated by protruding relief decorations, originally depicting rows of figures, replaced on their late Classical and Hellenistic successors with mythological scenes and battles. 3899:

divided in two aisles by a central row of columns. Its entirely Doric entablature is indicated by painted clay plaques, probably early example of metopes, and clay triglyphs. It appears to be the case that all temples erected within the spheres of influence of

646:

But in spite of such examples and of the positive conditions produced by the economic upturn and the high degree of technical innovation in the 3rd and 2nd centuries, Hellenistic religious architecture is mostly represented by a multitude of small temples

5064:. It is based on a 6-by-6-foot (1.8 m × 1.8 m) grid (the exact dimensions of its plinths). The temple had 6 × 11 columns, i.e. a proportion of 5:10 or 1:2 intercolumnia. Walls and columns were aligned axially, according to Ionic tradition. The 998:; its existence is necessitated entirely by aesthetic considerations: to maintain the consistency of the peripteral temple and to ensure its visibility from all sides, the execution of the front has to be repeated at the rear. A restricted space, the 3480:

at Olympia. All these had chryselephantine images, and Pausanias was perhaps correct to link the Parthenon one with the maintenance of the proper humidity, but they probably increased the light, and perhaps gave it attractive effects of reflections.

2882: 1951:

As far as topographically possible, the temples were freestanding and designed to be viewed from all sides. They were not normally designed with consideration for their surroundings, but formed autonomous structures. This is a major difference from

4027:

walls and through the central axis of the associated columns. Its differentiation between wider intercolumnia on the narrow sides and narrower ones on the long sides was also an influential feature, as was the positioning of the columns within the

2265:

walls or entablature, can be assigned its exact position today. In spite of the immense extra effort entailed in this perfection, the Parthenon, including its sculptural decoration, was completed in the record time of sixteen years (447 to 431).

665:). The latter had been erected in important places, on market squares, near springs and by roads, since the Archaic period, but reached their main flourish now. This limitation to smaller structures led to the development of a special form, the 1981:) could also be used as a basic unit. These measurements were in set proportions to other elements of design, such as column height and column distance. In conjunction with the number of columns per side, they also determined the dimensions of 2122:

Since the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the proportion of column width to the space between columns, the intercolumnium, played an increasingly important role in architectural theory, reflected, for example, in the works of

128:, buildings erected to fulfill the functions of a temple often continued to follow the local traditions. Even where a Greek influence is visible, such structures are not normally considered as Greek temples. This applies, for example, to the 2599:, both from the late 2nd century BC. Complex compositions visualised the back and forth of fighting for the viewer. Such scenes were contrasted by more quiet or peaceful ones: The Assembly of the gods and a procession dominate the 5166:

with the width of two column distances, produces a massively broadened portico, comparable to the contemporaneous hall architecture. The grid of the temple of Magnesia was based on a 12-by-12-foot (3.7 m × 3.7 m) square. The

314:

The earliest Greek Sanctuaries probably did not contain temple buildings, though our knowledge of these is limited since many of these were destroyed, and the subject is controversial. A typical early sanctuary seems to have consisted of a

3760:(at a modern western European wage scale). Since the overall number of columns required for the design was 120, even this aspect of the building would have caused costs equivalent to those of major projects today (circa 360 million euro). 7048:

Internationales Kolloquium in Berlin vom 28. bis 29. Juli 1988 im Rahmen des XIII. Internationalen Kongresses für Klassische Archäologie. Mainz 1990; more generally: W. Hoepfner in: Wolfram Hoepfner & Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (Eds.):

1129: 2505: 5575: 3530:

were not allowed entry. Some temples could only be viewed from the threshold. Some temples are said never to be opened at all. But generally Greeks, including slaves, had a reasonable expectation of being allowed into the

4770:

walls aligned with the column axes, whereas in Doric architecture, the external wall faces do so. The early temples also show no concern for the typical Doric feature of visibility from all sides, they regularly lack an

354:

structures with more or less semi-circular back walls, but the rectangular type prevailed. By adding columns to this small basic structure, the Greeks triggered the development and variety of their temple architecture.

2824:, which had received a veritable burial after the temple's destruction in 373. The themes of the individual pedimental scenes are increasingly dominated by myths connected with the locality. Thus, the east pediment at 4165:

around 46. With its 6 × 13 columns or 5 × 12 intercolumniations, this temple was designed entirely rationally. Its column bays (axis to axis) measured 16 feet (4.9 m), a triglyph + metope 8 feet (2.4 m), a

6258:. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch–Historische Klasse Denkschriften. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 152. Band, p. 96, Taf. 4, Fig. 70. 2208:

few centimetres towards the middle of a building. This avoidance of mathematically straight lines also included the columns, which did not taper in a linear fashion, but were refined by a pronounced "swelling" (

3707:. The financial needs were covered by income from taxes or special levies, or by the sale of raw materials like silver. The collection of donations also occurred, especially for supra-regional sanctuaries like 635:(partially played out in the field of culture), combined to release much energy into the revival of complex Greek temple architecture. During this phase, Greek temples became widespread in southern Asia Minor, 3236:

itself was often finished with some moderation, although by the Roman period some had clearly become rather cluttered with other statues, military trophies and other gifts. Often, the only source of light for

3543:

it was possible to pray to or before the cult image, and sometimes to touch it; Cicero saw a bronze image of Heracles with its foot largely worn away by the touch of devotees. Famous cult images such as the

1676:

Placed on the stylobate are the vertical column shafts, tapering towards the top. They are normally made of several separately cut column drums. Depending on the architectural order, a different number of

4789:

became a determining element. At the same time, the Ionic temples were characterised by their tendency to use varied and richly decorated surfaces, as well as the widespread use of light-shade contrasts.

2646: 2695: 3412:

in early temples was replaced by two separate rows towards the sides. The central one of the three aisles thereby created was often emphasised as the main one. The dignity of the central aisle of the

2957:, originally in the form of elaborately painted clay disks, from the 6th century onwards as fully sculpted figures placed on the corners and ridges of the pediments. They could depict bowls and 2066:. Only after a long phase of developments did the architects choose the alignment of the outer wall face with the adjacent column axis as the obligatory principle for Doric temples. Doric temples in 5668:

The most complete remains are concentrated in Athens and southern Italy; several are described in more detail above, under their orders. Athens has the Parthenon and the even better preserved Doric

404:

technique. The elements of this simple and clearly structured wooden architecture produced all the important design principles that were to determine the development of Greek temples for centuries.

