112:
Protestants and
Catholics, such as during holy celebrations where the Catholics took out a procession with a statue of St. Anthony, sang and danced while they carried the statue around town. Local Protestants would year after year disrupt the festivities by throwing stones at the Catholics. In 1566, when the Catholic procession reached a Protestant neighborhood, the Protestants chanted "kill, kill, kill !!" and days of communal violence with numerous fatalities followed. In 1572, thousands of Protestants were killed by Catholics during communal violence in each of the following cities – Paris, Aix, Bordeaux, Bourges, Lyon, Meaux, Orleans, Rouen, Toulouse, and Troyes. In Switzerland, communal violence between the Reformation movement and Catholics marked the 16th century. Ireland has a long history of communal violence with the period between July 1920 and July 1922 being particularly violent. This period of time saw the
390:
due to fear of other ethnic groups or otherwise, it can result in high degrees of ethnic segregation. Kahara argues that such ethnic segregation decreases the possibility of positive contact across ethnic lines. Integration and the resultant positive interethnic contact reduces prejudice by allowing individuals to correct false beliefs about members of other ethnic groups, improving intergroup relations consequently. Thus, segregation is correlated with low levels of interethnic trust. This widespread mistrust along ethnic lines explains the severity of communal violence by implying that when underlying mistrust is high, it is easier for extremists and elites to mobilize support for violence, and that where violence against members of other ethnic groups is supported by the public, perpetrators of such violence are less likely to face social sanctions.
190:
83:
369:
306:. There were hundreds of incidents of communal violence between 1905 and 1947, many related to religious, political sovereignty questions including partition of India along religious lines into East Pakistan, West Pakistan and India. The 1946 to 1947 period saw some of the worst communal violence of 20th century, where waves of riots and violence killed between 100,000 and a million people, from Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and Jain religions, particularly in cities and towns near the modern borders of India-Pakistan and India-Bangladesh. Examples of these communal violence include the so-called
381:
unable to provide order, security and equal justice, which then leads to mass mobilization, followed by radicalization of anger among one or more communities, and ultimately violent mobilization. Targeted mass violence by a few from one community against innocent members of other community, suppression of complaints, refusal to prosecute, killing peaceful demonstrators, imprisonment of people of a single community while refusal to arrest members of other community in conflict, perceived or actual prisoner abuse by the state are often the greatest mobilizers of communal violence.
302:, where segregation, unequal political and economic rights were imposed on Hindus and Muslims by Lord Curzon, based on religion. The colonial government was viewed by each side as favoring the other side, resulting in a wave of communal riots and 1911 reversal of Bengal partition and its re-unification. In 1919, after General Dyer ordered his soldiers to fire on unarmed protestors inside a compound in Amritsar, killing 380 civilians, communal violence followed in India against
20:
145:. The violent groups were Arabs and Africans, that expanded along religious lines, and the communal violence ultimately led to the overthrow of the Sultan of Zanzibar. Local radio announced the death of tens of thousands of "stooges", but later estimates for deaths from Zanzibar communal violence have varied from hundreds to 2,000-4,000 to as many as 20,000. In late 1960s and early 1970s, there were widespread communal violence against Kenyans and Asians in
1087:
1095:
204:
is a term historically used to denote attempts to construct religious or ethnic identity, incite strife between people identified as different communities, and to foment communal violence between those groups, particularly in Asia. It derives from history, differences in beliefs, and tensions between
389:
after the contested 2007–2008 general election, Kimuli Kahara finds that local ethnic segregation increases communal violence by decreasing interethnic trust rather than by making it easier to organize violence. Even if a small minority of individuals prefer to live in ethnically homogenous settings
359:
In Kenya, communal violence is defined as that violence that occurs between different community who identify themselves based on religion, tribes, language, sect, race and others. Typically this sense of community identity comes from birth and is inherited. Similar definition has been applied for 47
321:
It has recently been argued that in the post-colonial era, communal riots between the Hindus and the
Muslims contributed to the making of Muslim ghettos in those cities that had witnessed sustained communal mobilizations. It has furthermore been shown that the communalized real estate market, urban
111:
in
Toulouse took out in a procession through the streets to express their solidarity for Protestant ideas. A few days later, the Catholics hunted down some of the leaders of the procession, beat them and burned them at the stake. In the French town of Pamiers, communal clashes were routine between
338:
The Indian law defines communal violence as, "any act or series of acts, whether spontaneous or planned, resulting in injury or harm to the person and or property, knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any religious or linguistic minority, in any State in the
1636:
Colm
Campbell (2011), 'Beyond Radicalization: Towards an Integrated Anti-Violence Rule of Law Strategy', Transitional Justice Institute Research Paper No. 11-05, in Salinas de Friás, KLH Samuel and ND White (eds), Counter-Terrorism: International Law and Practice (Oxford University Press, Oxford
380:
Colm
Campbell has proposed, after studying the empirical data and sequence of events during communal violence in South Africa, Palestinian Territories and Northern Ireland, that communal violence typically follows when there is degradation of rule of law, the state fails to or is widely seen as
294:
East, South and
Southeast Asia have recorded numerous instances of communal violence. For example, Singapore suffered a wave of communal violence in 20th century between Malays and Chinese. In Indian subcontinent, numerous 18th through 20th century records of the British colonial administration
140:
have a similar history of communal violence. Nigeria has seen centuries of communal violence between different ethnic groups particularly between
Christian south and Islamic north. In 1964, after receiving independence from British rule, there were widespread communal violence in the ethnically
50:
United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime includes any conflict and form of violence between communities of different religious groups, different sects or tribes of same religious group, clans, ethnic origins or national origin as communal violence. However, this excludes conflict between two
46:
lines, where the violent parties feel solidarity for their respective groups and victims are chosen based upon group membership. The term includes conflicts, riots and other forms of violence between communities of different religious faith or ethnic origins.
