Aggression - Knowledge

1806:(DHEA) is the most abundant circulating androgen hormone and can be rapidly metabolized within target tissues into potent androgens and estrogens. Gonadal steroids generally regulate aggression during the breeding season, but non-gonadal steroids may regulate aggression during the non-breeding season. Castration of various species in the non-breeding season has no effect on territorial aggression. In several avian studies, circulating DHEA has been found to be elevated in birds during the non-breeding season. These data support the idea that non-breeding birds combine adrenal and/or gonadal DHEA synthesis with neural DHEA metabolism to maintain territorial behavior when gonadal testosterone secretion is low. Similar results have been found in studies involving different strains of rats, mice, and hamsters. DHEA levels also have been studied in humans and may play a role in human aggression. Circulating DHEAS (its sulfated ester) levels rise during adrenarche (≈7 years of age) while plasma testosterone levels are relatively low. This implies that aggression in pre-pubertal children with aggressive conduct disorder might be correlated with plasma DHEAS rather than plasma testosterone, suggesting an important link between DHEAS and human aggressive behavior. 48: 2514:

12th one when someone cut in line (Harris 1974). Unexpected frustration may be another factor. In a separate study to demonstrate how unexpected frustration leads to increased aggression, Kulik & Brown (1979) selected a group of students as volunteers to make calls for charity donations. One group was told that the people they would call would be generous and the collection would be very successful. The other group was given no expectations. The group that expected success was more upset when no one was pledging than the group who did not expect success (everyone actually had horrible success). This research suggests that when an expectation does not materialize (successful collections), unexpected frustration arises which increases aggression.

2339:

adversity, including socioeconomic factors. Moreover, 'opposition' and 'status violations' in childhood appear to be more strongly linked to social problems in adulthood than simply aggressive antisocial behavior. Social learning through interactions in early childhood has been seen as a building block for levels of aggression which play a crucial role in the development of peer relationships in middle childhood. Overall, an interplay of biological, social and environmental factors can be considered. Some research indicates that changes in the weather can increase the likelihood of children exhibiting deviant behavior.

60: 1325:, or upbringing of young. Although there is much variation in species, generally the more physically aggressive sex is the male, particularly in mammals. In species where parental care by both sexes is required, there tends to be less of a difference. When the female can leave the male to care for the offspring, then females may be the larger and more physically aggressive. Competitiveness despite parental investment has also been observed in some species. A related factor is the rate at which males and females are able to mate again after producing offspring, and the basic principles of 1670:, where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions. The hypothesis has been subsequently expanded and modified to predict relationships between testosterone and aggression in other species. For example, chimpanzees, which are continuous breeders, show significantly raised testosterone levels and aggressive male-male interactions when receptive and fertile females are present. Currently, no research has specified a relationship between the modified challenge hypothesis and human behavior, or the human nature of 1749:(OFC). This brain area is strongly associated with impulse control and self-regulation systems that integrate emotion, motivation, and cognition to guide context-appropriate behavior. Patients with localized lesions to the OFC engage in heightened reactive aggression. Aggressive behavior may be regulated by testosterone via reduced medial OFC engagement following social provocation. When measuring participants' salivary testosterone, higher levels can predict subsequent aggressive behavioral reactions to unfairness faced during a task. Moreover, brain scanning with 2476:, women tend to get into conflicts with other women more frequently than with men. When in conflict with males, instead of using physical means, they make up songs mocking the man, which spread across the island and humiliate him. If a woman wanted to kill a man, she would either convince her male relatives to kill him or hire an assassin. Although these two methods involve physical violence, both are forms of indirect aggression, since the aggressor herself avoids getting directly involved or putting herself in immediate physical danger. 810:. This occurs in many species by aggressive encounters between contending males when they are first together in a common environment. Usually the more aggressive animals become the more dominant. In test situations, most of the conspecific aggression ceases about 24 hours after the group of animals is brought together. Aggression has been defined from this viewpoint as "behavior which is intended to increase the social dominance of the organism relative to the dominance position of other organisms". Losing confrontations may be called 1683: 1534:, neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear. Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuitry within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression. The role of the amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses. 693: 723:, including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of the healthier/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring. Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility. 1361:, meaning non-physical or indirect, tends to increase after age two while physical aggression decreases. There was no significant difference in aggression between males and females before two years of age. A possible explanation for this could be that girls develop language skills more quickly than boys, and therefore have better ways of verbalizing their wants and needs. They are more likely to use communication when trying to retrieve a toy with the words "Ask nicely" or "Say please." 2506:

likely on hotter days than cooler ones (Carlsmith & Anderson 1979). Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a test in a hot classroom (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule, et al. 1987). Drivers in cars without air conditioning were also found to be more likely to honk their horns (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986), which is used as a measure of aggression and has shown links to other factors such as generic symbols of aggression or the visibility of other drivers.

2538:(PTSD) is also a serious issue in the military, also believed to sometimes lead to aggression in soldiers who are suffering from what they witnessed in battle. They come back to the civilian world and may still be haunted by flashbacks and nightmares, causing severe stress. In addition, it has been claimed that in the rare minority who are claimed to be inclined toward serial killing, violent impulses may be reinforced and refined in war, possibly creating more effective murderers. 1419:

study showed that social anxiety and stress was positively correlated with aggression in males, meaning as stress and social anxiety increases so does aggression. Furthermore, a male with higher social skills has a lower rate of aggressive behavior than a male with lower social skills. In females, higher rates of aggression were only correlated with higher rates of stress. Other than biological factors that contribute to aggression there are physical factors as well.

916:. This is most obviously the case in terms of attacking prey to obtain food, or in anti-predatory defense. It may also be the case in competition between members of the same species or subgroup, if the average reward (e.g., status, access to resources, protection of self or kin) outweighs average costs (e.g., injury, exclusion from the group, death). There are some hypotheses of specific adaptions for violence in humans under certain circumstances, including for 9733: 2193:, the more that children are physically punished, the more likely they are as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners. In countries where physical punishment of children is perceived as being more culturally accepted, it is less strongly associated with increased aggression; however, physical punishment has been found to predict some increase in child aggression regardless of culture. While these associations do not prove 1349:, sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology. Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping. It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females. This analysis also conforms with the 9759: 9746: 1368:, an analysis across 9 countries found boys reported more in the use of physical aggression. At the same time no consistent sex differences emerged within relational aggression. It has been found that girls are more likely than boys to use reactive aggression and then retract, but boys are more likely to increase rather than to retract their aggression after their first reaction. Studies show girls' aggressive tactics included 1646:

the same in humans as they are in rhesus monkeys and baboons, then the increase in aggressive behaviors during ovulation is explained by the decline in estrogen levels. This makes normal testosterone levels more effective. Castrated mice and rats exhibit lower levels of aggression. Males castrated as neonates exhibit low levels of aggression even when given testosterone throughout their development.

873:

be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Uninhibited fear results in fleeing, thereby removing the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and resolving the inconsistency. In some cases thwarted escape may trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus.

1776:, a review of crime studies, states most studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex. However, nearly all studies of juvenile delinquency and testosterone are not significant. Most studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as 1642:

Testosterone is present to a lesser extent in females, who may be more sensitive to its effects. Animal studies have also indicated a link between incidents of aggression and the individual level of circulating testosterone. However, results in relation to primates, particularly humans, are less clear cut and are at best only suggestive of a positive association in some contexts.

973: 491:

isolation-induced aggression, irritable aggression, and brain-stimulation-induced aggression (hypothalamus). There are two subtypes of human aggression: (1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented); and (2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or undesirable). Aggression differs from what is commonly called

2048: 2431:(2008): "Proactive aggression is typically reasoned, unemotional, and focused on acquiring some goal. For example, a bully wants peer approval and victim submission, and gang members want status and control. In contrast, reactive aggression is frequently highly emotional and is often the result of biased or deficient cognitive processing on the part of the student." 2425:(2011): "The best way to prevent aggressive behavior is to give your child a stable, secure home life with firm, loving discipline and full-time supervision during the toddler and preschool years. Everyone who cares for your child should be a good role model and agree on the rules he's expected to observe as well as the response to use if he disobeys." 2547:

always be the case. From this alternate view, although the recipient may or may not be harmed, the perceived intent is to increase the status of the aggressor, not necessarily to harm the recipient. Such scholars contend that traditional definitions of aggression have no validity because of how challenging it is to study directly.

1722:, have been identified as having the ability to exert different effects on aggression in mice. However, the effect of estradiol appears to vary depending on the strain of mouse, and in some strains it reduces aggression during long days (16 h of light), while during short days (8 h of light) estradiol rapidly increases aggression. 2335:

self-regulation. However, a small subset of children fail to acquire all the necessary self-regulatory abilities and tend to show atypical levels of physical aggression across development. They may be at risk for later violent behavior or, conversely, lack of aggression that may be considered necessary within society.

1380:

could contribute to the evening of aggression and the "need to win" attitude between both genders. Among sex differences found in adult sports were that females have a higher scale of indirect hostility while men have a higher scale of assault. Another difference found is that men have up to 20 times higher levels of

2226:

or violent method of social control is perceived as aggression – or as legitimate versus illegitimate aggression – depends on the position of the relevant parties in relation to the social order of their culture. This in turn can relate to factors such as: norms for coordinating actions and

2137:

show a range of different societies. In general, aggression, conflict and violence sometimes occur, but direct confrontation is generally avoided and conflict is socially managed by a variety of verbal and non-verbal methods. Different rates of aggression or violence, currently or in the past, within

1988:

on its own), can influence development of brain regions such as the amygdala and as a result some types of behavioral response may be more likely. The generally unclear picture has been compared to equally difficult findings obtained in regard to other complex behavioral phenotypes. For example, both

1603:

play a key role in complex social behaviours in many mammals such as regulating attachment, social recognition, and aggression. Vasopressin has been implicated in male-typical social behaviors which includes aggression. Oxytocin may have a particular role in regulating female bonds with offspring and

1400:

The new statistics reflect a reality documented in research: women are perpetrators as well as victims of family violence. However, another equally possible explanation is a case of improved diagnostics: it has become more acceptable for men to report female domestic violence to the authorities while

872:

the perception into matching the expected situation. In this approach, when the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may

785:

Aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded.

573:

from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression. However, some researchers question the usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and

463:

due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; while the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an

2546:

Some recent scholarship has questioned traditional psychological conceptualizations of aggression as universally negative. Most traditional psychological definitions of aggression focus on the harm to the recipient of the aggression, implying this is the intent of the aggressor; however this may not

2241:

research has found differences in attitudes towards aggression in different cultures. In one questionnaire study of university students, in addition to men overall justifying some types of aggression more than women, United States respondents justified defensive physical aggression more readily than

1927:

In mice, candidate genes for differentiating aggression between the sexes are the Sry (sex determining region Y) gene, located on the Y chromosome and the Sts (steroid sulfatase) gene. The Sts gene encodes the steroid sulfatase enzyme, which is pivotal in the regulation of neurosteroid biosynthesis.

1645:

In humans, there is a seasonal variation in aggression associated with changes in testosterone. For example, in some primate species, such as rhesus monkeys and baboons, females are more likely to engage in fights around the time of ovulation as well as right before menstruation. If the results were

1568:

has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. At least one epigenetic study supports this supposition. Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions

1356:

There are more recent findings that show that differences in male and female aggression appear at about two years of age, though the differences in aggression are more consistent in middle-aged children and adolescence. Tremblay, Japel and Pérusse (1999) asserted that physically aggressive behaviors

2513:

states that aggression increases if a person feels that he or she is being blocked from achieving a goal (Aronson et al. 2005). One study found that the closeness to the goal makes a difference. The study examined people waiting in line and concluded that the 2nd person was more aggressive than the

2317:

Some scholars believe that behaviors like aggression may be partially learned by watching and imitating people's behavior, while other researchers have concluded that the media may have some small effects on aggression. There is also research questioning this view. For instance, a long-term outcome

2298:

of human competitiveness and aggression in pursuit of resources and trade, which has been considered in both positive and negative terms. Attitudes about the social acceptability of particular acts or targets of aggression are also important factors. This can be highly controversial, as for example

2173:

spirit in all areas of life, the use of humor to counter the tendency of any one person to dominate the group, and non-coercive or "indulgent" child-rearing practices. Gray likens hunter-gatherer bands to social play groups, while stressing that such play is not frivolous or even easy at all times.

1837:

is the most prominent in humans. Results in adults suggest that reduced levels of cortisol, linked to lower fear or a reduced stress response, can be associated with more aggression. However, it may be that proactive aggression is associated with low cortisol levels while reactive aggression may be

1821:

promote aggressive behavior and acute reduction of corticosterone decreases aggression; however, a chronic reduction of corticosterone levels can produce abnormally aggressive behavior. In addition, glucocorticoids affect development of aggression and establishment of social hierarchies. Adult mice

1765:

of males usually has a pacifying effect on aggressive behavior in males. In humans, males engage in crime and especially violent crime more than females. The involvement in crime usually rises in the early teens to mid teens which happen at the same time as testosterone levels rise. Research on the

1392:

Some studies suggest that romantic involvement in adolescence decreases aggression in males and females, but decreases at a higher rate in females. Females will seem more desirable to their mate if they fit in with society and females that are aggressive do not usually fit well in society. They can

2505:

Pain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water can cause an aggressive response. Hot temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. One study completed in the midst of the civil rights movement found that riots were more

2501:

There has been some links between those prone to violence and their alcohol use. Those who are prone to violence and use alcohol are more likely to carry out violent acts. Alcohol impairs judgment, making people much less cautious than they usually are (MacDonald et al. 1996). It also disrupts the

2410:

was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961. In this work, Bandura found that children exposed to an aggressive adult model acted more aggressively than those who were exposed to a nonaggressive adult model. This experiment suggests that anyone who comes in contact with and interacts with children can

2338:

However, some findings suggest that early aggression does not necessarily lead to aggression later on, although the course through early childhood is an important predictor of outcomes in middle childhood. In addition, physical aggression that continues is likely occurring in the context of family

1641:

Early androgenization has an organizational effect on the developing brains of both males and females, making more neural circuits that control sexual behavior as well as intermale and interfemale aggression become more sensitive to testosterone. There are noticeable sex differences in aggression.

5466:

Schechter, Daniel S.; Moser, Dominik A.; Pointet, Virginie C.; Aue, Tatjana; Stenz, Ludwig; Paoloni-Giacobino, Ariane; Adouan, Wafae; Manini, Aurélia; Suardi, Francesca; Vital, Marylene; Sancho Rossignol, Ana; Cordero, Maria I.; Rothenberg, Molly; Ansermet, François; Rusconi Serpa, Sandra; Dayer,

4710:

Lansford, Jennifer E.; Skinner, Ann T.; Sorbring, Emma; Giunta, Laura Di; Deater-Deckard, Kirby; Dodge, Kenneth A.; Malone, Patrick S.; Oburu, Paul; Pastorelli, Concetta; Tapanya, Sombat; Uribe Tirado, Liliana Maria; Zelli, Arnaldo; Al-Hassan, Suha M.; Peña Alampay, Liane; Bacchini, Dario; Bombi,

2550:

From this view, rather than concepts such as assertiveness, aggression, violence and criminal violence existing as distinct constructs, they exist instead along a continuum with moderate levels of aggression being most adaptive. Such scholars do not consider this a trivial difference, noting that

2533:

A new proposal links military experience to anger and aggression, developing aggressive reactions and investigating these effects on those possessing the traits of a serial killer. Castle and Hensley state, "The military provides the social context where servicemen learn aggression, violence, and

2021:

that aggression is, typically, a means of gaining control over resources. Aggression is, thus, aggravated during times when high population densities generate resource shortages. According to Richard Leakey and his colleagues, aggression in humans has also increased by becoming more interested in

1787:

Studies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of

1709:

Aromatase is highly expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. In studies using genetic knockout techniques in inbred mice, male mice that lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction in aggression. Long-term

1658:

outlines the dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The

1418:

In addition, males in competitive sports are often advised by their coaches not to be in intimate relationships based on the premises that they become more docile and less aggressive during an athletic event. The circumstances in which males and females experience aggression are also different. A

1379:

One factor that shows insignificant differences between male and female aggression is in sports. In sports, the rate of aggression in both contact and non-contact sports is relatively equal. Since the establishment of Title IX, female sports have increased in competitiveness and importance, which

781:

individuals. Release of nerol by T. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting. Alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals; in T. fulviventris,

711:

of animals in natural settings. In such settings aggression can involve bodily contact such as biting, hitting or pushing, but most conflicts are settled by threat displays and intimidating thrusts that cause no physical harm. This form of aggression may include the display of body size, antlers,

458:

is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though often done with the intent to cause harm, it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For

2446:

Gender is a factor that plays a role in both human and animal aggression. Males are historically believed to be generally more physically aggressive than females from an early age, and men commit the vast majority of murders (Buss 2005). This is one of the most robust and reliable behavioral sex

1919:

is a critical determinant of certain sexually dimorphic behaviors, and its artificial alteration can result in a reversal of stereotypically male and female patterns of aggression in fighting. However, in what was thought to be a relatively clear case, inherent complexities have been reported in

1478:

Many researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on the type of trigger or intention.

822:

have been observed in mammalian species, particularly in gregarious primates. These can mitigate or repair possible adverse consequences, especially for the recipient of aggression who may become vulnerable to attacks by other members of a group. Conciliatory acts vary by species and may involve

817:

Conflicts between animals occur in many contexts, such as between potential mating partners, between parents and offspring, between siblings and between competitors for resources. Group-living animals may dispute over the direction of travel or the allocation of time to joint activities. Various

1498:

components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin. In rodents, activation of

478:

In an interdisciplinary perspective, aggression is regarded as "an ensemble of mechanism formed during the course of evolution in order to assert oneself, relatives, or friends against others, to gain or to defend resources (ultimate causes) by harmful damaging means. These mechanisms are often

2451:

have found the discrepancy in male and female aggression to be more pronounced in childhood and the gender difference in adults to be modest when studied in an experimental context. Still, there is evidence that males are quicker to aggression (Frey et al. 2003) and more likely than females to

1967:

published in 2002, approximately 40% of variation between individuals is explained by differences in genes, and 60% by differences in environment (mainly non-shared environmental influences rather than those that would be shared by being raised together). However, such studies have depended on

2334:

The frequency of physical aggression in humans peaks at around 2–3 years of age. It then declines gradually on average. These observations suggest that physical aggression is not only a learned behavior but that development provides opportunities for the learning and biological development of

1376:, breaking confidences, and criticism of a victim's clothing, appearance, or personality, whereas boys engage in aggression that involves a direct physical and/or verbal assault. This could be due to the fact that girls' frontal lobes develop earlier than boys, allowing them to self-restrain. 644:

Biological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli, a product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to

1293:

Gender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that seek to explain findings that males and females of the same species can have differing aggressive behaviors. One review concluded that male aggression tended to produce pain or physical injury whereas female

1936:, corresponding to the onset of maternal aggression. At least one study has found a possible epigenetic signature (i.e., decreased methylation at a specific CpG site on the promoter region) of the serotonin receptor 5-HT3a that is associated with maternal aggression among human subjects. 2205:

to aggression in children from preschool age through adolescence, Gershoff concluded: "Spanking consistently predicted increases in children's aggression over time, regardless of how aggressive children were when the spanking occurred". similar results were found by Catherine Taylor at

490:

or non-verbally: including anti-predator aggression, defensive aggression (fear-induced), predatory aggression, dominance aggression, inter-male aggression, resident-intruder aggression, maternal aggression, species-specific aggression, sex-related aggression, territorial aggression,

2033:

Social and cultural aspects may significantly interfere with the distinct expression of aggressiveness. For example, a high population density, when associated with a decrease of available resources, might be a significant intervening variable for the occurrence of violent acts.

581:

such as covert bullying and social manipulation; whether harm to others is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g.,

839:

animals including primates may show abnormal levels of social aggression and self-harm that are related to aspects of the physical or social environment; this depends on the species and individual factors such as gender, age and background (e.g., raised wild or captive).

2362:

Aggressive behavior can impede learning as a skill deficit, while assertive behavior can facilitate learning. However, with young children, aggressive behavior is developmentally appropriate and can lead to opportunities of building conflict resolution and communication

896:, intergroup aggression represents an opportunity for men to gain access to mates, territory, resources and increased status. As such, conflicts may have created selection evolutionary pressures for psychological mechanisms in men to initiate intergroup aggression. 1979:

studies that seek to identify specific genes, for example that influence neurotransmitter or hormone levels, have generally resulted in contradictory findings characterized by failed attempts at replication. One possible factor is an allele (variant) of the

1788:

losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted. In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.