5251:

on the Acropolis, a small amphiprostyle temple completed around 420, with Ionic columns on plinthless Attic bases, a triple-layered architrave and a figural frieze, but without the typical Ionic

4340:

already contained such a room. All measurements in the Parthenon are determined by the proportion 4:9. It determines column width to column distance, width to length of the stylobate, and of the

3364:; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity. Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the 3948:. This relationship between the axes of walls and columns, almost a matter of course in smaller structures, remained undefined and without fixed rules for nearly a century: the position of the 2307:

or triglyph slits could be painted black. The paint was mostly applied to parts that were not load-bearing, whereas structural parts like columns or the horizontal elements of architrave and

417:, temples with a length of 100 feet (30 m). Since it was not technically possible to roof broad spaces at that time, these temples remained very narrow, at 6 to 10 metres in width. 5933: 4009:

corner conflict. It was achieved through a reduction of the corner intercolumniations the so-called corner contraction. The Heraion is most advanced in regards to the relationship between

7094: 7070: 7011: 6425: 6350: 3651:

could serve the display and storage of votives, often placed between the columns. In some cases, votive offerings could also be directly affixed to the columns, as is visible e.g. on the

3870:

Apart from early forms, occasionally still with apsidal backs and hipped roofs, the first 100-foot (30 m) peripteral temples occur quite soon, before 600. An example is Temple C at

2338: 490:

After the reintroduction of stone architecture, the essential elements and forms of each temple, such as the number of columns and of column rows, underwent constant change throughout

4358:

is determined by the reverse proportion 9:4, the same proportion squared, 81:16, determines temple length to height. All of this mathematical rigour is relaxed and loosened by the

2110: 445:) on all sides posed a new aesthetic challenge for the architects and patrons: the structures had to be built to be viewed from all directions. This led to the development of the 4394:

as well as the Assembly of the Gods. Large format figures decorate the pediments on the narrow sides. This conjunction of strict principles and elaborate refinements makes the

6055:

Bringmann, Klaus; Schmidt-Dounas, Barbara (2000). "Schenkungen hellenistischer Herrscher an griechische Städte und Heiligtümer". In von Steuben, Hans; Bringman, Klaus (eds.).

3522:

was a gentlemanly traveller of the 2nd-century AD who declares that the special intention of his travels around Greece was to see cult images, which he usually managed to do.

3130: 6483:. The column was constructed of drums, the round core, and finished with flutes, making the outer area look rippled. Slight swelling of the column is known as entasis. 1990. 4756:

have been found from this time. Nonetheless, some early temples in the area already indicate the rational system that was to characterise the Ionic system later on, e.g. the

4430:

In the 4th century BC, a few Doric temples were erected with 6 × 15 or 6 × 14 columns, probably referring to local Archaic predecessors, e.g. the Temple of Zeus in

3327:

using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the

4481:

The increasing reduction of the number of columns along the long sides, clearly visible on Ionic temples, is mirrored in Doric constructions. A small temple at Kournó has a

2619: 4851:, there were early temples entirely built of marble. Volute capitals have not been found associated with these, but their marble entablatures belonged to the Ionic order. 3110: 3031: 6417:

Internationales Kolloquium in Berlin vom 28. bis 29. Juli 1988 im Rahmen des XIII. Internationalen Kongresses für Klassische Archäologie. Mainz 1990. p. 12; Meral Ortac:

2100:, but also, reduced to 4:9, in all other basic measurements, including the intercolumniations, the stylobate, the width-height proportion of the entire building, and the 2054:. This ended the structural link between frieze and roof; the structural elements of the latter could now be placed independent of axial relationships. As a result, the 6299:

Freyberger, Klaus Stefan; Joukowsky, Martha Sharp (1997). "Blattranken, Greifen und Elefanten. Sakrale Architektur in Petra". In Weber, Thomas; Wenning, Robert (eds.).

3526:

restrictions typically arose from local ideas of ritual purity or a perceived whim of the deity. In some places visitors were asked to show they spoke Greek; elsewhere

7053:. Internationales Kolloquium in Berlin vom 28. bis 29. Juli 1988 im Rahmen des XIII. Internationalen Kongresses für Klassische Archäologie. Mainz 1990, p. 2 ff. 30 ff. 6239:

Freyberger, Klaus Stefan (2000). "Im Licht des Sonnengottes. Deutung und Funktion des sogenannten Bacchus-Tempels im Heiligtum des Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek".

5913: 2533: 5684:

survived in a rural location with most of its columns and main architrave blocks in place, amid a jumble of fallen stone. From this British antiquaries extracted the

4083:. Column drums built into the later foundations indicate that it was originally planned as a Doric temple. Nonetheless, its ground plan follows the Ionic examples of 3319:

The cult image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size, in early days in wood, marble or

4263:

maintains the same proportion at a larger scale of 8 × 17 columns, but follows the same principles. In spite of the eight columns on its front, the temple is a pure

5082:, is the first proper example in Ionic architecture. The evident rational-mathematical aspect to the design suits Ionic Greek culture, with its strong tradition of 846:

cannonball into the building, then used to store gunpowder, led to the destruction of much of this important temple, more than 2,000 years after it was built.

108:

and rituals dedicated to the deity took place outside them, within the wider precinct of the sanctuary, which might be large. Temples were frequently used to store

2925: 752:

they tend to follow the canonical forms of the developing Roman imperial style of architecture or to maintain local non-Greek idiosyncrasies, like the temples in

286:

or springs, animals dedicated to the deity, and sometimes people who had taken sanctuary from the law, which some temples offered, for example to runaway slaves.

5645: 4783:

only became widespread in the area in the 4th century. In contrast, from an early point, Ionic temples stress the front by using double porticos. Elongated

7600: 4275:

walls align with the axes of the second and seventh columns. In other regards, the Parthenon is distinguished as an exceptional example among the mass of Greek

3161: 11118: 7390:

Pollio, Marcus Vitruvius. "Marcus Vitruvius Pollio: De Architectura, Book IV." LacusCurtius • Vitruvius on Architecture - Book IV. Accessed November 27, 2022.