942:, "Du corps à corps au combat fictif. Quand les catholiques toulousains affrontaient leurs homologues protestants," in Les affrontements: Usages, discours et rituels, Editor: Frédérique Pitou and Jacqueline Sainclivier, Presses Universitaires de Rennes (2008)
682:
Bell, P., & Congram, M. (2013), Communication
Interception Technology (CIT) and Its Use in the Fight against Transnational Organised Crime (TOC) in Australia: A Review of the Literature, International Journal of Social Science Research, 2(1),
57:
The term "communal violence" was coined by
European colonial authorities as they wrestled to manage outbreaks of violence between religious, ethnic and disparate groups in their colonies, particularly Africa and South Asia, in early 20th century.
102:
Human history has experienced numerous episodes of communal violence. For example, in medieval Europe, Protestants clashed with Catholics, Christians clashed with Muslims, and Christians perpetuated violence against Jews and
701:
384:
Research suggests that ethnic segregation may also cause communal violence. Empirically estimating the effect of segregation on the incidence of violence across 700 localities in Rift Valley Province of
1793:
398:
In China, the communal violence in Xinjiang province is called ethnic violence. Communal violence and riots have also been called non-State conflict, violent civil or minorities unrest,
2217:
325:
The 20th century witnessed inter-religious, intra-religious and ethnic communal violence in the Middle East, South Russia, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia.
1529:
Bandyopadhyay, Ritajyoti, Streets in Motion: The Making of Infrastructure, Property, and Political Culture in Twentieth-century Calcutta, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022:
347:
In Indonesia, communal violence is defined as that is driven by a sense of religious, ethnic or tribal solidarity. The equivalence of tribalism to ethnicity was referred locally as
1627:
Idean Salehyan et al, Social Conflict in Africa: A New Database, International Interactions: Empirical and Theoretical Research in International Relations, Volume 38, Issue 4, 2012
1115:
Kasozi, Abdu Basajabaka Kawalya; Musisi, Nakanyike; Sejjengo, James Mukooza (1994). The Social Origins of Violence in Uganda, 1964–1985, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press,
647:
Mancini, L. (2005) Horizontal Inequality and Communal Violence: Evidence from Indonesian Districts (CRISE Working Paper No. 22, Oxford, Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford)
295:
mention communal violence between Hindus and Muslims, as well as Sunni and Shia sects of Islam, particularly during processions related to respective religious celebrations.
275:
represented an overarching "nationalist" vision. In the runup to independence in 1947, communalism and nationalism came to be competing ideologies and led to the division of
673:
Todorova, T. (2013), ‘Giving Memory a Future’: Confronting the Legacy of Mass Rape in Post-conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina, Journal of International Women's Studies, 12(2), 3–15
1599:
1781:
A. R. M. Imtiyaz, Uyghurs: Chinesization, Violence and the Future, Temple University, IUP Journal of International Relations, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 18–38, Winter 2012
2230:
1481:
PANDEY, G. (1983),␣in Editor: GUHA, R., 1983, Subaltern Studies II: Writings on South Asian History and Society, Delhi, Oxford University Press, pp. 60–129,
803:
1837:
617:
John F. McCauley, Economic Development Strategies and Communal Violence in Africa, Comparative Political Studies February 2013 vol. 46 no. 2 182–211
339:
Union of India, or Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes within the meaning of clauses (24) and (25) of Article 366 of the Constitution of India"
1790:
1541:
Tambiah, S. J. (1990), Presidential address: reflections on communal violence in South Asia, The Journal of Asian Studies, 49(04), pp 741–760;
1449:
Richard P. Cronin (1977), British Policy and Administration in Bengal, 1905–1912: Partition and the New Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam,
170:
1544:
Vaughn, B. (2005, February), Islam in South and Southeast Asia. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON DC, CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE (2005);
153:. Idi Amin mentioned his religion as justification for his actions and the violence. Coptic Christians have suffered communal violence in
1440:
Baber, Z. (2004), Race, Religion and Riots: The ‘Racialization’ of Communal Identity and Conflict in India, Sociology, 38(4), pp. 701–718
1061:
608:
Kynoch, G. (2013). Reassessing transition violence: Voices from South Africa's township wars, 1990–4. African Affairs, 112(447), 283–303
1431:
Bayly, C. A. (1985), The Pre-history of Communalism? Religious Conflict in India 1700–1860, Modern Asian Studies, 19 (02), pp. 177–203
2186:
399:
626:
Willis, G. D. (2014), Antagonistic authorities and the civil police in Sao Paulo Brazil, Latin American Research Review, 49(1), 3–22
2167:
A History of the Hindu-Muslim Problem in India from the Earliest Contacts Up to its Present Phase With Suggestions for Its Solution
1615:
360:
African countries, where during 1990–2010, about 7,200 instances of communal violence and inter-ethnic conflicts has been seen.