2227:

dividing resources; what is considered self-defense or provocation; attitudes towards 'outsiders', attitudes towards specific groups such as women, disabled people or those with lower status; the availability of alternative conflict resolution strategies;

826:

Other questions that have been considered in the study of primate aggression, including in humans, is how aggression affects the organization of a group, what costs are incurred by aggression, and why some primates avoid aggressive behavior. For example,

2467:

Although females are less likely than males to initiate physical violence, they can express aggression by using a variety of non-physical means. Exactly which method women use to express aggression is something that varies from culture to culture. On

2174:

According to Gray, "Social play—that is, play involving more than one player—is necessarily egalitarian. It always requires a suspension of aggression and dominance along with a heightened sensitivity to the needs and desires of the other players".

1585:(including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, 1393:

often be viewed as antisocial. Female aggression is not considered the norm in society and going against the norm can sometimes prevent one from getting a mate. However, studies have shown that an increasing number of women are getting arrested on

2214:

argues, "There are many reasons this evidence has been ignored. One of the most important is the belief that spanking is more effective than nonviolent discipline and is, therefore, sometimes necessary, despite the risk of harmful side effects".

1958:

In humans, there is good evidence that the basic human neural architecture underpinning the potential for flexible aggressive responses is influenced by genes as well as environment. In terms of variation between individual people, more than 100

2267:. In a study including 62 countries school principals reported aggressive student behavior more often the more individualist, and hence less collectivist, their country's culture. Other comparisons made in relation to aggression or war include 2008:

share aspects of aggression with non-human animals, and have specific aspects and complexity related to factors such as genetics, early development, social learning and flexibility, culture and morals. Konrad Lorenz stated in his 1963 classic,

1725:

Another hypothesis is that testosterone influences brain areas that control behavioral reactions. Studies in animal models indicate that aggression is affected by several interconnected cortical and subcortical structures within the so-called

7900:

Card, Noel A.; Stucky, Brian D.; Sawalani, Gita M.; Little, Todd D. (2008). "Direct and Indirect Aggression During Childhood and Adolescence: A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Differences, Intercorrelations, and Relations to Maladjustment".

944:. These try to understand not just one-off encounters but protracted stand-offs, and mainly differ in the criteria by which an individual decides to give up rather than risk loss and harm in physical conflict (such as through estimates of 1907:

In general, differences in a continuous phenotype such as aggression are likely to result from the action of a large number of genes each of small effect, which interact with each other and the environment through development and life.

823:

specific gestures or simply more proximity and interaction between the individuals involved. However, conflicts over food are rarely followed by post conflict reunions, even though they are the most frequent type in foraging primates.

5014: 5078:

Kruk, Menno R.; Van Der Poel, A.M.; Meelis, W.; Hermans, J.; Mostert, P.G.; Mos, J.; Lohman, A.H.M. (1983). "Discriminant analysis of the localization of aggression-inducing electrode placements in the hypothalamus of male rats".

2551:

many traditional researchers' aggression measurements may measure outcomes lower down in the continuum, at levels which are adaptive, yet they generalize their findings to non-adaptive levels of aggression, thus losing precision.

751:

resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats. In

2366:

By school age, children should learn more socially appropriate forms of communicating such as expressing themselves through verbal or written language; if they have not, this behavior may signify a disability or developmental

2318:

study of youth found no long-term relationship between playing violent video games and youth violence or bullying. One study suggested there is a smaller effect of violent video games on aggression than has been found with

6701:

Cherepkova, Elena V; Maksimov, Vladimir N; Aftanas, Lyubomir I; Menshanov, Petr N (2015). "Genotype and haplotype frequencies of the DRD4 VNTR polymorphism in the men with no history of ADHD, convicted of violent crimes".

5277:

Potegal, M.; Hebert, M.; Decoster, M.; Meyerhoff, J. L. (1996). "Brief, high-frequency stimulation of the corticomedial amygdala induces a delayed and prolonged increase of aggressiveness in male Syrian golden hamsters".

2521:

and Anthony Le Page (1967), college students were made angry and then left in the presence of a gun or badminton racket. They were then led to believe they were delivering electric shocks to another student, as in the

1340:. However, there are critiques for using animal behavior to explain human behavior, especially in the application of evolutionary explanations to contemporary human behavior, including differences between the genders. 4763:

Hay, Dale F.; Nash, Alison; Caplan, Marlene; Swartzentruber, Jan; Ishikawa, Fumiko; Vespo, Jo Ellen (2011). "The emergence of gender differences in physical aggression in the context of conflict between young peers".

2246:

men were shown in a study on university students to be more affected and to respond more aggressively than northerners when randomly insulted after being bumped into, which was theoretically related to a traditional

1742:(PAG), and it positively modulates reactive aggression. Moreover, a study done in human subjects showed that prefrontal-amygdala connectivity is modulated by endogenous testosterone during social emotional behavior. 3294:

Coccaro, Emil F.; Beresford, Brendan; Minar, Philip; Kaskow, Jon; Geracioti, Thomas (2007). "CSF testosterone: Relationship to aggression, impulsivity, and venturesomeness in adult males with personality disorder".

786:

Also, an individual is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. One particular phenomenon – the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill

479:

motivated by emotions like fear, frustration, anger, feelings of stress, dominance or pleasure (proximate causes). Sometimes aggressive behavior serves as a stress relief or a subjective feeling of power."

923:

Although aggressive encounters are ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, with often high stakes, most encounters that involve aggression may be resolved through posturing, or displaying and trial of strength.

1784:. Many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship. 645:

frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, a resultant of variables that affect personal and situational environments.

4425:

Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Hodge, S. J.; Spong, G.; Russell, A. F.; Jordan, N. R.; Bennett, N. C.; Sharpe, L. L.; Manser, M. B. (2006). "Intrasexual competition and sexual selection in cooperative mammals".

565:, in which aggression is used as a means to achieve a goal. An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone who insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be 2740:

De Almeida, Rosa Maria Martins; Cabral, João Carlos Centurion; Narvaes, Rodrigo (2015). "Behavioural, hormonal and neurobiological mechanisms of aggressive behaviour in human and nonhuman primates".

1690:

Another line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to

2326:

to time spent playing the games. The author concluded that insufficient evidence exists to link video game violence with aggression. However, another study suggested links to aggressive behavior.

2201:

suggest that the experience of physical punishment has a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. In examining several longitudinal studies that investigated the path from disciplinary

1659:

challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in

1431:. This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in a group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive 2526:. Those who had been in the presence of the gun administered more shocks. It is possible that a violence-related stimulus increases the likelihood of aggressive cognitions by activating the 475:, aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person. Some definitions include that the individual must intend to harm another person. 2242:

Japanese or Spanish respondents, whereas Japanese students preferred direct verbal aggression (but not indirect) more than their American and Spanish counterparts. Within American culture,

1332:

The pattern of male and female aggression is argued to be consistent with evolved sexually-selected behavioral differences, while alternative or complementary views emphasize conventional

6959: 7296:

Amjad, Naumana; Wood, Alex M. (2009). "Identifying and changing the normative beliefs about aggression which lead young Muslim adults to join extremist anti-Semitic groups in Pakistan".

7944:

Hines, Denise A.; Saudino, Kimberly J. (2003). "Gender Differences in Psychological, Physical, and Sexual Aggression Among College Students Using the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales".

4670:

Lussier, Patrick; Corrado, Raymond; Tzoumakis, Stacy (2012). "Gender Differences in Physical Aggression and Associated Developmental Correlates in a Sample of Canadian Preschoolers".

1753:

shows reduced activity in the medial OFC during such reactions. Such findings may suggest that a specific brain region, the OFC, is a key factor in understanding reactive aggression.

8163: 577:

A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves

7767: 1345: 4291:

McCall, Grant S.; Shields, Nancy (2008). "Examining the evidence from small-scale societies and early prehistory and implications for modern theories of aggression and violence".

2859:

Microaggressions are something that somebody says to you; they can be a way that you've been made to feel. They are often subtle behaviours, but their effects are far from subtle

1971:

The few laboratory-based analyses have not found significant amounts of individual variation in aggression explicable by genetic variation in the human population. Furthermore,

1329:

are also influenced by ecological factors affecting the ways or extent to which one sex can compete for the other. The role of such factors in human evolution is controversial.

881:

Like many behaviors, aggression can be examined in terms of its ability to help an animal itself survive and reproduce, or alternatively to risk survival and reproduction. This

4936: 8022:

Navis, Charlene; Brown, Stephen L.; Heim, Derek (2008). "Predictors of injurious assault committed during or after drinking alcohol: A case–control study of young offenders".

7595:

Bongers, I. L.; Koot, H. M.; Van Der Ende, J.; Verhulst, F. C. (2007). "Predicting young adult social functioning from developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviour".

2013:

that human behavior is shaped by four main, survival-seeking animal drives. Taken together, these drives—hunger, fear, reproduction, and aggression—achieve natural selection.

1893:, detected by neurons in the antenna, that send a message to the brain eliciting aggression; it has been noted that aggression pheremones have not been identified in humans. 7134:

Fujihara, Takehiro; Kohyama, Takaya; Andreu, J. Manuel; Ramirez, J. Martin (1999). "Justification of interpersonal aggression in Japanese, American, and Spanish students".

1761:

Scientists have for a long time been interested in the relationship between testosterone and aggressive behavior. In most species, males are more aggressive than females.

5873:

Soma, Kiran K.; Scotti, Melissa-Ann L.; Newman, Amy E.M.; Charlier, Thierry D.; Demas, Gregory E. (2008). "Novel mechanisms for neuroendocrine regulation of aggression".

1357:

such as kicking, biting and hitting are age-typical expressions of innate and spontaneous reactions to biological drives such as anger, hunger, and affiliation. Girls'

767:" in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. Alternative defenses include a range of 3166:

Ramírez, J.M.; Andreu, J.M. (2006). "Aggression, and some related psychological constructs (anger, hostility, and impulsivity) Some comments from a research project".

818:

factors limit the escalation of aggression, including communicative displays, conventions, and routines. In addition, following aggressive incidents, various forms of

8057:

Turner, Charles W.; Layton, John F.; Simons, Lynn S. (1975). "Naturalistic studies of aggressive behavior: Aggressive stimuli, victim visibility, and horn honking".

1589:, although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol. 10289: 7560:

NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2004). "Trajectories of physical aggression from toddlerhood to middle childhood: Predictors, correlates, and outcomes".

1710:

treatment with estradiol partially restored aggressive behavior, suggesting that the neural conversion of circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on

1507:(VMHvl) was found to be sufficient to initiate aggression in both males and females. Midbrain areas involved in aggression have direct connections with both the 806:

Aggression between conspecifics in a group typically involves access to resources and breeding opportunities. One of its most common functions is to establish a

712:

claws or teeth; stereotyped signals including facial expressions; vocalizations such as bird song; the release of chemicals; and changes in coloration. The term

6285:

Pibiri, Fabio; Nelson, Marianela; Carboni, Giovanni; Pinna, Graziano (2006). "Neurosteroids regulate mouse aggression induced by anabolic androgenic steroids".

3209:

Veenema, Alexa H.; Neumann, Inga D. (2007). "Neurobiological Mechanisms of Aggression and Stress Coping: A Comparative Study in Mouse and Rat Selection Lines".

1401:

at the same time actual female domestic violence has not increased at all. This could be the case in a situation where men had become less ashamed of reporting

6862: 518:

and proposed that it is not so much the frustration as the unpleasant emotion that evokes aggressive tendencies, and that all aversive events produce negative

5365:

Greenberg, Neil; Scott, Michelle; Crews, David (1984). "Role of the amygdala in the reproductive and aggressive behavior of the lizard, Anolis carolinensis".

2688:

Maremmani I., Avella M.T., Novi M., Bacciardi S., Maremmani A.G.I. Aggressive Behavior and Substance Use Disorder: The Heroin Use Disorder as a Case Study.

864:, and proposes that aggressive behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation (e.g., " 442: 6654:"Harsh Discipline, Childhood Sexual Assault, and MAOA Genotype: An Investigation of Main and Interactive Effects on Diverse Clinical Externalizing Outcomes" 6250:

Constantino, John N.; Grosz, Daniel; Saenger, Paul; Chandler, Donald W.; Nandi, Reena; Earls, Felton J. (1993). "Testosterone and Aggression in Children".

594:). Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style. Aggression may be 8358:

R. Douglas Fields, "The Roots of Human Aggression: Experiments in humans and animals have started to identify how violent behaviors begin in the brain",

3834:

Bragin, A. V.; Osadchuk, L. V.; Osadchuk, A. V. (2006). "The experimental model of establishment and maintenance of social hierarchy in laboratory mice".

1963:

have been conducted in recent decades examining the genetic basis of aggressive behavior and related constructs such as conduct disorders. According to a

8364:, vol. 320, no. 5 (May 2019), pp. 64–71. "Decisions to take aggressive action are risky and bring into play specific neural circuits." (p. 66.) 4836:"The differences in sport aggression, life aggression, and life assertion among adult male and female collision, contact, and non-contact sport athletes" 8374: 2185:

to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors. According to

8604: 8461: 3942:

Aureli, Filippo; Cords, Marina; Van Schaik, Carel P. (2002). "Conflict resolution following aggression in gregarious animals: A predictive framework".

1415:

such a situation could conceivably lead to an increasing number of women being arrested despite the actual number of violent women remaining the same.

1730:

network. A study involving lesions and electrical-chemical stimulation in rodents and cats revealed that such a neural network consists of the medial

1465:, which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status. 9798: 8429: 2319: 1549:

and inhibition of impulses, including inhibition of aggression and emotions. Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex, in particular its medial and

1212: 1955:

enzyme. They were also faster to attack another male. The causal connection between SOD1 deficiency and increased aggression is not yet understood.

6888: 549:

Aggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile

5829:

Muller, Martin N; Wrangham, Richard W (2004). "Dominance, aggression and testosterone in wild chimpanzees: A test of the 'challenge hypothesis'".

1397:

charges. In many states, women now account for a quarter to a third of all domestic violence arrests, up from less than 10 percent a decade ago.

10623: 2702:

DeBono, Amber; Muraven, Mark (1 November 2014). "Rejection perceptions: feeling disrespected leads to greater aggression than feeling disliked".

1353:

which reviewed past analysis which found men to use more verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type.

1336:

stemming from physical evolved differences. Aggression in women may have evolved to be, on average, less physically dangerous and more covert or

6968: 5800:

Wingfield, John C.; Ball, Gregory F.; Dufty, Alfred M.; Hegner, Robert E.; Ramenofsky, Marilyn (1987). "Testosterone and Aggression in Birds".

4951: 920:, but it is often unclear what behaviors may have been selected for and what may have been a byproduct, as in the case of collective violence. 5793: 4390:

Eagly, Alice H.; Steffen, Valerie J. (1986). "Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature".

6330:

Choi, P. Y. L.; Parrott, A. C.; Cowan, D. (1990). "High-dose anabolic steroids in strength athletes: Effects upon hostility and aggression".

2846: 1877:(Mups) have been demonstrated to promote innate aggressive behavior in males, and can be mediated by neuromodulatory systems. Mups activate 47: 2428: 782:

individuals that have been captured by a predator may release nerol to attract nestmates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator.

7807: 7368: 1838:

accompanied by elevated levels. Differences in assessments of cortisol may also explain a diversity of results, particularly in children.

6023:

Mehta, Pranjal H.; Beer, Jennifer (2010). "Neural Mechanisms of the Testosterone–Aggression Relation: The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex".

2460:, some scientists argue that females can be quite aggressive, although female aggression is rarely expressed physically. An exception is 1826: 1620: 1564:, in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in 7423:

Anderson, Craig A.; Dill, Karen E. (2000). "Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life".

3271: 6396:

Chamero P; Marton TF; Logan DW; et al. (December 2007). "Identification of protein pheromones that promote aggressive behaviour".

2788:

Miczek, Klaus A.; Almeida, Rosa M. M. de; Kravitz, Edward A.; Rissman, Emilie F.; Boer, Sietse F. de; Raine, Adrian (31 October 2007).

756:

a predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks.

7221:

Bergmüller, Silvia (2013). "The Relationship Between Cultural Individualism-Collectivism and Student Aggression Across 62 Countries".

3278: 3275: 1822:

with low baseline levels of corticosterone are more likely to become dominant than are mice with high baseline corticosterone levels.

1770:

which is not done for research purposes. Studies therefore have often instead used more unreliable measurements from blood or saliva.

10316: 9305: 8398: 7792: 7351: 7170: 4932: 3083:

McEllistrem, Joseph E. (2004). "Affective and predatory violence: A bimodal classification system of human aggression and violence".

2248: 1275: 1124: 435: 7468:

Tremblay, Richard E. (2000). "The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century?".

3499:

Johnson, L. K.; Wiemer, D. F. (1982). "Nerol: An alarm substance of the stingless bee, Trigona fulviventris (Hymenoptera: Apidae)".

1928:

It is expressed in both sexes, is correlated with levels of aggression among male mice, and increases dramatically in females after

1494:

are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and

1427:

Regarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large

10184: 9593: 9195: 6771: 1990: 7147: 889:. However, there are profound differences in the extent of acceptance of a biological or evolutionary basis for human aggression. 5744: 5410:"The expression of social dominance following neonatal lesions of the amygdala or hippocampus in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)" 3110:

Bushman, Brad J.; Anderson, Craig A. (2001). "Is it time to pull the plug on hostile versus instrumental aggression dichotomy?".

1169: 932:

within a population, and potentially become 'Evolutionary Stable Strategies'. An initial model of resolution of conflicts is the

7836: 6639: 5726: 5450: 3481: 2517:

There is some evidence to suggest that the presence of violent objects such as a gun can trigger aggression. In a study done by

1766:

relationship between testosterone and aggression is difficult since the only reliable measurement of brain testosterone is by a

1577:, also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the 1538:, which involves removing or destroying parts of the amygdala, has been performed on people to reduce their violent behaviour. 354: 7711:

Bandura, Albert; Ross, Dorothea; Ross, Sheila A. (1961). "Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models".

5320:"Attack priming in female Syrian golden hamsters is associated with a c-fos-coupled process within the corticomedial amygdala" 4859:"Developmental trajectories of aggression from late childhood through adolescence: Similarities and differences across gender" 10046: 9791: 9165: 9085: 9060: 8939: 8819: 8422: 8281: 8201: 7678: 7118: 5598: 5469:"The association of serotonin receptor 3A methylation with maternal violence exposure, neural activity, and child aggression" 4994: 4654: 4617: 3370: 3343: 2969: 2934: 2138:

or between groups, have been linked to the structuring of societies and environmental conditions influencing factors such as

1164: 865: 553:

with the intention of inflicting damage or harm. Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes

515: 7754: 3775: 3471:

Gleitman, Henry, Alan J. Fridlund, and Daniel Reisberg. Psychology. 6th ed. New York: W W Norton and Company, 2004. 431–432.

10395: 9285: 8493: 6536: 1239: 1179: 1053: 428: 4365: 2263:

styles, which may relate, for example, to whether disputes are responded to with open competition or by accommodating and

10410: 10400: 9065: 8990: 8917: 8893: 8841: 6787: 4952:"Social anxiety in relation to social skills, aggression, and stress among male and female commercial institute students" 3585:"Numerical assessment affects aggression and competitive ability: A team-fighting strategy for the ant Formica xerophila" 2061:

for proper paragraphing. Excessively long, run-on paragraphs need to be split into multiple paragraphs of moderate length

1004: 495:, although the terms are often used interchangeably among laypeople (as in phrases such as "an aggressive salesperson"). 2992:

Akert, R.M., Aronson, E., & Wilson, T.D. (2010). Social Psychology (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

2352:. Examples of assertiveness include asking others for information, initiating conversation, or being able to respond to 9725: 9677: 9310: 8696: 8449: 8164:"Contrary to popular belief, recent psychology findings suggest aggression isn't always tied to a lack of self-control" 3055:

Archer, J. (1976). "The organization of aggression and fear in vertebrates". In Bateson, P.P.G.; Klopfer, P.H. (eds.).

2130: 1068: 1043: 8217:

Hawley, Patricia H.; Vaughn, Brian E. (2003). "Aggression and Adaptive Functioning: The Bright Side to Bad Behavior".

2165:

hypothesizes that band hunter-gatherer societies are able to reduce aggression while maintaining relatively peaceful,

10294: 9105: 8100:

Castle, T.; Hensley, C (2002). "Serial Killers with Military Experience: Applying Learning Theory to Serial Murder".