2844:. It is the foundation myth of the sanctuary itself, displayed here in its most prominent position. A similarly direct association is provided by the birth of 2670: 854:

Canonical Greek temples maintained the same basic structure throughout many centuries. The Greeks used a limited number of spatial components, influencing the

282:

is the most famous example, though this was apparently walled as a citadel before a temple was ever built there. This might include many subsidiary buildings,

3428:

of Doric temples. The impressiveness of the internal aisle could be emphasised further by having a third row of columns along the back, as is the case at the

6131:

Die Honoratiorenschicht in den Städten des griechischen Ostens. Untersuchungen zur politischen und sozialen Entwicklung in hellenistischer und römischer Zeit

3715:. Hellenistic monarchs could appear as private donors in cities outside their immediate sphere of influence and sponsor public buildings, as exemplified by 5636: 3926:

at the back. This early demand continued to affect Doric temples especially in the Greek motherland. Neither the Ionic temples, nor the Doric specimens in

2016:, a sacrifice of 100 animals), and all further measurements had to be in relation to this number, leading to aesthetically quite unsatisfactory solutions. 6596:. 2. Teil (ed. by Richard Harder). Berlin 1958. pp. 13–103. The calculation is based on a low-skilled craftsman's daily pay of 150 euro in modern Germany. 5456:, definitely Corinthian, is only attested through drawings by early travellers and very scarce fragments. It probably dates to the late 3rd century. 1209:

These components allowed the realisation of a variety of different plan types in Greek temple architecture. The simplest example of a Greek temple is the

830:

Thus ends the history of the Greek temples' original purpose, although many of them remained in use for a long time afterwards. For example, the Athenian

7153:"The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India" Getzel M. Cohen, University of California Press, 2013, p.327 3066: 259:, which, in spite of the very strong Greek influence on it, aimed for different goals and followed different aesthetic principles (for a comparison, see 2350: 2797:, is nearly free-standing sculpture, but remains dominated by a central scene of fighting lions. Again, the corners contain separate scenes, including 764:

of the east entailed the end of Greek temple architecture, although work continued on the completion of unfinished large structures like the temple of

6333:. Proceedings of a conference held at the American Academy in Rome to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the excavations at Cosa, 14–16 May 1998. 15758: 5098: 3930:

followed this principle. The increasing monumentalisation of stone buildings, and the transfer of the wooden roof construction to the level of the

3252:

s frontal door, and oil lamps within. Thus, the interior only received a limited amount of light. Exceptions are found in the temples of Apollo at

1632:, partially protrudes above the ground level. Its surface is carefully smoothed and levelled. It supports a further foundation of three steps, the 5569:, the Corinthian temple came to be widely distributed in all of the Graeco-Roman world, especially in Asia Minor, until the late Imperial period. 4933:

The columns stood on ephesian bases, 36 of them were decorated with life-sized friezes of human figures at the bottom of the shaft, the so-called

4478:. Both temples continued the tendency towards more richly equipped interiors, in both cases with engaged or full columns of the Corinthian order. 2816:

The high regard in which the Greeks held pedimental sculptures is demonstrated by the discovery of the sculptures from the Late Archaic temple of

1813:. The frieze was originally placed in front of the roof beams, which were externally visible only in the earlier temples of Asia Minor. The Doric 255:, whose officials and rulers took over as sponsors, led to the end of Greek temple construction. New temples now belonged to the tradition of the 207:

on all sides, often reaching more than 20 metres in height (not including the roof). Stylistically, they were governed by the regionally specific

15810: 7628: 5940: 5391:

layout. It seems that the temple had an outside wall with windows or doorways, in a layout similar to that of a Greek encircling row of columns (

4362:

mentioned above, which affect the whole building, from layer to layer, and element to element. 92 sculpted metopes decorate its triglyph frieze:

627:

The 2nd century saw a revival of temple architecture, including peripteral temples. This is partially due to the influence of the architect

7091: 7067: 7008: 6422: 6359: 6376: 6210: 6144: 6085: 6022: 5993: 4665:) had become a key principle of design, this was relativised by the broadening of column distances on the long sides, e.g. Temple of Hera I at 4410:, erected shortly after the Parthenon, uses the same aesthetic and proportional principles, without adhering as closely to the 4:9 proportion. 3793: 247:

or by the administrations of sanctuaries. Private individuals, especially Hellenistic rulers, could also sponsor such buildings. In the late

3149: 2486: 4943:

was one of the sponsors. An inscription referring to his sponsorship was indeed found on one of the columns. The temple was burnt down by

3406:, placed axially in front of the temple. To preserve this connection, the single row of columns often found along the central axis of the 2366: 592:

onwards, the Greek peripteral temple lost much of its importance. With very few exceptions, Classical temple construction ceased both in

11359: 9228: 1370:(colonnades) on all four sides, each usually formed by a single row of columns. This produces an unobstructed surrounding portico, the 11123: 7594: 5090:, who probably came from Priene, was a deserving successor and achieved the final flourish of Ionic architecture around 200 BC. 3050: 608:

maintained a low level of temple construction during the 3rd century. The construction of large projects, such as the temple of

5525:

showed the greatest tendency to combine Doric entablatures with Corinthian capitals and to do without the plinth under Attic bases.

4893:

had been one of the builders of the Samian Heraion. With a substructure of 55 × 115 m, the Artemision outscaled all precedents. Its

14843: 10537: 5054:, already considered in antiquity as the classical example of an Ionic temple, has partially survived. It was the first monumental 4194:

measures exactly 3 × 9 column distances (axis to axis), its external wall faces are aligned with the axes of the adjacent columns.

2041:. In the original temples, this would have been subject entirely to practical necessities, and always based on axial links between 2004:

or stylobate, i.e. to reverse the system described above and deduce the smaller units from the bigger ones. Thus, for example, the

6007:

Drerup, Heinrich (1962). "Zur Entstehung der griechischen Ringhalle". In Himmelmann-Wildschütz, Nikolaus; Biesantz, Hagen (eds.).

4691: 4493:

of monumental Doric temples is merely hinted at here; the function as a simple canopy for the shrine of the cult statue is clear.