2150:
2029:
2000:
1913:
1348:
1045:
718:
1854:
1826:
351:. Communal violence in Indonesia includes numerous localized conflicts between various social groups found on its islands.
174:
1169:
1131:
Phares Mukasa Mutibwa (1992), Uganda since independence: a story of unfulfilled hopes, C. Hurst & Co. United Kingdom,
120:. The violence that occurred during this time in several towns/cities within Northern Ireland has been referred to as the
1596:
91:
2155:
Mumtaz Ahmad, an 'Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia: The Jamaat-i-Islami and the Tablighi Jamaat', pp. 457–530.
930:
David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence: Persecution of Minorities in the Middle Ages, Princeton University Press, 1998
2223:
2207:
1651:
1563:
1552:
1518:
1502:
1486:
1470:
1454:
1319:
1290:
1208:
1186:
1156:
995:
965:
776:
759:
738:
661:
189:
2212:
2194:
2114:
1938:
1721:
1377:
1243:
1136:
1120:
917:
902:
876:
856:
836:
423:
754:, in Imperialism and War: Essays on Colonial Wars in Asia and Africa (Edited by Jaap A. de Moor, H. L. Wesseling),
184:
1809:
322:
planning, and communal mobilizations often come to constitute each other in developing spatial majoritarianism.
2088:
2062:
2021:
1969:
1926:
Communalism and Globalization in South Asia and Its Diaspora Intersections: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories
733:
Arafaat A. Valiani, Militant Publics in India: Physical Culture and Violence in the Making of a Modern Polity,
1646:
Frances Stewart, Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict: Understanding Group Violence in Multiethnic Societies,
990:
Desplat & Ostebo (2013), Muslim Ethiopia: The Christian Legacy, Identity Politics, and Islamic Reformism,
1580:
429:
315:
82:
2131:
Manuel, Peter. "Music, the Media, and Communal Relations in North India, Past and Present," pp. 119–39.
635:
1306:
Killingray, David (1989). "Colonial Warfare in West Africa". In Moor, Jaap A. de; Wesseling, H. L. (eds.).
807:
475:
1008:
465:
2163:
T. N. Madan, 'The Double-Edged Sword: Fundamentalism and the Sikh Religious Tradition', pp. 594–627.
2142:
843:
823:
791:
496:
459:
454:
166:
2125:
1905:
491:
434:
368:
299:
1393:
584:
552:
444:
2199:
1767:
Kasara, Kimuli (June 2016). "Does Local Ethnic Segregation Lead to Violence?: Evidence from Kenya".
1664:
Kasara, Kimuli (June 2016). "Does Local Ethnic Segregation Lead to Violence?: Evidence from Kenya".
1513:
PANDEY G. (1990), The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India, Oxford University Press,
1558:
Azra A. (2006), Indonesia, Islam, and democracy: Dynamics in a global context, Equinox Publishing,
272:
244:
and other violence between religious, ethnic and disparate groups in its colonies, particularly in
43:
1961:
1869:
Bayly, C. A. (1985). "The Pre-history of 'Communalism'? Religious Conflict in India, 1700-1860".
264:
69:, minorities unrest, mass racial violence, inter-communal violence and ethno-religious violence.
1984:
1706:
Kasara, Kimuli (2016). "Does Local Ethnic Segregation Lead to Violence? Evidence from Kenya".
1899:
1340:
240:
The term communalism was coined by the British colonial government as it wrestled to manage
1578:
PREVENTION OF COMMUNAL AND TARGETED VIOLENCE (ACCESS TO JUSTICE AND REPARATIONS) BILL, 2011
470:
412:
113:
1394:"BBC - History - British History in depth: The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies"
8:
2158:
Gold, Daniel, 'Organized Hinduisms: From Vedic Truths to Hindu Nation', pp. 531–593.