7987:

Björkqvist, Kaj (1994). "Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research".

6025: 5787: 3986: 2596: 2084: 1234: 5581:

Heinrichs, M; Domes, G (2008). "Neuropeptides and social behaviour: Effects of oxytocin and vasopressin in humans".

3866:

Ferguson, Christopher J.; Beaver, Kevin M. (2009). "Natural born killers: The genetic origins of extreme violence".

1573:

systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels.

9784: 9738: 9345: 9130: 8922: 8415: 7256: 6498:"Selective Activation of G Protein Subtypes in the Vomeronasal Organ upon Stimulation with Urine-derived Compounds" 4277: 3153: 2030:

in 1989 that refuted claims, by evolutionary scientists, that genetics by itself was the sole cause of aggression.

1454: 1174: 1117: 1063: 987: 7695: 9340: 9320: 9033: 8778: 8486: 8481: 8454: 5875: 5567:

Pihl, RO & Benkelfat, C. 'Neuromodulators in the Development and Expression of Inhibition and Aggression' in

5510:"Development of violence in mice through repeated victory along with changes in prefrontal cortex neurochemistry" 4907: 4478: 3297: 1777: 1141: 1112: 1089: 1038: 638: 634: 630: 6818: 5124:"Vasopressin/serotonin interactions in the anterior hypothalamus control aggressive behavior in golden hamsters" 4223:

Vugt, Mark Van; Cremer, David De; Janssen, Dirk P. (2007). "Gender Differences in Cooperation and Competition".

2359:

In contrast, some young children use aggressive behavior, such as hitting or biting, as a form of communication.

1795:

use, although an effect of abnormally high levels of steroids does not prove an effect at physiological levels.

1791:

The possible correlation between testosterone and aggression could explain the "roid rage" that can result from

629:). Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as 542:", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards the visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as " 510:, which was described as an unpleasant emotion resulting from any interference with achieving a rewarding goal. 9598: 9558: 9513: 9220: 9043: 8613: 8550: 7778:

Coie, J.D. & Dodge, K.A. (1997). Aggression and antisocial behavior. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds).

6084: 2535: 2422: 2260: 2151: 1080: 483:

or defensive behavior between members of different species may not be considered aggression in the same sense.

319: 7514: 7269:

Sherer, Moshe; Karnieli-Miller, Orit (2004). "Aggression and violence among Jewish and Arab Youth in Israel".

4574: 3413:

Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood: In History and Society. Paula S. Fass (Ed.). Macmillan Reference Books

1666:

This pattern between testosterone and aggression was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the

10147: 9670: 9355: 9335: 9272: 8723: 8592: 8533: 7340:

Akert, M. Robin, Aronson, E., and Wilson, D.T. "Social Psychology", 5th Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. 2005

6154: 3731:

Heitor, Filipa; Oom, Maria do Mar; Vicente, Luís (2006). "Social relationships in a herd of Sorraia horses".

2510: 2222:'aggressive' can itself be used as a way of asserting a judgement from a particular point of view. Whether a 2190: 2027: 1402: 1268: 1224: 1151: 1093: 1073: 1058: 719:

Most ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure

39: 530:

stimuli, Archer categorized aggression-evoking (as well as fear-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely,

9518: 9290: 9110: 8733: 8701: 8609: 6207:

Albert, D.J.; Walsh, M.L.; Jonik, R.H. (1993). "Aggression in humans: What is its biological foundation?".

4117:

Somit, A. (1990). "Humans, Chimps, and Bonobos: The Biological Bases of Aggression, War, and Peacemaking".

1604:

mates, including the use of protective aggression. Initial studies in humans suggest some similar effects.

1207: 1102: 1029: 999: 992: 6848: 1968:

self-report or observation by others including parents, which complicates interpretation of the results.

10613: 10486: 10311: 9889: 9862: 9764: 9330: 8565: 2633: 2252: 2066: 2058: 1048: 1025: 747:

is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its

35: 31: 6961:

Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children

2452:

express their aggression physically. When considering indirect forms of non-violent aggression, such as

10618: 10051: 9852: 9225: 9095: 9075: 8854: 8599: 5831: 5509: 5039: 4835: 3776:"Individual Variation in Social Aggression and the Probability of Inheritance: Theory and a Field Test" 3693: 2648: 2628: 1997:

are directly associated with the incidence of proactive aggression in the men with no history of ADHD.

1578: 1129: 1014: 945: 672:

A psychological sense of "hostile or destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of

669:-, which meant step at. The first known use dates back to 1611, in the sense of an unprovoked attack. 386: 293: 17: 8375:

When Family Life Hurts: Family experience of aggression in children – Parentline plus, 31 October 2010

5537: 1817:

hormones have an important role in regulating aggressive behavior. In adult rats, acute injections of

617:

and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another. Likewise in competitive

10608: 10103: 9645: 9616: 9503: 9417: 9325: 9300: 9125: 9090: 8866: 7865:

Archer, John (2004). "Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review".

7437: 5975: 5971:"Endogenous Testosterone Modulates Prefrontal-Amygdala Connectivity during Social Emotional Behavior" 5924: 5742:

Archer, John (2006). "Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis".

2581: 2461: 2348:

Young children preparing to enter kindergarten need to develop the socially important skill of being

2300: 2162: 2118: 1504: 1302: 1146: 1107: 964: 882: 869: 8379: 8324: 7827: 7609: 7482: 7310: 6168: 6039: 4237: 2464:

that occurs among couples who are engaged, married, or in some other form of intimate relationship.

561:

aggression that is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or

10466: 9976: 9538: 9422: 9295: 9115: 9048: 8910: 8883: 8738: 8513: 8476: 2854: 2623: 1878: 1842: 1495: 1261: 1202: 760: 614: 381: 339: 143: 136: 3152:

Ellie L. Young, David A. Nelson, America B. Hottle, Brittney Warburton, and Bryan K. Young (2010)

10603: 10503: 10379: 9807: 9702: 9543: 9409: 9235: 9215: 9205: 9020: 9000: 8871: 8859: 8849: 8706: 8438: 6833: 6496:

Krieger, J.; Schmitt, A.; Lobel, D.; Gudermann, T.; Schultz, G.; Breer, H.; Boekhoff, I. (1999).

5920:"The Neurobiological Bases for Development of Pharmacological Treatments of Aggressive Disorders" 5713:

Carlson, N. 'Hormonal Control of Aggressive Behavior' Chapter 11 in ,2013, Pearson Education Inc.

4074:

van Kampen, H.S. (2019). "The principle of consistency and the cause and function of behaviour".

3070: 2312: 2122: 1916: 1890: 1462: 1446: 1249: 893: 768: 228: 158: 9906: 7060:"Mothers' Spanking of 3-Year-Old Children and Subsequent Risk of Children's Aggressive Behavior" 6851:

Totem: The University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology, Volume 17, Issue 1, Article 13

4519:

Campbell, Anne (1999). "Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression".

3156:

Principal Leadership, October, copyright the National Association of Secondary School Principals

2447:

differences, and it has been found across many different age groups and cultures. However, some

2129:

without modern technology was conducted by most groups throughout human history, including most

1984:

which, in interaction with certain life events such as childhood maltreatment (which may show a

814:, and winning or losing is associated with a range of practical and psychological consequences. 775:. An example of an alarm signal is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of 10194: 9933: 9660: 9655: 9630: 9578: 9573: 9413: 9405: 9396: 9391: 9360: 9252: 9038: 8975: 8728: 8647: 8319: 7840: 7822: 7604: 7477: 7432: 7365: 7305: 6163: 6034: 5122:

Ferris, C. F.; Melloni, R. H. Jr.; Koppel, G; Perry, K. W.; Fuller, R. W.; Delville, Y (1997).

4232: 3410: 2961:

Aggression und Gewalt. Ein biologischer, psychologischer und sozialwissenschaftlicher Überblick

2243: 2178: 1920:

deciphering the connections between interacting genes in an environmental context and a social

1902: 1874: 1803: 1582: 527: 59: 6447:

Smith, R. S.; Hu, R.; Desouza, A.; Eberly, C. L.; Krahe, K.; Chan, W.; Araneda, R. C. (2015).

4986: 4974: 4646: 4634: 1951:

were found to be more aggressive than both wild-type males and males that express 50% of this

10493: 10152: 9986: 9687: 9650: 9548: 9457: 9452: 9427: 9155: 9135: 8985: 8905: 8878: 8809: 8577: 8189: 3360: 3333: 2643: 2566: 2453: 2391: 2283: 1846: 1453:

have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as

1358: 578: 487: 364: 303: 8304: 5569:

Developmental_origins_of_aggression.html?id=XmSfJEl2v4sC Developmental Origins of Aggression

3895:"Modulation of aggressive behaviour by fighting experience: Mechanisms and contest outcomes" 1530:

area in the lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006). In

1009: 10461: 9996: 9961: 9938: 9896: 9820: 9640: 9447: 9432: 9400: 9387: 9248: 9160: 9028: 8995: 8970: 8824: 8788: 8682: 8652: 8471: 6405: 5811: 5184: 5173:"Scalable control of mounting and attack by Esr1+ neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus" 4435: 2893: 2586: 2407: 2400: 2382: 2323: 1994: 1746: 1655: 1550: 861: 777: 626: 486:

Aggression can take a variety of forms, which may be expressed physically, or communicated

369: 8395: 7110:

The Primordial Violence: Spanking Children, Psychological Development, Violence, and Crime

4564:, edited by David M. Buss, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. Chapter 21 by Anne Campbell. 848:

Within ethology, it has long been recognized that there is a relation between aggression,

8: 10593: 10405: 10142: 10093: 10041: 9707: 9472: 9257: 9175: 8716: 8660: 8587: 8360: 2618: 2232: 2182: 1981: 1976: 1830: 1739: 1699: 1671: 1611:

has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body

1608: 1554: 1487: 1337: 1310: 1229: 819: 807: 713: 543: 519: 298: 197: 174: 78: 7697:

The relationship between weather and children's behavior: a study of teacher perceptions

7388:

Sherry, J. (2001). "The effects of violent video games on aggression. A meta-analysis".

6768: 6409: 6365: 5815: 5624:"Attachment, aggression and affiliation: The role of oxytocin in female social behavior" 5188: 4439: 3017:

Berkowitz, L. (1987). "Frustrations, appraisals, and aversively stimulated aggression".

1522:

Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters, while

10498: 10415: 10284: 10116: 10018: 10001: 9926: 9665: 9508: 9498: 9467: 9262: 9210: 9120: 9070: 8929: 8888: 8804: 8711: 8691: 8545: 8523: 8518: 8390:

Problems in the Concepts and Definitions of Aggression, Violence and some Related Terms

8337: 8242: 8234: 8125: 8082: 8004: 7969: 7926: 7882: 7736: 7630: 7542: 7495: 7405: 7171:"Insult, aggression, and the southern culture of honor: An "experimental ethnography."" 7151: 7084: 7059: 7035: 7010: 6935: 6910: 6678: 6653: 6575: 6550: 6473: 6448: 6429: 6347: 6312: 6300: 6232: 6189: 6106: 6079: 6060: 5997: 5970: 5946: 5919: 5900: 5848: 5802: 5769: 5693: 5654: 5550: 5409: 5390: 5347: 5254: 5229: 5205: 5172: 5148: 5139: 5123: 5104: 5060: 4883: 4858: 4820: 4789: 4737: 4712: 4601: 4544: 4459: 4258: 4197: 4184: 4164: 4142: 4134: 4099: 4023: 3959: 3924: 3816: 3756: 3671: 3617: 3604: 3584: 3565: 3524: 3385: 3234: 3191: 3135: 2905: 2822: 2789: 2765: 2523: 2441: 2264: 2198: 2186: 1745:

In human studies, testosterone-aggression research has also focused on the role of the

1553:

portions, has been associated with violent/antisocial aggression. In addition, reduced

1527: 1134: 836: 753: 720: 472: 416: 334: 329: 114: 6992: 6788:

http://www.demilitarisation.org/IMG/article_PDF/Seville-Statement-UNESCO-1989_a143.pdf

6220: 5623: 5590: 3397: 3253: 2235:

pacts; fears and impulses; and ultimate goals regarding material and social outcomes.

1636: 10628: 10598: 10274: 10224: 10031: 9966: 9872: 9857: 9758: 9751: 9745: 9528: 9523: 9437: 9239: 8980: 8947: 8814: 8675: 8623: 8582: 8560: 8528: 8389: 8277: 8197: 8117: 8074: 8039: 8008: 7961: 7918: 7914: 7728: 7674: 7622: 7577: 7573: 7534: 7530: 7499: 7450: 7323: 7238: 7203: 7155: 7114: 7089: 7040: 6940: 6683: 6621: 6580: 6551:"Fruitless, doublesex and the genetics of social behavior in Drosophila melanogaster" 6519: 6478: 6421: 6304: 6267: 6263: 6224: 6181: 6111: 6052: 6002: 5951: 5892: 5761: 5697: 5646: 5604: 5594: 5542: 5490: 5432: 5382: 5378: 5339: 5335: 5295: 5259: 5210: 5153: 5096: 5092: 5052: 5044: 4990: 4888: 4793: 4781: 4777: 4742: 4687: 4650: 4613: 4536: 4501: 4451: 4407: 4250: 4246: 4202: 4146: 4091: 4015: 3982: 3916: 3843: 3808: 3748: 3713: 3663: 3622: 3516: 3366: 3339: 3314: 3310: 3226: 3183: 3127: 3034: 2975: 2965: 2940: 2930: 2897: 2827: 2809: 2757: 2719: 2607: 2518: 2496: 2448: 2387: 2275: 2207: 2155: 1882: 1711: 1561: 1542: 1516: 1500: 1458: 1440: 1394: 1298: 1219: 941: 929: 913: 857: 791: 764: 511: 324: 288: 262: 192: 124: 8246: 8129: 8086: 7973: 7886: 7740: 7546: 7515:"Developmental Trajectories of Externalizing Behaviors in Childhood and Adolescence" 7106: 6351: 6316: 6236: 5904: 5773: 5757: 5725:

Van Goozen, S. 'Hormones and the Developmental Origins of Aggression' Chapter 14 in

5658: 5642: 5554: 5351: 4807:

Hess, Nicole H.; Hagen, Edward H. (2006). "Sex differences in indirect aggression".

4592:

Del Giudice, Marco (2015). "Gender Differences in Personality and Social Behavior".

4103: 4027: 4011: 3963: 3928: 3820: 3760: 3569: 3528: 3436:

Maestripieri, Dario (1992). "Functional aspects of maternal aggression in mammals".

3238: 3195: 3179: 3139: 2769: 1682: 10431: 9884: 8957: 8898: 8687: 8630: 8341: 8329: 8269: 8226: 8109: 8066: 8031: 7996: 7953: 7930: 7910: 7874: 7832: 7780:

Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 3: Social, emotional and personality development

7720: 7634: 7614: 7569: 7526: 7487: 7442: 7409: 7397: 7315: 7282: 7278: 7230: 7193: 7185: 7143: 7079: 7071: 7030: 7022: 6930: 6922: 6715: 6711: 6673: 6665: 6652:

Derringer, Jaime; Krueger, Robert F.; Irons, Daniel E.; Iacono, William G. (2010).

6611: 6570: 6562: 6509: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6433: 6413: 6339: 6296: 6259: 6216: 6193: 6173: 6139: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6044: 5992: 5984: 5941: 5933: 5884: 5852: 5840: 5753: 5685: 5638: 5586: 5532: 5524: 5480: 5424: 5394: 5374: 5331: 5287: 5249: 5241: 5200: 5192: 5143: 5135: 5108: 5088: 5064: 5034: 5026: 4982: 4878: 4870: 4816: 4773: 4732: 4724: 4679: 4642: 4605: 4597: 4548: 4528: 4493: 4463: 4443: 4399: 4346: 4300: 4262: 4242: 4192: 4176: 4126: 4083: 4007: 3951: 3906: 3875: 3798: 3790: 3740: 3705: 3675: 3653: 3612: 3596: 3555: 3508: 3445: 3306: 3218: 3175: 3119: 3092: 3026: 2889: 2817: 2805: 2801: 2749: 2711: 2527: 2457: 2395: 2322:

on aggression. This effect is positively associated with type of game violence and

2272: 2218:

Analyzing aggression culturally or politically is complicated by the fact that the

2211: 2147: 2134: 1940: 1886: 1792: 1660: 1624: 1373: 1326: 52: 8829: 7648:

Schellenberg, R. (2000). "Aggressive personality: When does it develop and why?".

6064: 5844: 5508:

Caramaschi, Doretta; De Boer, Sietse F.; De Vries, Han; Koolhaas, Jaap M. (2008).

4165:"Evolution and the psychology of intergroup conflict: The male warrior hypothesis" 2909: 2753: 10555: 10529: 10214: 10111: 10081: 9867: 9697: 9588: 9553: 9462: 9350: 9244: 9200: 9180: 9053: 8769: 8748: 8503: 8402: 8261: 7668: 7666: 7372: 7108: 7011:"Spanking and Child Development: We Know Enough Now to Stop Hitting Our Children" 6804: 6775: 6135: 4561: 4319: 4087: 3978: 3744: 3642:"Lethal intergroup aggression leads to territorial expansion in wild chimpanzees" 3480:

Gendreau, PL & Archer, J. 'Subtypes of Aggression in Humans and Animals', in

3423: 2663: 2658: 2613: 2287: 2256: 2219: 1972: 1767: 1727: 1714:

influences inter-male aggression. In addition, two different estrogen receptors,

1461:. Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression is the 1184: 937: 468: 376: 283: 267: 207: 8273: 6600:"A genetic reduction in antioxidant function causes elevated aggression in mice" 5888: 5428: 5408:

Bauman, M. D.; Toscano, J. E.; Mason, W. A.; Lavenex, P.; Amaral, D. G. (2006).

5291: 5015:"Differences in executive functioning between violent and non-violent offenders" 4403: 4130: 3123: 2114: 1703: 10436: 10132: 9190: 9170: 9080: 8773: 8665: 8540: 8305:"Blazing angels or resident evil? Can violent video games be a force for good?" 7957: 7513:

Bongers, Ilja L.; Koot, Hans M.; Van Der Ende, Jan; Verhulst, Frank C. (2004).

7446: 7189: 6638:

Perusse, D. & Gendreau, P. 'Genetics and the Development of Aggression' in

6566: 5937: 5676:

Program on Neuroendocrine Abnormalities Associated with Aggression and Crime".

3560: 3543: 3030: 2715: 2638: 2469: 2238: 2106: 1850: 1818: 1814: 1574: 1531: 1244: 933: 595: 349: 8262:"Psychological Theories of Aggression: Principles and Application to Practice" 7878: 7618: 7352:

Media violence and its effect on aggression: Assessing the scientific evidence

6849:

Conflict, Violence, and Conflict Resolution in Hunting and Gathering Societies

6669: 6177: 5528: 5485: 5468: 5030: 4532: 4497: 4350: 4304: 4043:

Animal Behaviour: A Synthesis of Ethology and Comparative Psychology (2nd Ed.)

3911: 3894: 3879: 3658: 3641: 3096: 2944: 2502:

way information is processed (Bushman 1993, 1997; Bushman & Cooper 1990).

2255:." Other cultural themes sometimes applied to the study of aggression include 1924:

involving multiple behavioral and sensory interactions with another organism.

10587: 10524: 10476: 10369: 10364: 10343: 10334: 10299: 10229: 10204: 10189: 10036: 9843: 9692: 9635: 9625: 9185: 9005: 8965: 8961: 8952: 8795: 8764: 8753: 8743: 8670: 8572: 8466: 8113: 5048: 2979: 2813: 2723: 2668: 2601: 2561: 2353: 2299:

in disputes between religions or nation states, for example in regard to the

1964: 1947:

activity) were tested for aggressive behavior. Males completely deficient in

1616: 1593: 1309:. This may stem from the other gender being constrained by providing greater 811: 732: 697: 692: 673: 566: 492: 401: 391: 202: 7491: 7169:

Cohen, Dov; Nisbett, Richard E.; Bowdle, Brian F.; Schwarz, Norbert (1996).

6048: 5988: 5318:

Potegal, M.; Ferris, C.F.; Hebert, M.; Meyerhoff, J.; Skaredoff, L. (1996).

4337:

Durrant, Russil (2011). "Collective violence: An evolutionary perspective".

3709: 3422:

Van Staaden, M.J, Searcy, W.A. & Hanlon, R.T. 'Signaling Aggression' in

10374: 10359: 10326: 9971: 9482: 8783: 8760: 8121: 8043: 7965: 7922: 7732: 7626: 7581: 7538: 7454: 7401: 7327: 7242: 7093: 7075: 7044: 6967:. Columbus, OH: Center for Effective Discipline. p. 16. Archived from 6944: 6687: 6625: 6584: 6514: 6497: 6482: 6425: 6308: 6185: 6115: 6056: 6006: 5955: 5896: 5765: 5650: 5608: 5546: 5494: 5436: 5263: 5214: 5056: 4892: 4785: 4746: 4691: 4540: 4505: 4455: 4254: 4206: 4180: 4095: 4019: 3998:

Honess, P.E.; Marin, C.M. (2006). "Enrichment and aggression in primates".

3955: 3920: 3847: 3812: 3752: 3717: 3667: 3626: 3600: 3520: 3462:

Psychology- The Science of Behaviour, pg 420, Neil R Clarkson (4th Edition)

3318: 3230: 3187: 3131: 2924: 2901: 2831: 2761: 2110: 2102: 2014: 1960: 1870: 1735: 1667: 1546: 1535: 1483: 1450: 1381: 772: 748: 677: 503: 396: 247: 104: 9776: 8407: 8230: 8078: 7259:

From page 2. Anthem Studies in Development and Globalization, Anthem Press

7207: 6523: 6343: 6271: 6228: 5689: 5386: 5343: 5299: 5157: 5100: 4411: 3038: 2959: 2870:

Buss, A. H. (1961). The psychology of aggression. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

30:"Aggressive" and "Aggressive behavior" redirect here. For other uses, see 10550: 10508: 10338: 10086: 10056: 9921: 9621: 9533: 9477: 9315: 9100: 8799: 8618: 7198: 6287: 6018: 6016: 5583:

Advances in Vasopressin and Oxytocin – from Genes to Behaviour to Disease

3002:

Dollard, J.; Doob, L.W.; Miller, N.E.; Mowrer, O.H.; Sears, R.R. (1939).

2576: 2279: 2166: 1985: 1952: 1929: 1854: 1596: 1333: 1306: 1156: 925: 832: 787: 684:

experts began to refer to aggression, rather than anger, from the 1930s.

587: 507: 460: 411: 406: 359: 237: 217: 153: 119: 94: 85: 68: 8238: 7559: 6926: 6417: 5230:"Esr1+ cells in the ventromedial hypothalamus control female aggression" 5196: 4609: 4447: 4188: 3694:"Dominance hierarchy formation in juvenile crayfish procambarus clarkii" 3608: 1557:

has been found in violent offenders, compared to non-violent offenders.

860:

approach to this relationship puts aggression in the broader context of

10441: 10219: 10026: 9568: 9563: 9015: 8555: 8143:

blennow; Manhem (20 January 2021). "CSF studies in violent offenders".

8000: 7837:

10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:1<27::aid-ab2480200105>3.0.co;2-q

7026: 6616: 6599: 6152:

Mazur, Allan; Booth, Alan (1998). "Testosterone and dominance in men".

5568: 5013:

Meijers, J.; Harte, J. M.; Meynen, G.; Cuijpers, P. (1 February 2017).

4713:"Boys' and Girls' Relational and Physical Aggression in Nine Countries" 3803: 3512: 2291: 2169:

relations between members through various methods, such as fostering a

1885:(VNO), a subsystem of the nose known to detect pheromones via specific 1781: 1762: 909: 599: 6013: 4975:"Ecological and socio-cultural impacts on mating and marriage systems" 4575:

Sexual Selections: What We Can and Can't Learn about Sex from Animals.

4169:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

4138: 3222: 10481: 10269: 10209: 10137: 10006: 9943: 9916: 9901: 9230: 8333: 8102:

International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology

8070: 8035: 7724: 7366:

Video Games and Youth Violence: A Prospective Analysis in Adolescents

7319: 7234: 7148:

10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1999)25:3<185::AID-AB3>3.0.CO;2-K

4874: 4728: 4683: 2926:

The Radical Right. Biopsychosocial Roots and International Variations

2349: 2268: 2194: 1933: 1921: 1912: 1866: 1695: 1691: 1612: 1565: 1508: 1322: 1318: 886: 853: 744: 708: 681: 622: 591: 562: 554: 480: 344: 257: 252: 242: 131: 7667:

Tremblay, Richard E; Hartup, Willard W.; Archer, John, eds. (2005).

7257:

Capitalism and freedom: the contradictory character of globalisation

6911:"Physical punishment of children: Lessons from 20 years of research" 6252:

Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry

5918:

Siegel, Allan; Bhatt, Suresh; Bhatt, Rekha; Zalcman, Steven (2007).

5319: 5245: 4479:"Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression?" 3449: 1511:

nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the

10306: 10072: 9981: 9911: 9847: 9838: 9682: 9442: 9147: 7806:

Björkqvist, Kaj; Österman, Karin; Lagerspetz, Kirsti M. J. (1994).

6537:

Caltech Scientists Discover Aggression-Promoting Pheromone in Flies

6370: 3794: 2591: 2571: 2473: 2223: 2202: 2143: 2139: 1834: 1731: 1600: 1570: 1512: 1491: 1436: 1432: 1305:

in one sex, either between rivals for access to mates and/or to be

917: 905: 736: 704: 610: 606: 570: 550: 183: 148: 7058:

Taylor, C. A.; Manganello, J. A.; Lee, S. J.; Rice, J. C. (2010).

6700: 6395: 4594:

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences

1346:

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences

10560: 9879: 9583: 7107:

Straus, Murray A.; Douglas, Emily M.; Madeiros, Rose Ann (2013).

5507: 2880:

Anderson, Craig A.; Bushman, Brad J. (2002). "Human Aggression".

2653: 2170: 2126: 1623:. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by 1523: 831:

groups are known for low levels of aggression within a partially

790:– has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: 625:, some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see 558: 539: 535: 99: 4950:

Al-Ali, Majed. M.; Singh, Ajai Pratap; Smekal, Vladimir (2011).

10534: 10279: 10234: 10199: 10076: 9991: 9953: 7594: 7512: 6249: 5672:

Walton, Kenneth G.; Levitsky, Debra K. (2003). "Effects of the

5313: 5311: 5309: 2377: 2098: 2023: 2005: 1911:

In a non-mammalian example of genes related to aggression, the

1428: 1369: 1314: 828: 795: 618: 8384: 5585:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 170. pp. 337–50. 5276: 4424: 3861: 3859: 3857: 3272:

Violence and Aggression in Sports: An In-Depth Look (Part One)

1719: 1715: 27:

Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness

5077: 4709: 2295: 2228: 2117:

were described as 'The Harmless People' in a popular work by

759:

An animal defending against a predator may engage in either "

654: 583: 64: 7805: 7133: 6495: 5317: 5306: 3640:

Mitani, John C.; Watts, David P.; Amsler, Sylvia J. (2010).

2415:

Summary points from recommendations by national associations

1889:, of mice and rats. Pheremones have also been identified in 7562:

Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development

6863:"Play as a Foundation for Hunter-Gatherer Social Existence" 6651: 4762: 3854: 3293: 2787: 1948: 1944: 1750: 1586: 849: 740: 531: 523: 8210: 8194:

Aggression and Adaptation: the Bright Side to Bad Behavior

6449:"Differential Muscarinic Modulation in the Olfactory Bulb" 5012: 4933:"What To Do If Your Partner Has A Steamroller Personality" 4857:

Xie, Hongling; Drabick, Deborah A.G.; Chen, Diane (2011).

4322:. In Schaller, M.; Simpson, J. A.; Kenrick, D. T. (eds.). 3774:

Cant, Michael A.; Llop, Justine B.; Field, Jeremy (2006).

1627:, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress 605:

The operative definition of aggression may be affected by

7168: 5968: 5407: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4162: 3358: 2022:

ownership and by defending his or her property. However,

1943:(through inhibition of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase, 928:

is used to understand how such behaviors might spread by

735:

aggression is that observed in the interaction between a

212: 109: 10290:

Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified

7899: 6889:"How Hunter-Gatherers Maintained Their Egalitarian Ways" 6284: 5969:

Volman, I.; Toni, I.; Verhagen, L.; Roelofs, K. (2011).

5872: 5799: 5465: 5121: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4278:

The murderer next door: Why the mind Is designed to kill

4163:

McDonald, M. M.; Navarrete, C. D.; Van Vugt, M. (2012).

3979:

Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates

1503:-expressing neurons in the ventrolateral portion of the 1294:

aggression tended towards psychological or social harm.

972: 613:

views. Examples are the axiomatic moral view called the

8385:

International Society for Research on Aggression (ISRA)

7057: 5917: 4669: 3589:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

3001: 2964:. Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag. p. 2. 2739: 2097:

Culture is one factor that plays a role in aggression.

716:

is sometimes used to refer to these forms of behavior.

4698: 3836:

Zhurnal Vysshei Nervnoi Deiatelnosti Imeni I P Pavlova

3833: 2509:

Frustration is another major cause of aggression. The

707:

study aggression as it relates to the interaction and

8392:

by Johan van der Dennen, originally published in 1980

7268: 6769:

http://www.unesco.org/cpp/uk/declarations/seville.pdf

4580: 3941: 3893:

Hsu, Yuying; Earley, Ryan L.; Wolf, Larry L. (2005).

1756: 1560:

The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly

67:, bare their teeth as a sign of aggression—a form of 8190:"Why has aggression been thought of as maladaptive?" 7766:

National Association of School Psychologists (2008)

6786:

UNESCO Prize for Peace Education, (1989), Retrieved:

6446: 4711:

Anna Silvia; Bornstein, Marc H.; Chang, Lei (2012).

3692:

Issa, F. A.; Adamson, D. J.; Edwards, D. H. (1999).

3254:"International Court May Define Aggression as Crime" 2847:"Micro refers to its subtle delivery not its impact" 2692:

2020;19(3):161-173. doi:10.1097/ADT.0000000000000199

661:, meaning attack. The Latin was itself a joining of 8268:, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 27–46, 7808:"Sex differences in covert aggression among adults" 6332:

Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental

5709: 5707: 5364: 3544:"The logic of animal intergroup conflict: A review" 2790:"Neurobiology of Escalated Aggression and Violence" 8056: 6767:UNESCO, (1989). The Seville Statement, Retrieved: 6145: 4758: 4756: 3691: 3687: 3685: 2541: 506:et al. (1939) proposed that aggression was due to 8380:Aggression and Violent Behavior, a Review Journal 6997:International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 5737: 5735: 4949: 4222: 3639: 3071:Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control 2472:, a culture based on male dominance and physical 2411:affect the way they react and handle situations. 1939:Mice with experimentally elevated sensitivity to 843: 10585: 7271:International Journal of Intercultural Relations 6329: 6206: 5704: 3730: 3335:The Social Psychology of Aggression: 2nd Edition 1677: 1569:with other neurochemical systems. These include 8296: 7710: 7470:International Journal of Behavioral Development 6986: 6854: 6549:Siwicki, Kathleen K; Kravitz, Edward A (2009). 5461: 5459: 4753: 3682: 3109: 2879: 2105:societies existing before or outside of modern 680:theorized about an "aggressive drive" in 1908. 538:, and frustration, although he also described " 8021: 6957: 6803:Bond, MH. (2004) 'Aggression and culture', in 6548: 5828: 5732: 5671: 5580: 4856: 4385: 4383: 4326:. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 263–86. 3865: 3541: 3208: 2484: 2249:culture of honor in the Southern United States 522:and thereby aggressive tendencies, as well as 9792: 8423: 8142: 8099: 7713:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 6597: 6591: 6127: 6125: 5721: 5719: 4290: 3892: 3773: 3548:Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 3498: 3359:Elizabeth Kande Englander (30 January 2003). 3352: 3331: 3165: 2701: 1865:In many animals, aggression can be linked to 1269: 726: 436: 8216: 8181: 8059:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7943: 7647: 7425:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7422: 7178:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7002: 6908: 6391: 6389: 5456: 4977:. In Barrett, Louise; Dunbar, Robin (eds.). 4637:. In Barrett, Louise; Dunbar, Robin (eds.). 4389: 3435: 2429:National Association of School Psychologists 1387: 876: 9806: 8437: 7980: 6904: 6902: 6886: 6860: 5868: 5866: 5864: 5862: 5788:Three Important Physical Ovulation Symptoms 5040:1871.1/371bdff2-a6df-45ee-a1fd-90995ea811d7 4766:British Journal of Developmental Psychology 4591: 4380: 4317: 3997: 3082: 2181:writes that a number of studies have found 9799: 9785: 8430: 8416: 7986: 7790:Maccoby. E.E. & Jacklin. C.N. (1974). 7757:HealthChildren.org, retrieved January 2012 7220: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6358: 6151: 6122: 5716: 5538:11370/f683911d-3c8b-4ba6-a6bb-12cbaf11dead 4979:Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology 4966: 4639:Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology 4073: 4069: 4067: 3976:Silverberg, James; J. Patrick Gray (1992) 3050: 3048: 2929:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 47. 2294:has been viewed by some as reliant on the 2109:have sometimes been depicted as peaceful ' 1541:The broad area of the cortex known as the 1351:Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology 1276: 1262: 743:. However, according to many researchers, 443: 429: 10317:Social (pragmatic) communication disorder 8323: 7826: 7608: 7481: 7436: 7309: 7295: 7197: 7083: 7034: 6934: 6677: 6615: 6574: 6513: 6489: 6472: 6386: 6167: 6105: 6080:"Neurobiology of Aggression and Violence" 6038: 6022: 5996: 5945: 5536: 5484: 5253: 5227: 5204: 5147: 5038: 4882: 4806: 4736: 4236: 4196: 3910: 3802: 3657: 3616: 3559: 3325: 3059:. New York, NY: Plenum. pp. 231–298. 3016: 2844: 2821: 2704:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2085:Learn how and when to remove this message 1798: 10185:Basic interpersonal communicative skills 9594:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 8302: 7467: 7008: 6899: 6209:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 5859: 5745:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 5621: 5449:Paus, T. 'Mapping Brain Development' in 4632: 4518: 4000:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 3426:Academic Press, Stephen F. Goodwin, 2011 3168:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 1681: 1422: 912:under certain circumstances in terms of 899: 691: 58: 55:'s assault by a waiter named Jean Mattis 46: 10252: 8259: 7355:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 6792: 4987:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568308.013.0030 4647:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568308.013.0025 4562:The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology 4336: 4064: 3398:Online Etymology Dictionary: Aggression 3045: 3006:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 2342: 1841:The HPA axis is related to the general 1649: 14: 10624:Symptoms and signs of mental disorders 10586: 7864: 7796:, Stanford: Stanford University Press. 7755:Ages & Stages: Aggressive Behavior 7753:American Academy of Pediatrics (2011) 7387: 7289: 6077: 5741: 4939:from the original on 7 September 2021. 4833: 4577:" University of California Press, 2002 4476: 4363: 3582: 3251: 3054: 2894:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231 2490: 2371: 2121:in 1958, while Lawrence Keeley's 1996 2000: 1674:, although some suggest it may apply. 557:(emotional) and hostile, reactive, or 355:Forum (alternative dispute resolution) 10251: 10173: 10047:High-context and low-context cultures 9818: 9780: 9086:Psychological effects of Internet use 8411: 8187: 8161: 6598:Garratt M, Brooks RC (January 2015). 5008: 5006: 4905: 4218: 4216: 4158: 4156: 4116: 4040: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3289: 3287: 10396:Computer processing of body language 10174: 8162:Dolan, Eric W. (30 September 2023). 7693: 6915:Canadian Medical Association Journal 6838:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4318:Buss, D. M.; Duntley, J. D. (2006). 4055: 3365:. Psychology Press. pp. 55–86. 3154:Relational Aggression Among Students 2957: 2922: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2735: 2733: 2210:in 2010. Family violence researcher 2041: 1825:Glucocorticoids are released by the 1686:Testosterone to Estradiol conversion 467:In definitions commonly used in the 10411:List of facial expression databases 10401:Emotion recognition in conversation 9066:Digital media use and mental health 7670:Developmental Origins of Aggression 7113:. New York: Routledge. p. 81. 6758:. New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. 6754:Leakey, R.,& Lewin, R. (1978). 6640:Developmental Origins of Aggression 5727:Developmental Origins of Aggression 5451:Developmental Origins of Aggression 5170: 4972: 4492:(3–4): 249–66, discussion 266–311. 3698:The Journal of Experimental Biology 3482:Developmental Origins of Aggression 1621:hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis 653:The term aggression comes from the 24: 8697:Automatic and controlled processes 8352: 8266:Violence in Mental Health Settings 6805:Encyclopedia of applied psychology 6366:"Aggression protein found in mice" 6301:10.1097/01.wnr.0000234752.03808.b2 5678:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 5140:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04331.1997 5003: 4821:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.11.001 4602:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.25100-3 4213: 4153: 3487: 3332:Barbara Krahé (11 February 2013). 3284: 1809: 1757:General associations with behavior 25: 10640: 10295:Childhood disintegrative disorder 9106:Smartphones and pedestrian safety 8368: 8303:Ferguson, Christopher J. (2010). 7793:The psychology of sex differences 7364:Christopher J. Ferguson, (2010) " 6836:: The myth of the peaceful savage 6026:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 4906:Young, Cathy (26 November 1999). 4672:Behavioral Sciences & the Law 3542:Rusch, H.; Gavrilets, S. (2017). 2776: 2730: 2597:Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis 2480: 1857:, popularly known as adrenaline. 1473: 801: 516:frustration–aggression hypothesis 9757: 9744: 9732: 9731: 9131:Mobile phones and driving safety 8253: 8155: 8151:: 869–878 – via Forsman A. 8136: 8093: 8050: 8015: 7937: 7915:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x 7893: 7858: 7799: 7784: 7772: 7760: 7747: 7704: 7687: 7673:. New York: The Guilford Press. 7660: 7641: 7588: 7574:10.1111/j.0037-976X.2004.00312.x 7553: 7531:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00755.x 7506: 7461: 7416: 7381: 7377:Journal of Youth and Adolescence 7358: 7343: 7334: 7262: 7249: 7214: 7162: 7127: 7100: 7051: 6951: 6880: 6841: 6825: 6810: 6780: 6761: 6748: 6735: 6722: 6694: 6645: 6632: 6542: 6530: 6440: 6323: 6278: 6264:10.1097/00004583-199311000-00015 6243: 6200: 6162:(3): 353–63, discussion 363–97. 6071: 4908:"Feminists Play the Victim Game" 4778:10.1111/j.2044-835x.2011.02028.x 4527:(2): 203–14, discussion 214–52. 4247:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01842.x 3338:. Psychology Press. p. 16. 3311:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.04.009 3281:) Bleacher Report, 23 March 2010 3057:Perspectives in Ethology (Vol.2) 2046: 1774:The Handbook of Crime Correlates 1455:sociobiological theories of rape 971: 868:"), and functions to forcefully 9034:Computer-mediated communication 7009:Gershoff, Elizabeth T. (2013). 6909:Durrant, J.; Ensom, R. (2012). 6555:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 6502:Journal of Biological Chemistry 5962: 5911: 5876:Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 5822: 5780: 5758:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007 5665: 5643:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.09.001 5615: 5574: 5561: 5501: 5443: 5401: 5358: 5270: 5221: 5164: 5115: 5071: 4943: 4925: 4899: 4850: 4827: 4800: 4663: 4635:"Sex differences in aggression" 4626: 4567: 4555: 4512: 4470: 4418: 4366:"Territoriality and Aggression" 4357: 4339:Aggression and Violent Behavior 4330: 4324:Evolution and Social Psychology 4311: 4293:Aggression and Violent Behavior 4284: 4269: 4110: 4049: 4034: 4012:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.05.002 3991: 3970: 3935: 3886: 3868:Aggression and Violent Behavior 3827: 3767: 3724: 3633: 3576: 3535: 3474: 3465: 3456: 3429: 3416: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3298:Journal of Psychiatric Research 3264: 3245: 3202: 3180:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.015 3159: 3146: 3103: 3085:Aggression and Violent Behavior 3076: 3063: 3010: 2995: 2986: 2542:As a positive adaptation theory 1630: 639:intermittent explosive disorder 635:borderline personality disorder 631:antisocial personality disorder 9819: 9311:Empathising–systemising theory 8614:female intrasexual competition 8551:Evolutionarily stable strategy 8396:Aggression and brain asymmetry 8145:Journal of Neural Transmission 7283:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2004.03.004 7015:Child Development Perspectives 6716:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2015.10.002 6465:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0099-15.2015 6098:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07111774 6085:American Journal of Psychiatry 4119:Journal of Conflict Resolution 2951: 2916: 2873: 2864: 2838: 2806:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3500-07.2007 2695: 2682: 2536:Post-traumatic stress disorder 2487:for gender differences above. 2423:American Academy of Pediatrics 1827:hypothalamic pituitary adrenal 1637:Testosterone § Aggression 1313:, in terms of factors such as 1165:age disparity in relationships 844:Aggression, fear and curiosity 320:Alternative dispute resolution 51:Depiction of French President 13: 1: 9671:Standard social science model 8724:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis 8196:. Routledge. pp. 65–83. 7768:Angry and Aggressive Students 6221:10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80117-4 6155:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5845:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.03.013 5591:10.1016/S0079-6123(08)00428-7 4521:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4486:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4320:"The evolution of aggression" 3211:Brain, Behavior and Evolution 2754:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.02.053 2675: 2511:Frustration aggression theory 2191:University of Texas at Austin 1860: 1678:Effects on the nervous system 1468: 1301:can be attributed to greater 885:can be looked at in terms of 40:Aggressive Behavior (journal) 9519:Missing heritability problem 9111:Social aspects of television 8734:Evolution of nervous systems 8702:Computational theory of mind 8312:Review of General Psychology 7867:Review of General Psychology 7390:Human Communication Research 6132:Handbook of Crime Correlates 5379:10.1016/0031-9384(84)90088-X 5336:10.1016/0306-4522(96)00236-9 5093:10.1016/0006-8993(83)90764-3 4809:Evolution and Human Behavior 4088:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013 4058:The Organisation of Behavior 4045:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 3745:10.1016/j.beproc.2006.05.004 3252:Simons, Marlise (May 2010). 3073:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 1403:female violence against them 1364:According to the journal of 648: 7: 10312:Nonverbal learning disorder 9890:Speech-independent gestures 9863:Facial Action Coding System 9765:Evolutionary biology portal 8274:10.1007/978-0-387-33965-8_2 7650:Virginia Counselors Journal 6887:Gray, Peter (16 May 2011). 6861:Gray, Peter (Spring 2009). 6745:(Harvard, 1978) pp.101–107. 6704:Journal of Criminal Justice 6642:, 2005, The Guilford Press. 6539:Caltech press release, 2009 5889:10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.12.003 5729:, 2005, The Guilford Press. 5571:, 2005, The Guilford Press. 5453:, 2005, The Guilford Press. 5429:10.1037/0735-7044.120.4.749 5292:10.1037/0735-7044.110.2.401 5128:The Journal of Neuroscience 4404:10.1037/0033-2909.100.3.309 4131:10.1177/0022002790034003008 3501:Journal of Chemical Ecology 3484:, 2005, The Guilford Press. 3438:Canadian Journal of Zoology 3386:Merriam-Webster: Aggression 3124:10.1037/0033-295X.108.1.273 2882:Annual Review of Psychology 2634:Passive aggressive behavior 2554: 2435: 2329: 1896: 1457:and theories regarding the 938:Sequential assessment model 687: 586:) and mental states (e.g., 498: 36:Aggression (disambiguation) 32:Aggressive (disambiguation) 10: 10645: 10052:Interpersonal relationship 9853:Body-to-body communication 9726:Evolutionary psychologists 9599:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 9514:Human–animal communication 9226:Ovulatory shift hypothesis 9076:Imprinted brain hypothesis 9044:Human–computer interaction 7958:10.1891/vivi.2003.18.2.197 7447:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.772 7190:10.1037/0022-3514.70.5.945 6822:. New York: Vintage Books. 6567:10.1016/j.conb.2009.04.001 5938:10.2174/157015907780866929 5517:Behavioural Brain Research 5473:Behavioural Brain Research 4370:Nature Education Knowledge 4281:. New York: Penguin Press. 3561:10.1016/j.jebo.2017.05.004 3031:10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59 3004:Frustration and Aggression 2716:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.05.014 2649:Resource holding potential 2629:Parental abuse by children 2494: 2439: 2396:conduct/behavior disorders 2310: 2037: 1900: 1829:(HPA) axis in response to 1634: 1579:sympathetic nervous system 1288: 946:resource holding potential 942:Energetic war of attrition 731:The most apparent type of 727:Between species and groups 387:Peace and conflict studies 294:Mutual assured destruction 63:Many mammals, such as the 29: 10543: 10517: 10457: 10450: 10424: 10388: 10352: 10325: 10262: 10258: 10247: 10180: 10169: 10125: 10102: 10065: 10017: 9952: 9831: 9827: 9814: 9720: 9646:Environmental determinism 9617:Cultural selection theory 9609: 9504:Evolutionary epistemology 9491: 9418:evolutionary neuroscience 9380: 9373: 9271: 9146: 9091:Rank theory of depression 9014: 8938: 8840: 8646: 8639: 8593:Parent–offspring conflict 8502: 8445: 7879:10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291 7619:10.1017/S0033291707002309 6670:10.1007/s10519-010-9358-9 6178:10.1017/s0140525x98001228 6078:Siever, Larry J. (2008). 5925:Current Neuropharmacology 5674:Transcendental Meditation 5529:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.01.003 5486:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.10.009 5367:Physiology & Behavior 5031:10.1017/S0033291717000241 4840:Journal of Sport Behavior 4533:10.1017/s0140525x99001818 4498:10.1017/S0140525X09990951 4351:10.1016/j.avb.2011.04.014 4305:10.1016/j.avb.2007.04.001 3912:10.1017/S146479310500686X 3880:10.1016/j.avb.2009.03.005 3659:10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.021 3400:Retrieved 10 January 2012 3388:Retrieved 10 January 2012 3097:10.1016/j.avb.2003.06.002 2845:Hollowood, Lorna (2022). 2742:Physiology & Behavior 2582:Conflict (disambiguation) 2485:evolutionary explanations 2479:See also the sections on 2462:intimate partner violence 2119:Elizabeth Marshall Thomas 1995:dopamine receptor D4 gene 1961:twin and adoption studies 1879:olfactory sensory neurons 1528:evolutionarily homologous 1505:ventromedial hypothalamus 1388:In intimate relationships 1303:intraspecific competition 965:Sex differences in humans 951: 877:Evolutionary explanations 10467:Behavioral communication 9539:Cultural group selection 9423:Biocultural anthropology 9116:Societal impacts of cars 9049:Media naturalness theory 8739:Fight-or-flight response 8219:Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 8114:10.1177/0306624X02464007 6870:American Journal of Play 4834:Keeler, Linda A (2007). 2855:Royal College of Nursing 2624:Non-aggression principle 2306: 1993:-linked VNTR alleles of 1843:fight-or-flight response 769:antipredator adaptations 615:non-aggression principle 382:Non-aggression principle 340:Conflict style inventory 144:Nonviolent Communication 9907:Interpersonal synchrony 9808:Nonverbal communication 9739:Evolutionary psychology 9703:Sociocultural evolution 9544:Dual inheritance theory 9001:Personality development 8462:Theoretical foundations 8439:Evolutionary psychology 7492:10.1080/016502500383232 6958:Gershoff, E.T. (2008). 6834:War Before Civilization 6453:Journal of Neuroscience 6049:10.1162/jocn.2009.21389 5622:Campbell, Anne (2008). 5417:Behavioral Neuroscience 5280:Behavioral Neuroscience 4633:Campbell, Anne (2012). 3783:The American Naturalist 3710:10.1242/jeb.202.24.3497 3409:Stearns, D. C. (2003). 2794:Journal of Neuroscience 2690:Addict. Disord. Treat.. 2378:Physical fear of others 2313:Media violence research 2125:suggested that regular 2123:War Before Civilization 1463:Male Warrior hypothesis 1447:Evolutionary psychology 904:Aggression can involve 894:male warrior hypothesis 862:inconsistency reduction 229:International relations 159:Speaking truth to power 10504:Monastic sign lexicons 10195:Emotional intelligence 9661:Social constructionism 9656:Psychological nativism 9631:Biological determinism 9579:Recent human evolution 9574:Punctuated equilibrium 9397:Behavioral epigenetics 9392:evolutionary economics 9361:Variability hypothesis 9306:Emotional intelligence 9039:Engineering psychology 8729:Evolution of the brain 8401:12 August 2017 at the 8260:Bjørkly, Stâl (2006), 7597:Psychological Medicine 7076:10.1542/peds.2009-2678 6774:12 August 2013 at the 6515:10.1074/jbc.274.8.4655 6142:; 2009; Academic Press 5019:Psychological Medicine 4973:Low, Bobbi S. (2012). 4392:Psychological Bulletin 4181:10.1098/rstb.2011.0301 4060:. New York, NY: Wiley. 3956:10.1006/anbe.2002.3071 3601:10.1098/rspb.2006.3626 3362:Understanding Violence 3069:Berkowitz, L. (1993). 2179:University of Manitoba 2161:American psychologist 1903:Genetics of aggression 1875:major urinary proteins 1804:Dehydroepiandrosterone 1799:Dehydroepiandrosterone 1687: 1583:central nervous system 1343:According to the 2015 1125:Emotional intelligence 988:Sexual differentiation 701: 72: 56: 10494:Impression management 9688:Multilineal evolution 9651:Nature versus nurture 9610:Theoretical positions 9458:Functional psychology 9453:Evolutionary medicine 9428:Biological psychiatry 9136:Texting while driving 9126:Lead–crime hypothesis 8986:Cognitive development 8971:Caregiver deprivation 8482:Gene selection theory 8231:10.1353/mpq.2003.0012 7349:Freedman, J. (2002). 6993:"Corporal Punishment" 6831:Keeley, L.H. (1996). 6816:Thomas, E.M. (1958). 6344:10.1002/hup.470050407 5989:10.1093/cercor/bhr001 5690:10.1300/J076v36n01_04 5631:Biological Psychology 5467:Alexandre G. (2016). 5228:Hashikawa, K (2017). 4477:Archer, John (2009). 4364:Briffa, Mark (2010). 4225:Psychological Science 4076:Behavioural Processes 3733:Behavioural Processes 3583:Tanner, C. J (2006). 3411:Anger and aggression. 2644:Relational aggression 2567:Aggressive narcissism 2454:relational aggression 2324:negatively associated 2301:Arab–Israeli conflict 2028:Statement of Violence 1847:acute stress reaction 1685: 1617:catecholamine systems 1545:(PFC) is crucial for 1423:Physiological factors 1359:relational aggression 936:. Others include the 900:Violence and conflict 883:cost–benefit analysis 695: 579:relational aggression 464:individual or group. 304:Nuclear proliferation 62: 50: 10509:Verbal communication 10462:Animal communication 10380:Targeted advertising 9897:Haptic communication 9641:Cultural determinism 9448:Evolutionary biology 9433:Cognitive psychology 9381:Academic disciplines 9029:Cognitive ergonomics 8996:Language acquisition 8976:Childhood attachment 8789:Wason selection task 8683:Behavioral modernity 8472:Cognitive revolution 8455:Evolutionary thought 7946:Violence and Victims 7694:Dabb, C (May 1997). 7402:10.1093/hcr/27.3.409 4041:Hinde, R.A. (1970). 3112:Psychological Review 2958:Wahl, Klaus (2013). 2923:Wahl, Klaus (2020). 2587:Displaced aggression 2408:Bobo doll experiment 2401:Psychological trauma 2343:Typical expectations 2231:interdependence and 2199:longitudinal studies 2177:Joan Durrant at the 2026:adopted the Seville 1747:orbitofrontal cortex 1656:challenge hypothesis 1650:Challenge hypothesis 1366:Aggressive Behaviour 1113:Emotional expression 792:'common' chimpanzees 778:Trigona fulviventris 627:Workplace aggression 574:interacting causes. 526:tendencies. Besides 370:Paradox of tolerance 10518:Non-verbal language 10406:Gesture recognition 10253:Further information 10143:Emotion recognition 10094:Silent service code 9708:Unilineal evolution 9473:Population genetics 9258:Sexy son hypothesis 9196:Hormonal motivation 9176:Concealed ovulation 8717:Dual process theory 8588:Parental investment 8361:Scientific American 8024:Aggressive Behavior 7815:Aggressive Behavior 7371:25 May 2012 at the 7298:Aggressive Behavior 7223:Aggressive Behavior 7136:Aggressive Behavior 6927:10.1503/cmaj.101314 6819:The harmless people 6418:10.1038/nature05997 6410:2007Natur.450..899C 5816:1987AmSci..75..602W 5197:10.1038/nature13169 5189:2014Natur.509..627L 4981:. pp. 449–62. 4863:Aggressive Behavior 4717:Aggressive Behavior 4641:. pp. 365–82. 4448:10.1038/nature05386 4440:2006Natur.444.1065C 4275:Buss, D.M. (2005). 4056:Hebb, D.O. (1949). 3019:Aggressive Behavior 2800:(44): 11803–11806. 2619:Non-aggression pact 2491:Situational factors 2383:Family difficulties 2372:Aggression triggers 2320:television violence 2233:collective security 2183:physical punishment 2133:tribes. Studies of 2001:Society and culture 1778:antisocial behavior 1740:periaqueductal grey 1700:dihydrotestosterone 1672:concealed ovulation 1609:aggressive behavior 1555:response inhibition 1488:periaqueductal gray 1311:parental investment 1015:Scientific measures 959:Part of a series on 820:conflict resolution 808:dominance hierarchy 714:agonistic behaviour 473:behavioral sciences 299:Nuclear disarmament 198:Conflict escalation 175:Conflict management 79:Conflict resolution 10614:Dispute resolution 10544:Art and literature 10499:Meta-communication 10487:Passive-aggressive 10416:Sentiment analysis 10117:Non-verbal leakage 9666:Social determinism 9549:Fisher's principle 9509:Great ape language 9499:Cultural evolution 9468:Philosophy of mind 9301:Division of labour 9263:Westermarck effect 9211:Mating preferences 9121:Distracted driving 8855:Literary criticism 8712:Domain specificity 8692:modularity of mind 8188:Smith, P. (2007). 8001:10.1007/BF01420988 7846:on 3 December 2011 7027:10.1111/cdep.12038 6974:on 27 January 2016 6756:People of the lake 6617:10.1242/jeb.112011 5803:American Scientist 5790:" from BabyMed.com 4912:The New York Times 4596:. pp. 750–6. 3899:Biological Reviews 3513:10.1007/BF00990750 3258:The New York Times 2524:Milgram experiment 2442:Sex and psychology 2265:avoiding conflicts 2187:Elizabeth Gershoff 2065:You can assist by 1849:, and the role of 1712:estrogen receptors 1688: 1135:Gender empathy gap 754:aggressive mimicry 702: 459:example, built-up 417:Track II diplomacy 365:Prisoner's dilemma 335:Conflict continuum 330:Conflict avoidance 115:Dispute resolution 73: 57: 10619:Social psychology 10581: 10580: 10577: 10576: 10573: 10572: 10569: 10568: 10275:Asperger syndrome 10243: 10242: 10225:Social competence 10165: 10164: 10161: 10160: 9967:Emotional prosody 9873:Subtle expression 9858:Facial expression 9774: 9773: 9752:Psychology portal 9716: 9715: 9559:Hologenome theory 9529:Unit of selection 9524:Primate cognition 9438:Cognitive science 9369: 9368: 9240:Sexual attraction 9216:Mating strategies 8981:Cinderella effect 8911:Moral foundations 8815:Visual perception 8707:Domain generality 8676:Facial expression 8624:Sexual dimorphism 8583:Natural selection 8529:Hamiltonian spite 8283:978-0-387-33964-1 8203:978-1-135-59375-9 7903:Child Development 7680:978-1-59385-110-1 7568:(4): vii, 1–129. 7519:Child Development 7255:Nolan, P. (2007) 7120:978-1-84872-953-7 6847:Lomas, W. (2009) 6658:Behavior Genetics 6404:(7171): 899–902. 6374:. 5 December 2007 5600:978-0-444-53201-5 5479:(Pt B): 268–277. 5240:(20): 1580–1590. 5025:(10): 1784–1793. 4996:978-0-19-856830-8 4656:978-0-19-856830-8 4619:978-0-08-097087-5 3595:(1602): 2737–42. 3372:978-1-135-65676-8 3345:978-1-136-17772-9 3223:10.1159/000105491 2971:978-3-8274-3120-2 2936:978-3-030-25130-7 2608:Homo homini lupus 2519:Leonard Berkowitz 2497:Stereotype threat 2449:empirical studies 2276:political systems 2208:Tulane University 2156:population change 2095: 2094: 2087: 1887:sensory receptors 1883:vomeronasal organ 1869:released between 1661:seasonal breeders 1613:serotonin systems 1562:neurotransmitters 1543:prefrontal cortex 1517:prefrontal cortex 1501:estrogen receptor 1459:Cinderella effect 1441:sperm competition 1395:domestic violence 1299:sexual dimorphism 1286: 1285: 1220:Gender inequality 930:natural selection 914:natural selection 892:According to the 829:bonobo chimpanzee 765:tend and befriend 453: 452: 325:Anti-war movement 289:Nuclear blackmail 193:Communal violence 16:(Redirected from 10636: 10609:Problem behavior 10455: 10454: 10432:Ray Birdwhistell 10260: 10259: 10249: 10248: 10175:Broader concepts 10171: 10170: 10148:First impression 9829: 9828: 9816: 9815: 9801: 9794: 9787: 9778: 9777: 9761: 9748: 9735: 9734: 9378: 9377: 9374:Related subjects 9161:Adult attachment 8688:Cognitive module 8644: 8643: 8631:Social selection 8605:Costly signaling 8600:Sexual selection 8487:Modern synthesis 8432: 8425: 8418: 8409: 8408: 8346: 8345: 8334:10.1037/a0018941 8327: 8309: 8300: 8294: 8293: 8292: 8290: 8257: 8251: 8250: 8214: 8208: 8207: 8185: 8179: 8178: 8176: 8174: 8159: 8153: 8152: 8140: 8134: 8133: 8097: 8091: 8090: 8071:10.1037/h0076960 8054: 8048: 8047: 8036:10.1002/ab.20231 8019: 8013: 8012: 7984: 7978: 7977: 7941: 7935: 7934: 7897: 7891: 7890: 7862: 7856: 7855: 7853: 7851: 7845: 7839:. Archived from 7830: 7812: 7803: 7797: 7788: 7782: 7776: 7770: 7764: 7758: 7751: 7745: 7744: 7725:10.1037/h0045925 7708: 7702: 7701: 7691: 7685: 7684: 7664: 7658: 7657: 7645: 7639: 7638: 7612: 7592: 7586: 7585: 7557: 7551: 7550: 7510: 7504: 7503: 7485: 7465: 7459: 7458: 7440: 7438:10.1.1.1006.1548 7420: 7414: 7413: 7385: 7379: 7362: 7356: 7347: 7341: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7320:10.1002/ab.20325 7313: 7293: 7287: 7286: 7266: 7260: 7253: 7247: 7246: 7235:10.1002/ab.21472 7218: 7212: 7211: 7201: 7175: 7166: 7160: 7159: 7131: 7125: 7124: 7104: 7098: 7097: 7087: 7055: 7049: 7048: 7038: 7006: 7000: 6990: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6973: 6966: 6955: 6949: 6948: 6938: 6906: 6897: 6896: 6893:Psychology Today 6884: 6878: 6877: 6867: 6858: 6852: 6845: 6839: 6829: 6823: 6814: 6808: 6801: 6790: 6784: 6778: 6765: 6759: 6752: 6746: 6739: 6733: 6726: 6720: 6719: 6698: 6692: 6691: 6681: 6649: 6643: 6636: 6630: 6629: 6619: 6595: 6589: 6588: 6578: 6546: 6540: 6534: 6528: 6527: 6517: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6476: 6459:(30): 10773–85. 6444: 6438: 6437: 6393: 6384: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6362: 6356: 6355: 6327: 6321: 6320: 6282: 6276: 6275: 6247: 6241: 6240: 6204: 6198: 6197: 6171: 6149: 6143: 6129: 6120: 6119: 6109: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6042: 6020: 6011: 6010: 6000: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5949: 5915: 5909: 5908: 5870: 5857: 5856: 5832:Animal Behaviour 5826: 5820: 5819: 5797: 5791: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5739: 5730: 5723: 5714: 5711: 5702: 5701: 5669: 5663: 5662: 5628: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5578: 5572: 5565: 5559: 5558: 5540: 5514: 5505: 5499: 5498: 5488: 5463: 5454: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5414: 5405: 5399: 5398: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5315: 5304: 5303: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5257: 5225: 5219: 5218: 5208: 5183:(7502): 627–32. 5168: 5162: 5161: 5151: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5042: 5010: 5001: 5000: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4947: 4941: 4940: 4929: 4923: 4922: 4920: 4918: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4886: 4875:10.1002/ab.20404 4854: 4848: 4847: 4831: 4825: 4824: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4760: 4751: 4750: 4740: 4729:10.1002/ab.21433 4707: 4696: 4695: 4684:10.1002/bsl.2035 4667: 4661: 4660: 4630: 4624: 4623: 4589: 4578: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4483: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4434:(7122): 1065–8. 4422: 4416: 4415: 4387: 4378: 4377: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4288: 4282: 4273: 4267: 4266: 4240: 4220: 4211: 4210: 4200: 4160: 4151: 4150: 4114: 4108: 4107: 4071: 4062: 4061: 4053: 4047: 4046: 4038: 4032: 4031: 3995: 3989: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3944:Animal Behaviour 3939: 3933: 3932: 3914: 3890: 3884: 3883: 3863: 3852: 3851: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3806: 3780: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3704:(24): 3497–506. 3689: 3680: 3679: 3661: 3637: 3631: 3630: 3620: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3563: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3496: 3485: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3433: 3427: 3420: 3414: 3407: 3401: 3395: 3389: 3383: 3377: 3376: 3356: 3350: 3349: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3291: 3282: 3268: 3262: 3261: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3163: 3157: 3150: 3144: 3143: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3080: 3074: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3052: 3043: 3042: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2920: 2914: 2913: 2877: 2871: 2868: 2862: 2861: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2825: 2785: 2774: 2773: 2737: 2728: 2727: 2699: 2693: 2686: 2528:semantic network 2458:social rejection 2212:Murray A. Straus 2154:techniques, and 2135:hunter-gatherers 2090: 2083: 2079: 2076: 2070: 2050: 2049: 2042: 1941:oxidative stress 1793:anabolic steroid 1482:In mammals, the 1414: 1413: 1409: 1327:sexual selection 1278: 1271: 1264: 1250:equality paradox 1245:Sociolinguistics 1049:Mental disorders 975: 956: 955: 445: 438: 431: 75: 74: 53:Armand Fallieres 21: 10644: 10643: 10639: 10638: 10637: 10635: 10634: 10633: 10584: 10583: 10582: 10565: 10556:Mimoplastic art 10539: 10530:Tactile signing 10513: 10446: 10420: 10384: 10348: 10321: 10254: 10239: 10215:Social behavior 10176: 10157: 10121: 10112:Microexpression 10098: 10082:One-bit message 10061: 10013: 9948: 9868:Microexpression 9823: 9810: 9805: 9775: 9770: 9712: 9698:Neoevolutionism 9605: 9589:Species complex 9554:Group selection 9492:Research topics 9487: 9463:Neuropsychology 9365: 9351:Substance abuse 9273:Sex differences 9267: 9181:Coolidge effect 9142: 9054:Neuroergonomics 9019: 9010: 8934: 8836: 8770:Folk psychology 8651: 8635: 8505: 8498: 8441: 8436: 8403:Wayback Machine 8371: 8355: 8353:Further reading 8350: 8349: 8325:10.1.1.360.3176 8307: 8301: 8297: 8288: 8286: 8284: 8258: 8254: 8215: 8211: 8204: 8186: 8182: 8172: 8170: 8160: 8156: 8141: 8137: 8098: 8094: 8065:(6): 1098–107. 8055: 8051: 8020: 8016: 7995:(3–4): 177–88. 7985: 7981: 7942: 7938: 7909:(5): 1185–229. 7898: 7894: 7863: 7859: 7849: 7847: 7843: 7828:10.1.1.453.7106 7810: 7804: 7800: 7789: 7785: 7777: 7773: 7765: 7761: 7752: 7748: 7709: 7705: 7692: 7688: 7681: 7665: 7661: 7646: 7642: 7610:10.1.1.572.4309 7593: 7589: 7558: 7554: 7511: 7507: 7483:10.1.1.487.7070 7466: 7462: 7421: 7417: 7386: 7382: 7373:Wayback Machine 7363: 7359: 7348: 7344: 7339: 7335: 7311:10.1.1.332.6476 7294: 7290: 7267: 7263: 7254: 7250: 7219: 7215: 7173: 7167: 7163: 7132: 7128: 7121: 7105: 7101: 7070:(5): e1057–65. 7056: 7052: 7007: 7003: 6991: 6987: 6977: 6975: 6971: 6964: 6956: 6952: 6907: 6900: 6885: 6881: 6865: 6859: 6855: 6846: 6842: 6830: 6826: 6815: 6811: 6802: 6793: 6785: 6781: 6776:Wayback Machine 6766: 6762: 6753: 6749: 6743:On Human Nature 6740: 6736: 6728:Konrad Lorenz, 6727: 6723: 6699: 6695: 6650: 6646: 6637: 6633: 6610:(Pt 2): 223–7. 6596: 6592: 6547: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6494: 6490: 6445: 6441: 6394: 6387: 6377: 6375: 6364: 6363: 6359: 6328: 6324: 6295:(14): 1537–41. 6283: 6279: 6248: 6244: 6205: 6201: 6169:10.1.1.421.3005 6150: 6146: 6136:Kevin M. Beaver 6130: 6123: 6076: 6072: 6040:10.1.1.518.2751 6033:(10): 2357–68. 6021: 6014: 5983:(10): 2282–90. 5976:Cerebral Cortex 5967: 5963: 5916: 5912: 5871: 5860: 5827: 5823: 5798: 5794: 5785: 5781: 5740: 5733: 5724: 5717: 5712: 5705: 5670: 5666: 5626: 5620: 5616: 5601: 5579: 5575: 5566: 5562: 5512: 5506: 5502: 5464: 5457: 5448: 5444: 5412: 5406: 5402: 5363: 5359: 5316: 5307: 5275: 5271: 5246:10.1038/nn.4644 5226: 5222: 5171:Lee, H (2014). 5169: 5165: 5134:(11): 4331–40. 5120: 5116: 5076: 5072: 5011: 5004: 4997: 4971: 4967: 4948: 4944: 4931: 4930: 4926: 4916: 4914: 4904: 4900: 4855: 4851: 4832: 4828: 4805: 4801: 4761: 4754: 4708: 4699: 4668: 4664: 4657: 4631: 4627: 4620: 4590: 4581: 4572: 4568: 4560: 4556: 4517: 4513: 4481: 4475: 4471: 4423: 4419: 4388: 4381: 4362: 4358: 4335: 4331: 4316: 4312: 4289: 4285: 4274: 4270: 4238:10.1.1.518.3529 4221: 4214: 4175:(1589): 670–9. 4161: 4154: 4115: 4111: 4072: 4065: 4054: 4050: 4039: 4035: 3996: 3992: 3975: 3971: 3940: 3936: 3891: 3887: 3864: 3855: 3832: 3828: 3778: 3772: 3768: 3729: 3725: 3690: 3683: 3646:Current Biology 3638: 3634: 3581: 3577: 3540: 3536: 3497: 3488: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3450:10.1139/z92-150 3434: 3430: 3421: 3417: 3408: 3404: 3396: 3392: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3357: 3353: 3346: 3330: 3326: 3292: 3285: 3270:Nathaniel Snow 3269: 3265: 3250: 3246: 3207: 3203: 3164: 3160: 3151: 3147: 3108: 3104: 3081: 3077: 3068: 3064: 3053: 3046: 3015: 3011: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2987: 2972: 2956: 2952: 2937: 2921: 2917: 2878: 2874: 2869: 2865: 2843: 2839: 2786: 2777: 2738: 2731: 2700: 2696: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2673: 2664:School violence 2659:School bullying 2614:Microaggression 2557: 2544: 2499: 2493: 2444: 2438: 2374: 2345: 2332: 2315: 2309: 2288:economic system 2286:societies. The 2257:individualistic 2131:Native American 2091: 2080: 2074: 2071: 2064: 2051: 2047: 2040: 2019:On Human Nature 2003: 1905: 1899: 1863: 1812: 1810:Glucocorticoids 1801: 1768:lumbar puncture 1759: 1728:social behavior 1680: 1652: 1639: 1633: 1476: 1471: 1425: 1411: 1407: 1406: 1390: 1307:chosen by mates 1291: 1282: 1069:substance abuse 1044:Life expectancy 954: 902: 879: 846: 804: 761:fight or flight 729: 690: 651: 501: 469:social sciences 449: 377:Liaison officer 284:Nuclear warfare 268:Multilateralism 208:Just war theory 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10642: 10632: 10631: 10626: 10621: 10616: 10611: 10606: 10604:Human behavior 10601: 10596: 10579: 10578: 10575: 10574: 10571: 10570: 10567: 10566: 10564: 10563: 10558: 10553: 10547: 10545: 10541: 10540: 10538: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10521: 10519: 10515: 10514: 10512: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10490: 10489: 10484: 10479: 10474: 10464: 10458: 10452: 10448: 10447: 10445: 10444: 10439: 10437:Charles Darwin 10434: 10428: 10426: 10422: 10421: 10419: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10392: 10390: 10386: 10385: 10383: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10356: 10354: 10350: 10349: 10347: 10346: 10341: 10331: 10329: 10323: 10322: 10320: 10319: 10314: 10309: 10304: 10303: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10266: 10264: 10256: 10255: 10245: 10244: 10241: 10240: 10238: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10181: 10178: 10177: 10167: 10166: 10163: 10162: 10159: 10158: 10156: 10155: 10150: 10145: 10140: 10135: 10133:Affect display 10129: 10127: 10123: 10122: 10120: 10119: 10114: 10108: 10106: 10100: 10099: 10097: 10096: 10091: 10090: 10089: 10079: 10069: 10067: 10063: 10062: 10060: 10059: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10023: 10021: 10019:Social context 10015: 10014: 10012: 10011: 10010: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9994: 9989: 9984: 9979: 9969: 9964: 9958: 9956: 9950: 9949: 9947: 9946: 9941: 9936: 9931: 9930: 9929: 9927:Pupil dilation 9924: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9893: 9892: 9887: 9877: 9876: 9875: 9870: 9865: 9855: 9850: 9841: 9835: 9833: 9825: 9824: 9812: 9811: 9804: 9803: 9796: 9789: 9781: 9772: 9771: 9769: 9768: 9755: 9742: 9729: 9721: 9718: 9717: 9714: 9713: 9711: 9710: 9705: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9668: 9663: 9658: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9633: 9619: 9613: 9611: 9607: 9606: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9601: 9596: 9591: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9561: 9556: 9551: 9546: 9541: 9536: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9506: 9501: 9495: 9493: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9485: 9480: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9403: 9394: 9384: 9382: 9375: 9371: 9370: 9367: 9366: 9364: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9277: 9275: 9269: 9268: 9266: 9265: 9260: 9255: 9242: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9208: 9203: 9198: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9173: 9168: 9163: 9158: 9152: 9150: 9144: 9143: 9141: 9140: 9139: 9138: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9081:Mind-blindness 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9057: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9036: 9025: 9023: 9012: 9011: 9009: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8955: 8950: 8944: 8942: 8936: 8935: 8933: 8932: 8927: 8926: 8925: 8915: 8914: 8913: 8903: 8902: 8901: 8896: 8891: 8881: 8876: 8875: 8874: 8864: 8863: 8862: 8857: 8846: 8844: 8838: 8837: 8835: 8834: 8833: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8793: 8792: 8791: 8786: 8776: 8774:theory of mind 8767: 8758: 8757: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8736: 8731: 8726: 8721: 8720: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8685: 8680: 8679: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8657: 8655: 8641: 8637: 8636: 8634: 8633: 8628: 8627: 8626: 8621: 8616: 8607: 8597: 8596: 8595: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8569: 8568: 8558: 8553: 8548: 8543: 8541:Baldwin effect 8538: 8537: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8516: 8510: 8508: 8500: 8499: 8497: 8496: 8491: 8490: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8459: 8458: 8457: 8446: 8443: 8442: 8435: 8434: 8427: 8420: 8412: 8406: 8405: 8393: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8370: 8369:External links 8367: 8366: 8365: 8354: 8351: 8348: 8347: 8295: 8282: 8252: 8209: 8202: 8180: 8154: 8135: 8092: 8049: 8014: 7979: 7952:(2): 197–217. 7936: 7892: 7873:(4): 291–322. 7857: 7798: 7783: 7771: 7759: 7746: 7703: 7686: 7679: 7659: 7640: 7587: 7552: 7525:(5): 1523–37. 7505: 7460: 7415: 7380: 7357: 7342: 7333: 7288: 7261: 7248: 7229:(3): 182–200. 7213: 7161: 7126: 7119: 7099: 7050: 7021:(3): 133–137. 7001: 6985: 6950: 6921:(12): 1373–7. 6898: 6879: 6853: 6840: 6824: 6809: 6791: 6779: 6760: 6747: 6734: 6721: 6710:(6): 464–469. 6693: 6644: 6631: 6590: 6541: 6529: 6508:(8): 4655–62. 6488: 6439: 6385: 6357: 6322: 6277: 6258:(6): 1217–22. 6242: 6199: 6144: 6121: 6070: 6012: 5961: 5910: 5858: 5821: 5792: 5779: 5731: 5715: 5703: 5684:(1–4): 67–87. 5664: 5614: 5599: 5573: 5560: 5500: 5455: 5442: 5400: 5357: 5305: 5269: 5220: 5163: 5114: 5081:Brain Research 5070: 5002: 4995: 4965: 4942: 4924: 4898: 4869:(5): 387–404. 4849: 4826: 4799: 4752: 4723:(4): 298–308. 4697: 4662: 4655: 4625: 4618: 4579: 4566: 4554: 4511: 4469: 4417: 4379: 4356: 4329: 4310: 4283: 4268: 4212: 4152: 4109: 4063: 4048: 4033: 3990: 3969: 3934: 3885: 3853: 3826: 3795:10.1086/503445 3766: 3723: 3681: 3652:(12): R507–8. 3632: 3575: 3534: 3507:(9): 1167–81. 3486: 3473: 3464: 3455: 3444:(6): 1069–77. 