15780: 12410: 6977:. Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.-18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung. Vol. 6, 1996, p. 78-83. 3551:

Sometimes, the divine character of the cult image was stressed even more by removing it further into a separate space within the

2775:

and her children at the centre, flanked by panthers. Smaller scenes are displayed in the low corners of the pediments, including

6900:. Bauforschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.-18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung. Bd. 6, 1996, p. 16-24. 5440:), it appears to have found increasing popularity in the last half of the 3rd century. Early examples probably include the 4988:

with open internal courtyard. The interior was structured with powerful pilasters, their rhythm reflecting that of the external

4178:) 4 feet (1.2 m), the tile width of the marble roof was 2 feet (0.61 m). Its columns are powerful, with only a slight 2323: 11176: 4803:

As soon as the Ionic order becomes recognisable in temple architecture, it is increased to monumental sizes. The temple in the

4508:

of their colonies. For example, there are two examples of temples with uneven column numbers at the front, Temple of Hera I at

713:, who rarely demonstrated their generosity by building temples. Nevertheless, some temples were erected at this time, e.g. the 3813:

The modern image of Greek temple architecture is strongly influenced by the numerous reasonably well-preserved temples of the

2285:, columns, and architrave were mostly white. Only details, like the horizontally cut grooves at the bottom of Doric capitals ( 2127:. According to this proportion, Vitruvius (3, 3, 1 ff) distinguished between five different design concepts and temple types: 2090:

to 336) had 6 × 13 columns or 5 × 11 intercolumniations. The same proportions, in a more abstract form, determine most of the

1913:, often elaborately decorated, was equipped with water spouts, often in the shape of lions' heads. The pedimental triangle or 407:

Near the end of the 7th century, the dimensions of these simple structures were increased considerably. Temple C at

11181: 7548: 5774: 2398:. In Archaic times, even the architrave could be relief-decorated on Ionic temples, as demonstrated by the earlier temple of 5917: 14833: 8616: 4643:

Although a strong tendency to emphasize the front, e.g. through the addition of ramps or stairs with up to eight steps (at

4021:, as it uses the solution that became canonical decades later, a linear axis running along the external faces of the outer 4077:

has a special position. Although this building was never completed, its architect apparently attempted to adapt the Ionic

3224:, the "dwelling" of the cult statue. The elaboration of the temple's external aspects served to stress the dignity of the 1145: 1128: 15815: 10962: 7621: 4711: 4600: 1956:

which were often designed as part of a planned urban area or square and had a strong emphasis on being viewed frontally.

226:

Greek temples were designed and constructed according to set proportions, mostly determined by the lower diameter of the

3372:(2.35 metres high, including a helmet). The image stood on a base, from the 5th century often carved with reliefs. 15775: 14838: 13435: 11064: 9238: 8928: 8621: 8555: 5789: 4910: 4675: 1417:

is equipped with a double colonnade on all four sides, sometimes with further rows of columns at the front and back. A

3266:

wall had a door, potentially allowing more light into the interior. A special situation applies to the temples of the

3019: 1835:, depriving the frieze of its structural function and turning it into an entirely decorative feature. Frequently, the 8626: 8601: 7534: 7513: 7499: 7485: 7471: 7457: 7432: 5889: 5479:

with its 110 × 44 m substructure and 8 × 20 columns was to be one of the largest Corinthian temples ever. Donated by

2865: 2849: 11272: 10735: 1432:. Although of sacred character, their function as a temple can often not be asserted. A comparable structure is the 14130: 14100: 11364: 10899: 10685: 10435: 9184: 8611: 8606: 6162:. Vol. 23. Istanbul: Beiheft Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung. pp. 119–122. 5470: 5408: 4087:

so closely that it would be hard to reconcile such a solution with a Doric triglyph frieze. After the expulsion of

4070: 3720: 3595:, usually served as a storage space for cult equipment. It could also hold the temple treasury. For some time, the 1703:, in Ionic columns, the capital sits directly on the shaft. In the Doric order, the capital consists of a circular 773: 6459: 5247:

Although Athens and Attica were also ethnically Ionian, the Ionic order was of minor importance in this area. The

4613:, but in many regards an absolutely "un-Greek" structure, equipped with details such as engaged, figural pillars ( 842:

conquest and remained structurally unharmed until the 17th century AD. Only the unfortunate impact of a

15565: 11654: 11398: 9078: 8938: 8933: 8210: 7560: 5673: 5428:

came to be used for the external design of Greek temples quite late. After it had proved its adequacy, e.g. on a

4748:

For the early period, before the 6th century, the term Ionic temple can, at best, designate a temple in the

3168: 2195:, normally ascribed to Hermogenes, does indeed have intercolumnia measuring 2 1/6 of the lower column diameters. 7584: 3090:

For the sake of completeness, a further potential bearer of sculptural decoration should be mentioned here: the

19: 10462: 9103: 8517: 7614: 7307:. Kolloquium Berlin 1990. Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung. Bd. 5. 1991, p. 247-248; Ralf Schenk: 6535: 5900: 5716: 4883:

around 550, the quantity of archaeological remains of Ionic temples increases. The Artemision was planned as a

4487:

of merely 6 × 7 columns, a stylobate of only 8 × 10 m and corners executed as pilasters towards the front. The

3825:

were accessible to western travellers quite early in the development of Classical studies, e.g. the temples at

3467: 2912: 2742: 15485: 14848: 12415: 11582: 11453: 11059: 10457: 10014: 9507: 9023: 8943: 8641: 8351: 5779: 5631: 5469:

The first dateable and well-preserved presence of the Corinthian temple is the Hellenistic rebuilding of the

2876:, late 3rd century, depicted a probably purely local legend, of no major interest to Greece as a whole. 1477:(IV, 3, 3) is determined by the number of columns at the front. Modern scholarship uses the following terms: 1453:

To clarify ground plan types, the defining terms can be combined, producing terms such as: peripteral double

70: 7574: 2203:

To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to counteract distortions of human visual perception, a slight

12254: 10705: 10530: 10430: 8959: 8413: 7173:"The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans", John M. Rosenfield, University of California Press, 1 janv. 1967 p.129 729: 400:

were protected with wooden planks. The mud brick walls were often reinforced by wooden posts, in a type of

4034:, corresponding with those on the outside, a feature not repeated until the construction of the temple at 1969:

The foundations of Greek temples could reach dimensions of up to 115 by 55 m, i.e. the size of an average

1426:

Circular temples form a special type. If they are surrounded by a colonnade, they are known as peripteral

1111: 14784: 12192: 11305: 10710: 9485: 9093: 8969: 8631: 8585: 8540: 8316: 8005: 6477:

Vom Medusabild zur Athenageburt. Bildprogramme griechischer Tempelgiebel archaischer und klassischer Zeit

5677: 5001:

the Attic tradition of uniform column distances, the frontal differentiation was not practised any more.