1279:
Militant Publics in India: Physical Culture and Violence in the Making of a Modern Polity
939:
596:
537:
527:
303:
288:
245:
951:
Julius Ruff, Violence in Early Modern Europe 1500–1800, Cambridge University Press, 2001
2102:
1886:
1749:
1282:
1248:
547:
517:
241:
287:. British historians have attributed the cause of the partition to the communalism of
87:
2250:
2245:
2203:
2190:
2146:
2110:
2084:
2058:
2025:
1996:
1965:
1934:
1909:
1890:
1850:
1822:
1741:
1647:
1559:
1548:
1514:
1498:
1482:
1466:
1450:
1373:
1344:
1315:
1286:
1253:
1204:
1182:
1152:
1132:
1116:
1041:
991:
961:
913:
898:
872:
852:
832:
772:
755:
734:
714:
657:
501:
486:
307:
284:
256:
1753:
61:
Communal violence, in different parts of the world, is alternatively referred to as
1951:
1878:
1733:
1688:
1311:
532:
260:
222:
117:
2122:
Contesting the Nation: Religion, Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India
1737:
1692:
1497:
BRISTOW, R.C.B. (1974), Memories of the British Raj: A Soldier in India, Johnson,
2134:
2015:
1955:
1924:
1897:
1797:
1603:
1584:
1035:
439:
417:
268:
178:
62:
1868:
259:
was called the father of communal electorates for legalising communalism by the
2076:
863:
512:
507:
311:
137:
133:
121:
66:
2107:
Lifting the veil: communal violence and communal harmony in contemporary India
1882:
1465:
DRAPER, A. (1981), Amritsar – The Massacre that Ended the Raj, Littlehampton,
54:
Communal violence is found in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania.
2239:
2174:
The Urban Poor and Militant Hinduism in Early Twentieth-Century Uttar Pradesh
2072:
2050:
1369:
1257:
276:
149:
with waves of theft, physical and sexual violence, followed by expulsions by
104:
2035:
2006:
1975:
1944:
1745:
542:
522:
372:
Damage from communal violence between Christian Greeks and Muslim Turks in
39:
19:
960:
Bruce Gordon (2002), The Swiss Reformation, Manchester University Press,
656:
Werbner, P. (2010), Religious identity, The Sage handbook of identities,
249:
234:
1985:"Religion and violence: The historical context for conflict in Pakistan"
1547:
Baker & Hamilton (2006), The Iraq study group report, Random House,
1530:
978:
1849:
Chris Wilson, Ethno-Religious Violence in Indonesia: From Soil to God,
1419:
449:
210:
1992:
1930:
710:
218:
194:
95:
703:
Communal Violence and Democratization in Indonesia - Small Town Wars
280:
214:
150:
142:
108:
28:
24:
2013:
1577:
402:, social or inter-communal violence and ethno-religious violence.
193:
Arson and communal violence of 1946 between Muslims and Jains, in
157:
for decades, with frequency and magnitude increasing since 1920s.
298:
The frequency of communal violence in South Asia increased after
230:
94:. Over two months in 1572, Catholics killed tens of thousands of
1308:
Imperialism and War: Essays on Colonial Wars in Asia and Africa
1242:
Gettleman, Jeffrey; Raj, Suhasini; Yasir, Sameer (2020-02-25).
481:
373:
226:
146:
2231:
Gujarat after the riots + Mumbai, during 2004 general election
1244:"New Delhi Streets Turn Into Battleground, Hindus vs. Muslims"
575:. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA
205:
the communities. Communalism is a significant social issue in
2169:. Allahabad, 1933. Congress report on the 1931 Cawnpur Riots.
1982:
386:
291:
and the political ambitions of the Indian National Congress.
206:
154:
2224:"The riot-torn history of Hindu-Muslim relations, 1920–1940"
804:"This Day in History 1572: Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre"
1679:
Schelling, Thomas (1971). "Dynamic Models of Segregation".
1037:
The 1964 Army Mutinies and the Making of Modern East Africa
981:, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3 (Summer, 1993), pp. 22–49
237:, occasionally leading to serious inter-communal violence.
2176:, Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press (1997).
2189:, Michael Jerryson, Mark Juergensmeyer, and Margo Kitts,
1398:
2071:
1989:
Religion and Violence in South Asia: Theory and Practice
1821:
Allen D. Grimshaw, A Social History of Racial Violence,
1149:
King of the Mountain: The Nature of Political Leadership
1957:
The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India
1229:
The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India
1422:, Asian Survey, Vol. 4, No. 10 (Oct., 1964), 1115–1121
221:. Communal conflicts between religious communities in
90:
depicting the communal violence in France during the
889:
887:
771:Donald Horowitz (1985), Ethnic Groups in Conflict,
455:
Sectarian violence between Tibetans and Hui Muslims
2017:Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India
1241:
1170:Christians targeted in communal violence in Egypt
1085:
38:is a form of violence that is perpetrated across
23:Dhammayietra, an annual peace march in Lampatao,
2237:
884:
16:Violence between ethnic or other communal groups
799:, Fourth Edition, BCA (HarperCollins), London;
1181:B. L. Carter, The Copts in Egyptian Politics,
1062:"Nationalism Is Viewed as Camouflage for Reds"
2200:Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict
1923:Heath, Deana; Mathur, Chandana, eds. (2010),
1088:"Slaughter in Zanzibar of Asians, Arabs Told"
271:represented such communal interests, and the
171:Violence against Muslims in independent India
2187:The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence
2097:Jhingran, Saral. "Religion and communalism"
1987:. In Hinnells, John; King, Richard (eds.).