3428: 3415: 3402: 3390: 3378: 3371: 3351: 3344: 3324: 3283: 3263: 3244: 3201: 3158: 3145: 3102: 3075: 3062: 3044: 3009: 2994: 2985: 2970: 2950: 2935: 2915: 2872: 2863: 2837: 2775: 2729: 2694: 2680: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2672: 2671: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2639:Rage (emotion) 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2564: 2558: 2556: 2553: 2543: 2540: 2492: 2489: 2470:Bellona Island 2437: 2434: 2433: 2432: 2426: 2419: 2418: 2416: 2404: 2403: 2398: 2385: 2380: 2373: 2370: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2344: 2341: 2331: 2328: 2311:Main article: 2308: 2305: 2239:Cross-cultural 2197:, a number of 2093: 2092: 2075:September 2024 2054: 2052: 2045: 2039: 2036: 2017:elaborated in 2011:On Aggression, 2002: 1999: 1901:Main article: 1898: 1895: 1862: 1859: 1851:catecholamines 1819:corticosterone 1815:Glucocorticoid 1811: 1808: 1800: 1797: 1758: 1755: 1694:by the enzyme 1679: 1676: 1651: 1648: 1632: 1629: 1575:Norepinephrine 1532:rhesus monkeys 1475: 1474:Brain pathways 1472: 1470: 1467: 1424: 1421: 1389: 1386: 1290: 1287: 1284: 1283: 1281: 1280: 1273: 1266: 1258: 1255: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1240:Social support 1237: 1235:Social capital 1232: 1227: 1222: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1205: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1191: 1190: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1127: 1122: 1121: 1120: 1110: 1105: 1097: 1096: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1046: 1041: 1033: 1032: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1007: 1002: 997: 996: 995: 982: 981: 977: 976: 968: 967: 961: 960: 953: 950: 934:hawk-dove game 901: 898: 878: 875: 845: 842: 803: 802:Within a group 800: 728: 725: 698:elephant seals 689: 686: 650: 647: 569:. Research on 514:extended this 500: 497: 451: 450: 448: 447: 440: 433: 425: 422: 421: 420: 419: 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 373: 372: 367: 357: 352: 350:Family therapy 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 314: 313: 309: 308: 307: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 278: 277: 273: 272: 271: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 232: 231: 225: 224: 223: 222: 221: 220: 210: 205: 200: 195: 187: 186: 180: 179: 178: 177: 169: 168: 164: 163: 162: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 140: 139: 137:Party-directed 129: 128: 127: 122: 117: 107: 102: 97: 89: 88: 82: 81: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10641: 10630: 10627: 10625: 10622: 10620: 10617: 10615: 10612: 10610: 10607: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10591: 10589: 10562: 10559: 10557: 10554: 10552: 10549: 10548: 10546: 10542: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10525:Sign language 10523: 10522: 10520: 10516: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10473: 10470: 10469: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10459: 10456: 10453: 10449: 10443: 10440: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10430: 10429: 10427: 10423: 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10393: 10391: 10387: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10370:Freudian slip 10368: 10366: 10365:Lie detection 10363: 10361: 10358: 10357: 10355: 10351: 10345: 10344:Mirror neuron 10342: 10340: 10336: 10335:Limbic system 10333: 10332: 10330: 10328: 10324: 10318: 10315: 10313: 10310: 10308: 10305: 10301: 10300:Rett syndrome 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10272: 10271: 10268: 10267: 10265: 10261: 10257: 10250: 10246: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10230:Social skills 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10205:People skills 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10190:Communication 10188: 10186: 10183: 10182: 10179: 10172: 10168: 10154: 10151: 10149: 10146: 10144: 10141: 10139: 10136: 10134: 10131: 10130: 10128: 10126:Multi-faceted 10124: 10118: 10115: 10113: 10110: 10109: 10107: 10105: 10101: 10095: 10092: 10088: 10085: 10084: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10074: 10071: 10070: 10068: 10064: 10058: 10055: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10037:Display rules 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10024: 10022: 10020: 10016: 10008: 10007:Voice quality 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9993: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9974: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9959: 9957: 9955: 9951: 9945: 9942: 9940: 9937: 9935: 9932: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9919: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9891: 9888: 9886: 9883: 9882: 9881: 9878: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9860: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9845: 9844:Body language 9842: 9840: 9837: 9836: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9822: 9817: 9813: 9809: 9802: 9797: 9795: 9790: 9788: 9783: 9782: 9779: 9767: 9766: 9760: 9756: 9754: 9753: 9747: 9743: 9741: 9740: 9730: 9728: 9727: 9723: 9722: 9719: 9709: 9706: 9704: 9701: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9693:Neo-Darwinism 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9678:Functionalism 9676: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9654: 9652: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9636:Connectionism 9634: 9632: 9629: 9628: 9627: 9626:indeterminism 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9614: 9612: 9608: 9600: 9597: 9595: 9592: 9590: 9587: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9560: 9557: 9555: 9552: 9550: 9547: 9545: 9542: 9540: 9537: 9535: 9532: 9531: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9496: 9494: 9490: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9404: 9402: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9389: 9386: 9385: 9383: 9379: 9376: 9372: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9346:Schizophrenia 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9331:Mental health 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9278: 9276: 9274: 9270: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9243: 9241: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9206:Mate guarding 9204: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9166:Age disparity 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9153: 9151: 9149: 9145: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9118: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9096:Schizophrenia 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9035: 9032: 9031: 9030: 9027: 9026: 9024: 9022: 9021:Mental health 9017: 9016:Human factors 9013: 9007: 9006:Socialization 9004: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8966:paternal bond 8963: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8949: 8946: 8945: 8943: 8941: 8937: 8931: 8928: 8924: 8921: 8920: 8919: 8916: 8912: 8909: 8908: 8907: 8904: 8900: 8897: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8886: 8885: 8882: 8880: 8877: 8873: 8870: 8869: 8868: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8852: 8851: 8848: 8847: 8845: 8843: 8839: 8831: 8830:Naïve physics 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8817: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8797: 8796:Motor control 8794: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8781: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8762: 8759: 8755: 8754:Ophidiophobia 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8744:Arachnophobia 8742: 8741: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8694: 8693: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8671:Display rules 8669: 8667: 8664: 8663: 8662: 8659: 8658: 8656: 8654: 8649: 8645: 8642: 8638: 8632: 8629: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8602: 8601: 8598: 8594: 8591: 8590: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8573:Kin selection 8571: 8567: 8564: 8563: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8547: 8544: 8542: 8539: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8521: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8507: 8501: 8495: 8492: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8467:Adaptationism 8465: 8464: 8463: 8460: 8456: 8453: 8452: 8451: 8448: 8447: 8444: 8440: 8433: 8428: 8426: 8421: 8419: 8414: 8413: 8410: 8404: 8400: 8397: 8394: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8372: 8363: 8362: 8357: 8356: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8306: 8299: 8285: 8279: 8275: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8256: 8248: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8225:(3): 239–42. 8224: 8220: 8213: 8205: 8199: 8195: 8191: 8184: 8169: 8165: 8158: 8150: 8146: 8139: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8108:(4): 453–65. 8107: 8103: 8096: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8053: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8030:(2): 167–74. 8029: 8025: 8018: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7983: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7959: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7940: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7896: 7888: 7884: 7880: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7861: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7809: 7802: 7795: 7794: 7787: 7781: 7775: 7769: 7763: 7756: 7750: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7726: 7722: 7719:(3): 575–82. 7718: 7714: 7707: 7700:. USU Thesis. 7699: 7698: 7690: 7682: 7676: 7672: 7671: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7644: 7636: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7603:(7): 989–99. 7602: 7598: 7591: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7556: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7509: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7476:(2): 129–41. 7475: 7471: 7464: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7431:(4): 772–90. 7430: 7426: 7419: 7411: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7396:(3): 409–31. 7395: 7391: 7384: 7378: 7374: 7370: 7367: 7361: 7354: 7353: 7346: 7337: 7329: 7325: 7321: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7292: 7284: 7280: 7277:(2): 93–109. 7276: 7272: 7265: 7258: 7252: 7244: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7224: 7217: 7209: 7205: 7200: 7199:2027.42/92155 7195: 7191: 7187: 7184:(5): 945–59. 7183: 7179: 7172: 7165: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7142:(3): 185–95. 7141: 7137: 7130: 7122: 7116: 7112: 7111: 7103: 7095: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7054: 7046: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7005: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6970: 6963: 6962: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6916: 6912: 6905: 6903: 6894: 6890: 6883: 6876:(4): 476–522. 6875: 6871: 6864: 6857: 6850: 6844: 6837: 6835: 6828: 6821: 6820: 6813: 6806: 6800: 6798: 6796: 6789: 6783: 6777: 6773: 6770: 6764: 6757: 6751: 6744: 6741:E.O. Wilson, 6738: 6731: 6730:On Aggression 6725: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6697: 6689: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6664:(5): 639–48. 6663: 6659: 6655: 6648: 6641: 6635: 6627: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6594: 6586: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6552: 6545: 6538: 6533: 6525: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6492: 6484: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6443: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6392: 6390: 6373: 6372: 6367: 6361: 6353: 6349: 6345: 6341: 6338:(4): 349–56. 6337: 6333: 6326: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6289: 6281: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6253: 6246: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6215:(4): 405–25. 6214: 6210: 6203: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6156: 6148: 6141: 6137: 6134:; Lee Ellis, 6133: 6128: 6126: 6117: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6092:(4): 429–42. 6091: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6027: 6019: 6017: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5977: 5972: 5965: 5957: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5939: 5935: 5932:(2): 135–47. 5931: 5927: 5926: 5921: 5914: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5883:(4): 476–89. 5882: 5878: 5877: 5869: 5867: 5865: 5863: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5833: 5825: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5804: 5796: 5789: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5752:(3): 319–45. 5751: 5747: 5746: 5738: 5736: 5728: 5722: 5720: 5710: 5708: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5668: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5625: 5618: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5577: 5570: 5564: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5523:(2): 263–72. 5522: 5518: 5511: 5504: 5496: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5462: 5460: 5452: 5446: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5423:(4): 749–60. 5422: 5418: 5411: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5373:(1): 147–51. 5372: 5368: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5330:(3): 869–80. 5329: 5325: 5321: 5314: 5312: 5310: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5286:(2): 401–12. 5285: 5281: 5273: 5265: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5234:Nat. Neurosci 5231: 5224: 5216: 5212: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5167: 5159: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5009: 5007: 4998: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4946: 4938: 4934: 4928: 4913: 4909: 4902: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4853: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4822: 4818: 4815:(3): 231–45. 4814: 4810: 4803: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4772:(2): 158–75. 4771: 4767: 4759: 4757: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4678:(5): 643–71. 4677: 4673: 4666: 4658: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4621: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4576: 4570: 4563: 4558: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4515: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4480: 4473: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4421: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4398:(3): 309–30. 4397: 4393: 4386: 4384: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4352: 4348: 4345:(5): 428–36. 4344: 4340: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4314: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4287: 4280: 4279: 4272: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4219: 4217: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4157: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4125:(3): 553–82. 4124: 4120: 4113: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4068: 4059: 4052: 4044: 4037: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4006:(3): 413–36. 4005: 4001: 3994: 3988: 3987:0-19-507119-0 3984: 3981: 3980: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3950:(3): 325–43. 3949: 3945: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3874:(5): 286–94. 3873: 3869: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3830: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3789:(6): 837–52. 3788: 3784: 3777: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3688: 3686: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3554:: 1014–1030. 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3483: 3477: 3468: 3459: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3432: 3425: 3419: 3412: 3406: 3399: 3394: 3387: 3382: 3374: 3368: 3364: 3363: 3355: 3347: 3341: 3337: 3336: 3328: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3305:(6): 488–92. 3304: 3300: 3299: 3290: 3288: 3280: 3277: 3273: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3217:(4): 274–85. 3216: 3212: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3174:(3): 276–91. 3173: 3169: 3162: 3155: 3149: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3106: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3072: 3066: 3058: 3051: 3049: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3005: 2998: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2967: 2963: 2962: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2927: 2919: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2876: 2867: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2841: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2734: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2698: 2691: 2685: 2681: 2670: 2669:Social defeat 2667: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2650: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2603: 2602:Hero syndrome 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2573: 2570: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2562:Aggressionism 2560: 2559: 2552: 2548: 2539: 2537: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2443: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2421: 2420: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2409: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2375: 2365: 2361: 2358: 2355: 2354:peer pressure 2351: 2347: 2346: 2340: 2336: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2304: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2274: 2273:authoritarian 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2234: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2175: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2159: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2146:acquisition, 2145: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2111:noble savages 2108: 2104: 2100: 2089: 2086: 2078: 2068: 2062: 2060: 2055:This section 2053: 2044: 2043: 2035: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2007: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1969: 1966: 1965:meta-analysis 1962: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1925: 1923: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1858: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1807: 1805: 1796: 1794: 1789: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1769: 1764: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1684: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1657: 1647: 1643: 1638: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1602: 1598: 1595: 1594:neuropeptides 1592:The hormonal 1590: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1551:orbitofrontal 1548: 1544: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1442: 1439:but frequent 1438: 1434: 1430: 1420: 1416: 1404: 1398: 1396: 1385: 1383: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1360: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1347: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1295: 1279: 1274: 1272: 1267: 1265: 1260: 1259: 1257: 1256: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1226: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1199: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1162: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1082: 1079: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1064:schizophrenia 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 994: 991: 990: 989: 986: 985: 984: 983: 979: 978: 974: 970: 969: 966: 963: 962: 958: 957: 949: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 921: 919: 915: 911: 907: 897: 895: 890: 888: 884: 874: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 841: 838: 834: 830: 824: 821: 815: 813: 812:social defeat 809: 799: 797: 793: 789: 783: 780: 779: 774: 773:alarm signals 770: 766: 762: 757: 755: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 733:interspecific 724: 722: 717: 715: 710: 706: 699: 694: 685: 683: 682:Child raising 679: 675: 674:Sigmund Freud 670: 668: 664: 660: 656: 646: 642: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 580: 575: 572: 568: 567:armed robbery 564: 560: 556: 552: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 496: 494: 493:assertiveness 489: 484: 482: 476: 474: 470: 465: 462: 457: 446: 441: 439: 434: 432: 427: 426: 424: 423: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 402:Peacebuilding 400: 398: 395: 393: 392:Peace process 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 371: 368: 366: 363: 362: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 317: 316: 315: 311: 310: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 281: 280: 279: 275: 274: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 235: 234: 233: 230: 227: 226: 219: 216: 215: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 203:De-escalation 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 190: 189: 188: 185: 182: 181: 176: 173: 172: 171: 170: 166: 165: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 138: 135: 134: 133: 130: 126: 125:Collaborative 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 112: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 92: 91: 90: 87: 84: 83: 80: 77: 76: 70: 66: 61: 54: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 10471: 10360:Cold reading 10353:Applications 10327:Neuroanatomy 9972:Paralanguage 9763: 9750: 9737: 9724: 9483:Sociobiology 9341:Neuroscience 9321:Intelligence 9280: 8867:Anthropology 8820:Color vision 8805:Multitasking 8784:Flynn effect 8779:Intelligence 8761:Folk biology 8504:Evolutionary 8359: 8318:(2): 68–81. 8315: 8311: 8298: 8287:, retrieved 8265: 8255: 8222: 8218: 8212: 8193: 8183: 8171:. Retrieved 8167: 8157: 8148: 8144: 8138: 8105: 8101: 8095: 8062: 8058: 8052: 8027: 8023: 8017: 7992: 7988: 7982: 7949: 7945: 7939: 7906: 7902: 7895: 7870: 7866: 7860: 7848:. Retrieved 7841:the original 7818: 7814: 7801: 7791: 7786: 7779: 7774: 7762: 7749: 7716: 7712: 7706: 7696: 7689: 7669: 7662: 7653: 7649: 7643: 7600: 7596: 7590: 7565: 7561: 7555: 7522: 7518: 7508: 7473: 7469: 7463: 7428: 7424: 7418: 7393: 7389: 7383: 7376: 7360: 7350: 7345: 7336: 7304:(6): 514–9. 7301: 7297: 7291: 7274: 7270: 7264: 7251: 7226: 7222: 7216: 7181: 7177: 7164: 7139: 7135: 7129: 7109: 7102: 7067: 7063: 7053: 7018: 7014: 7004: 6996: 6988: 6976:. Retrieved 6969:the original 6960: 6953: 6918: 6914: 6892: 6882: 6873: 6869: 6856: 6843: 6832: 6827: 6817: 6812: 6782: 6763: 6755: 6750: 6742: 6737: 6729: 6724: 6707: 6703: 6696: 6661: 6657: 6647: 6634: 6607: 6604:J. Exp. Biol 6603: 6593: 6561:(2): 200–6. 6558: 6554: 6544: 6532: 6505: 6501: 6491: 6456: 6452: 6442: 6401: 6397: 6378:26 September 6376:. Retrieved 6369: 6360: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6292: 6286: 6280: 6255: 6251: 6245: 6212: 6208: 6202: 6159: 6153: 6147: 6131: 6089: 6083: 6073: 6030: 6024: 5980: 5974: 5964: 5929: 5923: 5913: 5880: 5874: 5836: 5830: 5824: 5810:(6): 602–8. 5807: 5801: 5795: 5782: 5749: 5743: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5667: 5634: 5630: 5617: 5582: 5576: 5563: 5520: 5516: 5503: 5476: 5472: 5445: 5420: 5416: 5403: 5370: 5366: 5360: 5327: 5324:Neuroscience 5323: 5283: 5279: 5272: 5237: 5233: 5223: 5180: 5176: 5166: 5131: 5127: 5117: 5087:(1): 61–79. 5084: 5080: 5073: 5022: 5018: 4978: 4968: 4962:(2): 351–61. 4959: 4955: 4945: 4927: 4915:. Retrieved 4911: 4901: 4866: 4862: 4852: 4843: 4839: 4829: 4812: 4808: 4802: 4769: 4765: 4720: 4716: 4675: 4671: 4665: 4638: 4628: 4610:2318/1852940 4593: 4569: 4557: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4489: 4485: 4472: 4431: 4427: 4420: 4395: 4391: 4373: 4369: 4359: 4342: 4338: 4332: 4323: 4313: 4296: 4292: 4286: 4276: 4271: 4231:(1): 19–23. 4228: 4224: 4172: 4168: 4122: 4118: 4112: 4079: 4075: 4057: 4051: 4042: 4036: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3977: 3972: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3905:(1): 33–74. 3902: 3898: 3888: 3871: 3867: 3842:(3): 412–9. 3839: 3835: 3829: 3786: 3782: 3769: 3739:(2): 170–7. 3736: 3732: 3726: 3701: 3697: 3649: 3645: 3635: 3592: 3588: 3578: 3551: 3547: 3537: 3504: 3500: 3476: 3467: 3458: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3418: 3405: 3393: 3381: 3361: 3354: 3334: 3327: 3302: 3296: 3266: 3257: 3247: 3214: 3210: 3204: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3148: 3118:(1): 273–9. 3115: 3111: 3105: 3088: 3084: 3078: 3065: 3056: 3022: 3018: 3012: 3003: 2997: 2988: 2960: 2953: 2925: 2918: 2885: 2881: 2875: 2866: 2858: 2850: 2840: 2797: 2793: 2745: 2741: 2707: 2703: 2697: 2689: 2684: 2606: 2549: 2545: 2532: 2516: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2481:testosterone 2478: 2466: 2445: 2405: 2392:neurological 2337: 2333: 2316: 2261:collectivist 2237: 2217: 2176: 2160: 2115:ǃKung people 2096: 2081: 2072: 2059:copy editing 2057:may require 2056: 2032: 2018: 2015:E. O. Wilson 2010: 2004: 1970: 1957: 1938: 1926: 1910: 1906: 1871:conspecifics 1864: 1840: 1824: 1813: 1802: 1790: 1786: 1773: 1772: 1760: 1744: 1736:hypothalamus 1724: 1708: 1704:5α-reductase 1689: 1668:song sparrow 1665: 1653: 1644: 1640: 1631:Testosterone 1606: 1591: 1559: 1547:self-control 1540: 1536:Amygdalotomy 1521: 1484:hypothalamus 1481: 1477: 1451:sociobiology 1445: 1426: 1417: 1399: 1391: 1384:than women. 1382:testosterone 1378: 1365: 1363: 1355: 1350: 1344: 1342: 1334:social roles 1331: 1317:production, 1297:In general, 1296: 1292: 1142:Intelligence 1090:Neuroscience 1039:Autoimmunity 922: 908:that may be 903: 891: 880: 847: 825: 816: 805: 788:conspecifics 784: 776: 771:, including 758: 749:hypothalamus 730: 718: 703: 678:Alfred Adler 676:'s writing. 671: 666: 662: 658: 652: 643: 621:, or in the 604: 598:in order to 576: 548: 502: 485: 477: 466: 455: 454: 397:Peace treaty 248:Brinkmanship 105:Conciliation 44: 10339:Limbic lobe 10104:Unconscious 10087:Missed call 10057:Social norm 10032:Conventions 9922:Eye contact 9622:Determinism 9534:Coevolution 9478:Primatology 9316:Gender role 9221:Orientation 9101:Screen time 8958:Affectional 8940:Development 8619:Mate choice 8546:By-products 8514:Adaptations 8477:Cognitivism 6978:15 December 6807:, Volume 1. 6288:NeuroReport 6140:John Wright 5637:(1): 1–10. 4846:(1): 57–76. 3804:10871/26263 3091:(1): 1–30. 3025:(1): 3–11. 2577:Child abuse 2280:egalitarian 2253:saving face 2167:egalitarian 2152:subsistence 1989:7R and 5R, 1986:main effect 1977:association 1953:antioxidant 1932:and during 1930:parturition 1917:fruit flies 1891:fruit flies 1873:. In mice, 1855:epinephrine 1833:, of which 1597:vasopressin 1213:in the U.S. 1157:Neurosexism 1081:Stroke care 1000:In research 926:Game theory 866:frustration 833:matriarchal 705:Ethologists 588:impulsivity 559:retaliatory 528:conditioned 508:frustration 461:frustration 412:Rule of man 407:Peacemaking 360:Game theory 238:Appeasement 154:Negotiation 120:Rule of law 95:Arbitration 86:Nonviolence 69:aposematism 10594:Aggression 10588:Categories 10472:Aggressive 10442:Paul Ekman 10425:Key people 10389:Technology 10375:Poker tell 10220:Social cue 10027:Chronemics 9977:Intonation 9821:Modalities 9569:Population 9564:Lamarckism 9410:behavioral 9388:Behavioral 9336:Narcissism 9281:Aggression 9071:Hypophobia 9061:Depression 8948:Attachment 8930:Universals 8894:Psychology 8872:Biological 8860:Musicology 8850:Aesthetics 8749:Basophobia 8556:Exaptation 8534:Reciprocal 7850:6 December 7064:Pediatrics 5839:: 113–23. 4917:6 December 4299:(1): 1–9. 3424:Aggression 2945:1126278982 2851:rcn.org.uk 2748:: 121–35. 2676:References 2495:See also: 2440:See also: 2296:leveraging 2292:capitalism 2284:stratified 2269:democratic 2163:Peter Gray 2067:editing it 1982:MAO-A gene 1867:pheromones 1861:Pheromones 1782:alcoholism 1763:Castration 1635:See also: 1619:, and the 1607:In human, 1469:Physiology 1225:Leadership 1170:attraction 1161:Sexuality 1152:Narcissism 1118:Aggression 1094:psychology 1059:depression 1010:Dimorphism 1005:Physiology 870:manipulate 600:intimidate 456:Aggression 263:Deterrence 18:Aggressive 10477:Assertive 10285:Fragile X 10270:Aprosodia 10263:Disorders 10210:Semiotics 10138:Deception 9944:Proxemics 9934:Olfaction 9917:Oculesics 9902:Imitation 9414:cognitive 9406:Affective 9291:Cognition 9245:Sexuality 9231:Pair bond 8991:Education 8648:Cognition 8566:Inclusive 8506:processes 8494:Criticism 8320:CiteSeerX 8173:2 October 8009:142759440 7989:Sex Roles 7823:CiteSeerX 7821:: 27–33. 7605:CiteSeerX 7500:145617291 7478:CiteSeerX 7433:CiteSeerX 7306:CiteSeerX 7156:145166936 6164:CiteSeerX 6035:CiteSeerX 5698:144374302 5049:0033-2917 4956:Education 4794:206006344 4573:Zuk, M. " 4376:(10): 81. 4233:CiteSeerX 4147:145380530 4082:: 42–54. 2980:471933605 2888:: 27–51. 2814:0270-6474 2724:0022-1031 2710:: 43–52. 2534:murder." 2350:assertive 2290:known as 2195:causality 1934:lactation 1922:phenotype 1913:fruitless 1734:, medial 1702:(DHT) by 1696:aromatase 1692:estradiol 1566:serotonin 1509:brainstem 1496:autonomic 1374:ostracism 1323:lactation 1319:gestation 1208:Education 1195:Sociology 1103:Cognition 993:disorders 887:evolution 858:cognitive 854:curiosity 835:society. 745:predation 721:territory 709:evolution 659:aggressio 649:Etymology 623:workplace 611:political 596:displayed 592:hostility 563:predatory 555:affective 544:intensity 512:Berkowitz 481:Predatory 345:Democracy 258:Diplomacy 253:Ceasefire 243:Armistice 167:Workplace 132:Mediation 10629:Violence 10599:Behavior 10307:Dyssemia 10153:Intimacy 10073:Emoticon 9982:Loudness 9912:Laughter 9848:Kinesics 9839:Blushing 9832:Physical 9683:Memetics 9443:Ethology 9401:genetics 9236:Physical 9201:Jealousy 9156:Activity 8962:maternal 8918:Religion 8906:Morality 8884:Language 8765:taxonomy 8578:Mismatch 8524:Cheating 8519:Altruism 8399:Archived 8247:54998386 8239:23096055 8130:35278358 8122:12150084 8087:36562997 8044:17922526 7974:28687366 7966:12816404 7923:18826521 7887:26394462 7741:18361226 7733:13864605 7656:: 67–76. 7627:18047767 7582:15667346 7547:12514300 7539:15369529 7455:10794380 7369:Archived 7328:19790255 7243:23494751 7094:20385647 7045:24039629 6995:(2008). 6945:22311946 6772:Archived 6688:20364435 6626:25524980 6585:19541474 6483:26224860 6426:18064011 6371:BBC News 6352:37157824 6317:42991833 6309:16957604 6237:28557481 6186:10097017 6116:18346997 6057:19925198 6007:21339377 5956:18615178 5905:32650274 5897:18280561 5774:26405251 5766:16483890 5659:33228118 5651:17931766 5609:18655894 5555:14888253 5547:18281105 5495:27720744 5437:16893283 5352:24136851 5264:28920934 5215:24739975 5057:28173890 4937:Archived 4893:21748751 4786:21592146 4747:23935227 4692:22996132 4541:11301523 4506:19691899 4456:17183322 4255:17362372 4207:22271783 4189:41433544 4104:56478466 4096:30562561 4028:33130527 4020:16055188 3964:54361369 3929:14284236 3921:16460581 3848:16869278 3821:12094679 3813:16615035 3761:24008518 3753:16815645 3718:10574728 3668:20620900 3627:17015327 3609:25223670 3570:49359988 3529:25056451 3521:24413960 3319:16765987 3239:25067952 3231:17914259 3196:17678048 3188:16081158 3140:14223373 3132:11212630 2902:11752478 2832:17978016 2770:27711931 2762:25749197 2592:Duelling 2572:Bullying 2555:See also 2474:violence 2388:Learning 2330:Children 2244:southern 2224:coercive 2203:spanking 2144:property 2140:resource 1915:gene in 1897:Genetics 1853:such as 1835:cortisol 1732:amygdala 1698:, or to 1601:oxytocin 1571:dopamine 1513:amygdala 1492:midbrain 1437:monogamy 1433:polygyny 1338:indirect 1230:Religion 1185:jealousy 1026:Medicine 940:and the 918:homicide 910:adaptive 906:violence 739:and its 737:predator 700:fighting 688:Ethology 571:violence 551:behavior 499:Overview 488:verbally 184:Violence 149:Pacifism 10561:Subtext 10482:Passive 10451:Related 10042:Habitus 9987:Prosody 9939:Posture 9880:Gesture 9584:Species 9356:Suicide 9191:Fantasy 9171:Arousal 8953:Bonding 8842:Culture 8666:Display 8653:Emotion 8561:Fitness 8450:History 8342:3053432 8168:PsyPost 8079:1142063 7931:7942628 7635:6218999 7410:6322160 7208:8656339 7085:5094178 7036:3768154 6936:3447048 6732:(1963). 6679:2912157 6576:2716404 6524:9988702 6474:4518052 6434:4398766 6406:Bibcode 6272:8282667 6229:8309650 6194:9462611 6107:4176893 5998:3169658 5947:2435345 5853:8041587 5812:Bibcode 5395:9987359 5387:6538977 5344:8951880 5300:8731066 5255:5953764 5206:4098836 5185:Bibcode 5158:9151749 5149:6573530 5109:3231548 5101:6681724 5065:4481557 4884:4332584 4738:3736589 4549:1081104 4464:4397323 4436:Bibcode 4412:3797558 4263:3566509 4198:3260849 3676:6493161 3618:1635503 3039:2667009 2823:2667097 2654:Revenge 2363:skills. 2282:versus 2271:versus 2259:versus 2189:at the 2171:playful 2127:warfare 2113:'. The 2038:Culture 1973:linkage 1881:in the 1581:or the 1524:lesions 1490:of the 1412:‍ 1408:‍ 1289:General 1180:fantasy 1130:Empathy 1074:suicide 980:Biology 837:Captive 540:looming 536:novelty 504:Dollard 276:Nuclear 218:studies 100:Auction 10535:Tadoma 10280:Autism 10235:Unsaid 10200:Nunchi 10077:Smiley 9997:Stress 9992:Rhythm 9962:Affect 9954:Speech 9762: 9749: 9736: 9326:Memory 9286:Autism 9253:female 9186:Desire 8923:Origin 8899:Speech 8889:Origin 8661:Affect 8340: 8322: 8280: 8245: 8237: 8200: 8128: 8120: 8085: 8077: 8042: 8007: 7972: 7964: 7929: 7921: 7885: 7825: 7739: 7731: 7677: 7633: 7625: 7607: 7580: 7545: 7537: 7498: 7480: 7453: 7435: 7408: 7326: 7308: 7241: 7206: 7154: 7117: 7092: 7082: 7043: 7033: 6943: 6933: 6686: 6676: 6624: 6583: 6573: 6522: 6481: 6471: 6432: 6424: 6398:Nature 6350: 6315: 6307: 6270: 6235: 6227: 6192: 6184: 6166: 6114: 6104: 6065:710598 6063: 6055: 6037: 6005: 5995: 5954: 5944: 5903: 5895: 5851: 5772: 5764: 5696: 5657: 5649: 5607: 5597: 5553: 5545: 5493: 5435: 5393: 5385: 5350: 5342: 5298: 5262: 5252: 5213: 5203: 5177:Nature 5156: 5146: 5107: 5099: 5063: 5055: 5047: 4993: 4891: 4881: 4792: 4784: 4745: 4735: 4690: 4653: 4616: 4547: 4539: 4504: 4462: 4454: 4428:Nature 4410: 4261: 4253: 4235: 4205: 4195: 4187: 4145: 4139:174228 4137: 4102: 4094: 4026: 4018: 3985: 3962: 3927: 3919: 3846: 3819: 3811: 3759: 3751: 3716: 3674: 3666: 3625: 3615: 3607: 3568: 3527: 3519: 3369: 3342: 3317: 3279:Part 3 3276:Part 2 3237: 3229: 3194: 3186: 3138: 3130: 3037: 2978: 2968: 2943: 2933: 2910:227846 2908: 2900: 2830: 2820: 2812: 2768: 2760: 2722: 2436:Gender 2367:delay. 2251:, or " 2107:states 2099:Tribal 2024:UNESCO 2006:Humans 1831:stress 1625:stress 1526:of an 1429:testes 1370:gossip 1315:gamete 1175:desire 1147:Memory 1108:Coping 1054:autism 1030:health 952:Gender 852:, and 796:humans 763:" or " 665:- and 637:, and 619:sports 520:affect 38:, and 10066:Other 9296:Crime 8879:Crime 8810:Sleep 8800:skill 8640:Areas 8338:S2CID 8308:(PDF) 8289:5 May 8243:S2CID 8235:JSTOR 8126:S2CID 8083:S2CID 8005:S2CID 7970:S2CID 7927:S2CID 7883:S2CID 7844:(PDF) 7811:(PDF) 7737:S2CID 7631:S2CID 7543:S2CID 7496:S2CID 7406:S2CID 7174:(PDF) 7152:S2CID 6972:(PDF) 6965:(PDF) 6866:(PDF) 6430:S2CID 6348:S2CID 6313:S2CID 6233:S2CID 6190:S2CID 6061:S2CID 5901:S2CID 5849:S2CID 5770:S2CID 5694:S2CID 5655:S2CID 5627:(PDF) 5551:S2CID 5513:(PDF) 5413:(PDF) 5391:S2CID 5348:S2CID 5105:S2CID 5061:S2CID 4790:S2CID 4545:S2CID 4482:(PDF) 4460:S2CID 4259:S2CID 4185:JSTOR 4143:S2CID 4135:JSTOR 4100:S2CID 4024:S2CID 3960:S2CID 3925:S2CID 3817:S2CID 3779:(PDF) 3757:S2CID 3672:S2CID 3605:JSTOR 3566:S2CID 3525:S2CID 3235:S2CID 3192:S2CID 3136:S2CID 2906:S2CID 2766:S2CID 2394:, or 2307:Media 2229:trade 2220:label 1203:Crime 696:Male 667:gradi 657:word 655:Latin 607:moral 584:anger 312:Other 65:tiger 10551:Mime 10002:Tone 9885:List 9249:male 8610:Male 8291:2021 8278:ISBN 8198:ISBN 8175:2023 8118:PMID 8075:PMID 8040:PMID 7962:PMID 7919:PMID 7852:2018 7729:PMID 7675:ISBN 7623:PMID 7578:PMID 7535:PMID 7451:PMID 7324:PMID 7239:PMID 7204:PMID 7115:ISBN 7090:PMID 7041:PMID 6980:2015 6941:PMID 6684:PMID 6622:PMID 6581:PMID 6520:PMID 6479:PMID 6422:PMID 6380:2009 6305:PMID 6268:PMID 6225:PMID 6182:PMID 6112:PMID 6053:PMID 6003:PMID 5952:PMID 5893:PMID 5762:PMID 5647:PMID 5605:PMID 5595:ISBN 5543:PMID 5491:PMID 5433:PMID 5383:PMID 5340:PMID 5296:PMID 5260:PMID 5211:PMID 5154:PMID 5097:PMID 5053:PMID 5045:ISSN 4991:ISBN 4919:2012 4889:PMID 4782:PMID 4743:PMID 4688:PMID 4651:ISBN 4614:ISBN 4537:PMID 4502:PMID 4452:PMID 4408:PMID 4251:PMID 4203:PMID 4092:PMID 4016:PMID 3983:ISBN 3917:PMID 3844:PMID 3809:PMID 3749:PMID 3714:PMID 3664:PMID 3623:PMID 3517:PMID 3367:ISBN 3340:ISBN 3315:PMID 3227:PMID 3184:PMID 3128:PMID 3035:PMID 2976:OCLC 2966:ISBN 2941:OCLC 2931:ISBN 2898:PMID 2828:PMID 2810:ISSN 2758:PMID 2720:ISSN 2483:and 2456:and 2406:The 2278:and 2150:and 2148:land 2103:band 1991:ADHD 1975:and 1949:SOD1 1945:SOD1 1780:and 1751:fMRI 1738:and 1718:and 1654:The 1599:and 1587:GABA 1515:and 1486:and 1449:and 1435:and 1092:and 1028:and 856:. A 850:fear 794:and 741:prey 532:pain 524:fear 471:and 9148:Sex 8825:Eye 8330:doi 8270:doi 8227:doi 8149:108 8110:doi 8067:doi 8032:doi 7997:doi 7954:doi 7911:doi 7875:doi 7833:doi 7721:doi 7615:doi 7570:doi 7527:doi 7488:doi 7443:doi 7398:doi 7375:", 7316:doi 7279:doi 7231:doi 7194:hdl 7186:doi 7144:doi 7080:PMC 7072:doi 7068:125 7031:PMC 7023:doi 6931:PMC 6923:doi 6919:184 6712:doi 6674:PMC 6666:doi 6612:doi 6608:218 6571:PMC 6563:doi 6510:doi 6506:274 6469:PMC 6461:doi 6414:doi 6402:450 6340:doi 6297:doi 6260:doi 6217:doi 6174:doi 6102:PMC 6094:doi 6090:165 6045:doi 5993:PMC 5985:doi 5942:PMC 5934:doi 5885:doi 5841:doi 5754:doi 5686:doi 5639:doi 5587:doi 5533:hdl 5525:doi 5521:189 5481:doi 5477:325 5425:doi 5421:120 5375:doi 5332:doi 5288:doi 5284:110 5250:PMC 5242:doi 5201:PMC 5193:doi 5181:509 5144:PMC 5136:doi 5089:doi 5085:260 5035:hdl 5027:doi 4983:doi 4960:132 4879:PMC 4871:doi 4817:doi 4774:doi 4733:PMC 4725:doi 4680:doi 4643:doi 4606:hdl 4598:doi 4529:doi 4494:doi 4444:doi 4432:444 4400:doi 4396:100 4347:doi 4301:doi 4243:doi 4193:PMC 4177:doi 4173:367 4127:doi 4084:doi 4080:159 4008:doi 3952:doi 3907:doi 3876:doi 3799:hdl 3791:doi 3787:167 3741:doi 3706:doi 3702:202 3654:doi 3613:PMC 3597:doi 3593:273 3556:doi 3552:178 3509:doi 3446:doi 3307:doi 3219:doi 3176:doi 3120:doi 3116:108 3093:doi 3027:doi 2890:doi 2818:PMC 2802:doi 2750:doi 2746:143 2712:doi 2142:or 2101:or 1845:or 1720:ERβ 1716:ERα 1663:. 948:). 609:or 546:." 213:War 110:Law 10590:: 10337:/ 10075:/ 9846:/ 8336:. 8328:. 8316:14 8314:. 8310:. 8276:, 8264:, 8241:. 8233:. 8223:49 8221:. 8192:. 8166:. 8147:. 8124:. 8116:. 8106:46 8104:. 8081:. 8073:. 8063:31 8061:. 8038:. 8028:34 8026:. 8003:. 7993:30 7991:. 7968:. 7960:. 7950:18 7948:. 7925:. 7917:. 7907:79 7905:. 7881:. 7869:. 7831:. 7819:20 7817:. 7813:. 7735:. 7727:. 7717:63 7715:. 7654:26 7652:. 7629:. 7621:. 7613:. 7601:38 7599:. 7576:. 7566:69 7564:. 7541:. 7533:. 7523:75 7521:. 7517:. 7494:. 7486:. 7474:24 7472:. 7449:. 7441:. 7429:78 7427:. 7404:. 7394:27 7392:. 7322:. 7314:. 7302:35 7300:. 7275:28 7273:. 7237:. 7227:39 7225:. 7202:. 7192:. 7182:70 7180:. 7176:. 7150:. 7140:25 7138:. 7088:. 7078:. 7066:. 7062:. 7039:. 7029:. 7017:. 7013:. 6939:. 6929:. 6917:. 6913:. 6901:^ 6891:. 6872:. 6868:. 6794:^ 6708:43 6706:. 6682:. 6672:. 6662:40 6660:. 6656:. 6620:. 6606:. 6602:. 6579:. 6569:. 6559:19 6557:. 6553:. 6518:. 6504:. 6500:. 6477:. 6467:. 6457:35 6455:. 6451:. 6428:. 6420:. 6412:. 6400:. 6388:^ 6368:. 6346:. 6334:. 6311:. 6303:. 6293:17 6291:. 6266:. 6256:32 6254:. 6231:. 6223:. 6213:17 6211:. 6188:. 6180:. 6172:. 6160:21 6158:. 6138:, 6124:^ 6110:. 6100:. 6088:. 6082:. 6059:. 6051:. 6043:. 6031:22 6029:. 6015:^ 6001:. 5991:. 5981:21 5979:. 5973:. 5950:. 5940:. 5928:. 5922:. 5899:. 5891:. 5881:29 5879:. 5861:^ 5847:. 5837:67 5835:. 5808:75 5806:. 5768:. 5760:. 5750:30 5748:. 5734:^ 5718:^ 5706:^ 5692:. 5682:36 5680:. 5653:. 5645:. 5635:77 5633:. 5629:. 5603:. 5593:. 5549:. 5541:. 5531:. 5519:. 5515:. 5489:. 5475:. 5471:. 5458:^ 5431:. 5419:. 5415:. 5389:. 5381:. 5371:32 5369:. 5346:. 5338:. 5328:75 5326:. 5322:. 5308:^ 5294:. 5282:. 5258:. 5248:. 5238:11 5236:. 5232:. 5209:. 5199:. 5191:. 5179:. 5175:. 5152:. 5142:. 5132:17 5130:. 5126:. 5103:. 5095:. 5083:. 5059:. 5051:. 5043:. 5033:. 5023:47 5021:. 5017:. 5005:^ 4989:. 4958:. 4954:. 4935:. 4910:. 4887:. 4877:. 4867:37 4865:. 4861:. 4844:30 4842:. 4838:. 4813:27 4811:. 4788:. 4780:. 4770:29 4768:. 4755:^ 4741:. 4731:. 4721:38 4719:. 4715:. 4700:^ 4686:. 4676:30 4674:. 4649:. 4612:. 4604:. 4582:^ 4543:. 4535:. 4525:22 4523:. 4500:. 4490:32 4488:. 4484:. 4458:. 4450:. 4442:. 4430:. 4406:. 4394:. 4382:^ 4372:. 4368:. 4343:16 4341:. 4297:13 4295:. 4257:. 4249:. 4241:. 4229:18 4227:. 4215:^ 4201:. 4191:. 4183:. 4171:. 4167:. 4155:^ 4141:. 4133:. 4123:34 4121:. 4098:. 4090:. 4078:. 4066:^ 4022:. 4014:. 4004:30 4002:. 3958:. 3948:64 3946:. 3923:. 3915:. 3903:81 3901:. 3897:. 3872:14 3870:. 3856:^ 3840:56 3838:. 3815:. 3807:. 3797:. 3785:. 3781:. 3755:. 3747:. 3737:73 3735:. 3712:. 3700:. 3696:. 3684:^ 3670:. 3662:. 3650:20 3648:. 3644:. 3621:. 3611:. 3603:. 3591:. 3587:. 3564:. 3550:. 3546:. 3523:. 3515:. 3503:. 3489:^ 3442:70 3440:. 3313:. 3303:41 3301:. 3286:^ 3256:. 3233:. 3225:. 3215:70 3213:. 3190:. 3182:. 3172:30 3170:. 3134:. 3126:. 3114:. 3089:10 3087:. 3047:^ 3033:. 3023:14 3021:. 2974:. 2939:. 2904:. 2896:. 2886:53 2884:. 2857:. 2853:. 2849:. 2826:. 2816:. 2808:. 2798:27 2796:. 2792:. 2778:^ 2764:. 2756:. 2744:. 2732:^ 2718:. 2708:55 2706:. 2530:. 2390:, 2303:. 2158:. 1706:. 1615:, 1519:. 1443:. 1372:, 1321:, 798:. 663:ad 641:. 633:, 602:. 590:, 534:, 71:. 34:, 9800:e 9793:t 9786:v 9624:/ 9416:/ 9412:/ 9408:/ 9399:/ 9390:/ 9251:/ 9247:/ 9238:/ 9018:/ 8964:/ 8960:/ 8798:/ 8772:/ 8763:/ 8690:/ 8650:/ 8612:/ 8431:e 8424:t 8417:v 8344:. 8332:: 8272:: 8249:. 8229:: 8206:. 8177:. 8132:. 8112:: 8089:. 8069:: 8046:. 8034:: 8011:. 7999:: 7976:. 7956:: 7933:. 7913:: 7889:. 7877:: 7871:8 7854:. 7835:: 7743:. 7723:: 7683:. 7637:. 7617:: 7584:. 7572:: 7549:. 7529:: 7502:. 7490:: 7457:. 7445:: 7412:. 7400:: 7330:. 7318:: 7285:. 7281:: 7245:. 7233:: 7210:. 7196:: 7188:: 7158:. 7146:: 7123:. 7096:. 7074:: 7047:. 7025:: 7019:7 6999:. 6982:. 6947:. 6925:: 6895:. 6874:1 6718:. 6714:: 6690:. 6668:: 6628:. 6614:: 6587:. 6565:: 6526:. 6512:: 6485:. 6463:: 6436:. 6416:: 6408:: 6382:. 6354:. 6342:: 6336:5 6319:. 6299:: 6274:. 6262:: 6239:. 6219:: 6196:. 6176:: 6118:. 6096:: 6067:. 6047:: 6009:. 5987:: 5958:. 5936:: 5930:5 5907:. 5887:: 5855:. 5843:: 5818:. 5814:: 5786:" 5776:. 5756:: 5700:. 5688:: 5661:. 5641:: 5611:. 5589:: 5557:. 5535:: 5527:: 5497:. 5483:: 5439:. 5427:: 5397:. 5377:: 5354:. 5334:: 5302:. 5290:: 5266:. 5244:: 5217:. 5195:: 5187:: 5160:. 5138:: 5111:. 5091:: 5067:. 5037:: 5029:: 4999:. 4985:: 4921:. 4895:. 4873:: 4823:. 4819:: 4796:. 4776:: 4749:. 4727:: 4694:. 4682:: 4659:. 4645:: 4622:. 4608:: 4600:: 4551:. 4531:: 4508:. 4496:: 4466:. 4446:: 4438:: 4414:. 4402:: 4374:3 4353:. 4349:: 4307:. 4303:: 4265:. 4245:: 4209:. 4179:: 4149:. 4129:: 4106:. 4086:: 4030:. 4010:: 3966:. 3954:: 3931:. 3909:: 3882:. 3878:: 3850:. 3823:. 3801:: 3793:: 3763:. 3743:: 3720:. 3708:: 3678:. 3656:: 3629:. 3599:: 3572:. 3558:: 3531:. 3511:: 3505:8 3452:. 3448:: 3375:. 3348:. 3321:. 3309:: 3274:( 3260:. 3241:. 3221:: 3198:. 3178:: 3142:. 3122:: 3099:. 3095:: 3041:. 3029:: 2982:. 2947:. 2912:. 2892:: 2834:. 2804:: 2772:. 2752:: 2726:. 2714:: 2356:. 2088:) 2082:( 2077:) 2073:( 2069:. 2063:. 1410:— 1405:⁠ 1277:e 1270:t 1263:v 444:e 437:t 430:v 42:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index