4916: 4188:

of the capitals is already nearly linear at 45°. All of the superstructure is affected by curvature. The

3446:, also had another impressive feature, namely two tiers of columns atop each other, as did the temple of 3117: 2060:

walls lost their fixed connection with the columns for a long time and could be freely placed within the

1803:

also used a frieze above an architrave, whereas the frieze remained unknown in the Ionic architecture of

105: 12187: 11130: 10024: 5964: 4538:

often had a depth of two column distances, e.g. at Temple of Hera I, Paestum, and temples C, F and G at

506: 14937: 13801: 11701: 11599: 10980: 10146: 10019: 9152: 9147: 9123: 9033: 8550: 7648: 7391: 5764: 3324: 3041: 2702: 636: 7265:. First International Symposium on Cilician Archaeology, Mersin 1.-4.6. 1998, Mersin 1999, p. 355-368. 5672:, both once churches, as well two small temples on the Acropolis and a corner of the large Corinthian 4636: 2958: 2304: 14376: 12680: 11477: 11047: 10595: 10504: 10447: 9403: 9206: 9191: 9113: 9048: 8368: 8263: 7737: 7671: 5784: 4047: 4046:

The oldest Doric temple entirely built of stone is represented by the early 6th century BC

3850: 3687: 3678: 3545: 3463: 3343:

in Athens, both colossal statues now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from

3328: 2946: 1987: 1372: 1323:

has a row of usually four or six columns in front of its whole breadth, the temple is described as a

1054: 538:

contained one or several. There were also temples at extra-urban sites and at major sanctuaries like

431: 141: 11208: 9015: 8995: 8193: 7851: 6394: 2729: 1058:, usually a single row, rarely a double one, of columns. This produces a surrounding colonnade, the 14954: 14563: 14523: 14507: 14221: 14150: 12425: 12086: 11876: 11198: 10640: 9201: 9164: 9098: 8764: 8651: 6607:

Der Tempel von Segesta und die dorische Tempelbaukunst des griechischen Westens in klassischer Zeit

5769: 5754: 5703:(Greek Italy), has three early Doric temples in a row, amid the mostly Roman ruins of the city. In 5119: 5103: 5030:

were usually somewhat smaller and shorter in their dimensions than Doric ones. E.g., the temple of

3985: 3968: 3652: 3313: 3309: 2734: 2596: 2330: 11443: 5363:. The temple is considered semi-classical, with a plan essentially that of a Greek temple, with a 3822: 2248:

walls reflect it throughout their height. The inclination of its columns (which also have a clear

1622:

form the substructure of the temple. The underground foundation of a Greek temple is known as the

1089: 15252: 15219: 14974: 14292: 13301: 12182: 12126: 11587: 10523: 10484: 9608: 9408: 9393: 9196: 9179: 9159: 9128: 9028: 8964: 8580: 8565: 8535: 8496: 8373: 8225: 7727: 4158: 4138: 3006: 2893: 2493: 2433: 1915: 761: 5653:

columns, which were harder for later builders to re-use. The somewhat controversial practice of

430:, supported by columns. The resulting set of colonnade surrounding the temple on all sides (the 15805: 15595: 14105: 13850: 12280: 11282: 11054: 10563: 10546: 10442: 9445: 9216: 9174: 9108: 9073: 8525: 8509: 8205: 8146: 7995: 7990: 6881:

Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus

6868:

Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus

6855:

Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus

6834:

Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus

6821:

Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus

5744: 5441: 4399: 4002: 3744:

The costs could be immense. For example, surviving receipts show that in the rebuilding of the

3519: 3424: 3203: 2992: 1700: 1678: 101: 61: 14697: 12249: 11090: 7174: 7154: 4202:

The Classical proportion, 6 × 13 columns, is taken up by numerous temples, e.g. the Temple of

3347:

have been excavated. Bronze cult images were less frequent, at least until Hellenistic times.

2010:

length was sometimes set at 100 feet (30 m) (100 is a sacred number, also known from the

1073: 705:

led to changes of architectural practice. The role of sponsor was increasingly taken by Roman

528:. Between the 6th and the late 4th century, innumerable temples were built; nearly every 14080: 13720: 12332: 12142: 12004: 11371: 11222: 10494: 9723: 9713: 9703: 9688: 9378: 9118: 9088: 9043: 9038: 8669: 8636: 8438: 8343: 8329: 7985: 7856: 7820: 6539: 5879: 5822: 5818: 5749: 5248: 5009: 4233:. A slight variation, with 6 × 12 columns or 5 × 11 intercolumniations occurs as frequently. 3753: 3195: 2932: 2429: 2293: 1826: 1715: 1428: 796: 714: 11085: 6352:

Die Bedeutung des Euergetismus für die Finanzierung städtischer Aufgaben in der Provinz Asia

3418:

could be underlined by the use of special elements of design. For example, the oldest known

235:. The more elaborate temples were equipped with very rich figural decoration in the form of 15555: 15382: 15362: 14942: 14881: 14181: 13811: 13680: 11846: 11677: 11247: 11105: 10944: 10850: 10670: 10650: 9966: 9960: 9946: 9430: 9388: 9058: 8288: 8084: 7579: 7425:

The Making of the Doric Temple: Architecture, Religion, and Social Change in Archaic Greece

6390: 5669: 5087: 4403: 4218: 4185: 3798: 2753: 2724: 2178: 1934: 1709: 681:

walls to produce the illusion of a peripteral temple. An early case of this is temple L at

628: 147: 6492:

Retallack, G.J., 2008, "Rocks, views, soils and plants at the temples of ancient Greece".

6176:; Erim, Kenan T. (1990). "Aphrodisias papers: Recent work on architecture and sculpture". 6173: 5665:, and any that has survived has usually been removed to a museum, not always a local one. 5173:

was surrounded by 8 × 15 columns or 7 × 14 intercolumniations, i.e. a 1:2 proportion. The

3665:, or simply as shelter from the elements, a function emphasised by Vitruvius (III 3, 8f). 3368:, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example the bronze 2313:

were left unpainted (if made of high-quality limestone or marble) or covered with a white

8: 15630: 15505: 15500: 15377: 15327: 15302: 15055: 14989: 14949: 14761: 14237: 14000: 13665: 13420: 13162: 12772: 12378: 12290: 11891: 11624: 11495: 11403: 11242: 11203: 11158: 10993: 10097: 10067: 9455: 9350: 9345: 8782: 8097: 8010: 7980: 7934: 7697: 6036:

Schenk, Ralf (1997). "Der korinthische Tempel bis zum Ende des Prinzipats des Augustus".