1922:
1901:Religion and Conflict in Modern South Asia
1334:
1305:
2141:The Fundamentalism Project vol. 4, eds.,
1838:THE INTER-COMMUNAL TRUST BUILDING PROJECT
1720:
1678:
1597:Social violence in Indonesia is localized
1222:
1220:
897:, Granda Media (Andre Deutsch), Britain,
895:Two Thousand Years: The Second Millennium
1277:Valiani, Arafaat A. (11 November 2011).
1198:
1053:
1000:
367:
188:
81:
18:
2049:
1276:
1079:
1033:
699:
2238:
1950:
1766:
1705:
1663:
1226:
1217:
1059:
1006:
695:
693:
691:
689:
2081:Religion, Religiosity and Communalism
1724:(1998). "Intergroup Contact Theory".
1531:https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009109208
1363:
1172:The Financial Times (August 16, 2013)
1086:Los Angeles Times (20 January 1964),
910:The Hutchinson Paperback Encyclopedia
786:
784:
300:the first partition of Bengal in 1905
869:The Faith: A History of Christianity
590:
175:Violence against Christians in India
1339:(Fourth ed.). Chennai, India:
831:, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
686:
13:
2043:
1203:. University of California Press.
1060:Conley, Robert (19 January 1964),
1007:Conley, Robert (14 January 1964),
781:
393:
233:have occurred since the period of
14:
2262:
2226:. Pakistan or Partition of India.
2180:
1681:Journal of Mathematical Sociology
829:Oxford Encyclopedia World History
636:Resource guide for municipalities
424:Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019
31:border against communal violence.
2218:2009 Ürümqi riots at Yahoo! News
1151:, University of Kentucky Press,
328:
92:Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre
2213:Communal violence in South Asia
1862:
1843:
1831:
1815:
1803:
1791:UCDP Non-State Conflict Dataset
1784:
1775:
1760:
1714:
1699:
1672:
1657:
1640:
1630:
1621:
1609:
1590:
1571:
1535:
1523:
1507:
1491:
1475:
1459:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1412:
1386:
1357:
1328:
1299:
1270:
1235:
1192:
1175:
1162:
1141:
1125:
1109:
1027:
984:
971:
954:
945:
933:
924:
765:
752:Colonial Warfare in West Africa
744:
727:
676:
667:
597:Homicide, Violence and Conflict
185:Caste-related violence in India
2022:University of California Press
1420:Communal violence in Singapore
1040:, Greenwood Publishing Group,
741:, Palgrave Macmillan, pp 29–32
650:
641:
629:
620:
611:
602:
578:
565:
65:, non-State conflict, violent
1:
2202:, 2nd Edition, Lester Kurtz,
2079:; Achin Vanaik, eds. (1996).
1738:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
1693:10.1080/0022250x.1971.9989794
849:Atlas of the Christian Church
806:. History.com. Archived from
559:
462:– Described as Communal riots
430:Communal conflicts in Nigeria
316:Partition riots in Rawalpindi
51:individuals or two families.
2014:van der Veer, Peter (1994).
1810:French Civil Unrest Subsides
1616:COUNTRY REPORT: KENYA – 2013
476:NCERT textbook controversies
342:
7:
2143:University of Chicago Press
2055:Communalism in Modern India
1726:Annual Review of Psychology
1094:, p. 4, archived from
979:The Clash of Civilizations?
700:Klinken, Gerry van (2007).
497:Religious violence in India
466:Language conflicts in India
405:
167:Religious violence in India
10:
2267:
2126:University of Pennsylvania
1906:Cambridge University Press
1366:Nehru, The Making of India
1227:Pandey, Gyanendra (2006).
908:Upshall, M. (ed.) (1990),
847:& Evans, G.R. (1987),
492:Religious harmony in India
435:Ethnic cleansing in Bhutan
182:
164:
72:
1883:10.1017/S0026749X00012300
1812:The New York Times (2005)
1201:Ethnic Groups in Conflict
1199:Horowitz, Donald (1985).
1034:Parsons, Timothy (2003),
553:The Last King of Scotland
445:Ethnic relations in India
363:
252:, in early 20th century.
127:
116:and the establishment of
77:
2139:Fundamentalisms Observed
2137:, R. S. Appleby (eds.),
1418:Leifer, Michael (1964),
1009:"Regime Banishes Sultan"
354:
333:
273:Indian National Congress
2120:Ludden, David, editor.
1962:Oxford University Press
1898:Gould, William (2011).
1335:Laxmikanth, M. (2017).
1189:, Routledge, pp 272–279
912:, Arrow Books, London,
265:All-India Muslim League
160:
2109:. Sangam Books, 1995.
2083:. New Delhi: Manohar.
977:Samuel P. Huntington,
797:Atlas of World History
573:The Deadly Ethnic Riot
571:Horowitz, D.L. (2000)
460:July 2009 Ürümqi riots
377:
198:
99:
32:
1364:Akbar, M. J. (1989).
1341:McGraw Hill Education
851:, Macmillan, London,
599:UNODC, United Nations
371:
235:British colonial rule
192:
85:
22:
2057:. New Delhi: Vikas.
1983:Talbot, Ian (2007).
1871:Modern Asian Studies
1654:, Palgrave Macmillan
1618:ACLED, Africa (2014)
893:Partner, P. (1999),
471:List of ethnic riots
413:Anti-Hindu sentiment
400:mass racial violence
114:partition of Ireland
1587:Government of India
940:Pierre-Jean Souriac
871:, Pimlico, London,
810:on 12 February 2010
587:Oxford Dictionaries
538:Structural violence
528:Secularism in India
246:British West Africa
2103:Asgharali Engineer
1840:Harvard University
1796:2015-01-22 at the
1602:2016-03-04 at the
1583:2014-08-14 at the
1285:. pp. 29–32.
1283:Palgrave Macmillan
1249:The New York Times
1147:Arnold M. Ludwig,
1098:on 17 October 2012
879:paperback, pp.456;
859:hardback, pp. 113;
750:David Killingray,
548:Terrorism in India
518:Sectarian violence
378:
242:Hindu-Muslim riots
199:
100:
33:
2151:978-0-226-50878-8
2031:978-0-520-08256-4
2002:978-1-134-19218-2
1995:. pp. 147–.
1952:Pandey, Gyanendra
1915:978-1-139-49869-2
1800:Sweden (May 2014)
1722:Pettigrew, Thomas
1350:978-93-5260-363-3
1092:Los Angeles Times
1047:978-0-325-07068-1
839:hardback, pp.585;
720:978-0-415-41713-6
502:Rohingya conflict
487:Religion in India
308:Direct Action Day
285:Republic of India
257:4th Earl of Minto
141:diverse state of
36:Communal violence
2258:
2222:B. R. Ambedkar.
2172:Nandini Gooptu,
2124:, Philadelphia:
2094:
2068:
2039:
2010:
1979:
1947:
1919:
1894:
1857:
1855:978-0-415-453806
1847:
1841:
1835:
1829:
1827:978-0-202-362632
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1655:
1644:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1594:
1588:
1575:
1569:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1511:
1505:
1495:
1489:
1479:
1473:
1463:
1457:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1423:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1361:
1355:
1354:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1224:
1215:
1214:
1196:
1190:
1179:
1173:
1166:
1160:
1145:
1139:
1129:
1123:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1031:
1025:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1004:
998:
988:
982:
975:
969:
958:
952:
949:
943:
937:
931:
928:
922:
891:
882:
866:
846:
826:
819:
817:
815:
794:
788:
779:
769:
763:
762:, Brill Academic
748:
742:
731:
725:
724:
708:
697:
684:
680:
674:
671:
665:
654:
648:
645:
639:
633:
627:
624:
618:
615:
609:
606:
600:
594:
588:
582:
576:
569:
533:Structural abuse
304:British migrants
261:Morley-Minto Act
136:and the rest of
118:Northern Ireland
2266:
2265:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2236:
2235:
2183:
2135:Martin E. Marty
2091:
2077:Mukhia, Harbans
2065:
2046:
2044:Further reading
2032:
2003:
1972:
1941:
1916:
1865:
1860:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1820:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1798:Wayback Machine
1789:
1785:
1780:
1776:
1765:
1761:
1719:
1715:
1704:
1700:
1677:
1673:
1662:
1658:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1622:
1614:
1610:
1604:Wayback Machine
1595:
1591:
1585:Wayback Machine
1576:
1572:
1540:
1536:
1528:
1524:
1512:
1508:
1496:
1492:
1480:
1476:
1464:
1460:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1417:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1380:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1343:. p. 1.6.
1333:
1329:
1322:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1275:
1271:
1262:
1260:
1240:
1236:
1231:. Oxford India.
1225:
1218:
1211:
1197:
1193:
1180:
1176:
1167:
1163:
1146:
1142:
1130:
1126:
1114:
1110:
1101:
1099:
1084:
1080:
1071:
1069:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1032:
1028:
1018:
1016:
1005:
1001:
989:
985:
976:
972:
959:
955:
950:
946:
938:
934:
929:
925:
892:
885:
862:
842:
822:
813:
811:
802:
790:
789:
782:
770:
766:
749:
745:
732:
728:
721:
706:
698:
687:
681:
677:
672:
668:
655:
651:
646:
642:
634:
630:
625:
621:
616:
612:
607:
603:
595:
591:
583:
579:
570:
566:
562:
557:
440:Ethnic conflict
418:Ayodhya dispute
408:
396:
394:Alternate names
366:
357:
345:
336:
331:
269:Hindu Mahasabha
187:
181:
179:Hindu terrorism
165:Main articles:
163:
130:
88:François Dubois
80:
75:
63:ethnic violence
17:
12:
11:
5:
2264:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2234:
2233:
2227:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2208:978-0123695031
2197:
2182:
2181:External links
2179:
2178:
2177:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2153:
2132:
2129:
2118:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2089:
2073:Bidwai, Praful
2069:
2063:
2051:Chandra, Bipan
2045:
2042:
2041:
2040:
2030:
2011:
2001:
1980:
1970:
1948:
1939:
1920:
1914:
1895:
1877:(2): 177–203.