5508: 5382: 5281:

type. This small ionic prostyle temple had engaged columns along the sides and back, the

4817:, with outside dimensions of 52 × 105 m. A double portico of 8 × 21 columns enclosed the 3141: 2441: 1903: 1752: 1235: 1202: 957: 737: 649: 345: 279: 82: 28: 3756:. Considering that a worker was paid about two drachmas, that equals nearly two million 260: 15600: 15570: 15179: 14994: 14794: 14682: 14322: 14297: 13725: 13634: 13090: 13050: 12860: 12594: 12568: 12498: 12483: 12433: 12223: 11936: 11851: 11634: 11267: 11113: 11042: 10906: 10515: 10314: 10211: 10117: 9761: 9678: 9566: 9068: 8892: 8408: 8388: 8245: 8116: 8000: 7795: 7722: 6443:

Old Issues, New Research, Latest Discoveries: Curvature and Other Classical Refinements

6370: 6204: 6138: 6079: 6016: 5987: 5728: 5566: 5521:

scattered among the ruins. All of these details suggest an Alexandrian workshop, since

5403: 5083: 4890: 4644: 4092: 3905: 3419: 2802: 2787: 2449: 2344:

Panel painted on the scaffolding of the Temple of Concordia site from Agrigento in 2006

1978: 1807:

until the 4th century BC. There, the architrave was directly followed by the

843: 593: 589: 248: 117: 113: 15535: 11095: 7296: 7088:

Untersuchungen zur hellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Bauornamentik von Stratonikeia

7064:

Untersuchungen zur hellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Bauornamentik von Stratonikeia

7005:

Untersuchungen zur hellenistischen und kaiserzeitlichen Bauornamentik von Stratonikeia

2969:, and especially mythical figures and deities. For example, depictions of the running 2279:

Only three basic colours were used: white, blue and red, occasionally also black. The

1937:

of mythical scenes or battles. The corners and ridges of the roof were decorated with

1547:

Very few temples had an uneven number of columns at the front. Examples are Temple of

112:

offerings. They are the most important and most widespread surviving building type in

15590: 15387: 15372: 15357: 15297: 15282: 15277: 15115: 15085: 14999: 14662: 14272: 13935: 13654: 13236: 13176: 12634: 12604: 12558: 12443: 12218: 12121: 11996: 11981: 11906: 11262: 11188: 11080: 10881: 10490: 10389: 9976: 9525: 9373: 9325: 9169: 9138: 9083: 9000: 8877: 8749: 8570: 8403: 8356: 8296: 8170: 8152: 8128: 8110: 8065: 8020: 8015: 7666: 7544: 7530: 7509: 7495: 7481: 7467: 7453: 7428: 6531: 5896: 5885: 5061: 4926: 4876: 4864: 4150: 3871: 3745: 3567:, this tradition continued for a long time. Over the decades and centuries, numerous 3305: 3097: 1974: 1822: 1723:

expands more and more, culminating in a linear diagonal, at 45° to the vertical. The

1664: 1564: 1563:, both of which have a width of nine columns (enneastyle), and the Archaic temple at 1376:, on all four sides of the temple. A Hellenistic and Roman form of this shape is the 1188: 824: 479: 427: 408: 359: 298: 6960:

Sonderschriften des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes. Vol. 25. Wien 1994.

6347:

Regarding Roman period and financing, using the province of Asia as an example, see

5395:

design). It has been called "the most Hellenic structure yet found on Indian soil".

5139: 4562:. Much more frequently, the temples included a separate room at the back end of the 4336:, with a western room containing four columns, is also exceptional. The Parthenon's 4226: 1064:, which offered shelter to visitors of the sanctuary and room for cult processions. 744:. Although new temples to Greek deities still continued to be constructed, e.g. the 294: 15706: 15575: 15473: 15367: 15287: 15272: 15149: 15070: 14766: 14735: 14553: 14450: 14342: 13995: 13890: 13368: 13276: 13070: 13040: 13020: 12694: 12563: 12538: 12306: 11806: 11672: 11662: 11639: 11354: 11232: 11136: 10588: 10319: 9851: 9816: 9633: 9490: 9368: 9255: 9250: 8575: 8530: 8361: 8268: 7884: 7717: 7702: 7692: 6410: 5827: 5708: 5662: 5445: 5433: 5425: 5388: 5351:

Ruins of a provincial Ionic temple with a design very similar to those in the main

4804: 4757: 4381: 4284: 4122: 4088: 3365: 3336: 3190: 2970: 2677: 2626: 2600: 2080: 1748: 1378: 1258: 1197: 916: 859: 788: 702: 667: 325: 220: 208: 156: 11460: 7216:

Neue Forschungen in Diokaisareia / Uzuncaburç, Bericht über die Arbeiten 2001–2004

7044:. 1904, p 55; also see in: Wolfram Hoepfner & Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (Eds.): 6975:

Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur

6898:

Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur

6627: 5582: 4133: 1998:

it was attempted to develop the basic measurements from the planned dimensions of

1626:. It consists of several layers of squared stone blocks. The uppermost layer, the 686: 15661: 15605: 15174: 15065: 15040: 15032: 14558: 14216: 13980: 13675: 13584: 13537: 13000: 12785: 12402: 12368: 11696: 11500: 11470: 11376: 11037: 10986: 10924: 10660: 10550: 10334: 10092: 9880: 9693: 9435: 9301: 9233: 8560: 8158: 8140: 8134: 8048: 8025: 7899: 7810: 7770: 7707: 7098: 7074: 7015: 6429: 5836: 5658: 5613: 5327: 5070:

was of equal depth on all sides, eliminating the usual emphasis on the front, an

4662: 4458:

is suppressed. Frontality is a key feature of Ionic temples. The emphasis on the

4337: 4162: 4142: 3769: 3712: 3279: 3010: 2916: 2897: 2825: 2760:

figures, as in the earliest to survive, from shortly after 600, on the temple of

2497: 2437: 1764: 733: 539: 466: 137: 10359: 10072: 7311:. Internationale Archäologie 45, 1997, p. 37-39 (late 2nd century BC). 4913:, which may be justified, considering the efforts involved in its construction. 1821:. These were placed above the axis of each column, and above the centre of each 640: 15199: 15125: 15080: 14925: 14191: 14015: 13750: 13579: 13085: 13080: 13025: 13005: 12900: 12644: 12639: 12338: 12316: 12024: 11339: 11193: 11007: 10919: 10857: 10700: 10690: 10216: 10156: 10151: 10107: 9888: 9836: 9826: 9806: 9796: 9540: 9535: 9530: 8383: 8182: 8176: 8164: 7964: 7939: 7712: 7637: 7416: 6298: 5689: 5111: 4909:. The building was entirely of marble. The temple was considered as one of the 3459:

sides are in fact semi-columns connected with the walls by curved protrusions.

3369: 3077: 2706: 2575:

Battle scenes of all kinds were also a common theme of Ionic friezes, e.g. the

2539:

Lapith fighting a centaur on a metope from the Parthenon, in the British Museum

2524: 2067: 1970: 1919:

on the narrow sides of the temple was created by the Doric introduction of the

1695: 1389: 896: 839: 710: 672: 597: 491: 363: 334: 192: 121: 88: 38: 15257: 5501:

Around the middle of the 2nd century BC, a 6 × 12-column Corinthian

5487:

order with the Corinthian capital. Its Asian elements and its conception as a

5299:. One of the few exceptions is the early Classical Temple D, an 8 × 20-column 5231: 4962: 4554:

only played a subsidiary role, but did occur sometimes, e.g. at the temple of

3354:

was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A

1575: 1251:

by a door. To support the superstructure, two columns were placed between the

350:), forming a small porch. Until the 8th century BC, there were also 15799: 15701: 15645: 15640: 15584: 15515: 15413: 15159: 15050: 14969: 14165: 14010: 13990: 13985: 12233: 12228: 12014: 12009: 11525: 11290: 10974: 10955: 10936: 10740: 10452: 10369: 10344: 10034: 9956: 9638: 9581: 9480: 9470: 9440: 9422: 9296: 8448: 8230: 8122: 8078: 8040: 7879: 7800: 7300: 5759: 5724: 5700: 5685: 5296: 5143: 5047: 4363: 4112: 4005:

described it. This 6 × 16-column temple already called for a solution to the

3963: 3927: 3818: 3606: 3564: 2806: 2252:), is continued by architrave and triglyph frieze, the external walls of the 1841:

is also decorated with architrave and frieze, especially at the front of the

1644:

provides the surface on which the columns and walls are placed; it is called

1346: 601: 558: 420:

To stress the importance of the cult statue and the building holding it, the

401: 2911:

Illustrations with the sculptures of the two pediments of the Parthenon, by

1215:, a small rectangular structure sheltering the cult statue. In front of the 485: 457:(porch), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the back of the building, the 100:") were structures built to house deity statues within Greek sanctuaries in 15635: 15545: 15520: 15510: 15418: 15403: 15209: 15075: 14871: 14594: 14444: 14438: 14412: 14120: 14115: 14037: 14020: 14005: 13448: 13060: 12985: 12980: 12259: 12019: 11956: 11667: 11644: 11614: 11393: 11151: 10834: 10802: 10680: 10655: 10269: 10221: 10087: 9941: 9811: 9450: 9286: 8792: 8754: 8453: 6553:

Schenkungen hellenistischer Herrscher an griechische Städte und Heiligtümer

6301:

Petra: antike Felsstadt zwischen arabischer Tradition und griechischer Norm

5794: 5594: 5512: 5480: 5204: 4371: 4367: 4230: 4067: 3862:

the challenges posed by the design and construction of monumental temples.

3838: 3716: 3683: 3360:

was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu

3184: 2974: 2829: 2588: 2576: 2473: 2382:

Greek temples were often enhanced with figural decorations. especially the

1953: 1734: 1690: 1660: 1656: 1266: 982: 821: 813: 809: 632: 573: 535: 459: 283: 256: 252: 191:

Between the 9th century BC and the 6th century BC, the

125: 7520:

Der alte Heratempel in Paestum und die archaische Baukunst in Unteritalien

6756:

The Agora of Athens. The History, Shape and Uses of an ancient City Center

6661:

Der alte Heratempel in Paestum und die archaische Baukunst in Unteritalien

6197:

Veneratio Augusti. Eine Studie zu den Tempeln des ersten römischen Kaisers

4859: 1651: 1183: 553: 15620: 15550: 15433: 15317: 15100: 15060: 14920: 14789: 14257: 14176: 13965: 13915: 13780: 13765: 13619: 13291: 12910: 12358: 12111: 12071: 12063: 11916: 11896: 11886: 11826: 11766: 11746: 11741: 11682: 11532: 11334: 11146: 10892: 10756: 10695: 10645: 10578: 10289: 10181: 10161: 9989: 9497: 9475: 9465: 9460: 9383: 9340: 8887: 8797: 8787: 8674: 8664: 8428: 7805: 7780: 5654: 5641: 5484: 5449: 5352: 5332: 5256: 5236: 4944: 4753: 4736: 4391: 4154: 4006: 3814: 2357: 2215: 1920: 1784: 1768: 1730: 1628: 1594: 718: 706: 391: 344:, the temple was a simple rectangular shrine with protruding side walls ( 216: 212: 152: 47: 14636: 13425: 9994: 7142:

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Römische Abteilung

6447:

Appearance and Essence. Refinements of Classical Architecture: Curvature

4596:

were avoided, allowing for open roof constructions of up to 13 m width.

3727:. In such cases, the money came from the private treasury of the donor. 2177:

The determination and discussion of these basic principles went back to

1787:. In the Doric order, the entablature always consists of two parts, the 1583:

The elevation of Greek temples is always subdivided in three zones: the

820:, led to the gradual closure of Greek temples, or their conversion into 803: 15763: 15734: 15729: 15691: 15676: 15671: 15560: 15540: 15438: 15423: 15267: 15194: 15184: 15110: 14487: 14386: 14327: 14075: 14032: 13910: 13845: 13670: 13604: 13599: 13594: 13485: 13266: 13206: 13142: 13124: 12933: 12905: 12780: 12737: 12649: 12614: 12373: 12311: 12106: 12076: 11941: 11901: 11856: 11801: 11761: 11542: 11537: 11520: 11388: 11163: 11141: 10968: 10930: 10795: 10765: 10725: 10720: 10625: 10620: 10600: 10583: 10226: 10196: 10191: 10176: 10062: 10029: 9698: 9668: 9335: 9063: 8897: 8739: 8734: 8724: 8709: 8694: 8684: 8659: 8035: 7790: 7745: 6241:

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Damaskus

5522: 5392: 5306: 5043: 4830: 4513: 4425: 3662: 3476:

floor occupied by a very shallow pool filled with water (Parthenon) or

3320: 3137: 3037: 2873: 2657: 2653: 2461: 1804: 1788: 1623: 1560: 1483: 1440: 1434: 1361: 1356: 892: 855: 725: 605: 568: 447: 164: 13201: 12915: 6254:

Machatschek, Alois; Schwarz, Mario (1981). "Bauforschungen in Selge".