1864:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1842:
1830:
1814:
1802:
1783:
1774:
1759:
1713:
1698:
1687:(2): 143–186.
1671:
1656:
1652:978-0230245501
1639:
1629:
1620:
1608:
1589:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1564:978-9799988812
1556:
1553:978-0307386564
1545:
1534:
1522:
1519:978-0198077305
1506:
1503:978-0853071327
1490:
1487:978-0195633658
1474:
1471:978-0304304813
1458:
1455:978-0836400007
1442:
1433:
1424:
1411:
1385:
1378:
1356:
1349:
1327:
1321:978-9004088344
1320:
1312:Brill Academic
1298:
1292:978-0230112575
1291:
1269:
1234:
1216:
1210:978-0520053854
1209:
1191:
1187:978-0415811248
1174:
1161:
1157:978-0813122335
1140:
1124:
1108:
1078:
1066:New York Times
1052:
1046:
1026:
1013:New York Times
999:
996:978-1137325297
983:
970:
966:978-0719051180
953:
944:
932:
923:
921:
920:
883:
881:
880:
860:
840:
827:(ed.) (1998),
820:
795:(ed.) (1994),
780:
777:978-0520053854
764:
760:978-9004088344
743:
739:978-0230112575
726:
719:
685:
675:
666:
662:978-1412934114
649:
640:
628:
619:
610:
601:
589:
577:
563:
561:
558:
556:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
513:Saffron Terror
510:
508:Saffronisation
505:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
473:
468:
463:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
421:
415:
409:
407:
404:
395:
392:
365:
362:
356:
353:
344:
341:
335:
332:
330:
327:
312:Noakhali riots
162:
159:
138:Western Africa
134:Horn of Africa
129:
126:
122:Belfast Pogrom
86:A painting by
79:
76:
74:
71:
67:civil disorder
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2263:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2195:9780199759996
2192:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2115:81-7370-040-0
2112:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2092:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1942:
1940:9781136867873
1936:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1852:
1846:
1839:
1834:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1811:
1806:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1778:
1770:
1769:Working Paper
1763:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1709:
1708:Working Paper
1702:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1667:
1666:Working Paper
1660:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1633:
1624:
1617:
1612:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1593:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1437:
1428:
1421:
1415:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1389:
1381:
1379:9780140100839
1375:
1371:
1370:Penguin Books
1367:
1360:
1352:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1337:Indian Polity
1331:
1323:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1294:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1273:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1250:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1223:
1221:
1212:
1206:
1202:
1195:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1171:
1165:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1144:
1138:
1137:1-85065-066-7
1134:
1128:
1122:
1121:0-7735-1218-7
1118:
1112:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1030:
1014:
1010:
1003:
997:
993:
987:
980:
974:
967:
963:
957:
948:
941:
936:
927:
919:
918:0-09-978200-6
915:
911:
907:
906:
904:
903:0-233-99666-4
900:
896:
890:
888:
878:
877:0-7126-0720-X
874:
870:
865:
861:
858:
857:0-333-44157-5
854:
850:
845:
841:
838:
837:0-19-860223-5
834:
830:
825:
821:
809:
805:
801:
800:
798:
793:
787:
785:
778:
774:
768:
761:
757:
753:
747:
740:
736:
730:
722:
716:
712:
705:
704:
696:
694:
692:
690:
679:
670:
663:
659:
653:
644:
637:
632:
623:
614:
605:
598:
593:
586:
581:
574:
568:
564:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
425:
422:
419:
416:
414:
411:
410:
403:
401:
391:
388:
382:
375:
370:
361:
352:
350:
340:
329:National laws
326:
323:
319:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
296:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
277:British India
274:
270:
266:
263:in 1909. The
262:
258:
253:
251:
247:
243:
238:
236:
232:
228:
225:, especially
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
203:
196:
191:
186:
180:
176:
172:
168:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
139:
135:
125:
123:
119:
115:
110:
106:
97:
93:
89:
84:
70:
68:
64:
59:
55:
52:
48:
45:
41:
37:
30:
26:
21:
2229:Tony Cross.
2173:
2166:
2138:
2121:
2106:
2080:
2054:
2036:Google Books
2034:– via
2016:
2007:Google Books
2005:– via
1988:
1976:Google Books
1974:– via
1956:
1945:Google Books
1943:– via
1925:
1900:
1874:
1870:
1863:Bibliography
1845:
1833:
1817:
1805:
1786:
1777:
1768:
1762:
1729:
1725:
1716:
1707:
1701:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1642:
1632:
1623:
1611:
1606:Jakarta Post
1592:
1573:
1537:
1525:
1509:
1493:
1477:
1461:
1445:
1436:
1427:
1414:
1403:. Retrieved
1397:
1388:
1365:
1359:
1336:
1330:
1307:
1301:
1278:
1272:
1261:. Retrieved
1247:
1237:
1228:
1200:
1194:
1177:
1168:Heba Saleh,
1164:
1159:, pp 182–187
1148:
1143:
1127:
1111:
1100:, retrieved
1096:the original
1091:
1081:
1070:, retrieved
1065:
1055:
1036:
1029:
1017:, retrieved
1012:
1002:
986:
973:
956:
947:
935:
926:
909:
894:
868:
864:Moynahan, B.
848:
844:Chadwick, H.
828:
812:. Retrieved
808:the original
796:
767:
751:
746:
729:
702:
678:
669:
664:, Chapter 12
652:
643:
631:
622:
613:
604:
592:
580:
572:
567:
543:Tarakan riot
523:Sectarianism
397:
383:
379:
358:
348:
346:
337:
324:
320:
297:
293:
254:
239:
201:
200:
131:
101:
60:
56:
53:
49:
35:
34:
1566:, pp. 72–85
1072:16 November
1068:, p. 1
1019:16 November
1015:, p. 4
968:, pp. 90–99
250:Cape Colony
202:Communalism
107:. In 1561,
2240:Categories
2090:8173041326
2064:0706926552
1971:0195630106
1405:2020-06-07
1368:. London:
1263:2020-06-07
824:Parker, G.
792:Parker, G.
560:References
450:Hate group
211:Bangladesh
197:, Gujarat.
183:See also:
98:in France.
1993:Routledge
1931:Routledge
1891:106402178
1732:: 65–85.
1258:0362-4331
711:Routledge
504:(Myanmar)
343:Indonesia
219:Sri Lanka
195:Ahmedabad
109:Huguenots
96:Huguenots
2251:Violence
2246:Homicide
2145:(1994),
2053:(1984).
1954:(1992).
1794:Archived
1754:10722841
1746:15012467
1600:Archived
1581:Archived
1102:16 April
814:2 August
585:Communal
406:See also
349:kesukuan
314:and the
283:and the
281:Pakistan
267:and the
248:and the
215:Pakistan
151:Idi Amin
143:Zanzibar
44:communal
29:Thailand
25:Cambodia
2128:, 1996.
867:(2003)
478:(India)
426:(India)
420:(India)
231:Muslims
73:History
2206:
2193:
2149:
2113:
2087:
2061:
2028:
1999:
1968:
1937:
1912:
1889:
1853:
1825:
1752:
1744:
1650:
1562:
1551:
1517:
1501:
1485:
1469:
1453:
1376:
1347:
1318:
1289:
1256:
1207:
1185:
1155:
1135:
1119:
1044:
994:
964:
916:
901:
875:
855:
835:
775:
758:
737:
717:
660:
482:Pogrom
374:Cyprus
364:Causes
289:Jinnah
227:Hindus
177:, and
147:Uganda
128:Africa
78:Europe
40:ethnic
1887:S2CID
1750:S2CID
1637:2011)
707:(PDF)
683:46–66
638:UNODC
387:Kenya
355:Kenya
334:India
279:into
223:India
207:India
155:Egypt
2204:ISBN
2191:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2111:ISBN
2085:ISBN
2059:ISBN
2026:ISBN
1997:ISBN
1966:ISBN
1935:ISBN
1910:ISBN
1851:ISBN
1823:ISBN
1742:PMID
1648:ISBN
1560:ISBN
1549:ISBN
1515:ISBN
1499:ISBN
1483:ISBN
1467:ISBN
1451:ISBN
1374:ISBN
1345:ISBN
1316:ISBN
1287:ISBN
1254:ISSN
1205:ISBN
1183:ISBN
1153:ISBN
1133:ISBN
1117:ISBN
1104:2009
1074:2008
1042:ISBN
1021:2008
992:ISBN
962:ISBN
914:ISBN
899:ISBN
873:ISBN
853:ISBN
833:ISBN
816:2010
773:ISBN
756:ISBN
735:ISBN
715:ISBN
658:ISBN
255:The
229:and
217:and
161:Asia
132:The
105:Roma
1879:doi
1734:doi
1689:doi
1399:BBC
42:or
27:at
2242::
2105:.
2075:;
2024:.
2020:.
1991:.
1964:.
1960:.
1933:,
1929:,
1908:.
1904:.
1885:.
1875:19
1873:.
1748:.
1740:.
1730:49
1728:.
1683:.
1396:.
1372:.
1314:.
1310:.
1281:.
1252:.
1246:.
1219:^
1090:,
1064:,
1011:,
905:;
886:^
783:^
713:.
709:.
688:^
318:.
310:,
213:,
209:,
173:,
169:,
124:.
2117:.
2093:.
2067:.
2038:.
2009:.
1978:.
1918:.
1893:.
1881::
1771:.
1756:.
1736::
1710:.
1695:.
1691::
1685:1
1668:.
1555:;
1408:.
1382:.
1353:.
1324:.
1295:.
1266:.
1213:.
1024:.
818:.
723:.
376:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