1755:

leaves, forming tendrils and volutes that reach to the corners of the

15724: 15719: 15711: 15696: 15681: 15428: 15408: 15332: 15322: 15247: 15229: 15214: 15189: 15008: 14876: 14799: 14730: 14656: 14407: 14302: 14287: 14277: 14196: 14186: 14135: 14070: 14065: 13895: 13796: 13614: 13513: 13251: 12928: 12895: 12845: 12835: 12702: 12629: 12548: 12345: 12264: 12101: 12096: 12091: 12081: 11946: 11921: 11911: 11811: 11781: 11688: 11505: 11465: 11438: 11428: 11418: 11295: 11257: 11170: 10913: 10886: 10864: 10843: 10774: 10715: 10675: 10201: 10127: 10112: 10082: 10077: 10009: 9933: 9918: 9903: 9846: 9746: 9398: 9330: 8902: 8882: 8852: 8847: 8842: 8807: 8802: 8772: 8719: 8679: 8458: 8324: 8278: 8258: 7889: 7760: 5799: 5720: 5712: 5617: 5429: 5310: 5272: 5268: 5039: 5035: 4949: 4947:

in 356 BC and reerected soon thereafter. For the replacement, a

4900: 4395: 4330:

on the front and back, reflecting Ionic habits. The execution of the

4289: 4260: 4246: 4241: 4121:. Its perfection was a priority of artistic endeavour throughout the 4107:

Apart from this exception and some examples in the more experimental

3842: 3602: 3477: 3429: 3340: 3283: 2988: 2984: 2953: 2853: 2810: 2610: 2520: 2477: 2457: 2395: 2233: 2226: 2225:

The most consistent use of these principles is seen in the Classical

2204: 2124: 2091: 1982: 1939: 1772: 1645: 1634: 1585: 1474: 831: 783: 682: 367: 274: 204: 24: 7392:

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/4*.html

6645:

Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Athen

6572:. Wiss. Buchges., Darmstadt 1986, p. 12-27; Wolfgang Müller-Wiener: 5699:, some way south of Naples near what was once the northern limit of 5616:

coin depicting a temple between hill symbols and elephant, Pandyas,

5559: 4041: 333:(15th to the 13th century BC) was the precursor for later 243:. The construction of temples was usually organised and financed by 219:

orders, a third alternative arose in late 3rd century with the

175: 15768: 15666: 15610: 15490: 15468: 15262: 15164: 15095: 15045: 14720: 14710: 14705: 14677: 14672: 14667: 14641: 14631: 14615: 14568: 14496: 14473: 14282: 14145: 14125: 14110: 14085: 14042: 13960: 13950: 13940: 13875: 13730: 13715: 13710: 13690: 13660: 13649: 13644: 13639: 13624: 13609: 13589: 13559: 13497: 13475: 13463: 13332: 13149: 13115: 13105: 13075: 13055: 13035: 13010: 12965: 12940: 12825: 12815: 12757: 12732: 12675: 12599: 12493: 12488: 12363: 11931: 11816: 11796: 11791: 11776: 11756: 11736: 11619: 11515: 11448: 11349: 11300: 11000: 10949: 10823: 10635: 10251: 10241: 10231: 10206: 9984: 9951: 9913: 9856: 9771: 9756: 9613: 9603: 9520: 9515: 8912: 8907: 8867: 8862: 8837: 8817: 8744: 8699: 8689: 8545: 8443: 8378: 8306: 7914: 5553: 5360: 5344: 5151: 4848: 4555: 3380: 3351: 3267: 3002: 2869: 2861: 2837: 2798: 2780: 2749: 2720: 2634: 2465: 2453: 2445: 2411: 2391: 2188: 2160:

Diastyle, board-columned: interkolumnium = 3 lower column diameters

2012: 1924: 1892: 1860: 1818: 1800: 1796: 1413: 1393: 1330: 817: 655: 240: 196: 43: 10004: 5735:

has a single Doric temple whose main structure is largely intact.

5586: 2977:

temple of Apollo at Delphi, and mounted amazons formed the corner

2144:

Systyle, close-columned: intercolumnium = 2 lower column diameters

690: 104:. The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since the 15625: 15615: 15580: 15495: 15458: 15312: 15307: 15224: 15204: 15169: 15154: 15105: 14932: 14915: 14740: 14725: 14543: 14502: 14371: 14366: 14332: 14317: 14267: 14206: 14155: 14140: 14095: 14027: 13955: 13920: 13905: 13880: 13865: 13835: 13806: 13775: 13770: 13740: 13735: 13564: 13554: 13518: 13508: 13491: 13353: 13337: 13322: 13296: 13281: 13261: 13241: 13211: 13167: 13100: 13030: 12885: 12850: 12840: 12830: 12820: 12795: 12727: 12717: 12553: 12543: 12448: 12353: 12172: 12116: 11951: 11836: 11831: 11821: 11786: 11771: 11751: 11559: 11510: 10816: 10615: 10394: 10384: 10329: 10324: 10309: 10299: 10284: 10279: 10166: 10054: 10044: 9923: 9898: 9893: 9866: 9861: 9841: 9831: 9821: 9786: 9776: 9766: 9718: 9708: 9683: 9648: 9643: 9618: 9271: 9053: 8714: 8704: 8463: 8433: 8423: 8418: 8398: 8393: 8273: 8220: 7929: 7919: 7909: 7904: 7894: 7606: 7029:

Untersuchungen zur kleinasiatischen Bauornamentik des Hellenismus

6924:

Naxos und Delos. Studien zur archaischen Architektur der Kykladen

6331:

Romanization and the City. Creation, transformation, and failures

5732: 5696: 5453: 5437: 5356: 5336: 5322: 4979: 4940: 4880: 4868: 4808: 4718: 4698: 4682: 4666: 4648: 4614: 4604: 4587: 4559: 4539: 4509: 4051: 3901: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3768:

One of the criteria by which Greek temples are classified is the

3749: 3527: 3332: 3301: 3121: 3057: 2962: 2765: 2761: 2682: 2592: 2512: 2469: 2210: 2109: 1882: 1843: 1552: 945: 757: 741: 696: 661: 617: 578: 521: 498: 475: 453: 390:

structures on stone foundations. The columns and superstructure (

329: 268: 200: 184: 133: 129: 10339: 9653: 7541: