Qing dynasty - Knowledge

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commercialization expanded in the late-Ming and early-Qing, mid-sized cities began popping up to direct the flow of domestic, commercial trade. Some towns of this nature had such a large volume of trade and merchants flowing through them that they developed into full-fledged market-towns. Some of these more active market-towns even developed into small cities and became home to the new rising merchant class. The proliferation of these mid-sized cities was only made possible by advancements in long-distance transportation and communication. As more and more Chinese citizens were travelling the country conducting trade they increasingly found themselves in a far-away place needing a place to stay; in response the market saw the expansion of guild halls to house these merchants.

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the source and amount of their income. Literati families drew income from landholding, as well as from lending money. Officials drew a salary, which, as the years went by, were less and less adequate, leading to widespread reliance on "squeeze", irrgular payments. Those who prepared for but failed the exams, like those who passed but were not appointed to office, could become tutors or teachers, private secretaries to sitting officials, administrators of guilds or temples, or other positions that required literacy. Others turned to fields such as engineering, medicine, or law, which by the nineteenth century demanded specialized learning. By the nineteenth century, it was no longer shameful to become an author or publisher of fiction.

4569:(1814–64), a disappointed civil service examination candidate who, influenced by Christian teachings, had a series of visions and believed himself to be the son of God, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, sent to reform China. A friend of Hong's, Feng Yunshan, utilized Hong's ideas to organize a new religious group, the God Worshippers' Society (Bai Shangdi Hui), which he formed among the impoverished peasants of Guangxi province. Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers, it has also been called the "bloodiest civil war of all time"; during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died. Hong Xiuquan, a failed 6050:, that is, the local family lineage with descent through the male line, often translated as "clan". A shift in marital practices, identity and loyalty had begun during the Song dynasty when the civil service examination began to replace nobility and inheritance as a means for gaining status. Instead of intermarrying within aristocratic elites of the same social status, they tended to form marital alliances with nearby families of the same or higher wealth, and established the local people's interests as first and foremost which helped to form intermarried townships. The neo-Confucian ideology, especially the Cheng-Zhu thinking favored by Qing social thought, emphasised patrilineal families and genealogy in society. 6942:. Manchu leaders employed Jesuits to use cannon and gunpowder to great effect in the conquest of China, and the court sponsored their research in astronomy. The aim of these efforts, however, was to reform and improve inherited science and technology, not to replace it. Scientific knowledge advanced during the Qing, but there was not a change in the way this knowledge was organized or the way scientific evidence was defined or its truth tested. Those who studied the physical universe shared their findings with each other and identified themselves as men of science, but they did not have a separate and independent professional role with its own training and advancement. They were still literati. 5336: 4384: 3883:

precedents and example cast a long shadow. First, the Manchus had entered "South of the Wall" because Dorgon had responded decisively to Wu Sangui's appeal, then, instead of sacking Beijing as the rebels had done, Dorgon insisted, over the protests of other Manchu princes, on making it the dynastic capital and reappointing most Ming officials. No major Chinese dynasty had directly taken over its immediate predecessor's capital, but keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize the regime and sped up the conquest of the rest of the country. Dorgon then drastically reduced the influence of the eunuchs and directed Manchu women not to

3724: 1634: 5510: 189: 6545:, which equaled roughly 1.3 ounces of silver. A third-party had to be brought in to assess the weight and purity of the silver, resulting in an extra "meltage fee" added on to the price of transaction. Furthermore, since the "meltage fee" was unregulated it was the source of corruption. The Yongzheng emperor cracked down on the corrupt "meltage fees", legalizing and regulating them so that they could be collected as a tax. From this newly increased public coffer, the Yongzheng emperor increased the salaries of the officials who collected them, further legitimizing silver as the standard currency of the Qing economy. 3974: 6578: 105: 7334: 4622: 3766: 5463: 2589: 956: 7180: 6859:

international trade. By the eighteenth century, the most significant export China had was tea. British demand for tea increased exponentially up until they figured out how to grow it for themselves in the hills of northern India in the 1880s. By the end of the eighteenth century, tea exports going through the Canton Cohong system amounted to one-tenth of the revenue from taxes collected from the British and nearly the entire revenue of the British East India Company; in fact, until the early nineteenth century tea comprised ninety percent of exports leaving Canton.

5208:, until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from an attendant to the emperor or a Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner, or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private. 7101: 6828: 6501: 3746:

according to how much grain they had: those with less than 5 to 7 sin were treated badly, while those with more were rewarded with property. Due to a Han revolt in 1623, Nurhaci turned against them and enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them. He ordered that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally with Jurchens, not like the conquered Han in Liaodong. Hong Taiji recognized the need to attract Han Chinese, explaining to reluctant Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General

5475: 7029: 4218:), became the Yongzheng Emperor. He felt a sense of urgency about the problems that had accumulated in his father's later years. In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful", and in the words of another, he turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of the first order". First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and cracked down on unorthodox sects. In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled most Christian missionaries. He expanded his father's system of 3867:

giving them social and legal privileges. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority – only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners. Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as the vanguard, while Manchu Bannermen were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses.

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tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangzi valley there were long-established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.

8965: 4321: 4263: 10419: 6036: 10310: 3664:(Shenyang) in 1625. Furthermore, the Khorchin proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their expertise as cavalry archers. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between the Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. This is a typical example of Nurhaci's initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. During most of the Qing period, the Mongols gave military assistance to the Manchus. 3633: 5366: 4907: 3692:. To redress the technological and numerical disparity, Hong Taiji in 1634 created his own artillery corps, who cast their own cannons in the European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists. One of the defining events of Hong Taiji's reign was the official adoption of the name "Manchu" for the united Jurchen people in November 1635. In 1635, the Manchus' Mongol allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. In April 1636, 6566:, began to appear and to control commercial craft or artisanal industries such as carpentry, weaving, banking, and medicine. By the nineteenth century guild halls worked to transform urban areas into cosmopolitan, multi-cultural hubs, staged theatre performances open to general public, developed real estate by pooling funds together in the style of a trust, and some even facilitated the development of social services such as maintaining streets, water supply, and sewage facilities. 6000: 4990: 3871:

Chinese Bannermen made up the majority of governors in the early Qing, stabilizing Qing rule. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later in the dynasty the policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.

6993: 180: 4828: 4235: 5177: 4479: 5969:. Furthermore, such people were usually not allowed to marry with free commoners and were even often required to acknowledge their abasement in society through actions such as bowing. However, throughout the Qing dynasty, the emperor and his court, as well as the bureaucracy, worked towards reducing the distinctions between the debased and free but did not completely succeed even at the end of its era in merging the two classifications together. 3875: 3907: 5567: 5495: 6126: 998: 5000: 6880:) in Beijing the rest remaining in provincial hands, the Hu Pu also managed to raise some miscellaneous taxes and increased the rate of the salt tax these measures doubled revenue by the late 19th century, this however was insufficient for the central government which was facing numerous crises and wars during the period and 9 foreign loans amounting to 40mil taels were contracted by the Qing government prior to 1890. 5029: 6492:

in the traditional economy. Surplus crops were placed onto the national market for sale, integrating farmers into the commercial economy from the ground up. This naturally led to regions specializing in certain cash-crops for export as China's economy became increasingly reliant on inter-regional trade of bulk staple goods such as cotton, grain, beans, vegetable oils, forest products, animal products, and fertilizer.

6338:(1678–1735) announced that Christianity was a "heterodox teaching" and hence proscribed. Since the European Catholic missionaries kept control in their own hands and had not allowed the creation of a native clergy, however, the number of Catholics would grow more rapidly after 1724 and local communities could set their own rules and standards. In 1811, Christian religious activities were further criminalized by the 6892:

themselves thus these loans did not burden the central government finances. A relatively small sum of just over 25,500,000 taels was borrowed for industrial projects, over 5,000,000 taels for Telegraph lines with less than 1,000,000 taels for miscellaneous purposes. The remainder was primarily for the costs of the Sino-Japanese war and the indemnity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki amounting to over 382,000,000 taels.

3668: 1018: 6397:) mostly about non-religious issues, such as land rights or local taxes, but religious conflict often behind such cases. In the summer of 1900, as foreign powers contemplated the division of China, village youths, known as Boxers, who practiced Chinese martial arts and spiritual practices, reacted against Western power and churches, attacked and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries in the 4371:, who blamed Qing officials, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel." Officials in other parts of the country were also blamed for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. There soon followed uprisings of "new sect" Muslims against local Muslim officials, and Miao tribesmen in southwest China. The 7348: 6437: 4179: 4637:. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. 6962:. To keep development in Chinese hands, the Qing government borrowed 34 billion taels of silver from foreign lenders for railway construction between 1894 and 1911. As late as 1900, only 470 km (292 mi) were in operation. Finally, 8,400 km (5,200 mi) of railway was completed. The British and French after 1905 opened lines to Burma and Vietnam. 3223:. After his death, the dynasty faced internal revolts, economic disruption, official corruption, foreign intrusion, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindset. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the 3482:, it proclaimed within a Manchu-language memorial that the new land had been absorbed into "China". The Qing government expounded an ideology that it was bringing the "outer" non-Han peoples—such as various populations of Mongolians, as well as the Tibetans—together with the "inner" Han Chinese into "one family", united within the Qing state. Phraseology like 3820:, which defended the capital. Wu Sangui, caught between a Chinese rebel army twice his size and a foreign enemy he had fought for years, cast his lot with the familiar Manchus. Wu Sangui may have been influenced by Li Zicheng's mistreatment of wealthy and cultured officials, including Li's own family; it was said that Li took Wu's concubine 5952:, there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status. They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people who were seen as debased and servile. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as 3939:) was so honored. Two months into Shunzhi's personal rule, however, Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated. Dorgon's fall from grace also led to the purge of his family and associates at court. Shunzhi's promising start was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of 24 from 3843:" on 30 October. The Manchus, who had positioned themselves as political heirs to the Ming emperor by defeating Li Zicheng, completed the symbolic transition by holding a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor. However, conquering the rest of China Proper took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, 6145:, who had gained power in 1642, just before the Manchus took Beijing, looked to the Qing court for support. The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors practiced this form of Tibetan Buddhism as one of their household religions and built temples that made Beijing one of its centers, and constructed a replica Lhasa's 3923:, who turned out to be a skilled political operator. Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi's ascent, Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become a direct threat to the throne. So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi ( 6965:

Protestant missionaries by the 1830s translated and printed Western science and medical textbooks. The textbooks found homes in the rapidly enlarging network of missionary schools and universities. The textbooks opened learning open possibilities for the small number of Chinese students interested in

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The Financial Reorganisation bureau of the Dynasty (established in 1909) estimated total revenue to be 292,000,000 taels. H.B. Morse estimated in the early 1900s a total of 284,150,000 taels of which 99,062,000 taels was spent by the Central government, 142,374,000 taels by the provincial governments

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was an association of thirteen business firms that had been awarded exclusive rights to conduct trade with Western merchants in Canton. Until its abolition after the Opium War in 1842, the Canton Cohong system was the only permitted avenue of Western trade into China, and thus became a booming hub of

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led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft

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From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing

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and that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and the worship of idols were all banned. However, success led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern

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Population was stagnant for the first half of the 17th century due to civil wars and epidemics, but prosperity and internal stability gradually reversed this trend. The Qianlong Emperor bemoaned the situation by remarking, "The population continues to grow, but the land does not." The introduction of

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hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death. The popular description of the order was: "To keep the hair, you lose the head; To keep your head, you cut the hair." To the Manchus, this policy was a test of loyalty and an aid in distinguishing friend from foe. For the Han Chinese, however,

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The recorded revenues of the central Qing government increased little over the course of the 18th and early 19th century from 36,106,483 taels in 1725 to 43,343,978 taels in 1812 before declining to 38,600,570 taels in 1841, the land tax was the principal source of revenue for the central government

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The second commercial revolution also had a profound effect on the dispersion of the Qing populace. Up until the late Ming there existed a stark contrast between the rural countryside and cities because extraction of surplus crops from the countryside was traditionally done by the state. However, as

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reign the assessment and collection of the land tax was done in silver. Landlords began only accepting rent payments in silver rather than in crops themselves, which in turn incentivized farmers to produce crops for sale in local and national markets rather than for their own personal consumption or

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after the Spanish conquered the Philippines in the 1570s. The re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, quickly revived trade, which expanded at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures,

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period which saw the emergence of long-distance inter-regional trade of luxury goods. During the second commercial revolution, for the first time, a large percentage of farming households began producing crops for sale in the local and national markets rather than for their own consumption or barter

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During the Ming–Qing period (1368–1911) the biggest development in the Chinese economy was its transition from a command to a market economy, the latter becoming increasingly more pervasive throughout the Qing's rule. From roughly 1550 to 1800 China proper experienced a second commercial revolution,

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The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the

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allowed an improved food supply as well, so that the total population of China during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon farmers were forced to work ever-smaller holdings more intensely. The only remaining part of the empire that had arable farmland was

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cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize the extent of the financial crisis, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local elites and enforced collection of the land

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The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian. They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources. This led to a misunderstanding that Manchus were "afraid of water". Han Bannermen carried out the fighting and

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Hong Taiji staffed his bureaucracy with many Han Chinese, including newly surrendered Ming officials, but ensured Manchu dominance by an ethnic quota for top appointments. Hong Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects. Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong

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in Manchu. The emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including, among other areas, present-day Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that only Han areas were properly

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raised questions that were more political than technological. A British company built the 19 km (12 mi) Shanghai–Woosung line in 1876, obtaining the land under false pretenses, and it was soon torn up. Court officials feared local public opinion and that railways would help invaders, harm

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was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses

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The gentry class was divided into groups. Not all who held office were literati, as merchant families could purchase degrees, and not all who passed the exams found employment as officials, since the number of degree-holders was greater than the number of openings. The gentry class also differed in

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was defined by passing at least the first level of civil service examinations and holding a degree, which qualified him to hold imperial office, although he might not actually do so. The gentry member could legally wear gentry robes and could talk to officials as equals. Informally, the gentry then

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respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in

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The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries), each headed by two presidents and assisted by four vice presidents. In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split

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were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the

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The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills. Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among the Eight Banners,

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Meanwhile, Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model. He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, and public works. However, these administrative organs had very little role initially,

6405:. The Beijing government reacted by implementing substantial fiscal and administrative reforms but this defeat convinced many among the educated elites that popular religion was an obstacle to China's development as a modern nation, and some turned to Christianity as a spiritual tool to build one. 6324:

adapted to Chinese expectations, evangelized from the top down, adopted the robes and lifestyles of literati, becoming proficient in the Confucian classics, and did not challenge Chinese moral values. They proved their value to the early Manchu emperors with their work in gunnery, cartography, and

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Inner Mongols and Khalkha Mongols in the Qing rarely knew their ancestors beyond four generations and Mongol tribal society was not organized among patrilineal clans, contrary to what was commonly thought, but included unrelated people at the base unit of organization. The Qing tried but failed to

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and forced Tibetans to sign a treaty. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China

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in order to open trade and put relations on a basis of equality. The imperial court viewed trade as of secondary interest, whereas the British saw maritime trade as the key to their economy. The Qianlong Emperor told Macartney "the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of

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The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the

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were overthrown. In the following century, markets continued to expand, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million

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of scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), tattooed criminals, and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were

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The first seven years of the young Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by Dorgon's regency. Because of his own political insecurity, Dorgon followed Hong Taiji's example by ruling in the name of the emperor at the expense of rival Manchu princes, many of whom he demoted or imprisoned. Dorgon's

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Taizu noted that these figures for formal taxation only amounted to half of the total taxation and therefore revenue of the government with these surcharges being levied at a local level by local officials who found the level of taxation far too low to support even basic governance, despite the

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appeared in the given name of each male of each generation, often well into the future. These lineages claimed to be based on biological descent but when a member of a lineage gained office or became wealthy, he might use considerable creativity in selecting a prestigious figure to be "founding

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The Qing gentry were marked as much by their aspiration to a cultured lifestyle as by their legal status. They lived more refined and comfortable lives than the commoners and used sedan-chairs to travel any significant distance. They often showed off their learning by collecting objects such as

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By the end of the nineteenth century, national artistic and cultural worlds had begun to come to terms with the cosmopolitan culture of the West and Japan. The decision to stay within old forms or welcome Western models was now a conscious choice. Classically trained Confucian scholars such as

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This multi-ethnic force conquered Ming China for the Qing. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played key roles in the conquest of southern China were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde, who governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after the conquest. Han

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to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand in dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local

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It was estimated in the 1850s that wages around the capital of Beijing and the Yangtze delta region for a farmer was between 0.99 and 1.02 taels a month assuming every day was worked this would amount to roughly 12 taels a year with over 400,000,000 citizens in 1890 the level of taxation was

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The Qing government during and following the First Sino-Japanese war increasingly took on loans to meet its expenditure requirements a total of 746,220,453 taels of which slightly over 330,000,000 taels was for Railway construction and the repayment to come from the revenues of the railways

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during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from

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clerics established rural communities that adapted to local folk religious practices by emphasizing healing, festivals, and holy days rather than sacraments and doctrine. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, a spectrum of Christian believers had established communities. In 1724, the

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Kangxi's reign started when he was seven years old. To prevent a repeat of Dorgon's monopolizing of power, on his deathbed his father hastily appointed four regents who were not closely related to the imperial family and had no claim to the throne. However, through chance and machination,

9936:"Treaty of Peace between China and Japan (Treaty of Shimonoseki)". Ch'ing Dynasty Treaties and Agreements Preserved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan). National Palace Museum. 17 April 1895. 中國將管理下開地方之權並將該地方所有堡壘軍器工廠及一切屬公物件永遠讓於日本...台湾全岛及所有附属各岛屿...澎湖列岛 5855:

were brought under control by an increase in inoculations. In addition, infant deaths were decreased due to improvements in birthing techniques performed by doctors and midwives and an increase in medical books available to the public. Government campaigns decreased the incidence of

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Under the Qing, inherited forms of art flourished and innovations occurred at many levels and in many types. High levels of literacy, a successful publishing industry, prosperous cities, and the Confucian emphasis on cultivation all fed a lively and creative set of cultural fields.

150: 6238:. Chinese folk religion combined elements of the three, with local variations. County magistrates, who were graded and promoted on their ability to maintain local order, tolerated local sects and even patronized local temples as long as they were orderly, but were suspicious of 7073:, whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion. Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of 4097:

The young emperor faced challenges in maintaining control of his kingdom, as well. Three Ming generals singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the dynasty had been granted governorships in Southern China. They became increasingly autonomous, leading to the

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The defeat by Japan in 1895 created a sense of crisis which the failure of the 1898 reforms and the disasters of 1900 only exacerbated. Cixi in 1901 moved to mollify the foreign community, called for reform proposals, and initiated a set of "New Policies", also known as the

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in 1859–1867, made proposals (1860) to open parts of Guandong for Chinese civilian farmer settlers in order to oppose further possible annexations. In the later 19th century, Manchuria was opened up for Han settlers leading to a more extensive migration, which was called

4969:. In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the 4205:(r. 1735–1796), marked the height of Qing power. Yet, as the historian Jonathan Spence puts it, the empire by the end of the Qianlong reign was "like the sun at midday". In the midst of "many glories", he writes, "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent". 147: 9179: 152: 154: 6413:

established clinics and hospitals, and led medical training in China. Missionaries began establishing nurse training schools in the late 1880s, but nursing of sick men by women was rejected by local tradition, so the number of students was small until the 1930s.

151: 146: 145: 5860:. In Europe population growth in this period was greatest in the cities, but in China growth in cities and the lower Yangzi was low. The greatest growth was in the borderlands and the highlands, where farmers could clear large tracts of marshlands and forests. 144: 153: 149: 148: 6053:

The emperors and local officials exhorted families to compile genealogies in order to stabilize local society. The genealogy was placed in the ancestral hall, which served as the lineage's headquarters and a place for annual ancestral sacrifice. A specific

4102:, which lasted for eight years. Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China, which took several decades to recover. 188: 5846:

The population grew in numbers, density, and mobility. The population grew from roughly 150 million in 1700, about what it had been a century before, then doubled over the next century, and reached a height of 450 million on the eve of the

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were held, the first in China's history. Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han Chinese state.

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Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As the Jurchens had traditionally "elected" their leader through a council of nobles, the Qing state did not have a clear succession system. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son

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observed that "o the scholar-gentry, Christian missionaries were foreign subversives, whose immoral conduct and teaching were backed by gunboats". In the next decades, there were some 800 conflicts between village Christians and non-Christians

3993:" era, the zenith of the dynasty's social, economic and military power. The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the 6888:

and the remainder by the local government. In 1911 the Consultative assembly estimated total revenue to be 301,910,297 taels. Included in this figure was over 44,000,000 taels from the Likin of which only 13,000,000 was reported to Beijing.

5868:

and Guizhou in the 18th century, and also to Taiwan. After the conquests of the 1750s and 1760s, the court organized agricultural colonies in Xinjiang. This mobility also included the organized movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to

5996:

presided over local society and could use their connections to influence the magistrate, acquire land, and maintain large households. The gentry thus included not only males holding degrees but also their wives and some of their relatives.

7957:"Ritual Music in the Court and Rulership of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)" (p. 136): " was the start of the Qing dynasty, although historians usually date the Qing dynasty started in 1644 when the Manchus conquered Beijing and north China." 6966:

science, and a very small number interested in technology. After 1900, Japan had a greater role in bringing modern science and technology to Chinese audiences but even then they reached chiefly the children of the rich landowning gentry.

6376:

read Morrison's Chinese Bible, as well as Liang Afa's evangelistic pamphlet, and announced to his followers that Christianity in fact had been the religion of ancient China before Confucius and his followers drove it out. He formed the

4161:

was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. After Galdan's death, his followers, as adherents to Tibetan Buddhism, attempted to control the choice of the next

3411:) is associated with water, illustrating the triumph of the Qing as the conquest of fire by water. The name possibly also possessed Buddhist implications of perspicacity and enlightenment, as well as connection with the bodhisattva 5947:

According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding

4430:

However, during the 18th century European empires gradually expanded across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade, colonial extraction, and advances in technology. The dynasty was confronted with

5931:. At the end of the 19th century and turn of the 20th century, to counteract increasing Russian influence, the Qing Dynasty abolished the existing administrative system in Manchuria and reclassified all immigrants to the region as 5811:

engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet. The Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "

6527:

with the West. The resulting expansion of the money supply supported competitive and stable markets. During the mid-Ming China had gradually shifted to silver as the standard currency for large scale transactions and by the late

6304:

had arrived from Western Asia as early as the Tang dynasty but their insistence that they should be practiced to the exclusion of other religions made them less adaptable than Buddhism, which had quickly been accepted as native.

5767:, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s. 3613:. As a vassal of the Ming emperors, he officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of the Ming dynasty. Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into a campaign to 6091:, patronized and took responsibility for all religions and belief systems. The empire's "spiritual center of gravity" was the "religio-political state". Since the empire was part of the order of the cosmos, which conferred the 4864:, took the throne, in violation of the dynastic custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent. 3652:" and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles, he relocated his capital from 143: 5537:, at approximately 13 million km in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into provinces. 4666:, which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. 3951:

killing, casting doubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarians", both Han

11309: 6408:

By 1900, there were about 1,400 Catholic priests and nuns in China serving nearly 1 million Catholics. Over 3,000 Protestant missionaries were active among the 250,000 Protestant Christians in China. Western medical

4815:

to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when a Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated the cession of

3455:

part of "China". The government used "China" and "Qing" interchangeably to refer to their state in official documents, including the Chinese-language versions of treaties and maps of the world. The term 'Chinese people' (

5357:

as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but soon took over other military and administrative duties, centralizing authority under the crown. The Grand Councillors served as a sort of

7321:

originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation of Manchu culinary customs. Nevertheless, culinary traditionalists lambasted the opulence of the Manchu Han Feast.

5863:

The population was also remarkably mobile, perhaps more so than at any time in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Millions of Han Chinese migrated to

4859:

that ousted several regents for the boy emperor. Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together). Following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the

6167:

was important to the imperial family both to maintain their Manchu cultural identity and to promote their imperial legitimacy among tribes in the northeast. Imperial obligations included rituals on the first day of

3750:

leniently. Hong Taiji incorporated Han into the Jurchen "nation" as full (if not first-class) citizens, obligated to provide military service. By 1648, less than one-sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry.

4094:, the most junior of the four, gradually achieved such dominance as to be a potential threat. In 1669 Kangxi, through trickery, disarmed and imprisoned Oboi – a significant victory for a fifteen-year-old emperor. 3415:. Early European writers used the term "Tartar" indiscriminately for all the peoples of Northern Eurasia but in the 17th century Catholic missionary writings established "Tartar" to refer only to the Manchus and " 6365:, the American treaty and the French treaty signed in 1844, and the 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, distinguished Christianity from the local religions and granted it protected status. Chinese popular cults, such as the 3918:

On 31 December 1650, Dorgon died suddenly, marking the start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule. Because the emperor was only 12 years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother,

16681: 5798:, which was incorporated into the Qing dynasty as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the 6557:

Full-fledged trade guilds emerged, which, among other things, issued regulatory codes and price schedules, and provided a place for travelling merchants to stay and conduct their business. Along with the

5939:(民人, civilians, non-bannermen), while replacing provincial generals with provincial governors. From 1902 to 1911, seventy civil administrations were created due to the increasing population of Manchuria. 4973:) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after a short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to 10434: 10432: 10430: 10428: 10426: 10424: 10422: 7226:. The Qing dynasty was a period of literary editing and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the 6190: 6065:) who would keep watch over and protect the family. Later observers felt that the ancestral cult focused on the family and lineage, rather than on more public matters such as community and nation. 6103:. The emperor and his officials, who were his personal representatives, took responsibility over all aspects of the empire, especially spiritual life and religious institutions and practices. The 10321: 10319: 10317: 10315: 10313: 4518:. British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow. The 3793:. They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and the presence of a minor as emperor. In April 1644, the capital, Beijing, was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by 4669:

Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the

6388:

After 1860, enforcement of the treaties allowed missionaries to spread their evangelization efforts outside Treaty Ports. Their presence created cultural and political opposition. Historian

9917:

The Island of Formosa, Past and Present : history, people, resources, and commercial prospects : tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions

6381:, which emerged in South China as a "collusion of the Chinese tradition of millenarian rebellion and Christian messianism", "apocalyptic revolution, Christianity, and 'communist utopianism 5046:, and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. Zaifeng forced Yuan Shikai to resign. The Qing dynasty became a 16745: 12800: 5224: 4945: 4640: 3955:

and Han Bannermen were involved and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 Bannermen.

10972: 4977:. The victorious allies then enforced their demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials, via the 10916: 141: 5349:", which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the 7085:

became popular after European glass making processes were introduced by Jesuits to Beijing. During this period the European trend to imitate Chinese artistic traditions, known as

5444:, such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by 4313:, the emperor's handsome young favorite, took advantage of the emperor's indulgence to become one of the most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty. Qianlong's son, the 142: 17301: 3172:, population and economic growth. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials. To maintain prominence over its neighbors, the Qing leveraged and adapted the 193:

The Qing dynasty at its greatest extent in 1760, with modern borders shown for the rest of the world. Claimed territory that was not under its control is shown in light green.

8629: 5012:. Over the next few years the reforms included the restructuring of the national education, judicial, and fiscal systems, the most dramatic of which was the abolition of the 8590: 4360:

had been walled off as a Manchu homeland. Despite prohibitions, by the 18th century Han Chinese streamed into Manchuria, both illegally and legally, over the Great Wall and

6872:

and the opening of China to foreign trade and the mid-century rebellions, two further important sources of revenue were added: the foreign maritime customs revenue and the

16579: 17340: 10193: 6428: 5880:, with the exception of some bannermen. Nonetheless, by 1780, Han Chinese had become 80% of the population. The relatively low populated territory was vulnerable as the 3601:

in the early 17th century. Nurhaci may have spent time in a Han household in his youth, and became fluent in Chinese and Mongolian languages and read the Chinese novels

13043: 6938:. Contrary to stereotypes in some Western writing, 16th and 17th century Qing dynasty officials and literati eagerly explored the technology and science introduced by 984: 970: 931: 917: 903: 889: 5851:

in 1850. The spread of New World crops, such as maize, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and potatoes decreased the number of deaths from malnutrition. Diseases such as

5489: 4942:, arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted. 6842:

In 1685, the Kangxi emperor legalized private maritime trade along the coast, establishing a series of customs stations in major port cities. The customs station at

5794:. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The 5699:) was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The 7057:

published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the

6471:

and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas. These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are

4965:

Drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created background conditions for the

11737: 4756:. However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the 16103: 6111:

to promote civic morality; he kept close watch over religious organizations whose actions might threaten the sovereignty and religious prerogative of the state.

5730:

and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called

3688:. Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and the commander of two Banners, the Jurchens suffered defeat in 1627, in part due to the Ming's newly acquired 12967: 12603: 8186: 6939: 5345:

In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "

4506:

to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year. The

19547: 9192: 4309:

to silence opposition. Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect.

5441: 16674: 5235:

known as the "Chinese Legation", "Imperial Consulate of China", "Imperial Chinese Consulate (General)" or similar names in seventeen countries, namely the

4295:

and southern China while expanding control over Tibet. The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the

4222:, which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and he created a small 787: 19557: 19552: 17622: 17345: 17181: 6472: 4896: 11810: 4867:

From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the

10536: 8134: 5738:

was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the

5408:

which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the

4219: 6107:, as the emperor's political and spiritual representative, made offerings at officially recognized temples. The magistrate lectured on the Emperor's 5680: 4259:

chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.

9973: 17020: 8095: 6953:

of the 1860s and 1870s Confucian officials in several coastal provinces established an industrial base in military technology. The introduction of

6173: 5517:

Qing China reached its largest extent during the 18th century, when it ruled China proper (eighteen provinces) as well as the areas of present-day

11715: 18887: 18882: 18877: 18872: 18867: 18862: 18857: 18852: 18825: 18820: 18815: 18810: 18745: 18740: 18735: 18730: 18725: 18720: 18715: 18710: 18705: 18700: 18693: 18688: 18683: 18678: 18673: 18668: 18663: 18658: 18653: 18648: 18641: 18636: 18631: 18626: 18578: 18573: 18568: 18563: 18558: 18553: 18546: 18541: 18536: 18531: 18526: 18521: 18516: 18511: 18506: 18501: 18489: 18484: 18479: 18474: 18469: 18464: 18459: 18454: 18449: 18442: 18437: 18432: 18427: 18422: 18417: 18412: 18407: 18402: 18397: 18390: 18385: 18380: 18375: 18370: 18365: 18360: 18355: 18350: 18345: 18338: 18333: 18328: 18323: 18318: 18313: 18308: 18303: 18298: 18293: 18286: 18281: 18276: 18271: 18220: 18215: 18210: 18205: 18200: 18193: 18188: 18183: 18178: 18173: 18168: 18163: 18158: 18113: 18108: 18103: 18096: 18091: 18086: 18081: 18076: 18071: 18066: 18061: 18056: 18051: 18044: 18039: 18034: 18029: 18024: 18019: 18014: 18009: 18004: 17999: 17992: 17987: 17982: 17977: 17748: 17736: 17731: 17726: 17721: 17716: 17711: 17706: 17701: 17696: 17689: 17684: 16760: 7398: 5171: 9488: 6949:, however, demonstrated the power of steam engine and military technology that had only recently been put into practice in the West. During the 6164: 4736:

took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the

5129: 3479: 2988: 13460: 9413: 5627:

into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and

5065:

of 10 October 1911 set off a series of uprisings. By November, 14 of the 22 provinces had rejected Qing rule. This led to the creation of the

4117:

To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the

4024:

aspect of their Manchu identity, which allowed them to appeal to the Mongol, Tibetan and Muslim subjects. The Qing used the title of Emperor (

17165: 17136: 16755: 16211: 8690:

Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers

5759:

was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the

5346: 5325: 572: 7373: 19522: 16837: 15151: 14979: 14894: 14633: 12945:""Preserving the Bonds of Kin": Genealogy Masters and Genealogy Production in the Jiangsu-Zhejiang Area in the Qing and Republican Periods" 8364: 7069: 5483: 5112:

of the child emperor Puyi leading to the fall of the Qing dynasty under the pressure of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang army despite objections from

11624: 16376: 11471: 10232: 10136: 5292: 4910: 4748:

began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A

4744:

in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The

4732:

The dynasty lost control of peripheral territories bit by bit. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the

2921: 8045: 6537:

or cash, used mainly for smaller transactions, silver was not reliably minted into a coin but rather was traded in units of weight: the

6905: 6846:

became by far the most active in foreign trade; by the late Kangxi reign, more than forty mercantile houses specializing in trade with

6325:

astronomy, but fell out of favor for a time until the Kangxi Emperor's 1692 edict of toleration. In the countryside, the newly arrived

5623:

was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example,

3899:

it was a humiliating reminder of Qing authority that challenged traditional Confucian values. The order triggered strong resistance in

2550: 2490: 16718: 7438: 7223: 6577: 16825: 16810: 7460: 6242:

that defied state authority and rejected imperial doctrines. Some of these sects indeed had long histories of rebellion, such as the

6025: 10663: 9774: 19492: 16512: 15048: 11662: 8613: 7413: 6809: 5816: 3502:)—both translatable as 'home and abroad as one family'—was employed to convey this idea of Qing-mediated trans-cultural unity. 3087: 10639: 10503: 9736: 9108: 8574: 5320:, which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial 3079: 17615: 15366: 7383: 7059: 4740:

of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the

4297: 3176:

employed by previous dynasties, enabling their continued predominance in diplomatic affairs with countries on its periphery like

2768: 17548: 16887: 14638: 6176:

included sacrifices to the ancestors, and the use of shamans, often women, who went into a trance to seek healing or exorcism.

5100: 2180: 520: 246: 10185: 3387:; 'clear', ' pure') in this context. One theory posits a purposeful contrast with the Ming: the character 19487: 17579: 16820: 15418: 14973: 14413: 13795: 13040: 12933: 12914: 12881: 12849: 12830: 12809: 12785: 12763: 12739: 12700: 12679: 12660: 12628: 12553: 12532: 12502: 12483: 12462: 12410: 12389: 12360: 12341: 12310: 12289: 12227: 12208: 12114: 12083: 12055: 12034: 12015: 11982: 11942: 11923: 11890: 11845: 11608: 11268: 11218: 10265: 10226: 10169: 10130: 9746: 7480: 7428: 5770:

With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of

5632: 2480: 19448: 15383: 12887: 12706: 12416: 12316: 12254: 12141: 12089: 11988: 11896: 10711: 10271: 7972: 6850:

had appeared. The Yongzheng emperor made a parent corporation comprising those forty individual houses in 1725 known as the

6320:

Several hundred Catholic missionaries arrived from the late Ming period until the proscription of Christianity in 1724. The

6291: 4717:. The reformers then proceeded with institutional reforms, including China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs, the 4629:

The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the

4066:

or "(Manchu) Emperor", and among Muslim subjects in Inner Asia the Qing ruler was referred to as the "Khagan of China" (or "

3890:

However, not all of Dorgon's policies were equally popular or as easy to implement. The controversial July 1645 edict (the "

17049: 16800: 16713: 16437: 14603: 13035: 11530: 8499: 8422:

Bilik, Naran (2007). "Names Have Memories: History, Semantic Identity and Conflict in Mongolian and Chinese Language Use".

7403: 6983: 6877: 4471: 3054:

in 1644, which is considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The dynasty lasted until 1912, when it was overthrown in the

2053: 2043: 420: 14319: 12968:"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" 16622: 16452: 15871: 7244: 7206:

came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the

5394: 4681:, a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the 4586:

weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing imperial army. Nonetheless, it was not until 1864 that Qing armies under

4490:

Since China had little demand for European goods, Europe paid in silver for Chinese goods, an imbalance that worried the

4129:'s invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. Galdan was eventually killed in the 2828: 2522: 1684: 1035: 11577: 5416:. The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the 4851:(r. 1850–1861) and came to power in 1861 after her five-year-old son, the Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne. She, the 19532: 17608: 17265: 16634: 16507: 16331: 15876: 14465: 13465: 12956: 12576: 12248: 12166: 12135: 11961: 11869: 11748: 11510: 11465: 11371: 10966: 10836: 8623: 8584: 8475: 8358: 8317: 8118: 6954: 6448:

By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the

6219: 3700:

recommended that Hong as the khan of Later Jin should be the emperor of the Great Qing. When he was presented with the

2981: 1674: 12177: 5790:

invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia with support from the British Empire, and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of

17554: 17395: 17270: 16627: 16204: 15141: 13109: 13079: 13006: 12523:(1991). "Ch'ing Imperial Marriage and Problems of Rulership". In Rubie Sharon Watson; Patricia Buckley Ebrey (eds.). 9834: 9809: 9590: 9277: 9163: 9136: 8395: 8196: 8079: 7454: 6120: 5832: 5606: 5066: 5021: 3712:

of the Mongols, Hong Taiji renamed his state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to

3347: 3067: 3025: 2351: 949: 8732: 3742:

and it was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles.

3326:

and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The

610: 376: 17365: 15686: 11189:"人学史观视阈下的中西大分流——对"为什么江南不是英国"之新思考 (The Great Divergence from a humanist perspective: Why was Jiangnan not England?)" 10900: 10884: 10868: 10852: 10772: 10751: 6979: 6935: 5425: 5417: 5248: 4900: 4722: 4502:, concerned both over the outflow of silver and the damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered 296: 12623:. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies Harvard University : Distributed by Harvard University Press. 10460: 10097: 8886: 8351:

Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590–1800

7268:, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as 17482: 16725: 16412: 16298: 15084: 14628: 14091: 10956: 8012: 6911: 6357:(1789–1855), a Morrison-trained Chinese convert, branched out the evangelization mission in inner China. The two 6215: 5390: 5058:" because among the thirteen cabinet members, five were members of the imperial family or Aisin-Gioro relatives. 4795:. Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. Japanese Prime Minister 4099: 3964: 3789:

Meanwhile, Ming government officials fought against each other, against fiscal collapse, and against a series of

3717: 3145: 2105: 857: 581: 104: 13253: 11684: 10659:"Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late Imperial China (1644–1911)" (Columbia University) 9939: 8550: 6353:(LMS), who arrived at Canton on September 6, 1807. He completed a translation of the entire Bible in 1819. 3552: 19512: 19507: 19502: 19497: 17066: 16932: 16700: 16447: 16386: 16356: 16346: 15663: 15166: 12597: 12441: 10705: 10570: 9086: 7296: 7254: 6927: 6239: 5916: 5588: 5505:, with provinces in yellow, military governorates and protectorates in light yellow, tributary states in orange 5161: 5133: 4599: 4415:, a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and 3338:

on 12 February 1912 brought the dynasty to an end. In 1917, it was briefly restored in an episode known as the

2926: 2543: 2495: 1404: 1197: 358: 10379: 5991:), like their British counterparts, enjoyed imperial privileges and managed local affairs. The status of this 5097:. However, Yuan Shikai decided to cooperate with Sun Yat-sen's revolutionaries to overthrow the Qing dynasty. 19537: 17500: 17275: 17131: 16815: 16805: 16790: 16785: 16617: 16567: 16547: 16487: 16321: 15500: 14529: 10444: 8838: 8806: 8668: 7388: 7378: 7318: 6931: 5908: 5836: 5783: 5644: 5584: 5405: 5398: 5077:

as its provisional head. Seeing a desperate situation, the Qing court brought Yuan Shikai back to power. His

5017: 4784: 4615: 4167: 3603: 3251:(1862–1877) in western China led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. The 3248: 2974: 2881: 2839: 2568: 2517: 2443: 2378: 1473: 1266: 17631: 11802: 10525: 6069:

promote the Chinese Neo-Confucian ideology of organizing society along patrimonial clans among the Mongols.

1031: 17259: 17037: 16904: 16770: 16664: 16274: 16264: 16197: 16154: 15136: 15124: 14643: 14524: 14408: 13069: 13051: 9003:

with original text in Latin, first published in Rome 1654. First English edition, London: John Crook, 1654.

8870: 8854: 8822: 8778: 7982: 7258:, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in 7144:

and the Lingnan School, which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting.

6346: 6279: 6207: 5385:

like previous dynasties in China, by the early 20th century however the Qing court began to move towards a

5350: 5167: 5145: 4250:

Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the

4223: 3760: 3532: 3428: 3149: 3117: 2877: 2453: 623: 12589:

Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928

8258:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Willard J. Peterson, p. 29

5335: 3723: 19517: 17176: 17159: 16669: 16644: 16607: 16517: 16477: 16229: 16017: 15931: 15826: 15741: 15658: 15156: 15028: 14883: 14534: 13571: 12754: 9999: 9962: 7475: 7408: 7203: 6975: 6950: 6423: 6059:

ancestor". Such worship was intended to ensure that the ancestors remain content and benevolent spirits (

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came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the

3790: 3641: 3626: 3526: 3398: 3256: 3228: 3220: 3083: 2809: 2505: 2262: 1643: 708: 17: 12822:

The Ch'ing Imperial Household Department: A Study of Its Organization and Principal Functions, 1662–1796

4510:

revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing

4149:

colonists as a base against the Qing. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for a series of battles over

4002: 19527: 17559: 17005: 16164: 16079: 15668: 15566: 12652: 12381: 12281: 11707: 9075:"Conquest dynasties of China or foreign empires? The problem of relations between China, Yuan and Qing" 7910: 7902: 7842: 7834: 7788: 7780: 7736: 7728: 7688: 7680: 7571: 7563: 7535: 7527: 7443: 7393: 7219: 5676: 5321: 5268: 5128:. Puyi was allowed to live in the Forbidden City after his abdication until 1924, when he moved to the 4678: 4590:

succeeded in crushing the revolt. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the

4456: 4375:

continued for eight years, until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it.

3920: 3894:") forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into the 3859:, but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui, who had him brought back to 3848: 3185: 3071: 2510: 1598: 1588: 1544: 15856: 12692:

The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia

11258: 4554:

to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in the Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime.

17569: 17288: 17217: 17010: 16542: 16467: 16336: 16254: 16134: 15821: 15756: 15746: 15731: 15066: 15013: 14923: 14492: 13640: 13204: 7601: 7423: 6350: 6295: 6271: 5684: 5429: 5212: 5125: 4892: 4888: 4757: 4495: 4412: 3911: 3716:, suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying the Manchu territories. Hong Taiji then proceeded to 3622: 3544: 3359: 3173: 3109: 2911: 2849: 2834: 2824: 2814: 2691: 2536: 2473: 2438: 2011: 1707: 1617: 1496: 894: 15956: 9421: 4677:

and, in an act of revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission.

4383: 4013:

of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from

2217: 17490: 17310: 17044: 17015: 16765: 15576: 15556: 15521: 15474: 15428: 14780: 14596: 14450: 14425: 14275: 13934: 13929: 12904: 7485: 7433: 7418: 7264: 7234: 7215: 7078: 6039: 5965:

legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, such as being forbidden to take the

5373: 5244: 4852: 4820:

to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in the

4578: 4498:

provided the remedy. The British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. The

4460: 4251: 3617:. By 1616, however, he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou so as to be able to proclaim himself 3322:

over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state. After the deaths of the

3201: 3197: 2759: 2207: 1856: 111: 13025: 6078: 6016:, porcelain or pieces of art for their beauty, which set them off from less cultivated commoners. 387: 17086: 16552: 16537: 16371: 16269: 15454: 15146: 15129: 15119: 15094: 14938: 14664: 14517: 14398: 13939: 13892: 13835: 13534: 13478: 13226: 11974:

The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth Century China: "My Service in the Army," by Dzengseo

9580: 7588: 6910:

Chinese scholars, court academies, and local officials carried on late Ming dynasty strengths in

6203: 6083:

Manchu rulers presided over a multi-ethnic empire and the emperor, who was held responsible for "

6061: 5577: 5550: 5386: 5370: 5047: 4954: 4930: 4847:: Tz'u-Hsi) in state affairs. She entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine to the 4804: 4670: 4435:

and state-to-state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby

4432: 3276: 3260: 3255:

in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the

2433: 735: 722: 12179:

Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-Century China

8346: 3973: 17467: 17355: 17236: 17061: 16279: 16174: 16089: 15936: 15648: 15581: 15449: 15398: 15330: 15230: 15220: 15018: 14953: 14760: 14689: 14539: 14440: 14435: 14123: 14071: 13991: 13924: 13828: 13813: 13706: 13473: 13427: 13268: 13155: 11632: 11502: 7465: 7448: 6202:, and was centered around the patriarchal family, the maintenance of the male family line, and 5787: 5094: 5090: 5055: 4800: 4331: 4182: 4082:

in the hope to appease the Mongols and Tibetans. The Kangxi Emperor also welcomed to his court

3829: 3805:, committed suicide when the city fell to the rebels, marking the official end of the dynasty. 3701: 3129: 3059: 2916: 2741: 2485: 2463: 2448: 1934: 1653: 12944: 12906:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

11455: 10930: 10926: 10910: 10894: 10878: 10862: 10846: 10782: 10766: 10470: 10454: 10389: 10216: 10120: 9949: 8848: 8678: 6436: 4621: 3597:, the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe – the Aisin-Gioro – in 19542: 17541: 17400: 17360: 17027: 16989: 16877: 16857: 16775: 16574: 16557: 16422: 16391: 16326: 16159: 16139: 16119: 15982: 15946: 15901: 15846: 15638: 15633: 15408: 15355: 15180: 15089: 15058: 14998: 14948: 14730: 14720: 14470: 14430: 14243: 14118: 13182: 13172: 13131: 13102: 12731: 8880: 8816: 8004: 7470: 7284: 7125: 6636: 6321: 6314: 6275: 6267: 6251: 6199: 6185: 5252: 4970: 4950: 4922: 4808: 4682: 4372: 4243: 3697: 3295: 3268: 3193: 2458: 1875: 991: 639: 597: 347: 31: 15310: 14358: 12564: 12475:

Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War

11494: 11411:

David Pong (1973). "Confucian patriotism and the destruction of the Woosung railway, 1877".

9677:

Chien-nung Li, Jiannong Li, Ssŭ-yü Têng, "The political history of China, 1840–1928", p. 234

8896: 8864: 8832: 8788: 6100: 4760:

and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam. Some Russian and Chinese

4705:. Their aim was to adopt Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values. 4466:

In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of the British government, sent a

17472: 17439: 17405: 17350: 17230: 17212: 16922: 16852: 16659: 16442: 16144: 16063: 16027: 15977: 15836: 15761: 15546: 15423: 15215: 14990: 14968: 14963: 14928: 14870: 14563: 14393: 14363: 14238: 14169: 14140: 14059: 13393: 13231: 13221: 8560: 7274: 7017: 6876:

revenue though only 20% of the likin revenue was actually given by the provinces to Hu Pu (

5966: 5778:. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During 5763:

in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner

5462: 5313: 5205: 5141: 5043: 5032: 5013: 4855:(who had been Xianfeng's empress), and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged 4840: 4741: 4654:, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the 4570: 4306: 4130: 4059: 3307: 3280: 3097: 2901: 2671: 2588: 2577: 2500: 1713: 847: 329: 14343: 9778: 7179: 8: 17525: 17375: 17315: 17247: 16927: 16780: 16735: 16482: 16361: 16341: 16249: 16169: 16114: 15951: 15941: 15926: 15916: 15881: 15811: 15726: 15696: 15643: 15360: 15114: 15109: 15008: 15003: 14770: 14725: 14684: 14589: 14255: 14135: 14101: 14003: 13823: 13818: 13630: 13349: 13285: 13160: 13145: 12642: 12371: 12271: 10660: 10496:"Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late Imperial China (1644–1911)" 8160: 7362: 7304: 7228: 7109: 6915: 6512: 6467: 6410: 6301: 5280: 4821: 4702: 4420: 4280: 4158: 3952: 3817: 3614: 3548: 3478:) referred to all the Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing Empire. When the Qing 3252: 3236: 3216: 3105: 1665: 936: 655: 368: 17600: 13971: 13961: 11654: 7300: 6764: 6099:

as "Son of Heaven" was both the head of the political system and the head priest of the

3765: 17410: 17121: 17116: 16942: 16882: 16872: 16867: 16862: 16686: 16532: 16351: 16068: 15891: 15886: 15851: 15831: 15806: 15801: 15796: 15791: 15786: 15771: 15766: 15711: 15618: 15464: 15335: 15225: 15205: 15161: 15104: 15099: 15076: 15043: 15033: 15023: 14905: 14368: 14348: 14331: 14282: 14147: 13956: 13907: 13840: 13758: 13699: 13694: 13689: 13645: 13615: 13507: 13405: 13273: 13248: 12998: 12990: 12820: 12749: 11436: 11428: 11364:

The ideological foundations of Qing taxation:Belief systems, Politics, and institutions

11329: 11070: 10636: 10495: 10089: 10077: 9248: 9231:

Farquhar, David (1978). "Emperor As Bodhisattva in the Governance of the Qing Empire".

8757:

is disputed. Some primary sources, such as the official Qing and Ming court histories (

8089: 8037: 7308: 7202:

continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger numbers and

7195: 6868:

with the salt, customs and poll taxes being important secondary sources. Following the

6691: 6055: 5656: 5324:. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing " 5121: 5086: 4884: 4817: 4663: 4483: 4305:), the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used the 3693: 3343: 3339: 3039: 2891: 2468: 1648: 1440: 1432: 1233: 1225: 977: 10159: 9209: 7108:

Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite.

6827: 6500: 5960:

meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional

3264: 1459: 1252: 18144: 17420: 17415: 17390: 17335: 17330: 17253: 17201: 17106: 16937: 16842: 16740: 16639: 16602: 16527: 16457: 16427: 16381: 16094: 16084: 16047: 15921: 15906: 15781: 15751: 15721: 15716: 15691: 15628: 15623: 15613: 15484: 15433: 15320: 15315: 15038: 14674: 14659: 14477: 14373: 14309: 14304: 14233: 14130: 13845: 13773: 13768: 13610: 13539: 13522: 13517: 13512: 13312: 13263: 13002: 12952: 12929: 12910: 12877: 12855: 12845: 12826: 12805: 12781: 12770: 12759: 12735: 12696: 12675: 12656: 12624: 12593: 12572: 12565: 12549: 12528: 12508: 12498: 12479: 12473: 12458: 12452: 12437: 12406: 12385: 12356: 12337: 12306: 12285: 12244: 12223: 12204: 12162: 12131: 12110: 12079: 12051: 12030: 12011: 12005: 11978: 11957: 11938: 11919: 11886: 11865: 11841: 11604: 11506: 11495: 11461: 11440: 11367: 11333: 11264: 11214: 11062: 10962: 10701: 10691: 10566: 10261: 10222: 10165: 10126: 10081: 9998: 9830: 9805: 9742: 9586: 9558: 9480: 9273: 9159: 9132: 8619: 8580: 8471: 8391: 8354: 8313: 8219: 8192: 8114: 8075: 8029: 7053: 6919: 6775: 6753: 6711: 6378: 6362: 6335: 6255: 6104: 6092: 5870: 5848: 5799: 5382: 5354: 5317: 5082: 5009: 4769: 4753: 4737: 4674: 4630: 4607: 4558: 4519: 4467: 4424: 4326: 4198: 4154: 4055: 4006: 3895: 3825: 3802: 3598: 3375: 3303: 3244: 3055: 2940: 2936: 2603: 2396: 1964: 1944: 1719: 1388: 1380: 1160: 1152: 774: 761: 681: 413: 134: 12543: 11526: 11074: 10961:(2nd enlarged ed.), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 221–222, 7028: 5707:, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight. 3314:

and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as

19395: 18988: 18789: 18245: 17574: 17457: 17380: 17320: 17126: 16847: 16708: 16654: 16497: 16462: 16366: 16291: 16259: 16110: 16074: 15992: 15816: 15586: 15531: 15494: 15469: 15459: 15393: 15345: 15275: 15270: 15265: 15260: 15255: 15245: 15240: 14933: 14679: 14326: 14113: 14108: 14064: 14051: 13981: 13949: 13944: 13808: 13803: 13785: 13746: 13679: 13662: 13603: 13593: 13588: 13529: 13485: 13455: 13415: 13398: 13381: 13344: 13095: 12982: 12867: 12795: 12727: 11774: 11543: 11420: 11321: 11188: 11054: 10073: 9240: 9204: 8996: 8431: 8021: 7184: 7117: 7113: 7074: 7033: 6923: 6873: 6680: 6524: 6476: 6389: 6369:

and the Eight Trigram, presented themselves as Christian to share this protection.

6310: 6287: 6169: 6160: 6142: 6096: 5992: 5961: 5949: 5771: 5700: 5624: 5620: 5312:

between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the

5260: 5062: 4848: 4749: 4659: 4655: 4551: 4499: 4267: 4202: 4105: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4051: 4033: 3998: 3713: 3649: 3570: 3327: 3232: 3212: 3165: 3075: 3043: 3008: 2959: 2075: 1633: 1625: 1510: 1317: 1289: 1087: 1064: 694: 463: 363: 334: 324: 64: 13031: 12161:. Durham & Hong Kong: Duke University Press & Hong Kong University Press. 7164:

made innovations in skeptical textual scholarship. Scholar-bureaucrats, including

5215:, by the 19th century Qing China had become part of a European-style community of 4320: 4262: 19186: 19085: 18600: 17644: 17589: 17535: 17385: 17370: 17194: 16649: 16612: 16562: 16522: 16472: 16417: 16286: 15987: 15736: 15706: 15701: 15561: 15551: 15516: 15506: 15489: 15325: 15280: 15195: 14913: 14888: 14735: 14544: 14512: 14385: 14353: 14336: 14292: 14287: 14265: 14260: 14218: 14211: 14186: 14046: 14041: 13882: 13763: 13657: 13652: 13620: 13445: 13435: 13329: 13322: 13317: 13302: 13258: 13140: 13126: 13047: 12871: 12690: 12646: 12638: 12587: 12400: 12375: 12300: 12275: 12238: 12125: 12073: 12045: 11972: 11880: 11859: 11045:

Kaiyi Chen (1996). "Missionaries and the early development of nursing in China".

10695: 10667: 10643: 10255: 9920: 9267: 9153: 9126: 8465: 7890: 7818: 7766: 7714: 7666: 7551: 7515: 7367: 7303:, applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of 7141: 6786: 6720: 6603: 6592: 6402: 6339: 6326: 6235: 6159:, the most common religion among Manchus, was a spiritual inheritance from their 6035: 5904: 5889: 5885: 5877: 5812: 5764: 5688: 5546: 5545:

province, became a province of its own in the 19th century, but was ceded to the

5518: 5409: 5236: 5216: 4966: 4861: 4745: 4698: 4507: 4452: 4361: 4314: 4239: 4037: 3836: 3828:. Together, the two former enemies met and defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in 3783: 3735: 3672: 3331: 3323: 3299: 3272: 3133: 2955: 2950: 2895: 2872: 2867: 2784: 2779: 1567: 1366: 1138: 1039: 1025: 922: 748: 668: 451: 439: 240: 83: 13966: 12370:

Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien (2002). "Economic developments, 1644–1800". In

11807:

The Way of the Eating, Sean JS Chen, translator (Translating the Suiyuan Shidan)

8491: 5692: 5668: 5648: 5636: 4796: 4709:, in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as 3997:

culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese

17787: 17452: 17325: 17091: 17054: 16502: 16492: 16432: 16129: 15911: 15896: 15861: 15601: 15596: 15479: 15413: 15285: 14943: 14918: 14823: 14740: 14694: 14487: 14482: 14445: 14420: 14403: 14314: 14299: 14270: 14228: 14076: 14036: 14031: 13986: 13912: 13872: 13862: 13852: 13667: 13546: 13440: 13307: 13189: 8464:

Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004).

8435: 8000: 7353: 7313: 7188: 7063:, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, 6731: 6702: 6669: 6529: 6454: 6398: 6283: 6047: 5881: 5779: 5760: 5752: 5715: 5711: 5526: 5522: 5474: 5421: 5413: 5329: 5296: 5288: 5284: 5117: 5113: 4978: 4958: 4918: 4844: 4733: 4634: 4562: 4531: 4523: 4416: 4396: 4209: 4138: 4122: 4118: 4067: 3986: 3978: 3944: 3775: 3747: 3637: 3566: 3514: 3365: 3294:" killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the 3291: 3153: 3116:

was declared Emperor of the Great Qing in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated,

2886: 1977: 1894: 1352: 1122: 403: 381: 11424: 11325: 11058: 8281: 7100: 5038:

The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908 and Cixi died the following day.

3632: 19481: 19463: 19450: 19413: 19408: 19403: 19385: 19380: 19375: 19370: 19365: 19360: 19355: 19350: 19345: 19340: 19333: 19328: 19323: 19318: 19313: 19308: 19303: 19298: 19293: 19288: 19281: 19276: 19271: 19266: 19261: 19256: 19251: 19246: 19241: 19236: 19229: 19224: 19219: 19214: 19209: 19161: 19156: 19151: 19146: 19141: 19134: 19129: 19124: 19119: 19114: 19109: 19104: 19099: 19051: 19046: 19039: 19034: 19029: 19024: 19019: 19014: 19009: 19004: 18999: 18951: 18944: 18939: 18934: 18929: 18924: 18919: 18914: 18909: 18904: 18899: 18892: 18847: 18840: 18835: 18830: 18805: 18800: 18752: 18494: 17972: 17967: 17962: 17957: 17952: 17947: 17940: 17935: 17930: 17925: 17920: 17915: 17910: 17905: 17900: 17895: 17888: 17883: 17878: 17873: 17868: 17863: 17858: 17853: 17848: 17843: 17836: 17831: 17826: 17821: 17816: 17811: 17806: 17801: 17753: 17741: 17679: 17674: 17669: 17664: 17564: 17530: 17495: 17111: 17101: 16917: 16308: 15776: 15541: 15536: 14958: 14816: 14775: 14755: 14568: 14455: 14250: 14223: 14196: 14174: 14152: 13919: 13902: 13887: 13731: 13684: 13672: 13598: 13490: 13364: 13359: 13334: 13216: 12986: 12926:

The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874

12648:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

12520: 12512: 12377:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

12277:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

11310:"The last guardian of the throne: the regional army in the late Qing dynasty" 11032:'Heal the Sick' was Their Motto: The Protestant Medical Missionaries in China 10085: 8283:

China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911

8033: 7317:

expounded culinary aesthetics and theory, along with a range of recipes. The

7211: 6847: 6625: 6480: 6146: 6130: 5978: 5828: 5795: 5775: 5710:

By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as

5490:

Administration of territory in dynastic China § Qing dynasty (1644–1912)

5454:. By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies. 5451: 5365: 5359: 5328:", which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the 5300: 5256: 4914: 4876: 4868: 4444: 4190: 4041: 3994: 3990: 3968: 3840: 3821: 3562: 3208: 3141: 3137: 3035: 2906: 2819: 2736: 2726: 2666: 2641: 2631: 1767: 1734: 15305: 13996: 13976: 12075:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

11913: 11569: 10257:

Russia and Its Northeast Asian Neighbors: China, Japan, and Korea, 1858–1945

9180:

Translating through the Cultural Barriers: the Qing Imperial Multilingualism

8312:. Translated by J. A. Fogel. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 246. 8025: 7176:

which rooted bureaucratic reform and restructuring in classical philosophy.

7016:

read widely and broke aesthetic and critical ground later cultivated in the

6361:(1839–1860) marked the watershed of Protestant Christian missions. The 1842 4906: 4871:. In 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in southern 4729:, as well as a navy; and the purchase from Europeans of armament factories. 4721:; allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital; establishment of the 4170:, the capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing. 3181: 17584: 17281: 17223: 16912: 16894: 16750: 15866: 15388: 15350: 15250: 14833: 14460: 14201: 14191: 14157: 14081: 14008: 13798: 13780: 13741: 13736: 13716: 13711: 13583: 13576: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13450: 13388: 13369: 13354: 13290: 13062: 12859: 12183: 10649:

Living in the Chinese Cosmos: Understanding Religion in Late-Imperial China

10637:

Settling the Dead: Funerals, Memorials and Beliefs Concerning the Afterlife

9924: 9559:"California on the Amur, or the 'Zheltuga Republic' in Manchuria (1883–86)" 9155:

New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde

8754: 8467:

New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde

7339: 7238:. Although fiction did not have the prestige of poetry, novels flourished. 7173: 7133: 7082: 7064: 7047: 7037: 7009: 6658: 6488: 6449: 6373: 6223: 6211: 6108: 5999: 5984: 5899: 5687:. The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of 5467: 5189: 5185: 5149: 5078: 4989: 4880: 4726: 4718: 4710: 4694: 4566: 4527: 4491: 4463:

had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.

4357: 4146: 4075: 4014: 4010: 3884: 3824:

for himself. Wu and Dorgon allied in the name of avenging the death of the

3813: 3798: 3705: 3618: 3609: 3578: 3435: 3374:

dynasty in 1636. There are competing explanations as to the meaning of the

3319: 3240: 3177: 3125: 3063: 2843: 2799: 2789: 2764: 2716: 2342: 2305: 2292: 2236: 2195: 2133: 1847: 1837: 1814: 1449: 1324: 1242: 1094: 963: 908: 313: 270: 257: 11066: 8665:

Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Vol. 4, p. 25

8403: 8005:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 6198:

The belief system most widely practiced among Han Chinese is often called

4650:

In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the

3561:

people, who constitute the majority of the Chinese population, but by the

17520: 17241: 16962: 16957: 16098: 15607: 15403: 15295: 15290: 15210: 14801: 14785: 14179: 14164: 14013: 13726: 13635: 13625: 13551: 13199: 13194: 11855: 10122:

The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World

9827:

Sources in Chinese History: Diverse Perspectives from 1644 to the Present

8724: 7239: 7207: 7199: 7152:

Traditional learning flourished, especially among Ming loyalists such as

7124:

part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the

7094: 7086: 7040:

vase. Colored in "Imperial Yellow", due to its association with the Qing.

7013: 6987: 6504: 6432:

Xián Fēng Tōng Bǎo (咸豐通寶) 1850–1861 Qing dynasty copper (brass) cash coin

6366: 6247: 6243: 6222:. Since they did not require exclusive allegiance, forms and branches of 5857: 5747: 5193: 5074: 4993: 4934: 4929:

In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the

4856: 4792: 4765: 4761: 4706: 4697:

led the suppression of rebellions and stood behind the Manchus. When the

4644: 4595: 4587: 4511: 4388: 4368: 4256: 4005:

offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of

3989:

was the longest of any emperor of China and marked the beginning of the "

3891: 3856: 3558: 3315: 3311: 2731: 2656: 2646: 2249: 2120: 1954: 1922: 1909: 1743: 554: 265: 38: 12994: 12159:

English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century China

11838:

Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820

9444:

Revolution and its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History

8347:"The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century" 6992: 6466:

system with a head tax used to hire laborers. The administration of the

5176: 4827: 4234: 17188: 17032: 16982: 16952: 16795: 15653: 15591: 15510: 14750: 14715: 14206: 14023: 13897: 13857: 13790: 11714:(Summer 2019 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 10093: 10061: 10007: 9252: 8041: 7259: 7129: 6946: 6896:

ability to levy surcharges belonging solely to the central government.

6869: 6831: 6358: 6330: 6137:

The Manchu imperial family were especially attracted by Yellow Sect or

5731: 5591: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5264: 4832: 4812: 4773: 4591: 4515: 4478: 4408: 4404: 4163: 4063: 4021: 3794: 3782:. A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as the 3731: 3685: 3424: 3224: 3189: 3113: 2706: 2701: 2001: 1790: 1176: 1169: 179: 16189: 12674:. History of Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 11432: 11345: 11343: 11156: 6401:. The imperialist powers once again invaded and imposed a substantial 5660: 5109: 5104:

A pitched battle between the imperial and revolutionary armies in 1911

4824:, successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula. 4713:, who put the dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the 1299: 1296: 16977: 16967: 16012: 16002: 15571: 14878: 14765: 14096: 13867: 13751: 13721: 13502: 13376: 13167: 11692: 10565:. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–42. 7279: 7269: 7121: 6959: 6843: 6797: 6548: 6519: 6156: 5983:

Although there had been no powerful hereditary aristocracy since the

5928: 5756: 5743: 5739: 5628: 5232: 5220: 5137: 4939: 4514:, was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the 4448: 4440: 4400: 4349: 3844: 3809: 3689: 3420: 3284: 3157: 3132:, seized the capital, and took over the government in 1644 under the 3121: 2946: 2931: 2711: 1397: 1190: 352: 11779:

Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives

9244: 9074: 8243:

The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey, Volumes 678–679

6463: 5566: 5494: 4688: 3906: 3808:

Li Zicheng then led rebel forces numbering some 200,000 to confront

3573:

who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of

17462: 17207: 17154: 17096: 16972: 16947: 16149: 16032: 16022: 15841: 15340: 14612: 13497: 13280: 13238: 13177: 12951:. Translated by Huang Yuanmei. Berkeley: University of California. 12567:

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire

11340: 11289: 10592: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 6508: 6354: 6317:

were practiced in well-established but self-contained communities.

6227: 6125: 6088: 5852: 5723: 5530: 5446: 5437: 5228: 5116:

and royalist reformers. This brought an end to over 2,000 years of

5050:

on 8 May 1911, when Zaifeng created a "responsible cabinet" led by

4974: 4879:). Germany used the murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of 4872: 4547: 4503: 4447:

in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to that city (present-day

4288: 4284: 3940: 3900: 3874: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3412: 3161: 3047: 2804: 2686: 2621: 1418: 1338: 1211: 1108: 318: 285: 206: 6562:

trade guilds, guild halls dedicated to more specific professions,

5751:

the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by

4403:. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the 3786:, with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation. 17447: 16042: 15997: 15972: 15526: 15235: 14853: 14806: 14745: 14669: 14623: 13410: 13339: 13295: 13150: 12545:

The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions

11263:. New York : Barnes & Noble Books. pp. Map 67, 71. 10999: 10987: 10936: 7542:; capital after 1625 for Later Jin, secondary capital after 1644. 7249: 6583: 6487:

developing naturally from the first commercial revolution of the

6084: 6013: 5876:

Manchuria, however, was formally closed to Han settlement by the

5791: 5735: 5704: 5433: 5240: 5201: 5197: 5070: 5051: 5028: 4673:. Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted and burned the 4603: 4582: 4581:

with Hong himself as king. Hong announced that he had visions of

4574: 4475:

precious things", and "consequently there is nothing we lack..."

4443:. The Qing response, successful for a time, was to establish the 4292: 4186: 4150: 4142: 4134: 4110: 3594: 3438:, the Manchus identified their state as "China", equivalently as 3416: 3169: 3093: 3051: 2794: 2721: 2676: 2651: 2144: 1995: 1989: 1456: 1249: 540: 507: 398: 290: 280: 275: 214: 13211: 11277: 9704: 5204:. Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the 4999: 4693:

Yet the dynasty rallied. Chinese generals and officials such as

4173: 3667: 16124: 16037: 15300: 15200: 14843: 14699: 13243: 13118: 12876:. Transformation of modern China series. New York: Free Press. 9449: 7137: 7093:

due to the rise in trade with China and the broader current of

7090: 6855: 6851: 6835: 6742: 6647: 6441: 6231: 6129:

Placard (right to left) in Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian

5865: 5542: 5538: 5424:), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with 5272: 4611: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4407:

was responsible for relations with the Mongols and Tibetans in

4344: 4340: 4310: 4226:

of personal advisors, which eventually grew into the emperor's

4126: 4050:), and among Tibetans the Qing emperor was referred to as the " 3943:. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who reigned as the 3930: 3860: 3779: 3709: 3656:

to successively bigger captured Ming cities in Liaodong: first

3101: 2774: 2661: 2636: 2626: 493: 474: 342: 11366:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 46, 69, 99. 11238: 11168: 11132: 11081: 8442: 5120:

and began a period of instability. In July 1917, there was an

3797:, a former minor Ming official, who established a short-lived 3306:, including elections, a new legal code, and the abolition of 17171: 16730: 14581: 13877: 12801:

China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923

12182:(Thesis). University of California, San Diego. Archived from 10476: 9680: 6306: 6138: 5807: 5727: 5719: 5534: 4788: 4780: 4436: 4353: 3852: 3582: 3574: 3011: 2696: 2681: 1478: 1464: 1271: 1257: 12270:

Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State building before 1644". In

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Ladder to the Clouds: Intrigue and Tradition in Chinese Rank

10580: 10298: 8929: 8538: 7960: 6342:(1760–1820). The imperial ban was lifted by Treaty in 1846. 4317:(r. 1796–1820), eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide. 4054:" (or "Chinese Emperor") and "the Great Emperor" (or "Great 3903:. In the ensuing unrest, some 100,000 Han were slaughtered. 17341:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet

16830: 16007: 14848: 14838: 14828: 14811: 11570:"Chinese Porcelain Glossary: Glass, Chinese (Peking Glass)" 10616: 10001:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet

8794: 8649: 8647: 8463: 8326: 6150: 5703:, who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital 5276: 5039: 4378: 4279:) became the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong personally led the 4091: 4046: 3958: 3684:

Nurhaci died in 1626, and was succeeded by his eighth son,

3397:; 'bright') is associated with fire within the 3335: 3017: 852: 13087: 11625:"Ch'ing Dynasty – The Art of Asia – Chinese Dynasty Guide" 11392: 11380: 11110: 11108: 10395: 9873: 9461: 8941: 8917: 5442:

Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants

4803:, an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the 4776:

basin, which was however soon crushed by the Qing forces.

4685:. The humiliated emperor died the following year at Rehe. 4178: 4086:

missionaries, who had first come to China under the Ming.

4062:, while among Mongols the Qing monarch was referred to as 17630: 12621:

China, 1898–1912 : The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan

11226: 11144: 11120: 11093: 10824: 10535:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 27. 9863: 9861: 9802:

The Changing Legal Orders in Hong Kong and Mainland China

9659: 9623: 9611: 9527: 9322: 8753:

The exact figure of Li Zicheng's forces at the battle of

6309:

predominated in Central Asian areas of the empire, while

5211:

While the Qing dynasty tried to maintain the traditional

5054:, Prince Qing. However, the cabinet became known as the " 4526:", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the 4367:

In 1796, open rebellion broke out among followers of the

3565:, descendants of a sedentary farming people known as the 3156:(1661–1722) consolidated control, relished the role of a 3014: 1437: 1423: 1409: 1230: 1216: 1202: 12454:

China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia

11864:. Chichester, West Sussex; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 11529:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Columbia University. 11213:(in Chinese), Inner Mongolian People's publishing corp, 11011: 10672: 10407: 10367: 10343: 10331: 9635: 9394: 8644: 6292:

Catholic Church in China § Qing dynasty (1644–1911)

5227:

before its downfall, and since the 1870s it established

4811:

recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the

4561:

in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of

4273:

When Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735 his son Prince Bao (

3929:), the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu " 3835:

The newly allied armies captured Beijing on 6 June. The

1181: 11556:

Study of glass wares from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).

11105: 10788: 10218:

Constructing Empire: The Japanese in Changchun, 1905–45

9738:

Chinese Spatial Strategies: Imperial Beijing, 1420–1911

9599: 9382: 9310: 9286: 8907: 8905: 7299:

aroused cultural pride. The gentleman gourmet, such as

7116:

remained a central interest to both court painters and

6984:

Classical Chinese poetry § History and development

6141:

Buddhism that had spread from Tibet into Mongolia. The

5802:

up until 1930. In the early 20th century, Britain sent

5631:, or surveillance. Each province was administered by a 4598:

of China against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the

4009:

demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the

3505:

In English, the Qing dynasty is sometimes known as the

1549: 12840:

Twitchett, Denis Crispin; Fairbank, John King (1978).

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Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping

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Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013).

8576:

The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44

7147: 5436:, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the 5381:

rule. While the Qing government was established as an

4752:

and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the

3302:. In response, the government initiated unprecedented 12722:

Söderblom Saarela, Mårten (2021). "Manchu Language".

11781:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 260–294. 10812: 10125:. University of California Press. pp. 141, 144. 9755: 9692: 9503: 9054: 8977: 8526: 8261: 7938: 7936: 7140:. The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the 6980:

Chinese literature § Classical fiction and drama

6518:

Silver entered in large quantities from mines in the

6254:(1796–1804) confirmed official suspicions as did the 5404:

There was also another government institution called

4839:

These years saw an evolution in the participation of

4433:

newly developing concepts of the international system

3026: 1385: 1371: 1357: 1343: 1329: 1157: 1143: 1127: 1113: 1099: 12047:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

10355: 10286: 10164:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 103. 9716: 9370: 9334: 9109:"Treaty between Tibet and Nepal, 1856 (translation)" 8953: 8902: 8766: 8514: 7619: 7613: 7329: 5873:, to pursue trade and other economic opportunities. 4212:

in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (

4001:

elites gradually came to terms with each other. The

3473: 3449: 2361: 2283: 2163: 2096: 2026: 1900: 17346:

Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory

12695:(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. 12436:. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. 12203:(4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 11601:

Chinese Whispers: Chinoiserie in Britain, 1650–1930

10800: 10038: 10014: 9804:. City University of Hong Kong Press. p. 372. 8693: 7995: 7993: 7991: 6261: 5892:. In response, the Qing officials such as Tepuqin ( 3112:in 1616, renouncing the Ming overlordship. His son 9481:"Taiping Rebellion | Causes, Effects, & Facts" 9358: 9298: 9193:"The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors" 7933: 6976:Chinese art § Late imperial China (1368–1911) 6549:Urbanization and the proliferation of market-towns 5956:, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to 5513:Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905. 4725:; the formation of modernized armies, such as the 3593:The early form of the Manchu state was founded by 12839: 12721: 12641:(2002). "Social stability and social change". In 11954:Robert Morrison and the Protestant Plan for China 11788:Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture 11349: 11295: 11283: 10066:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 9799: 9515: 9346: 9042: 9030: 9018: 9006: 8615:Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization 7966: 7252:demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in 5841: 5353:. It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the 5340:The emperor of China from The Universal Traveller 4897:British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong 4689:Self-strengthening and the frustration of reforms 4133:. In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of 3754: 19479: 12949:Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China 12947:. In Brokaw, Cynthia J.; Chow, Kai-wing (eds.). 8705: 7988: 7051:, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the 6250:society, which drew on millennial Buddhism. The 6234:were intertwined, for instance in the syncretic 6003:Brush container symbol of elegant gentry culture 12909:. Vol. I. University of California Press. 12399:Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987). 12123: 11497:On Their Own Terms: Science in China, 1550–1900 11460:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 223. 11005: 10993: 10942: 10482: 8579:(illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 16. 7399:List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty 6114: 6046:By the Qing, the building block of society was 5188:structures and institutions from the preceding 5172:List of diplomatic missions of the Qing dynasty 4984: 4550:to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede 3448:; 'middle kingdom') in Chinese and 3072:assembled the territorial base for modern China 1501: 16746:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations 12010:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. 11492: 11029: 9079:International Journal of Central Asian Studies 9072: 8459: 8457: 8390:, National Library of Australia, p. 107, 7242:brought the short story to a new level in his 6163:ancestors that set them off from Han Chinese. 5306: 4933:of 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as 4565:. The rebellion began under the leadership of 1515: 836:11,350,000 km (4,380,000 sq mi) 828:13,400,000 km (5,200,000 sq mi) 820:14,700,000 km (5,700,000 sq mi) 19548:States and territories disestablished in 1912 17616: 17166:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China 17137:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 16205: 14597: 13103: 12724:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History 12336:. Harvard University Press. pp. 21–227. 12124:Goossaert, Vincent; Palmer, David A. (2011). 12043: 9073:Kuzmin, Sergius L.; Dmitriev, Sergey (2015). 8758: 8618:(illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. 8544: 8069: 6345:The first Protestant missionary to China was 5893: 5556: 4274: 4213: 4174:Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors 4020:The second major source of stability was the 3934: 3924: 3636:Italian 1682 map showing the "Kingdom of the 3279:in 1898 proposed fundamental change, but the 3074:. It was the largest imperial dynasty in the 2982: 2544: 1294: 1069: 812:8,800,000 km (3,400,000 sq mi) 172: 127: 56: 14560:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 12794: 12398: 12217: 10500:Religion, the State, and Imperial Legitimacy 10304: 10260:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 27–28. 9824: 9710: 9467: 8800: 8611: 8094:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 7894: 7822: 7770: 7718: 7670: 7555: 7519: 7070:Along the River During the Qingming Festival 5679:under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the 5484:Administrative divisions of the Qing dynasty 5081:crushed the revolutionaries in Wuhan at the 4779:In 1884, Qing China obtained concessions in 4423:, signed in 1689, stabilized relations with 4283:to expand military control into present-day 3553:Timeline of the Jurchens § 17th century 71: 13024:Section on the Ming and Qing dynasties of " 12928:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 12804:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 12592:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 12571:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 11885:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 11878: 10700:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 10661:Institutional Religion: The Three Teachings 9686: 8454: 7953: 7951: 5457: 5225:more than twenty countries around the world 4573:candidate, in 1851 launched an uprising in 3696:of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the 3581:. The Manchus are sometimes mistaken for a 30:"Qing" redirects here. For other uses, see 19558:States and territories established in 1644 19553:States and territories established in 1636 17623: 17609: 16212: 16198: 14604: 14590: 13110: 13096: 12942: 12844:. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. 12525:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society 12302:Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang 12027:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 11453: 11410: 11044: 10401: 8139:Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art 6906:History of science and technology in China 5923:) literally "Crashing into Guandong" with 5450:, or "bondservants", from the Upper Three 4625:Government forces defeating Taiping armies 3080:the fourth-largest empire in world history 2989: 2975: 2551: 2537: 435:• 1636–1643 (proclaimed in Shenyang) 187: 16826:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 12402:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century 12369: 12243:. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. 11956:. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. 11244: 11232: 11174: 11162: 11150: 11138: 11126: 11099: 11087: 10253: 10161:The Manchurian frontier in Chʼing history 9208: 8388:Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911 8240: 7999: 7461:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 7248:, published in the mid-18th century, and 6899: 6258:, which drew on millennial Christianity. 6026:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 5607:Learn how and when to remove this message 4387:British Steamship destroying Chinese war 3342:, but this was neither recognized by the 3211:reached its apex during the reign of the 3108:(known later as Manchus) and founded the 16675:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi 12618: 12331: 12298: 12236: 11970: 11932: 11911: 11835: 11800: 11773:Spence, Jonathan (1977). ""Ch'ing"". In 11457:World Railways of the Nineteenth Century 11017: 10954: 10678: 10560: 10118: 9945: 9777:. University of Maryland. Archived from 9761: 9641: 9617: 9605: 9265: 9230: 8860: 8828: 8812: 8784: 8532: 8332: 8307: 8161:"The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911): Painting" 7948: 7414:List of recipients of tribute from China 7198:grew to new heights in the Qing period. 7178: 7099: 7027: 6991: 6854:system. Firmly established by 1757, the 6826: 6499: 6435: 6427: 6206:, or spirits. Common practices included 6189: 6124: 6034: 5998: 5817:Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces 5508: 5493: 5473: 5461: 5364: 5334: 5175: 5099: 5027: 4998: 4988: 4944: 4905: 4826: 4807:of 1895 was a military humiliation. The 4658:. In 1858, facing no other options, the 4639: 4620: 4477: 4382: 4379:Rebellion, unrest, and external pressure 4339:new crops from the Americas such as the 4319: 4291:, putting down revolts and uprisings in 4261: 4233: 4189:, Qianlong reign; built on the model of 4177: 4104: 3972: 3959:Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation 3905: 3873: 3764: 3722: 3666: 3648:Two years later, Nurhaci announced the " 3631: 3557:The Qing dynasty was founded not by the 3082:in terms of territorial size. With over 2922:Korean People's Association in Manchuria 17282:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 16219: 14384: 12902: 12866: 12818: 12350: 12218:Jackson, Beverly; Hugus, David (1999). 12071: 12044:——; Walthall, Anne (2013). 11712:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 11598: 11256: 11208: 11114: 10794: 10622: 10586: 10059: 9903: 9891: 9151: 8983: 8947: 8935: 8923: 8892: 8556: 8385: 8254: 8252: 8188:Emperors of the Qing Dynasty, 1644–1912 7218:, the transition to a greater role for 7128:included such painters as the orthodox 7060:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 5432:, engaged in trading activities (jade, 5399:prepare for a constitutional government 5108:On 12 February 1912, Longyu issued the 4494:governments of Britain and France. The 4399:continued to be the hegemonic power in 4298:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 3219:of conquest, and personally supervised 3120:captured the Ming capital Beijing, but 3062:, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the 1036:question marks, boxes, or other symbols 27:Manchu-led dynasty of China (1644–1912) 14: 19480: 14639:List of current non-sovereign monarchs 12923: 12775: 12748: 12732:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.447 12688: 12585: 12562: 12541: 12519: 12492: 12450: 12431: 12127:The Religious Question in Modern China 11861:A New History of Christianity in China 11785: 11772: 11665:from the original on 20 September 2012 11398: 11386: 10922: 10906: 10890: 10874: 10858: 10842: 10778: 10762: 10610: 10598: 10523: 10466: 10450: 10438: 10385: 10214: 9879: 9867: 9698: 9665: 9629: 9533: 9455: 9400: 9388: 9340: 9328: 9316: 9304: 9292: 8911: 8876: 8844: 8772: 8674: 8412:, pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14 and 24 n. 4. 7978: 6773: 6762: 6751: 6645: 6634: 6623: 6569: 5942: 4831:Empress Dowager Cixi (Oil painting by 4482:View of the Canton River, showing the 4451:) and gave monopoly trading rights to 3671:Manchu cavalry charging Ming infantry 1439: 1387: 1232: 1159: 41:, the first dynasty of imperial China. 17604: 17580:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions 16821:Principles of the Constitution (1908) 16193: 14869: 14585: 13091: 13026:China's Population: Readings and Maps 12798:; Fairbank, John King, eds. (1954) . 12606:from the original on 14 February 2022 12471: 12319:from the original on 26 November 2015 12156: 12130:. Chicago: Chicago University Press. 12104: 12024: 12003: 11951: 11580:from the original on 14 February 2022 11533:from the original on 20 December 2012 11501:. Harvard University Press. pp. 11361: 10975:from the original on 14 February 2022 10830: 10818: 10806: 9829:. Taylor & Francis. p. 272. 9585:. V&R unipress GmbH. p. 97. 9578: 9521: 9509: 9190: 9158:. Taylor & Francis. p. 124. 8971: 8959: 8653: 8572: 8520: 8421: 8158: 8108: 7481:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions 7429:Military history of China before 1912 7374:Foreign relations of the Qing dynasty 6795: 6784: 6740: 6689: 6612: 6601: 6590: 6581: 6079:Religion in China § Qing dynasty 6030: 3863:province and executed in early 1662. 3847:and rebels. The last Ming pretender, 3152:until 1683. As a Manchu emperor, the 16801:Ministry of Posts and Communications 13036:University of Michigan Museum of Art 12965: 12709:from the original on 12 January 2021 12669: 12637: 12619:Reynolds, Douglas Robertson (1993). 12497:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 11991:from the original on 12 January 2021 11935:The Wobbling Pivot: China since 1800 11899:from the original on 12 January 2021 11854: 11527:"Recording the Grandeur of the Qing" 11307: 10745: 10733: 10690: 10413: 10373: 10361: 10349: 10337: 10325: 10292: 10235:from the original on 8 November 2021 10196:from the original on 8 November 2021 10186:"China's narrative of Han expansion" 10100:from the original on 8 November 2021 10047: 10032: 10020: 9722: 9364: 9272:. Wisdom Publications. p. 185. 9197:Saksaha: A Journal of Manchu Studies 9131:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 278. 9124: 9089:from the original on 4 November 2021 9060: 8448: 8409: 8344: 8279: 8267: 8249: 7942: 7404:List of emperors of the Qing dynasty 6729: 6718: 6709: 6700: 6678: 6667: 6656: 6220:mourning, funeral, burial, practices 5589:adding citations to reliable sources 5560: 5420:(in which tasks it largely replaced 5200:, with some positions also given to 5184:The early Qing emperors adopted the 4750:French invasion of Taiwan was halted 4145:, who had conquered Taiwan from the 4074:portrayed the image of himself as a 3235:, granting them trading privileges, 447:• 1644–1661 (first in Beijing) 19523:Former countries in Chinese history 17549:History of Qing (People's Republic) 12890:from the original on 19 August 2020 12672:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing 12419:from the original on 31 August 2020 12198: 11567: 10542:from the original on 24 August 2015 10274:from the original on 2 October 2022 10157: 9849: 9734: 9653: 9545: 9376: 9352: 8995:This event was recorded by Italian 8310:Manchuria Under Japanese Domination 7384:International relations (1814–1919) 7245:Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio 7148:Traditional learning and literature 6969: 6834:, Chinese merchant and member of a 6179: 5124:to restore the Qing dynasty led by 3231:forced the Qing government to sign 24: 17266:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor 16635:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 16628:1909 Provincial Assembly elections 16508:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874) 16332:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 14634:List of current sovereign monarchs 13032:Collection: "Manchu, Qing Dynasty" 12825:. Harvard University Asia Center. 12780:(3rd ed.). New York: Norton. 12758:(1st ed.). New York: Norton. 12548:. University of California Press. 12527:. University of California Press. 12269: 12257:from the original on 15 April 2021 12175: 12092:from the original on 1 August 2020 12050:(3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. 12007:Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 11840:. University of California Press. 11803:"Things to Avoid 12: Cliché (戒落套)" 11705: 11314:Journal of Institutional Economics 11186: 10506:from the original on 12 April 2021 10078:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1979.tb01285.x 9979:from the original on 26 March 2020 9919:. London and New York: Macmillan. 9233:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 9048: 9036: 9024: 9012: 8711: 8699: 8632:from the original on 11 March 2021 8593:from the original on 11 March 2021 8184: 8159:Hearn, Maxwell K. (October 2003). 6814:Main polities in continental Asia 5440:region, and even published books. 5412:and the accession of his son, the 5389:, with government bodies like the 4787:, but the pro-Japanese Koreans in 4166:. Kangxi dispatched two armies to 3627:previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty 3427:, as ruled by the Qing before the 3088:most populous country in the world 25: 19569: 17555:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty 17396:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) 17271:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 16423:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war) 13018: 12355:(4th ed.). Pearson Longman. 12144:from the original on 29 July 2020 11813:from the original on 2 April 2015 11718:from the original on 16 June 2020 11474:from the original on 30 June 2020 10714:from the original on 6 April 2017 10531:. In Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (ed.). 9582:A New Modern History of East Asia 9210:10.3998/saksaha.13401746.0012.004 8735:from the original on 27 July 2019 8502:from the original on 9 March 2018 8353:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 82–83. 7455:The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty 6533:barter. Unlike the copper coins, 6121:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 5833:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 4953:celebrating their victory in the 4723:Imperial Maritime Customs Service 4395:At the start of the dynasty, the 4153:, the far eastern outpost of the 3851:, sought refuge with the King of 3350:nor the international community. 3304:fiscal and administrative reforms 3042:and the last imperial dynasty in 17366:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 16682:Articles of Favourable Treatment 16438:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 15152:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 11794: 11766: 11730: 11699: 11677: 11647: 11617: 11592: 11561: 11548: 11519: 11486: 11447: 11404: 11355: 11301: 11250: 11202: 11180: 11038: 11023: 10948: 10684: 10653: 10628: 10554: 10517: 10488: 10247: 10208: 10178: 10151: 10139:from the original on 10 May 2016 10112: 10053: 9991: 9955: 9930: 9909: 9843: 9818: 9793: 9767: 9728: 9671: 9446:. Pearson Hall, 2010, pp. 42–43. 9269:Buddhism Between Tibet and China 8999:Martin Martinius in his account 8245:. Morgan at Scott. pp. 2–3. 8051:from the original on 7 July 2020 7873: 7851: 7797: 7745: 7697: 7645: 7627: 7346: 7332: 7160:, but scholars in the school of 7089:also gained great popularity in 6576: 6262:Christianity, Judaism, and Islam 6246:, which drew on Daoism, and the 6200:local, popular, or folk religion 6019: 5565: 5140:there in 1932, with Puyi as its 4496:growing Chinese demand for opium 4439:and on the islands that are now 4201:(r. 1723–1735) and his son, the 3985:The sixty-one year reign of the 3419:" for the lands they ruled—i.e. 3070:. The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty 3007: 2587: 1632: 1016: 996: 982: 968: 954: 929: 915: 901: 887: 178: 139: 103: 19493:1912 disestablishments in China 16413:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 16299:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 14629:Imperial, royal and noble ranks 11937:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 11350:Twitchett & Fairbank (1978) 11296:Twitchett & Fairbank (1978) 11284:Twitchett & Fairbank (1978) 10533:The Spirits of Chinese Religion 9572: 9551: 9491:from the original on 3 May 2015 9473: 9436: 9406: 9259: 9224: 9184: 9172: 9145: 9118: 9101: 9066: 8989: 8747: 8717: 8684: 8659: 8605: 8566: 8484: 8415: 8379: 8367:from the original on 8 May 2021 8338: 8301: 8273: 8234: 8212: 8178: 8152: 8127: 8102: 8013:International Studies Quarterly 7607: 7594: 7255:Six Chapters of a Floating Life 6172:at a shamanic shrine (tangse). 5815:", and established the post of 5742:mountains, also known today as 5576:needs additional citations for 5085:. After taking the position of 4764:also established a short-lived 4100:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 3965:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 3531:For a chronological guide, see 3146:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 2754:Medieval to Early Modern period 1479: 1465: 1438: 1424: 1410: 1272: 1258: 1231: 1217: 1203: 1182: 17067:Guest House of Imperial Envoys 16357:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 14611: 12924:Wright, Mary Clabaugh (1957). 12842:The Cambridge history of China 12029:. Cambridge University Press. 11971:Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. (2007). 11952:Daily, Christopher A. (2013). 11912:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1997). 11836:Bartlett, Beatrice S. (1991). 11689:The Lingnan School of Painting 11661:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 9735:Zhu, Jianfei (2 August 2004). 8759: 8349:. In Weststeijn, Thijs (ed.). 8191:. Cambridge University Press. 8165:The Metropolitan Museum of Art 8063: 7885: 7867: 7862: 7858: 7813: 7808: 7804: 7761: 7756: 7752: 7709: 7661: 7656: 7652: 7639: 7581: 7545: 7510: 7498: 7311:entered everyday life. Yuan's 5972: 5920: 5912: 5894: 5842:Population growth and mobility 5162:Government of the Qing dynasty 5130:Japanese concession in Tianjin 4887:" in 1898, which included the 4671:imperial hunting lodge at Rehe 4577:province, and established the 4275: 4214: 4125:. The Kangxi Emperor expelled 4017:, however, were unsuccessful. 3935: 3925: 3778:and Hong Taiji's half brother 3755:Claiming the Mandate of Heaven 3494: 3484: 3461: 3456: 3445: 3440: 3403: 3389: 3379: 3330:on 10 October 1911 led to the 3283:(1835–1908) turned it back in 2491:Science and technology history 1550: 1386: 1372: 1358: 1344: 1330: 1295: 1158: 1144: 1128: 1114: 1100: 1070: 173: 128: 13: 1: 17501:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank 17276:Islam during the Qing dynasty 17132:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty) 16816:Provincial military commander 16806:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 16791:Imperial Household Department 16618:Preparative Constitutionalism 16322:Sino-Russian border conflicts 12305:. Columbia University Press. 12109:. Stanford University Press. 12078:. Stanford University Press. 11801:Yuan Mei (5 September 2014). 11710:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). 11211:5000 years of Chinese history 11006:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 10994:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 10943:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 10483:Goossaert & Palmer (2011) 8111:Manchuria – A Concise History 7922: 7618:means 'central' or 'middle', 7389:Islam during the Qing dynasty 7379:Imperial Chinese harem system 6922:, as well as technologies in 6815: 6483:overtook China economically. 5837:Islam during the Qing dynasty 5782:era, taking advantage of the 5667:) operating under a prefect ( 5645:provincial military commander 5499: 5406:Imperial Household Department 5155: 4883:. The occupation prompted a " 4785:Chinese concession of Incheon 3708:after the defeat of the last 3679: 3604:Romance of the Three Kingdoms 3585:people, which they were not. 3046:. The dynasty, proclaimed in 2840:Sino-Russian border conflicts 1861: 1820: 1796: 1773: 1749: 1690: 19488:1644 establishments in China 17260:Researches on Manchu Origins 16665:Mongolian Revolution of 1911 16275:Transition from Ming to Qing 16265:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 14644:List of monarchy referendums 13070:Dynasties in Chinese history 13052:Virginia Museum of Fine Arts 12819:Torbert, Preston M. (1977). 12586:Rhoads, Edward J.M. (2000). 12457:. Harvard University Press. 12199:Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1990). 11165:, pp. 572–573, 599–600. 10955:Fairbank, John King (2006), 10601:, pp. 231–236, 242–243. 10561:Harrison, Henrietta (2001). 10254:Matsuzato, Kimitaka (2016). 10060:Edmonds, Richard L. (1979). 9420:(in Chinese). Archived from 8308:Yamamuro, Shin'ichi (2006). 8241:Broomhall, Marshall (1907). 7927: 7620: 7614: 7578:; primary capital afterwards 7309:New World crops and products 7023: 6523:creating a large, favorable 6444:(Chefoo) in the Qing dynasty 6280:Protestant missions in China 6174:Practices in Manchu families 6115:Manchu and imperial religion 5898:), the Military Governor of 5819:to oversee these provinces. 5168:Military of the Qing dynasty 5018:a constitution to be drafted 5016:in 1905. The court directed 4985:Reform, revolution, collapse 4901:French lease of Guangzhouwan 4889:German lease of Jiaozhou Bay 4799:and Li Hongzhang signed the 4486:in the background, 1850–1855 4266:Lord Macartney saluting the 4109:Emperor with Manchu army in 4040:(along with titles like the 3761:Transition from Ming to Qing 3538: 3533:Timeline of the Qing dynasty 3474: 3450: 3298:invaded China and imposed a 3084:426 million citizens in 1907 37:Not to be confused with the 7: 17160:Changzhou School of Thought 16670:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang 16645:Railway Protection Movement 16623:1909 Parliamentary election 16608:British expedition to Tibet 16518:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang 16478:Self-Strengthening Movement 16453:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856) 13117: 12778:The Search for Modern China 12755:The Search for Modern China 12726:. Oxford University Press. 12299:Millward, James A. (2007). 11882:Bandits in Republican China 11209:Li, Bo; Zheng, Yin (2001), 11034:. Chinese University Press. 10524:Teiser, Stephen F. (1996). 9915:Davidson, James W. (1903). 8545:Ebrey & Walthall (2013) 8113:. Bloomsbury. p. 155. 7476:Timeline of Chinese history 7409:List of rebellions in China 7325: 7210:) for its association with 7104:Landscape by Wang Gai, 1694 6951:Self-Strengthening Movement 6424:Economy of the Qing dynasty 6149:at their summer retreat in 6072: 5655:). Below the province were 5307:Central government agencies 5206:imperial examination system 5146:invasion of Northeast China 4940:stepped in to call them off 4715:Self-Strengthening Movement 3914:and expansion of the empire 3801:. The last Ming ruler, the 3527:History of the Qing dynasty 3509:, or transliterated as the 3480:conquered Dzungaria in 1759 3257:Self-Strengthening Movement 3221:Confucian cultural projects 3050:in 1636, seized control of 2616:Ancient to Classical period 10: 19574: 17560:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 16448:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 16387:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806) 16377:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa 16347:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736) 12873:The Fall of Imperial China 12771:Online at Internet Archive 12653:Cambridge University Press 12563:Reilly, Thomas H. (2004). 12472:Platt, Stephen R. (2012). 12382:Cambridge University Press 12282:Cambridge University Press 11879:Billingsley, Phil (1988). 11828: 10305:Naquin & Rawski (1987) 10221:. UBC Press. p. 109. 10158:Lee, Robert H. G. (1970). 10119:Richards, John F. (2003). 9800:Albert H. Y. Chen (2021). 9741:. Routledge. p. 133. 9711:Jackson & Hugus (1999) 9468:Têng & Fairbank (1954) 9266:Kapstein, Matthew (2014). 8801:Naquin & Rawski (1987) 8573:Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). 8451:, pp. 4, 7–10, 12–14. 8436:10.1163/146481707793646629 8220:"Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)" 8135:"Qing dynasty (1644–1911)" 7896: 7895: 7861:; simplified Chinese: 7824: 7823: 7807:; simplified Chinese: 7772: 7771: 7755:; simplified Chinese: 7720: 7719: 7672: 7671: 7655:; simplified Chinese: 7557: 7556: 7521: 7520: 7444:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia 7439:Qing emperors' family tree 7394:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 7370:Costumes of Qing officials 7291: 7214:, developmental trends of 7208:poetry of the Ming dynasty 7126:early years of the dynasty 6973: 6903: 6862: 6473:critiqued by some scholars 6421: 6417: 6265: 6183: 6118: 6076: 6023: 5976: 5826: 5822: 5557:Territorial administration 5487: 5481: 5466:The Eighteen Provinces of 5165: 5159: 5152:, Manchukuo fell in 1945. 4957:, within the walls of the 4949:The foreign armies of the 4925:, and Japan dividing China 4600:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 4457:British East India Company 3962: 3921:Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang 3758: 3588: 3542: 3530: 3524: 3520: 3466: 3423:and the adjacent parts of 3370:Hong Taiji proclaimed the 3363: 3357: 1572: 73: 72: 36: 29: 19533:Former monarchies of Asia 19394: 19185: 19084: 18987: 18788: 18599: 18244: 18143: 17786: 17643: 17570:Names of the Qing dynasty 17513: 17481: 17438: 17431: 17300: 17218:Manchu Han Imperial Feast 17145: 17077: 16998: 16903: 16699: 16590: 16548:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) 16543:Gongche Shangshu movement 16488:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 16400: 16337:Chinese Rites controversy 16307: 16237: 16228: 16056: 15965: 15679: 15442: 15376: 15188: 15179: 15075: 15057: 14989: 14904: 14862: 14794: 14708: 14652: 14619: 14553: 14505: 14022: 13426: 13125: 13076: 13067: 13059: 12495:Imperial China, 1350–1900 12493:Porter, Jonathan (2016). 12451:Perdue, Peter C. (2005). 12405:. Yale University Press. 12176:Ho, David Dahpon (2011). 12072:Elliott, Mark C. (2001). 11790:. New York: W. W. Norton. 11786:Spence, Jonathan (1992). 11425:10.1017/S0026749X00005333 11326:10.1017/S1744137420000430 11059:10.1891/1062-8061.4.1.129 10642:27 September 2011 at the 10634:Richard J. Smith (2007). 9854:. 社会科学文献出版社. p. 530. 9775:"The Rise of the Manchus" 9458:, pp. 112, 114, 116. 7880: 7857:traditional Chinese: 7803:traditional Chinese: 7751:traditional Chinese: 7704: 7651:traditional Chinese: 7634: 7624:means 'nation' or 'state' 7602:Names of the Qing dynasty 7505: 7424:Manchuria under Qing rule 7319:Manchu–Han Imperial Feast 7187:period on display at the 6495: 6351:London Missionary Society 6296:Medical missions in China 6272:Chinese Rites controversy 5813:Three Northeast Provinces 5619:The Qing organization of 5219:and established official 5213:tributary system of China 4893:Russian lease of Liaodong 4758:Treaty of Tientsin (1885) 4616:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 4453:private Chinese merchants 4352:, where the provinces of 4244:Qing conquest of Xinjiang 3912:Qing conquest of the Ming 3545:Manchuria under Ming rule 3499: 3489: 3408: 3394: 3384: 3360:Names of the Qing dynasty 3243:under their control. The 3040:imperial dynasty of China 2912:Kwantung Leased Territory 2365: 2287: 2167: 2100: 2030: 1904: 1607: 1597: 1587: 1566: 1561: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1509: 1502: 1495: 1490: 1472: 1455: 1448: 1431: 1417: 1403: 1396: 1379: 1365: 1351: 1337: 1323: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1288: 1283: 1265: 1248: 1241: 1224: 1210: 1196: 1189: 1175: 1168: 1151: 1137: 1121: 1107: 1093: 1086: 1081: 1077: 1063: 1058: 1054: 1049: 866: 840: 832: 824: 816: 808: 803: 799: 784: 771: 758: 745: 732: 719: 704: 691: 678: 665: 652: 635: 620: 607: 603: 593: 564: 560: 548: 533: 529: 519: 515: 500: 487: 483: 473: 469: 457: 445: 433: 429: 419: 409: 397: 306: 256: 233: 225: 198: 186: 167: 119: 100: 95: 57: 48: 17491:Great Qing Treasure Note 17311:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 17021:Administrative divisions 16838:Administrative divisions 16766:Flag of the Qing dynasty 14781:Self-proclaimed monarchy 13046:24 November 2020 at the 12987:10.1177/0097700405282349 12353:East Asia: A New History 12351:Murphey, Rhoads (2007). 12332:Mühlhahn, Klaus (2019). 12240:China: A Religious State 12201:The rise of modern China 12157:Hevia, James L. (2003). 12004:Ebrey, Patricia (1993). 11655:"Qing Dynasty, Painting" 10697:Imperial China, 900–1800 10190:South China Morning Post 9579:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017). 9191:Onuma, Takahiro (2014). 8386:Woolley, Nathan (2016), 7967:Söderblom Saarela (2021) 7492: 7486:Xinjiang under Qing rule 7434:Mongolia under Qing rule 7419:List of Chinese monarchs 7265:Dream of the Red Chamber 7235:Three Hundred Tang Poems 7216:Classical Chinese poetry 7172:, developed a school of 7079:Chinese export porcelain 6958:farmlands, and obstruct 6040:Chen Clan Ancestral Hall 5962:four occupational groups 5927:being an older name for 5755:in the 1820s. Likewise, 5458:Administrative divisions 5374:Great Qing Treasure Note 5073:on 1 January 1912, with 4885:scramble for concessions 4579:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 4461:Dutch East India Company 4252:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 4058:"), such as in the 1856 3475:Dulimbai gurun-i niyalma 3353: 3334:. The abdication of the 3128:to the Qing army, which 2760:Eastern Turkic Khaganate 1516: 459:• 1908–1912 (last) 17087:Chengde Mountain Resort 16888:Three Eastern Provinces 16538:First Sino-Japanese War 16513:Northern Chinese Famine 16372:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 16270:Qing invasion of Joseon 15049:Vatican City (Holy See) 12903:—— (1985). 12776:—— (2012). 12670:—— (2009). 12542:—— (1998). 12237:Lagerwey, John (2010). 12025:—— (2010). 11933:—— (2010). 11599:Beevers, David (2009). 11493:Benjamin Elman (2005). 11245:Myers & Wang (2002) 11233:Myers & Wang (2002) 11175:Myers & Wang (2002) 11163:Myers & Wang (2002) 11151:Myers & Wang (2002) 11139:Myers & Wang (2002) 11127:Myers & Wang (2002) 11100:Myers & Wang (2002) 11088:Myers & Wang (2002) 11030:Gerald H. Choa (1990). 10502:, Columbia University, 9485:Encyclopedia Britannica 8729:Encyclopedia Britannica 8496:Encyclopedia Britannica 8026:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 7589:constitutional monarchy 7132:and the individualists 5551:First Sino-Japanese War 5387:constitutional monarchy 5192:but split rule between 5180:A Qing dynasty mandarin 5134:invaded Northeast China 5048:constitutional monarchy 4805:First Sino-Japanese War 4324:Commerce on the water, 4208:After the death of the 3615:unify the nearby tribes 3399:Chinese zodiacal system 3263:in 1895 led to loss of 3261:First Sino-Japanese War 3229:Western colonial powers 709:Westernization Movement 234:Official languages 17468:Great Qing Copper Coin 17356:Convention of Tientsin 17289:Annotated Bibliography 17237:Qing official headwear 16280:Battle of Shanhai Pass 15331:Islands of Refreshment 14761:Legitimacy (political) 12689:Sneath, David (2007). 12432:Norman, Jerry (1988). 11745:Berkshire Encyclopedia 11738:"Ming and Qing Novels" 11260:Atlas of world history 11257:Haywood, John (1997). 11193:Tianjin Social Science 11047:Nursing History Review 9152:Dunnell, Ruth (2004). 9128:Tibet Past and Present 9125:Bell, Charles (1992). 8938:, p. 648, n. 183. 8345:Dong, Shaoxin (2020). 8185:Po, Ronald C. (2018). 8070:王堅強, 陳家華, 王永中 (2018). 7466:Taiwan under Qing rule 7449:Qing official headwear 7191: 7105: 7041: 7000: 6900:Science and technology 6839: 6515: 6445: 6433: 6216:local gods and spirits 6195: 6134: 6043: 6004: 5728:Imperial commissioners 5514: 5506: 5479: 5471: 5395:parliamentary election 5377: 5342: 5181: 5148:to fight Japan by the 5132:. The Empire of Japan 5105: 5095:Empress Dowager Longyu 5093:, with the support of 5035: 5004: 4996: 4962: 4926: 4836: 4801:Convention of Tientsin 4647: 4626: 4487: 4392: 4335: 4270: 4247: 4194: 4183:Putuo Zongcheng Temple 4114: 3982: 3915: 3887:in the Chinese style. 3879: 3830:battle on May 27, 1644 3770: 3738: 3676: 3645: 3308:the examination system 3290:In 1900 anti-foreign " 3060:Chinese historiography 2917:Nationalist government 1024:This article contains 19513:20th century in China 19508:19th century in China 19503:18th century in China 19498:17th century in China 17542:Draft History of Qing 17401:Treaty of Shimonoseki 17182:performance criticism 16786:Imperial Commissioner 16776:Great Qing Legal Code 16575:Eight-Nation Alliance 16558:Third plague pandemic 16468:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 16392:White Lotus Rebellion 15142:Saint Kitts and Nevis 14731:Criticism of monarchy 14721:Abolition of monarchy 14530:Medieval great powers 13041:Qing Dynasty resource 12868:Wakeman, Frederic Jr. 12105:Faure, David (2007). 11362:Taizu, Zhang (2023). 10215:Sewell, Bill (2019). 10062:"The Willow Palisade" 9825:David Atwill (2021). 9097:– via Academia. 7600:For other names, see 7471:Tibet under Qing rule 7285:Flowers in the Mirror 7182: 7103: 7031: 6997:Pine, Plum and Cranes 6995: 6830: 6713:TSARDOM OF RUSSIA 6503: 6440:A postage stamp from 6439: 6431: 6276:Christianity in China 6268:Jesuit China missions 6266:Further information: 6252:White Lotus Rebellion 6193: 6186:Chinese folk religion 6184:Further information: 6128: 6119:Further information: 6077:Further information: 6038: 6002: 5935:(Chinese) instead of 5691:or governor-general ( 5541:, originally part of 5512: 5497: 5488:Further information: 5477: 5465: 5368: 5338: 5179: 5103: 5031: 5014:imperial examinations 5002: 4992: 4971:Eight-Nation Alliance 4951:Eight-Nation Alliance 4948: 4909: 4853:Empress Dowager Ci'an 4830: 4809:Treaty of Shimonoseki 4683:Convention of Beijing 4643: 4624: 4563:anti-Manchu sentiment 4481: 4472:Lord George Macartney 4386: 4373:White Lotus Rebellion 4323: 4265: 4238:Campaign against the 4237: 4181: 4108: 3976: 3909: 3877: 3839:was invested as the " 3768: 3726: 3670: 3635: 3543:Further information: 3215:(1735–1796), who led 3186:extending its control 3106:unified Jurchen clans 3104:of the Ming dynasty, 3066:and succeeded by the 2356:(mainland, 1912–1949) 723:1st Sino-Japanese War 348:Chinese folk religion 32:Qing (disambiguation) 19538:History of Manchuria 17473:Great Qing Gold Coin 17406:Treaty of Tarbagatai 17351:Convention of Peking 17231:Pentaglot Dictionary 17213:Literary inquisition 16923:Ever Victorious Army 16756:Deliberative Council 16660:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 16613:1905 Batang uprising 16553:Hundred Days' Reform 16443:Small Swords Society 14974:United Arab Emirates 14540:European colonialism 14525:Ancient great powers 12655:. pp. 473–562. 12643:Peterson, Willard J. 12384:. pp. 563–647. 12372:Peterson, Willard J. 12272:Peterson, Willard J. 11635:on 27 September 2012 11413:Modern Asian Studies 11308:Peng, Linan (2021). 11247:, pp. 587, 590. 11177:, pp. 606, 609. 11141:, pp. 593, 595. 11090:, pp. 564, 566. 10958:China: A New History 10589:, pp. 235, 241. 8109:Gamsa, Mark (2020). 8074:. 寧波出版社. p. 8. 7222:, and for poetry by 7174:practical statecraft 7018:New Culture Movement 6999:, 1759, by Shen Quan 6955:railroads into China 6810:class=notpageimage| 6244:Way of Former Heaven 5967:imperial examination 5786:in northwest China, 5585:improve this article 5498:The Qing dynasty in 5221:diplomatic relations 5044:Zaifeng, Prince Chun 5042:, the oldest son of 5033:Zaifeng, Prince Chun 5022:provincial elections 4931:Hundred Days' Reform 4841:Empress Dowager Cixi 4742:Cochinchina Campaign 4522:, the first of the " 4307:literary inquisition 4060:Treaty of Thapathali 3816:, a key pass of the 3625:in reference to the 3429:Ming–Qing transition 3281:Empress Dowager Cixi 3277:Hundred Days' Reform 3247:(1850–1864) and the 3098:House of Aisin-Gioro 2902:Far Eastern Republic 2672:Yan (Three Kingdoms) 2647:Yan (Warring States) 573:Deliberative Council 19460: / 17526:Anti-Qing sentiment 17376:Treaty of the Bogue 17316:Treaty of Nerchinsk 17248:Complete Tang Poems 16928:Green Standard Army 16811:Provincial governor 16781:Imperial Clan Court 16761:Diplomatic missions 16736:Consultative Bureau 16483:Tongzhi Restoration 16362:Afaqi Khoja revolts 16342:Ten Great Campaigns 16250:Jurchen unification 16170:Trinidad and Tobago 16057:Commonwealth realms 15942:United Baltic Duchy 15085:Antigua and Barbuda 15077:Commonwealth realms 14771:Order of succession 14535:Modern great powers 12966:Zhao, Gang (2006). 12943:Xu Xiaoman (2005). 12750:Spence, Jonathan D. 12478:. Alfred A. Knopf. 12222:. Ten Speed Press. 11706:Ng, On-cho (2019). 11568:Nilsson, Jan-Erik. 11454:Jim Harter (2005). 11401:, pp. 237–238. 11389:, pp. 229–238. 11187:Xu, Suming (2005), 10833:, pp. 188–189. 10625:, pp. 237–238. 10416:, pp. 116–117. 10376:, pp. 114–116. 10352:, pp. 112–113. 10340:, pp. 109–110. 10006:. 1906 – via 9972:. 19 January 1906. 9882:, pp. 179–180. 9781:on 18 December 2008 9713:, pp. 134–135. 9656:, pp. 412–416. 9632:, pp. 223–225. 9548:, pp. 328–330. 9536:, pp. 196–221. 9442:Schoppa, R. Keith. 9331:, pp. 97, 101. 9178:Alexander Golikov, 8950:, pp. 651–680. 8926:, pp. 646–650. 8656:, pp. 220–224. 8335:, pp. 212–213. 8280:Deng, Kent (2015). 7363:Anti-Qing sentiment 7229:Complete Tang Poems 7220:vernacular language 7162:evidential learning 7120:who considered the 6940:Jesuit missionaries 6570:Trade with the West 6458:production boomed. 6349:(1782–1834) of the 6302:Abrahamic religions 6208:ancestor veneration 6048:patrilineal kinship 6042:(陈家祠) built in 1894 5943:Statuses in society 5917:traditional Chinese 5804:an expedition force 5726:under its control. 4961:on 28 November 1900 4822:Triple Intervention 4772:(1883–1886) in the 4703:Tongzhi Restoration 4421:Treaty of Nerchinsk 4369:White Lotus Society 4281:Ten Great Campaigns 4159:Treaty of Nerchinsk 4076:Buddhist sage ruler 3953:Green Standard Army 3931:prince of the blood 3878:Qing Empire in 1636 3549:Jurchen unification 3346:(1912–1928) of the 3253:Tongzhi Restoration 3237:extraterritoriality 3217:Ten Great Campaigns 3130:defeated the rebels 2810:Jurchen Jin dynasty 2769:Andong Protectorate 937:Kingdom of Tungning 656:Ten Great Campaigns 19518:Dynasties of China 17411:Treaty of Tientsin 17122:Western Qing tombs 17117:Eastern Qing tombs 16943:Peking Field Force 16687:Manchu Restoration 16580:Declaration of war 16533:Jindandao incident 16352:Lhasa riot of 1750 11336:– via JSTOR. 10692:Mote, Frederick W. 10666:8 May 2017 at the 9970:The New York Times 9963:"<untitled>" 9687:Billingsley (1988) 9403:, pp. 83, 86. 8003:(September 1997). 7847:qouhai nashvn-i ba 7839:coohai nashūn i ba 7192: 7106: 7042: 7001: 6840: 6516: 6475:as a cause of the 6446: 6434: 6372:In the late 1840s 6196: 6194:Patriarchal family 6135: 6044: 6031:Family and kinship 6005: 5909:simplified Chinese 5515: 5507: 5480: 5478:Qing China in 1832 5472: 5393:established and a 5378: 5376:banknote from 1859 5343: 5314:state examinations 5182: 5106: 5036: 5005: 5003:Qing China in 1911 4997: 4963: 4927: 4837: 4818:Liaodong Peninsula 4664:Treaty of Tientsin 4648: 4645:Yixin, Prince Gong 4627: 4618:in the northwest. 4516:British Royal Navy 4488: 4484:Thirteen Factories 4468:diplomatic mission 4393: 4391:(E. Duncan) (1843) 4336: 4271: 4248: 4197:The reigns of the 4195: 4115: 4003:examination system 3983: 3916: 3880: 3791:peasant rebellions 3771: 3769:Dorgon (1612–1650) 3739: 3690:Portuguese cannons 3677: 3646: 3344:Beiyang government 3340:Manchu Restoration 3300:punitive indemnity 3184:in Vietnam, while 3160:ruler, patronised 3140:. Resistance from 3030:), officially the 2892:Beiyang government 2598:Prehistoric period 2371: 2181:Five Dynasties and 2173: 2108:Southern dynasties 2036: 1935:Chu–Han Contention 1927:(206 BCE – 220 CE) 1497:Mongolian Cyrillic 978:Uryankhay Republic 642:Mongolia, Xinjiang 640:Conquest of Tibet, 258:Ethnic groups 19528:Former monarchies 19443: 19442: 18145:Yongzheng Emperor 17598: 17597: 17509: 17508: 17421:Treaty of Whampoa 17416:Treaty of Wanghia 17391:Treaty of Nanking 17361:Li–Lobanov Treaty 17336:Chefoo Convention 17331:Burlingame Treaty 17202:Kangxi Dictionary 17107:Old Summer Palace 16938:Firearm Battalion 16741:Cup of Solid Gold 16695: 16694: 16640:Manchurian plague 16603:Late Qing reforms 16594:(1901–1912) 16528:Sikkim expedition 16458:Panthay Rebellion 16428:Taiping Rebellion 16404:(1801–1900) 16382:Sino-Nepalese War 16327:Dzungar–Qing Wars 16313:(1683–1799) 16241:(1616–1683) 16187: 16186: 16183: 16182: 15872:Piedmont-Sardinia 15624:Sip Song Chau Tai 15434:Thirteen Colonies 15175: 15174: 14579: 14578: 14501: 14500: 14466:Polish–Lithuanian 13641:Gurjara-Pratihara 13086: 13085: 13080:Republic of China 13077:Succeeded by 13012:on 25 March 2014. 12935:978-0-804-70475-5 12916:978-0-520-04804-1 12883:978-0-02-933680-9 12851:978-0-521-24327-8 12832:978-0-674-12761-6 12811:978-0-674-12025-9 12787:978-0-393-93451-9 12765:978-0-393-30780-1 12741:978-0-19-027772-7 12702:978-0-231-51167-4 12681:978-0-674-03612-3 12662:978-0-521-24334-6 12630:978-0-674-11660-3 12555:978-0-520-21289-3 12534:978-0-520-06930-5 12521:Rawski, Evelyn S. 12504:978-1-442-22293-9 12485:978-0-307-27173-0 12464:978-0-674-01684-2 12412:978-0-300-04602-1 12391:978-0-521-24334-6 12362:978-0-321-42141-8 12343:978-0-674-73735-8 12312:978-0-231-13924-3 12291:978-0-521-24334-6 12284:. pp. 9–72. 12229:978-1-580-08020-0 12210:978-0-19-505867-3 12116:978-0-8047-5318-0 12085:978-0-8047-4684-7 12057:978-1-285-52867-0 12036:978-0-521-12433-1 12017:978-0-02-908752-7 11984:978-1-135-78955-8 11944:978-1-4051-6079-7 11925:978-1-55786-560-1 11892:978-0-804-71406-8 11847:978-0-520-06591-8 11708:"Qing Philosophy" 11610:978-0-948723-71-1 11352:, pp. 63–66. 11298:, pp. 61–62. 11270:978-0-7607-0687-9 11220:978-7-204-04420-7 11008:, pp. 40–41. 10996:, pp. 38–40. 10945:, pp. 38–39. 10748:, pp. 25–26. 10736:, pp. 21–23. 10402:Xu Xiaoman (2005) 10267:978-1-4985-3705-6 10228:978-0-7748-3655-5 10171:978-0-674-54775-9 10132:978-0-520-23075-0 10035:, pp. 91–92. 9748:978-1-134-36620-0 9689:, pp. 56–59. 9668:, p. 121 ff. 9620:, pp. 35–36. 9424:on 5 January 2009 9391:, pp. 80–83. 9379:, pp. 35–37. 9319:, pp. 62–66. 9295:, pp. 48–51. 9063:, pp. 32–33. 9001:Bellum Tartaricum 8702:, pp. 60–62. 8270:, pp. 14–15. 7183:Jade book of the 7054:Kangxi Dictionary 6363:Treaty of Nanjing 6336:Yongzheng Emperor 6256:Taiping Rebellion 6218:. Rites included 6105:county magistrate 6093:Mandate of Heaven 6056:Chinese character 5871:Southeastern Asia 5849:Taiping Rebellion 5800:Xinhai Revolution 5774:and protector of 5685:county magistrate 5617: 5616: 5609: 5383:absolute monarchy 5355:Yongzheng Emperor 5318:Grand Secretariat 5083:Battle of Yangxia 5067:Republic of China 5010:Late Qing reforms 4873:Shandong province 4770:Zheltuga Republic 4754:Battle of Bang Bo 4738:Tientsin Massacre 4675:Old Summer Palace 4608:Panthay Rebellion 4559:Taiping Rebellion 4520:Treaty of Nanjing 4327:Prosperous Suzhou 4199:Yongzheng Emperor 4155:Tsardom of Russia 4056:Emperor Manjushri 4007:Kangxi Dictionary 3892:haircutting order 3826:Chongzhen Emperor 3803:Chongzhen Emperor 3728:Sura han ni chiha 3623:Later Jin dynasty 3434:After conquering 3376:Chinese character 3348:Republic of China 3332:Xinhai Revolution 3269:cession of Taiwan 3245:Taiping Rebellion 3150:complete conquest 3142:Ming rump regimes 3110:Later Jin dynasty 3068:Republic of China 3056:Xinhai Revolution 2999: 2998: 2941:Chinese Civil War 2937:Liaoshen Campaign 2927:Japanese invasion 2882:Russian invasions 2742:Göktürk Khaganate 2604:Liao civilization 2561: 2560: 2518:Transport history 2444:Education history 2416: 2415: 2411: 2410: 2397:Republic of China 2379:People's Republic 2352:Republic of China 2331: 2330: 2280: 2279: 2275: 2274: 2160: 2159: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2087: 2024: 2023: 1857:Spring and Autumn 1720:Liao civilization 1611: 1610: 1557: 1556: 1486: 1485: 1405:Yale Romanization 1318:Standard Mandarin 1279: 1278: 1198:Yale Romanization 1088:Standard Mandarin 1032:rendering support 1012: 1011: 1008: 1007: 1004: 1003: 950:Republic of China 942: 941: 775:Xinhai Revolution 762:Late Qing reforms 682:Taiping Rebellion 550:• 1911–1912 502:• 1908–1911 489:• 1643–1650 414:Absolute monarchy 157: 135:Cup of Solid Gold 16:(Redirected from 19565: 19475: 19474: 19472: 19471: 19470: 19465: 19464:39.92°N 116.39°E 19461: 19458: 19457: 19456: 19453: 19396:Xuantong Emperor 18989:Xianfeng Emperor 18790:Daoguang Emperor 18246:Qianlong Emperor 17625: 17618: 17611: 17602: 17601: 17575:New Qing History 17458:Qianlong Tongbao 17436: 17435: 17381:Treaty of Canton 17321:Unequal treaties 17127:Fuling Mausoleum 16726:Advisory Council 16655:Wuchang Uprising 16595: 16498:Tianjin Massacre 16463:Second Opium War 16405: 16367:Sino-Burmese War 16314: 16292:Battle of Penghu 16260:Seven Grievances 16242: 16235: 16234: 16214: 16207: 16200: 16191: 16190: 16111:Irish Free State 15877:Poland–Lithuania 15186: 15185: 15137:Papua New Guinea 14867: 14866: 14606: 14599: 14592: 14583: 14582: 14382: 14381: 14047:Austro-Hungarian 13747:Chagatai Khanate 13112: 13105: 13098: 13089: 13088: 13060:Preceded by 13057: 13056: 13013: 13011: 13005:. Archived from 12972: 12962: 12939: 12920: 12899: 12897: 12895: 12863: 12836: 12815: 12791: 12769: 12745: 12718: 12716: 12714: 12685: 12666: 12639:Rowe, William T. 12634: 12615: 12613: 12611: 12582: 12570: 12559: 12538: 12516: 12489: 12468: 12447: 12428: 12426: 12424: 12395: 12366: 12347: 12328: 12326: 12324: 12295: 12266: 12264: 12262: 12233: 12214: 12195: 12193: 12191: 12172: 12153: 12151: 12149: 12120: 12101: 12099: 12097: 12068: 12066: 12064: 12040: 12021: 12000: 11998: 11996: 11967: 11948: 11929: 11908: 11906: 11904: 11875: 11851: 11823: 11822: 11820: 11818: 11798: 11792: 11791: 11782: 11775:Kwang-chih Chang 11770: 11764: 11763: 11761: 11759: 11753: 11747:. Archived from 11742: 11734: 11728: 11727: 11725: 11723: 11703: 11697: 11696: 11691:. Archived from 11681: 11675: 11674: 11672: 11670: 11651: 11645: 11644: 11642: 11640: 11631:. Archived from 11621: 11615: 11614: 11596: 11590: 11589: 11587: 11585: 11565: 11559: 11552: 11546: 11544:Chinese painting 11542: 11540: 11538: 11523: 11517: 11516: 11500: 11490: 11484: 11483: 11481: 11479: 11451: 11445: 11444: 11408: 11402: 11396: 11390: 11384: 11378: 11377: 11359: 11353: 11347: 11338: 11337: 11305: 11299: 11293: 11287: 11281: 11275: 11274: 11254: 11248: 11242: 11236: 11230: 11224: 11223: 11206: 11200: 11199: 11184: 11178: 11172: 11166: 11160: 11154: 11148: 11142: 11136: 11130: 11124: 11118: 11112: 11103: 11097: 11091: 11085: 11079: 11078: 11042: 11036: 11035: 11027: 11021: 11015: 11009: 11003: 10997: 10991: 10985: 10983: 10982: 10980: 10952: 10946: 10940: 10934: 10920: 10914: 10904: 10898: 10888: 10882: 10872: 10866: 10856: 10850: 10840: 10834: 10828: 10822: 10816: 10810: 10804: 10798: 10792: 10786: 10776: 10770: 10760: 10749: 10743: 10737: 10731: 10725: 10723: 10721: 10719: 10688: 10682: 10676: 10670: 10657: 10651: 10632: 10626: 10620: 10614: 10608: 10602: 10596: 10590: 10584: 10578: 10576: 10558: 10552: 10551: 10549: 10547: 10541: 10530: 10521: 10515: 10514: 10513: 10511: 10492: 10486: 10480: 10474: 10464: 10458: 10448: 10442: 10436: 10417: 10411: 10405: 10399: 10393: 10383: 10377: 10371: 10365: 10359: 10353: 10347: 10341: 10335: 10329: 10323: 10308: 10302: 10296: 10290: 10284: 10283: 10281: 10279: 10251: 10245: 10244: 10242: 10240: 10212: 10206: 10205: 10203: 10201: 10182: 10176: 10175: 10155: 10149: 10148: 10146: 10144: 10116: 10110: 10109: 10107: 10105: 10057: 10051: 10045: 10036: 10030: 10024: 10018: 10012: 10011: 10005: 9995: 9989: 9988: 9986: 9984: 9978: 9967: 9959: 9953: 9943: 9937: 9934: 9928: 9913: 9907: 9901: 9895: 9889: 9883: 9877: 9871: 9865: 9856: 9855: 9847: 9841: 9840: 9822: 9816: 9815: 9797: 9791: 9790: 9788: 9786: 9771: 9765: 9759: 9753: 9752: 9732: 9726: 9720: 9714: 9708: 9702: 9696: 9690: 9684: 9678: 9675: 9669: 9663: 9657: 9651: 9645: 9644:, pp. 5–11. 9639: 9633: 9627: 9621: 9615: 9609: 9603: 9597: 9596: 9576: 9570: 9569: 9567: 9565: 9555: 9549: 9543: 9537: 9531: 9525: 9519: 9513: 9507: 9501: 9500: 9498: 9496: 9477: 9471: 9465: 9459: 9453: 9447: 9440: 9434: 9433: 9431: 9429: 9414:"康乾盛世"的文化專制與文字獄" 9410: 9404: 9398: 9392: 9386: 9380: 9374: 9368: 9362: 9356: 9350: 9344: 9338: 9332: 9326: 9320: 9314: 9308: 9302: 9296: 9290: 9284: 9283: 9263: 9257: 9256: 9228: 9222: 9221: 9219: 9217: 9212: 9188: 9182: 9176: 9170: 9169: 9149: 9143: 9142: 9122: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9105: 9099: 9098: 9096: 9094: 9070: 9064: 9058: 9052: 9046: 9040: 9034: 9028: 9022: 9016: 9010: 9004: 8993: 8987: 8981: 8975: 8969: 8963: 8957: 8951: 8945: 8939: 8933: 8927: 8921: 8915: 8909: 8900: 8890: 8884: 8874: 8868: 8858: 8852: 8842: 8836: 8826: 8820: 8810: 8804: 8798: 8792: 8782: 8776: 8770: 8764: 8763:), cite 200,000. 8762: 8761: 8751: 8745: 8744: 8742: 8740: 8721: 8715: 8709: 8703: 8697: 8691: 8688: 8682: 8672: 8666: 8663: 8657: 8651: 8642: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8609: 8603: 8602: 8600: 8598: 8570: 8564: 8554: 8548: 8542: 8536: 8530: 8524: 8518: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8507: 8488: 8482: 8481: 8461: 8452: 8446: 8440: 8439: 8419: 8413: 8407: 8401: 8400: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8374: 8372: 8342: 8336: 8330: 8324: 8323: 8305: 8299: 8298: 8296: 8294: 8288: 8277: 8271: 8265: 8259: 8256: 8247: 8246: 8238: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8227: 8216: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8205: 8182: 8176: 8175: 8173: 8171: 8156: 8150: 8149: 8147: 8145: 8131: 8125: 8124: 8106: 8100: 8099: 8093: 8085: 8067: 8061: 8060: 8058: 8056: 8050: 8009: 7997: 7986: 7976: 7970: 7964: 7958: 7955: 7946: 7940: 7917: 7900: 7899: 7898: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7871: 7869: 7864: 7860: 7855: 7849: 7832: 7831: 7830: 7815: 7810: 7806: 7801: 7795: 7778: 7777: 7776: 7763: 7758: 7754: 7749: 7743: 7726: 7725: 7724: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7695: 7678: 7677: 7676: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7649: 7643: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7625: 7623: 7617: 7611: 7605: 7598: 7592: 7585: 7579: 7561: 7560: 7559: 7549: 7543: 7525: 7524: 7523: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7356: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7342: 7337: 7336: 7335: 7083:Peking glassware 6970:Arts and culture 6878:board of revenue 6820: 6817: 6804: 6802: 6793: 6791: 6782: 6780: 6771: 6769: 6760: 6758: 6749: 6747: 6738: 6736: 6727: 6725: 6716: 6714: 6707: 6705: 6698: 6696: 6687: 6685: 6676: 6674: 6665: 6663: 6654: 6652: 6643: 6641: 6632: 6630: 6621: 6619: 6610: 6608: 6599: 6597: 6588: 6586: 6580: 6511:3rd year – 1911 6507:: 1 yuan/dollar 6477:Great Divergence 6390:John K. Fairbank 6384: 6379:Taiping Movement 6288:Judaism in China 6180:Popular religion 6170:Chinese New Year 6143:Fifth Dalai Lama 6085:All Under Heaven 6014:scholars' stones 5993:scholar-official 5922: 5914: 5897: 5896: 5772:Tibetan Buddhism 5701:Viceroy of Zhili 5683:, overseen by a 5612: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5592: 5569: 5561: 5504: 5501: 5391:Advisory Council 5362:to the emperor. 5217:sovereign states 5122:abortive attempt 5063:Wuchang Uprising 4955:Battle of Peking 4938:Empress Dowager 4849:Xianfeng Emperor 4660:Xianfeng Emperor 4656:Second Opium War 4552:Hong Kong Island 4524:unequal treaties 4500:Daoguang Emperor 4470:to China led by 4413:tributary system 4278: 4277: 4268:Qianlong Emperor 4220:Palace Memorials 4217: 4216: 4203:Qianlong Emperor 4131:Dzungar–Qing War 4080:Tibetan Buddhism 4072:Qianlong Emperor 4052:Emperor of China 3999:scholar-official 3938: 3937: 3928: 3927: 3650:Seven Grievances 3501: 3496: 3491: 3486: 3477: 3472: 3463: 3458: 3453: 3447: 3442: 3410: 3405: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3336:Xuantong Emperor 3328:Wuchang Uprising 3275:. The ambitious 3259:. Defeat in the 3233:unequal treaties 3213:Qianlong Emperor 3174:tributary system 3166:Tibetan Buddhism 3096:, leader of the 3076:history of China 3024: 3023: 3020: 3019: 3016: 3013: 2991: 2984: 2977: 2960:Russian Far East 2692:Sima Jin dynasty 2591: 2581: 2563: 2562: 2553: 2546: 2539: 2481:Military history 2439:Economic history 2427:Related articles 2404: 2386: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2362: 2357: 2324: 2311: 2298: 2285: 2284: 2268: 2255: 2242: 2223: 2213: 2201: 2188: 2170: 2169: 2165: 2164: 2149: 2139: 2126: 2113: 2098: 2097: 2081: 2076:Sixteen Kingdoms 2059: 2049: 2033: 2032: 2028: 2027: 2017: 1983: 1970: 1960: 1950: 1949:(202 BCE – 9 CE) 1940: 1928: 1915: 1902: 1901: 1880: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1863: 1853: 1843: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1822: 1807: 1805: 1801: 1798: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1775: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1751: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1692: 1636: 1626:History of China 1613: 1612: 1583: 1553: 1552: 1536: 1535: 1528: 1511:Mongolian script 1505: 1504: 1482: 1481: 1468: 1467: 1444: 1443: 1442: 1427: 1426: 1413: 1412: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1375: 1374: 1361: 1360: 1347: 1346: 1333: 1332: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1302: 1275: 1274: 1261: 1260: 1237: 1236: 1235: 1220: 1219: 1206: 1205: 1185: 1184: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1147: 1146: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1117: 1116: 1103: 1102: 1079: 1078: 1073: 1072: 1047: 1046: 1038: instead of 1020: 1019: 1000: 999: 986: 985: 972: 971: 958: 957: 946: 945: 933: 932: 919: 918: 905: 904: 891: 890: 884: 883: 868: 867: 795: 794:12 February 1912 711: 644: 586: 582:Advisory Council 577: 544: 511: 464:Xuantong Emperor 249: 247:Mandarin Chinese 218: 210: 191: 182: 176: 175: 159: 158: 131: 130: 107: 87: 79: 78: 77: 68: 60: 59: 46: 45: 21: 19573: 19572: 19568: 19567: 19566: 19564: 19563: 19562: 19478: 19477: 19468: 19466: 19462: 19459: 19454: 19451: 19449: 19447: 19446: 19444: 19439: 19390: 19187:Guangxu Emperor 19181: 19086:Tongzhi Emperor 19080: 18983: 18784: 18601:Jiaqing Emperor 18595: 18240: 18139: 17782: 17645:Shunzhi Emperor 17639: 17629: 17599: 17594: 17590:Willow Palisade 17536:Chuang Guandong 17505: 17477: 17427: 17386:Treaty of Kulja 17371:Treaty of Aigun 17304: 17296: 17195:History of Ming 17147: 17141: 17079: 17073: 16999:Special regions 16994: 16933:Imperial Guards 16899: 16691: 16650:1911 Revolution 16596: 16593: 16586: 16563:Boxer Rebellion 16523:Sino-French War 16473:Amur Annexation 16418:First Opium War 16406: 16403: 16396: 16315: 16312: 16303: 16287:Great Clearance 16243: 16240: 16224: 16218: 16188: 16179: 16104:princely states 16052: 15988:Kingdom of Fiji 15961: 15707:Austria-Hungary 15675: 15438: 15372: 15171: 15157:Solomon Islands 15071: 15053: 14985: 14900: 14858: 14790: 14736:Democratization 14704: 14648: 14615: 14610: 14580: 14575: 14564:American Empire 14549: 14545:African empires 14497: 14380: 14072:Central African 14018: 13836:Romano-Germanic 13422: 13156:Middle Assyrian 13129: 13121: 13116: 13082: 13073: 13065: 13048:Wayback Machine 13021: 13016: 13009: 12970: 12959: 12936: 12917: 12893: 12891: 12884: 12852: 12833: 12812: 12788: 12766: 12742: 12712: 12710: 12703: 12682: 12663: 12631: 12609: 12607: 12600: 12579: 12556: 12535: 12505: 12486: 12465: 12444: 12422: 12420: 12413: 12392: 12363: 12344: 12322: 12320: 12313: 12292: 12260: 12258: 12251: 12230: 12211: 12189: 12187: 12186:on 29 June 2016 12169: 12147: 12145: 12138: 12117: 12095: 12093: 12086: 12062: 12060: 12058: 12037: 12018: 11994: 11992: 11985: 11964: 11945: 11926: 11902: 11900: 11893: 11872: 11856:Bays, Daniel H. 11848: 11831: 11826: 11816: 11814: 11799: 11795: 11783: 11771: 11767: 11757: 11755: 11754:on 17 June 2013 11751: 11740: 11736: 11735: 11731: 11721: 11719: 11704: 11700: 11695:on 8 July 2012. 11683: 11682: 11678: 11668: 11666: 11653: 11652: 11648: 11638: 11636: 11629:www.artsmia.org 11623: 11622: 11618: 11611: 11597: 11593: 11583: 11581: 11566: 11562: 11553: 11549: 11536: 11534: 11525: 11524: 11520: 11513: 11491: 11487: 11477: 11475: 11468: 11452: 11448: 11409: 11405: 11397: 11393: 11385: 11381: 11374: 11360: 11356: 11348: 11341: 11306: 11302: 11294: 11290: 11282: 11278: 11271: 11255: 11251: 11243: 11239: 11231: 11227: 11221: 11207: 11203: 11185: 11181: 11173: 11169: 11161: 11157: 11149: 11145: 11137: 11133: 11125: 11121: 11113: 11106: 11098: 11094: 11086: 11082: 11043: 11039: 11028: 11024: 11018:Mühlhahn (2019) 11016: 11012: 11004: 11000: 10992: 10988: 10978: 10976: 10969: 10953: 10949: 10941: 10937: 10921: 10917: 10905: 10901: 10889: 10885: 10873: 10869: 10857: 10853: 10841: 10837: 10829: 10825: 10817: 10813: 10805: 10801: 10793: 10789: 10777: 10773: 10761: 10752: 10744: 10740: 10732: 10728: 10717: 10715: 10708: 10689: 10685: 10681:, pp. 6–7. 10679:Lagerwey (2010) 10677: 10673: 10668:Wayback Machine 10658: 10654: 10644:Wayback Machine 10633: 10629: 10621: 10617: 10609: 10605: 10597: 10593: 10585: 10581: 10573: 10559: 10555: 10545: 10543: 10539: 10528: 10522: 10518: 10509: 10507: 10494: 10493: 10489: 10481: 10477: 10465: 10461: 10449: 10445: 10437: 10420: 10412: 10408: 10400: 10396: 10384: 10380: 10372: 10368: 10360: 10356: 10348: 10344: 10336: 10332: 10324: 10311: 10303: 10299: 10291: 10287: 10277: 10275: 10268: 10252: 10248: 10238: 10236: 10229: 10213: 10209: 10199: 10197: 10184: 10183: 10179: 10172: 10156: 10152: 10142: 10140: 10133: 10117: 10113: 10103: 10101: 10058: 10054: 10046: 10039: 10031: 10027: 10019: 10015: 9997: 9996: 9992: 9982: 9980: 9976: 9965: 9961: 9960: 9956: 9946:Millward (2007) 9944: 9940: 9935: 9931: 9927:. pp. 247, 620. 9914: 9910: 9902: 9898: 9890: 9886: 9878: 9874: 9866: 9859: 9848: 9844: 9837: 9823: 9819: 9812: 9798: 9794: 9784: 9782: 9773: 9772: 9768: 9762:Bartlett (1991) 9760: 9756: 9749: 9733: 9729: 9725:, pp. 211. 9721: 9717: 9709: 9705: 9697: 9693: 9685: 9681: 9676: 9672: 9664: 9660: 9652: 9648: 9642:Reynolds (1993) 9640: 9636: 9628: 9624: 9618:Reynolds (1993) 9616: 9612: 9606:Crossley (2010) 9604: 9600: 9593: 9577: 9573: 9563: 9561: 9557: 9556: 9552: 9544: 9540: 9532: 9528: 9520: 9516: 9512:, p. xxii. 9508: 9504: 9494: 9492: 9479: 9478: 9474: 9466: 9462: 9454: 9450: 9441: 9437: 9427: 9425: 9412: 9411: 9407: 9399: 9395: 9387: 9383: 9375: 9371: 9363: 9359: 9351: 9347: 9339: 9335: 9327: 9323: 9315: 9311: 9303: 9299: 9291: 9287: 9280: 9264: 9260: 9245:10.2307/2718931 9229: 9225: 9215: 9213: 9189: 9185: 9177: 9173: 9166: 9150: 9146: 9139: 9123: 9119: 9111: 9107: 9106: 9102: 9092: 9090: 9071: 9067: 9059: 9055: 9047: 9043: 9035: 9031: 9023: 9019: 9011: 9007: 8994: 8990: 8982: 8978: 8970: 8966: 8958: 8954: 8946: 8942: 8934: 8930: 8922: 8918: 8910: 8903: 8891: 8887: 8875: 8871: 8861:Di Cosmo (2007) 8859: 8855: 8843: 8839: 8829:Di Cosmo (2007) 8827: 8823: 8813:Di Cosmo (2007) 8811: 8807: 8799: 8795: 8785:Di Cosmo (2007) 8783: 8779: 8771: 8767: 8752: 8748: 8738: 8736: 8723: 8722: 8718: 8710: 8706: 8698: 8694: 8689: 8685: 8673: 8669: 8664: 8660: 8652: 8645: 8635: 8633: 8626: 8610: 8606: 8596: 8594: 8587: 8571: 8567: 8555: 8551: 8543: 8539: 8533:Crossley (1997) 8531: 8527: 8519: 8515: 8505: 8503: 8490: 8489: 8485: 8478: 8462: 8455: 8447: 8443: 8420: 8416: 8408: 8404: 8398: 8384: 8380: 8370: 8368: 8361: 8343: 8339: 8333:Crossley (1997) 8331: 8327: 8320: 8306: 8302: 8292: 8290: 8286: 8278: 8274: 8266: 8262: 8257: 8250: 8239: 8235: 8225: 8223: 8218: 8217: 8213: 8203: 8201: 8199: 8183: 8179: 8169: 8167: 8157: 8153: 8143: 8141: 8133: 8132: 8128: 8121: 8107: 8103: 8087: 8086: 8082: 8068: 8064: 8054: 8052: 8048: 8007: 8001:Taagepera, Rein 7998: 7989: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7961: 7956: 7949: 7941: 7934: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7878: 7874: 7856: 7852: 7828: 7826: 7802: 7798: 7774: 7750: 7746: 7722: 7702: 7698: 7674: 7650: 7646: 7632: 7628: 7612: 7608: 7599: 7595: 7586: 7582: 7550: 7546: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7490: 7368:Mandarin square 7352: 7347: 7345: 7338: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7307:at a time when 7294: 7194:Philosophy and 7150: 7142:Shanghai School 7026: 6990: 6972: 6932:water transport 6908: 6902: 6884:extremely low. 6865: 6825: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6818: 6812: 6806: 6805: 6798: 6796: 6794: 6787: 6785: 6783: 6778: 6776: 6774: 6772: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6761: 6756: 6754: 6752: 6750: 6745: 6743: 6741: 6739: 6734: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6717: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6703: 6701: 6699: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6688: 6683: 6681: 6679: 6677: 6672: 6670: 6668: 6666: 6661: 6659: 6657: 6655: 6650: 6648: 6646: 6644: 6639: 6637: 6635: 6633: 6628: 6626: 6624: 6622: 6617: 6615: 6613: 6611: 6606: 6604: 6602: 6600: 6595: 6593: 6591: 6589: 6584: 6582: 6572: 6551: 6498: 6479:, by which the 6426: 6420: 6382: 6347:Robert Morrison 6340:Jiaqing Emperor 6298: 6264: 6240:heterodox sects 6236:Three teachings 6188: 6182: 6165:State shamanism 6131:Yonghe Lamasery 6123: 6117: 6081: 6075: 6033: 6028: 6022: 5981: 5975: 5945: 5905:Chuang Guandong 5890:Outer Manchuria 5886:Amur Annexation 5878:Willow Palisade 5844: 5839: 5825: 5765:Willow Palisade 5675:), followed by 5613: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5582: 5570: 5559: 5547:Empire of Japan 5519:Northeast China 5502: 5492: 5486: 5460: 5410:Shunzhi Emperor 5309: 5237:Austria-Hungary 5174: 5164: 5158: 5091:his own cabinet 4987: 4862:Guangxu Emperor 4746:Sino-French War 4699:Tongzhi Emperor 4691: 4635:Nian Rebellions 4610:(1856–1873) in 4508:First Opium War 4419:countries. The 4417:Southeast Asian 4381: 4362:Willow Palisade 4315:Jiaqing Emperor 4176: 3971: 3961: 3885:bind their feet 3837:Shunzhi Emperor 3784:Shunzhi Emperor 3763: 3757: 3736:Manchu alphabet 3720:again in 1636. 3694:Mongol nobility 3682: 3673:battle of Sarhu 3591: 3571:Tungusic people 3555: 3541: 3536: 3529: 3523: 3470: 3468: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3324:Guangxu Emperor 3267:over Korea and 3134:Shunzhi Emperor 3044:Chinese history 3010: 3006: 2995: 2966: 2965: 2956:Outer Manchuria 2951:Northeast China 2896:Fengtian Clique 2873:Chuang Guandong 2868:Amur Annexation 2863: 2855: 2854: 2785:Dongdan Kingdom 2780:Little Goguryeo 2755: 2747: 2746: 2617: 2609: 2608: 2599: 2579: 2572: 2557: 2528: 2527: 2523:Women's history 2429: 2428: 2419: 2418: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2400: 2389: 2384: 2380: 2360: 2355: 2346: 2345: 2334: 2333: 2332: 2327: 2322: 2314: 2309: 2301: 2296: 2282: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2258: 2253: 2245: 2240: 2232: 2226: 2221: 2211: 2199: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2162: 2161: 2156: 2147: 2137: 2129: 2124: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2095: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2071: 2068: 2062: 2057: 2047: 2025: 2020: 2015: 2007: 1981: 1973: 1968: 1958: 1948: 1938: 1926: 1918: 1913: 1898: 1897: 1886: 1885: 1878: 1868: 1864: 1859: 1851: 1841: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1810: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1781: 1046 BCE 1780: 1776: 1771: 1763: 1757: 1600 BCE 1756: 1752: 1747: 1738: 1737: 1726: 1725: 1698: 2000 BCE 1697: 1693: 1688: 1680: 1669: 1668: 1582: 1530: 1529: 1527: 1517: 1367:Tongyong Pinyin 1139:Tongyong Pinyin 1129: 1045: 1044: 1043: 1040:Manchu alphabet 1030:Without proper 1021: 1017: 997: 983: 969: 955: 930: 923:Dzungar Khanate 916: 902: 888: 862: 793: 790: 788:End of monarchy 777: 764: 751: 749:Boxer Rebellion 738: 736:100 Days Reform 725: 712: 707: 697: 684: 671: 658: 645: 641: 638: 628: 625: 624:Transition from 613: 589: 584: 580: 575: 571: 551: 539: 536: 506: 503: 490: 460: 452:Shunzhi Emperor 448: 440:Chongde Emperor 436: 393: 373: 339: 302: 252: 245: 221: 213: 205: 194: 177: 171: 163: 160: 140: 132: 115: 109: 108: 91: 90: 81: 75: 62: 51: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 19571: 19561: 19560: 19555: 19550: 19545: 19540: 19535: 19530: 19525: 19520: 19515: 19510: 19505: 19500: 19495: 19490: 19441: 19440: 19438: 19437: 19434: 19431: 19428: 19425: 19422: 19419: 19416: 19411: 19406: 19400: 19398: 19392: 19391: 19389: 19388: 19383: 19378: 19373: 19368: 19363: 19358: 19353: 19348: 19343: 19337: 19336: 19331: 19326: 19321: 19316: 19311: 19306: 19301: 19296: 19291: 19285: 19284: 19279: 19274: 19269: 19264: 19259: 19254: 19249: 19244: 19239: 19233: 19232: 19227: 19222: 19217: 19212: 19207: 19204: 19201: 19198: 19195: 19191: 19189: 19183: 19182: 19180: 19179: 19176: 19173: 19170: 19167: 19164: 19159: 19154: 19149: 19144: 19138: 19137: 19132: 19127: 19122: 19117: 19112: 19107: 19102: 19097: 19094: 19090: 19088: 19082: 19081: 19079: 19078: 19075: 19072: 19069: 19066: 19063: 19060: 19057: 19054: 19049: 19043: 19042: 19037: 19032: 19027: 19022: 19017: 19012: 19007: 19002: 18997: 18993: 18991: 18985: 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17185: 17184: 17174: 17169: 17162: 17157: 17151: 17149: 17143: 17142: 17140: 17139: 17134: 17129: 17124: 17119: 17114: 17109: 17104: 17099: 17094: 17092:Forbidden City 17089: 17083: 17081: 17075: 17074: 17072: 17071: 17070: 17069: 17059: 17058: 17057: 17055:General of Ili 17052: 17042: 17041: 17040: 17038:List of ambans 17035: 17025: 17024: 17023: 17013: 17008: 17002: 17000: 16996: 16995: 16993: 16992: 16987: 16986: 16985: 16980: 16975: 16965: 16960: 16955: 16950: 16945: 16940: 16935: 16930: 16925: 16920: 16915: 16909: 16907: 16901: 16900: 16898: 16897: 16892: 16891: 16890: 16885: 16880: 16875: 16870: 16865: 16860: 16855: 16850: 16840: 16835: 16834: 16833: 16823: 16818: 16813: 16808: 16803: 16798: 16793: 16788: 16783: 16778: 16773: 16768: 16763: 16758: 16753: 16748: 16743: 16738: 16733: 16728: 16723: 16722: 16721: 16716: 16705: 16703: 16697: 16696: 16693: 16692: 16690: 16689: 16684: 16679: 16678: 16677: 16672: 16667: 16662: 16657: 16647: 16642: 16637: 16632: 16631: 16630: 16625: 16615: 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16000: 15995: 15990: 15985: 15980: 15975: 15969: 15967: 15963: 15962: 15960: 15959: 15954: 15949: 15944: 15939: 15934: 15929: 15924: 15919: 15914: 15909: 15904: 15899: 15894: 15889: 15884: 15879: 15874: 15869: 15864: 15862:Ottoman Empire 15859: 15854: 15849: 15844: 15839: 15834: 15829: 15824: 15822:Kartli-Kakheti 15819: 15814: 15809: 15804: 15799: 15794: 15789: 15784: 15779: 15774: 15769: 15764: 15759: 15754: 15749: 15744: 15739: 15734: 15729: 15724: 15719: 15714: 15709: 15704: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15683: 15681: 15677: 15676: 15674: 15673: 15661: 15656: 15651: 15646: 15641: 15636: 15631: 15626: 15621: 15616: 15611: 15604: 15599: 15594: 15589: 15584: 15579: 15574: 15569: 15564: 15559: 15554: 15549: 15544: 15539: 15534: 15529: 15524: 15519: 15514: 15504: 15497: 15492: 15487: 15482: 15477: 15472: 15467: 15462: 15457: 15452: 15446: 15444: 15440: 15439: 15437: 15436: 15431: 15426: 15421: 15416: 15411: 15406: 15401: 15396: 15391: 15386: 15380: 15378: 15374: 15373: 15371: 15370: 15363: 15358: 15353: 15348: 15343: 15338: 15333: 15328: 15323: 15318: 15313: 15308: 15303: 15298: 15293: 15288: 15283: 15278: 15273: 15268: 15263: 15258: 15253: 15248: 15243: 15238: 15233: 15231:Central Africa 15228: 15223: 15218: 15213: 15208: 15203: 15198: 15192: 15190: 15183: 15177: 15176: 15173: 15172: 15170: 15169: 15167:United Kingdom 15164: 15159: 15154: 15149: 15144: 15139: 15134: 15133: 15132: 15127: 15117: 15112: 15107: 15102: 15097: 15092: 15087: 15081: 15079: 15073: 15072: 15070: 15069: 15063: 15061: 15055: 15054: 15052: 15051: 15046: 15041: 15036: 15031: 15026: 15021: 15016: 15011: 15006: 15001: 14995: 14993: 14987: 14986: 14984: 14983: 14976: 14971: 14966: 14961: 14956: 14951: 14946: 14941: 14936: 14931: 14926: 14921: 14916: 14910: 14908: 14902: 14901: 14899: 14898: 14891: 14886: 14881: 14875: 14873: 14864: 14860: 14859: 14857: 14856: 14851: 14846: 14841: 14836: 14831: 14826: 14824:Prince regnant 14821: 14820: 14819: 14809: 14804: 14798: 14796: 14792: 14791: 14789: 14788: 14783: 14778: 14773: 14768: 14763: 14758: 14753: 14748: 14743: 14741:Decolonization 14738: 14733: 14728: 14723: 14718: 14712: 14710: 14706: 14705: 14703: 14702: 14697: 14695:Personal union 14692: 14687: 14682: 14677: 14672: 14667: 14665:Constitutional 14662: 14656: 14654: 14650: 14649: 14647: 14646: 14641: 14636: 14631: 14626: 14620: 14617: 14616: 14609: 14608: 14601: 14594: 14586: 14577: 14576: 14574: 14573: 14572: 14571: 14566: 14557: 14555: 14551: 14550: 14548: 14547: 14542: 14537: 14532: 14527: 14522: 14521: 14520: 14509: 14507: 14503: 14502: 14499: 14498: 14496: 14495: 14490: 14485: 14480: 14475: 14474: 14473: 14463: 14458: 14453: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14433: 14428: 14423: 14418: 14417: 14416: 14411: 14401: 14396: 14390: 14388: 14379: 14378: 14377: 14376: 14371: 14366: 14361: 14356: 14346: 14341: 14340: 14339: 14329: 14324: 14323: 14322: 14317: 14312: 14302: 14297: 14296: 14295: 14290: 14280: 14279: 14278: 14273: 14268: 14263: 14258: 14248: 14247: 14246: 14241: 14231: 14226: 14221: 14216: 14215: 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13564: 13559: 13554: 13544: 13543: 13542: 13537: 13527: 13526: 13525: 13520: 13515: 13510: 13500: 13495: 13494: 13493: 13483: 13482: 13481: 13476: 13468: 13463: 13458: 13453: 13448: 13443: 13438: 13432: 13430: 13428:Post-classical 13424: 13423: 13421: 13420: 13419: 13418: 13408: 13403: 13402: 13401: 13396: 13386: 13385: 13384: 13374: 13373: 13372: 13367: 13362: 13357: 13352: 13347: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13326: 13325: 13320: 13315: 13310: 13300: 13299: 13298: 13293: 13283: 13278: 13277: 13276: 13271: 13266: 13261: 13256: 13246: 13241: 13236: 13235: 13234: 13229: 13227:Middle Kingdom 13224: 13214: 13209: 13208: 13207: 13202: 13197: 13187: 13186: 13185: 13183:Neo-Babylonian 13180: 13175: 13173:Old Babylonian 13165: 13164: 13163: 13158: 13148: 13143: 13137: 13135: 13123: 13122: 13115: 13114: 13107: 13100: 13092: 13084: 13083: 13078: 13075: 13066: 13061: 13055: 13054: 13038: 13029: 13020: 13019:External links 13017: 13015: 13014: 12963: 12958:978-0520231269 12957: 12940: 12934: 12921: 12915: 12900: 12882: 12864: 12850: 12837: 12831: 12816: 12810: 12792: 12786: 12773: 12764: 12746: 12740: 12719: 12701: 12686: 12680: 12667: 12661: 12635: 12629: 12616: 12598: 12583: 12578:978-0295801926 12577: 12560: 12554: 12539: 12533: 12517: 12503: 12490: 12484: 12469: 12463: 12448: 12442: 12429: 12411: 12396: 12390: 12367: 12361: 12348: 12342: 12329: 12311: 12296: 12290: 12267: 12250:978-9888028047 12249: 12234: 12228: 12215: 12209: 12196: 12173: 12168:978-0822331889 12167: 12154: 12137:978-0226304168 12136: 12121: 12115: 12102: 12084: 12069: 12056: 12041: 12035: 12022: 12016: 12001: 11983: 11968: 11963:978-9888208036 11962: 11949: 11943: 11930: 11924: 11909: 11891: 11876: 11871:978-1405159548 11870: 11852: 11846: 11832: 11830: 11827: 11825: 11824: 11793: 11765: 11729: 11698: 11676: 11646: 11616: 11609: 11591: 11560: 11547: 11518: 11512:978-0674016859 11511: 11485: 11467:978-0801880896 11466: 11446: 11419:(3): 647–676. 11403: 11391: 11379: 11373:978-1108995955 11372: 11354: 11339: 11320:(2): 328–329. 11300: 11288: 11276: 11269: 11249: 11237: 11235:, p. 587. 11225: 11219: 11201: 11195:(in Chinese), 11179: 11167: 11155: 11153:, p. 598. 11143: 11131: 11129:, p. 593. 11119: 11117:, p. 151. 11115:Murphey (2007) 11104: 11102:, p. 564. 11092: 11080: 11037: 11022: 11020:, p. 170. 11010: 10998: 10986: 10968:978-0674018280 10967: 10947: 10935: 10915: 10899: 10883: 10867: 10851: 10835: 10823: 10821:, p. 145. 10811: 10799: 10797:, p. 241. 10795:Elliott (2001) 10787: 10771: 10750: 10738: 10726: 10724:, pp. 958–961. 10706: 10683: 10671: 10652: 10627: 10623:Elliott (2001) 10615: 10613:, p. 236. 10603: 10591: 10587:Elliott (2001) 10579: 10571: 10553: 10526:"Introduction" 10516: 10487: 10475: 10459: 10443: 10418: 10406: 10404:, p. 335. 10394: 10378: 10366: 10364:, p. 111. 10354: 10342: 10330: 10309: 10307:, p. 117. 10297: 10295:, p. 485. 10285: 10266: 10246: 10227: 10207: 10177: 10170: 10150: 10131: 10111: 10072:(4): 599–621. 10052: 10037: 10025: 10013: 9990: 9954: 9938: 9929: 9908: 9904:Torbert (1977) 9896: 9892:Torbert (1977) 9884: 9872: 9870:, p. 179. 9857: 9842: 9835: 9817: 9810: 9792: 9766: 9754: 9747: 9727: 9715: 9703: 9691: 9679: 9670: 9658: 9646: 9634: 9622: 9610: 9608:, p. 117. 9598: 9591: 9571: 9550: 9538: 9526: 9514: 9502: 9472: 9460: 9448: 9435: 9405: 9393: 9381: 9369: 9357: 9345: 9333: 9321: 9309: 9297: 9285: 9278: 9258: 9223: 9183: 9171: 9164: 9144: 9137: 9117: 9100: 9065: 9053: 9051:, p. 307. 9041: 9039:, p. 206. 9029: 9027:, p. 198. 9017: 9015:, p. 135. 9005: 8988: 8984:Wakeman (1977) 8976: 8964: 8962:, p. 164. 8952: 8948:Wakeman (1985) 8940: 8936:Wakeman (1985) 8928: 8924:Wakeman (1985) 8916: 8901: 8893:Wakeman (1985) 8885: 8869: 8853: 8837: 8821: 8805: 8803:, p. 141. 8793: 8777: 8765: 8746: 8716: 8704: 8692: 8683: 8667: 8658: 8643: 8625:978-0500771471 8624: 8604: 8586:978-1134462094 8585: 8565: 8557:Wakeman (1985) 8549: 8547:, p. 271. 8537: 8525: 8523:, p. 220. 8513: 8492:"Qing dynasty" 8483: 8477:978-1134362226 8476: 8453: 8441: 8414: 8402: 8396: 8378: 8360:978-9004418929 8359: 8337: 8325: 8319:978-0812239126 8318: 8300: 8272: 8260: 8248: 8233: 8211: 8197: 8177: 8151: 8126: 8120:978-1788317894 8119: 8101: 8080: 8062: 7987: 7971: 7959: 7947: 7945:, p. 292. 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7918: 7883:; pinyin: 7872: 7865:; pinyin: 7850: 7811:; pinyin: 7796: 7759:; pinyin: 7744: 7707:; pinyin: 7696: 7659:; pinyin: 7644: 7637:; pinyin: 7626: 7606: 7593: 7580: 7544: 7508:; pinyin: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7357: 7354:History portal 7343: 7327: 7324: 7314:Suiyuan Shidan 7293: 7290: 7189:British Museum 7149: 7146: 7118:scholar-gentry 7025: 7022: 6971: 6968: 6904:Main article: 6901: 6898: 6864: 6861: 6813: 6808: 6807: 6704:KAZAKH KHANATE 6575: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6550: 6547: 6497: 6494: 6455:Southeast Asia 6422:Main article: 6419: 6416: 6399:Boxer Uprising 6284:Islam in China 6263: 6260: 6181: 6178: 6116: 6113: 6074: 6071: 6032: 6029: 6024:Main article: 6021: 6018: 5987:, the gentry ( 5977:Main article: 5974: 5971: 5944: 5941: 5882:Russian Empire 5843: 5840: 5824: 5821: 5780:The Great Game 5761:Russian Empire 5753:Jahangir Khoja 5716:Outer Mongolia 5677:subprefectures 5615: 5614: 5573: 5571: 5564: 5558: 5555: 5549:following the 5527:Outer Mongolia 5523:Inner Mongolia 5482:Main article: 5459: 5456: 5414:Kangxi Emperor 5330:Forbidden City 5308: 5305: 5297:British Empire 5293:United Kingdom 5160:Main article: 5157: 5154: 5118:Imperial China 5087:Prime Minister 4986: 4983: 4979:Boxer Protocol 4959:Forbidden City 4783:, such as the 4734:Russian Empire 4690: 4687: 4662:agreed to the 4425:Tsarist Russia 4397:Chinese empire 4380: 4377: 4210:Kangxi Emperor 4175: 4172: 4141:, grandson of 4139:Zheng Keshuang 4137:(Taiwan) from 4123:Outer Mongolia 4078:, a patron of 4068:Chinese khagan 3987:Kangxi Emperor 3981:(r. 1661–1722) 3979:Kangxi Emperor 3960: 3957: 3945:Kangxi Emperor 3756: 3753: 3748:Hong Chengchou 3681: 3678: 3660:in 1621, then 3590: 3587: 3540: 3537: 3525:Main article: 3522: 3519: 3511:Ch'ing dynasty 3507:Manchu dynasty 3485:Zhōngwài yījiā 3469:ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ‍ᡳ 3451:Dulimbai Gurun 3366:Names of China 3358:Main article: 3355: 3352: 3296:foreign powers 3168:), encouraged 3154:Kangxi Emperor 3122:a Ming general 3118:peasant rebels 2997: 2996: 2994: 2993: 2986: 2979: 2971: 2968: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2953: 2944: 2934: 2929: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2889: 2887:Russian Dalian 2884: 2875: 2870: 2864: 2861: 2860: 2857: 2856: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2837: 2832: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2772: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2607: 2606: 2600: 2597: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2584: 2583: 2574: 2573: 2566: 2559: 2558: 2556: 2555: 2548: 2541: 2533: 2530: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2514: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2488: 2483: 2478: 2477: 2476: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2454:Jewish history 2451: 2446: 2441: 2436: 2430: 2426: 2425: 2424: 2421: 2420: 2414: 2413: 2409: 2408: 2406: 2405: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2387: 2385:(1949–present) 2374: 2372: 2366: 2359: 2358: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2339: 2336: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2326: 2325: 2313: 2312: 2300: 2299: 2288: 2278: 2277: 2273: 2272: 2270: 2269: 2259: 2256: 2246: 2243: 2233: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2224: 2214: 2203: 2202: 2190: 2189: 2176: 2174: 2168: 2158: 2157: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2152: 2151: 2150: 2128: 2127: 2115: 2114: 2101: 2091: 2090: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2082: 2072: 2069: 2065: 2063: 2061: 2060: 2050: 2039: 2037: 2031: 2022: 2021: 2019: 2018: 2006: 2005: 1985: 1984: 1978:Three Kingdoms 1972: 1971: 1961: 1951: 1941: 1930: 1929: 1917: 1916: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1888: 1887: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1876:Warring States 1873: 1869: 476 BCE 1844: 1842:(1046–771 BCE) 1833: 1832: 1828: 256 BCE 1809: 1808: 1786: 1785: 1762: 1761: 1739: 1733: 1732: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1724: 1723: 1703: 1702: 1679: 1678: 1670: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1657: 1656: 1654:Historiography 1651: 1646: 1638: 1637: 1629: 1628: 1622: 1621: 1609: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1601: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1559: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1547: 1541: 1540: 1539:Transcriptions 1532: 1531: 1526: 1525: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1499: 1493: 1492: 1491:Mongolian name 1488: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1476: 1470: 1469: 1462: 1453: 1452: 1446: 1445: 1435: 1429: 1428: 1421: 1415: 1414: 1407: 1401: 1400: 1398:Yue: Cantonese 1394: 1393: 1383: 1377: 1376: 1369: 1363: 1362: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1341: 1335: 1334: 1327: 1321: 1320: 1314: 1313: 1312:Transcriptions 1305: 1304: 1292: 1286: 1285: 1281: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1255: 1246: 1245: 1239: 1238: 1228: 1222: 1221: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1200: 1194: 1193: 1191:Yue: Cantonese 1187: 1186: 1179: 1173: 1172: 1166: 1165: 1155: 1149: 1148: 1141: 1135: 1134: 1125: 1119: 1118: 1111: 1105: 1104: 1097: 1091: 1090: 1084: 1083: 1082:Transcriptions 1075: 1074: 1067: 1061: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1034:, you may see 1022: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1010: 1009: 1006: 1005: 1002: 1001: 994: 988: 987: 980: 974: 973: 966: 960: 959: 952: 943: 940: 939: 934: 926: 925: 920: 912: 911: 906: 898: 897: 892: 880: 879: 874: 864: 863: 861: 860: 855: 850: 844: 842: 838: 837: 834: 830: 829: 826: 822: 821: 818: 814: 813: 810: 806: 805: 801: 800: 797: 796: 791: 785: 782: 781: 778: 772: 769: 768: 765: 759: 756: 755: 752: 746: 743: 742: 739: 733: 730: 729: 726: 720: 717: 716: 713: 705: 702: 701: 698: 692: 689: 688: 685: 679: 676: 675: 672: 666: 663: 662: 659: 653: 650: 649: 646: 636: 633: 632: 629: 621: 618: 617: 614: 608: 605: 604: 601: 600: 595: 594:Historical era 591: 590: 588: 587: 578: 568: 566: 562: 561: 558: 557: 552: 549: 546: 545: 537: 534: 531: 530: 527: 526: 523: 521:Prime Minister 517: 516: 513: 512: 504: 501: 498: 497: 491: 488: 485: 484: 481: 480: 477: 471: 470: 467: 466: 461: 458: 455: 454: 449: 446: 443: 442: 437: 434: 431: 430: 427: 426: 423: 417: 416: 411: 407: 406: 401: 395: 394: 392: 391: 384: 379: 374: 372: 371: 366: 361: 355: 350: 345: 340: 338: 337: 332: 327: 321: 316: 310: 308: 304: 303: 301: 300: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 262: 260: 254: 253: 251: 250: 243: 237: 235: 231: 230: 227: 223: 222: 220: 219: 211: 202: 200: 196: 195: 192: 184: 183: 169:Imperial seal: 165: 164: 162: 161: 138: 124: 117: 116: 110: 102: 101: 98: 97: 93: 92: 89: 88: 69: 53: 52: 49: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19570: 19559: 19556: 19554: 19551: 19549: 19546: 19544: 19541: 19539: 19536: 19534: 19531: 19529: 19526: 19524: 19521: 19519: 19516: 19514: 19511: 19509: 19506: 19504: 19501: 19499: 19496: 19494: 19491: 19489: 19486: 19485: 19483: 19476: 19473: 19469:39.92; 116.39 19435: 19432: 19429: 19426: 19423: 19420: 19417: 19415: 19412: 19410: 19407: 19405: 19402: 19401: 19399: 19397: 19393: 19387: 19384: 19382: 19379: 19377: 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18270: 18267: 18264: 18261: 18258: 18255: 18252: 18251: 18249: 18247: 18243: 18236: 18233: 18230: 18227: 18224: 18222: 18219: 18217: 18214: 18212: 18209: 18207: 18204: 18202: 18199: 18198: 18195: 18192: 18190: 18187: 18185: 18182: 18180: 18177: 18175: 18172: 18170: 18167: 18165: 18162: 18160: 18157: 18154: 18151: 18150: 18148: 18146: 18142: 18135: 18132: 18129: 18126: 18123: 18120: 18117: 18115: 18112: 18110: 18107: 18105: 18102: 18101: 18098: 18095: 18093: 18090: 18088: 18085: 18083: 18080: 18078: 18075: 18073: 18070: 18068: 18065: 18063: 18060: 18058: 18055: 18053: 18050: 18049: 18046: 18043: 18041: 18038: 18036: 18033: 18031: 18028: 18026: 18023: 18021: 18018: 18016: 18013: 18011: 18008: 18006: 18003: 18001: 17998: 17997: 17994: 17991: 17989: 17986: 17984: 17981: 17979: 17976: 17974: 17971: 17969: 17966: 17964: 17961: 17959: 17956: 17954: 17951: 17949: 17946: 17945: 17942: 17939: 17937: 17934: 17932: 17929: 17927: 17924: 17922: 17919: 17917: 17914: 17912: 17909: 17907: 17904: 17902: 17899: 17897: 17894: 17893: 17890: 17887: 17885: 17882: 17880: 17877: 17875: 17872: 17870: 17867: 17865: 17862: 17860: 17857: 17855: 17852: 17850: 17847: 17845: 17842: 17841: 17838: 17835: 17833: 17830: 17828: 17825: 17823: 17820: 17818: 17815: 17813: 17810: 17808: 17805: 17803: 17800: 17797: 17794: 17793: 17791: 17789: 17785: 17778: 17775: 17772: 17769: 17766: 17763: 17760: 17757: 17755: 17752: 17750: 17747: 17746: 17743: 17740: 17738: 17735: 17733: 17730: 17728: 17725: 17723: 17720: 17718: 17715: 17713: 17710: 17708: 17705: 17703: 17700: 17698: 17695: 17694: 17691: 17688: 17686: 17683: 17681: 17678: 17676: 17673: 17671: 17668: 17666: 17663: 17660: 17657: 17654: 17651: 17650: 17648: 17646: 17642: 17637: 17633: 17626: 17621: 17619: 17614: 17612: 17607: 17606: 17603: 17591: 17588: 17586: 17583: 17581: 17578: 17576: 17573: 17571: 17568: 17566: 17565:Manchu people 17563: 17561: 17558: 17556: 17553: 17551: 17550: 17546: 17544: 17543: 17539: 17537: 17534: 17532: 17531:Canton System 17529: 17527: 17524: 17522: 17519: 17518: 17516: 17512: 17502: 17499: 17497: 17496:Hubu Guanpiao 17494: 17492: 17489: 17488: 17486: 17484: 17480: 17474: 17471: 17469: 17466: 17464: 17461: 17459: 17456: 17454: 17451: 17449: 17446: 17445: 17443: 17441: 17437: 17434: 17430: 17422: 17419: 17417: 17414: 17412: 17409: 17407: 17404: 17402: 17399: 17397: 17394: 17392: 17389: 17387: 17384: 17382: 17379: 17377: 17374: 17372: 17369: 17367: 17364: 17362: 17359: 17357: 17354: 17352: 17349: 17347: 17344: 17342: 17339: 17337: 17334: 17332: 17329: 17327: 17324: 17323: 17322: 17319: 17317: 17314: 17312: 17309: 17308: 17306: 17303: 17299: 17291: 17290: 17286: 17285: 17284: 17283: 17279: 17277: 17274: 17272: 17269: 17267: 17264: 17262: 17261: 17257: 17255: 17252: 17250: 17249: 17245: 17243: 17240: 17238: 17235: 17233: 17232: 17228: 17226: 17225: 17221: 17219: 17216: 17214: 17211: 17209: 17206: 17204: 17203: 17199: 17197: 17196: 17192: 17190: 17187: 17183: 17180: 17179: 17178: 17175: 17173: 17170: 17168: 17167: 17163: 17161: 17158: 17156: 17153: 17152: 17150: 17146:Society & 17144: 17138: 17135: 17133: 17130: 17128: 17125: 17123: 17120: 17118: 17115: 17113: 17112:Summer Palace 17110: 17108: 17105: 17103: 17102:Mukden Palace 17100: 17098: 17095: 17093: 17090: 17088: 17085: 17084: 17082: 17078:Palaces & 17076: 17068: 17065: 17064: 17063: 17060: 17056: 17053: 17051: 17048: 17047: 17046: 17043: 17039: 17036: 17034: 17031: 17030: 17029: 17026: 17022: 17019: 17018: 17017: 17014: 17012: 17009: 17007: 17004: 17003: 17001: 16997: 16991: 16988: 16984: 16981: 16979: 16976: 16974: 16971: 16970: 16969: 16966: 16964: 16961: 16959: 16956: 16954: 16951: 16949: 16946: 16944: 16941: 16939: 16936: 16934: 16931: 16929: 16926: 16924: 16921: 16919: 16918:Eight Banners 16916: 16914: 16911: 16910: 16908: 16906: 16902: 16896: 16893: 16889: 16886: 16884: 16881: 16879: 16876: 16874: 16871: 16869: 16866: 16864: 16861: 16859: 16856: 16854: 16851: 16849: 16846: 16845: 16844: 16841: 16839: 16836: 16832: 16829: 16828: 16827: 16824: 16822: 16819: 16817: 16814: 16812: 16809: 16807: 16804: 16802: 16799: 16797: 16794: 16792: 16789: 16787: 16784: 16782: 16779: 16777: 16774: 16772: 16771:Grand Council 16769: 16767: 16764: 16762: 16759: 16757: 16754: 16752: 16749: 16747: 16744: 16742: 16739: 16737: 16734: 16732: 16729: 16727: 16724: 16720: 16717: 16715: 16712: 16711: 16710: 16707: 16706: 16704: 16702: 16698: 16688: 16685: 16683: 16680: 16676: 16673: 16671: 16668: 16666: 16663: 16661: 16658: 16656: 16653: 16652: 16651: 16648: 16646: 16643: 16641: 16638: 16636: 16633: 16629: 16626: 16624: 16621: 16620: 16619: 16616: 16614: 16611: 16609: 16606: 16604: 16601: 16600: 16598: 16591:20th century 16589: 16581: 16578: 16577: 16576: 16573: 16569: 16566: 16565: 16564: 16561: 16559: 16556: 16554: 16551: 16549: 16546: 16544: 16541: 16539: 16536: 16534: 16531: 16529: 16526: 16524: 16521: 16519: 16516: 16514: 16511: 16509: 16506: 16504: 16501: 16499: 16496: 16494: 16491: 16489: 16486: 16484: 16481: 16479: 16476: 16474: 16471: 16469: 16466: 16464: 16461: 16459: 16456: 16454: 16451: 16449: 16446: 16444: 16441: 16439: 16436: 16434: 16431: 16429: 16426: 16424: 16421: 16419: 16416: 16414: 16411: 16410: 16408: 16401:19th century 16399: 16393: 16390: 16388: 16385: 16383: 16380: 16378: 16375: 16373: 16370: 16368: 16365: 16363: 16360: 16358: 16355: 16353: 16350: 16348: 16345: 16343: 16340: 16338: 16335: 16333: 16330: 16328: 16325: 16323: 16320: 16319: 16317: 16310: 16306: 16300: 16297: 16293: 16290: 16289: 16288: 16285: 16281: 16278: 16277: 16276: 16273: 16271: 16268: 16266: 16263: 16261: 16258: 16256: 16253: 16251: 16248: 16247: 16245: 16236: 16233: 16231: 16227: 16222: 16215: 16210: 16208: 16203: 16201: 16196: 16195: 16192: 16176: 16173: 16171: 16168: 16166: 16163: 16161: 16158: 16156: 16153: 16151: 16148: 16146: 16143: 16141: 16138: 16136: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16126: 16123: 16121: 16118: 16116: 16112: 16109: 16106: 16105: 16100: 16096: 16093: 16091: 16088: 16086: 16083: 16081: 16078: 16076: 16073: 16070: 16067: 16065: 16062: 16061: 16059: 16055: 16049: 16046: 16044: 16041: 16039: 16036: 16034: 16031: 16029: 16026: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16014: 16011: 16009: 16006: 16004: 16001: 15999: 15996: 15994: 15991: 15989: 15986: 15984: 15983:Easter Island 15981: 15979: 15976: 15974: 15971: 15970: 15968: 15964: 15958: 15955: 15953: 15950: 15948: 15945: 15943: 15940: 15938: 15935: 15933: 15930: 15928: 15925: 15923: 15920: 15918: 15915: 15913: 15910: 15908: 15905: 15903: 15900: 15898: 15895: 15893: 15890: 15888: 15885: 15883: 15880: 15878: 15875: 15873: 15870: 15868: 15865: 15863: 15860: 15858: 15855: 15853: 15850: 15848: 15845: 15843: 15840: 15838: 15835: 15833: 15830: 15828: 15825: 15823: 15820: 15818: 15815: 15813: 15810: 15808: 15805: 15803: 15800: 15798: 15795: 15793: 15790: 15788: 15785: 15783: 15780: 15778: 15775: 15773: 15770: 15768: 15765: 15763: 15760: 15758: 15755: 15753: 15750: 15748: 15745: 15743: 15740: 15738: 15735: 15733: 15730: 15728: 15725: 15723: 15720: 15718: 15715: 15713: 15710: 15708: 15705: 15703: 15700: 15698: 15695: 15693: 15690: 15688: 15685: 15684: 15682: 15678: 15671: 15670: 15665: 15662: 15660: 15657: 15655: 15652: 15650: 15647: 15645: 15642: 15640: 15637: 15635: 15632: 15630: 15627: 15625: 15622: 15620: 15617: 15615: 15612: 15610: 15609: 15605: 15603: 15600: 15598: 15595: 15593: 15590: 15588: 15585: 15583: 15580: 15578: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15568: 15565: 15563: 15560: 15558: 15555: 15553: 15550: 15548: 15545: 15543: 15540: 15538: 15535: 15533: 15530: 15528: 15525: 15523: 15522:Jabal Shammar 15520: 15518: 15515: 15512: 15508: 15505: 15503: 15502: 15498: 15496: 15493: 15491: 15488: 15486: 15483: 15481: 15478: 15476: 15473: 15471: 15468: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15458: 15456: 15453: 15451: 15448: 15447: 15445: 15441: 15435: 15432: 15430: 15427: 15425: 15422: 15420: 15417: 15415: 15412: 15410: 15407: 15405: 15402: 15400: 15397: 15395: 15392: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15381: 15379: 15375: 15369: 15368: 15364: 15362: 15359: 15357: 15354: 15352: 15349: 15347: 15344: 15342: 15339: 15337: 15334: 15332: 15329: 15327: 15324: 15322: 15319: 15317: 15314: 15312: 15309: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15299: 15297: 15294: 15292: 15289: 15287: 15284: 15282: 15279: 15277: 15274: 15272: 15269: 15267: 15264: 15262: 15259: 15257: 15254: 15252: 15249: 15247: 15244: 15242: 15239: 15237: 15234: 15232: 15229: 15227: 15224: 15222: 15219: 15217: 15214: 15212: 15209: 15207: 15204: 15202: 15199: 15197: 15194: 15193: 15191: 15187: 15184: 15182: 15178: 15168: 15165: 15163: 15160: 15158: 15155: 15153: 15150: 15148: 15145: 15143: 15140: 15138: 15135: 15131: 15128: 15126: 15123: 15122: 15121: 15118: 15116: 15113: 15111: 15108: 15106: 15103: 15101: 15098: 15096: 15093: 15091: 15088: 15086: 15083: 15082: 15080: 15078: 15074: 15068: 15065: 15064: 15062: 15060: 15056: 15050: 15047: 15045: 15042: 15040: 15037: 15035: 15032: 15030: 15027: 15025: 15022: 15020: 15017: 15015: 15014:Liechtenstein 15012: 15010: 15007: 15005: 15002: 15000: 14997: 14996: 14994: 14992: 14988: 14982: 14981: 14977: 14975: 14972: 14970: 14967: 14965: 14962: 14960: 14957: 14955: 14952: 14950: 14947: 14945: 14942: 14940: 14937: 14935: 14932: 14930: 14927: 14925: 14922: 14920: 14917: 14915: 14912: 14911: 14909: 14907: 14903: 14897: 14896: 14892: 14890: 14887: 14885: 14882: 14880: 14877: 14876: 14874: 14872: 14868: 14865: 14861: 14855: 14852: 14850: 14847: 14845: 14842: 14840: 14837: 14835: 14832: 14830: 14827: 14825: 14822: 14818: 14817:Queen regnant 14815: 14814: 14813: 14810: 14808: 14805: 14803: 14800: 14799: 14797: 14793: 14787: 14784: 14782: 14779: 14777: 14776:Republicanism 14774: 14772: 14769: 14767: 14764: 14762: 14759: 14757: 14756:Head of state 14754: 14752: 14749: 14747: 14744: 14742: 14739: 14737: 14734: 14732: 14729: 14727: 14724: 14722: 14719: 14717: 14714: 14713: 14711: 14707: 14701: 14698: 14696: 14693: 14691: 14690:Non-sovereign 14688: 14686: 14683: 14681: 14678: 14676: 14673: 14671: 14668: 14666: 14663: 14661: 14658: 14657: 14655: 14651: 14645: 14642: 14640: 14637: 14635: 14632: 14630: 14627: 14625: 14622: 14621: 14618: 14614: 14607: 14602: 14600: 14595: 14593: 14588: 14587: 14584: 14570: 14569:Soviet empire 14567: 14565: 14562: 14561: 14559: 14558: 14556: 14554:Miscellaneous 14552: 14546: 14543: 14541: 14538: 14536: 14533: 14531: 14528: 14526: 14523: 14519: 14516: 14515: 14514: 14511: 14510: 14508: 14504: 14494: 14491: 14489: 14486: 14484: 14481: 14479: 14476: 14472: 14469: 14468: 14467: 14464: 14462: 14459: 14457: 14454: 14452: 14449: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14437: 14434: 14432: 14429: 14427: 14424: 14422: 14419: 14415: 14412: 14410: 14407: 14406: 14405: 14402: 14400: 14397: 14395: 14392: 14391: 14389: 14387: 14383: 14375: 14372: 14370: 14367: 14365: 14362: 14360: 14357: 14355: 14352: 14351: 14350: 14347: 14345: 14342: 14338: 14335: 14334: 14333: 14330: 14328: 14325: 14321: 14318: 14316: 14313: 14311: 14308: 14307: 14306: 14303: 14301: 14298: 14294: 14291: 14289: 14286: 14285: 14284: 14281: 14277: 14274: 14272: 14269: 14267: 14264: 14262: 14259: 14257: 14254: 14253: 14252: 14249: 14245: 14242: 14240: 14237: 14236: 14235: 14232: 14230: 14227: 14225: 14222: 14220: 14217: 14213: 14210: 14208: 14205: 14203: 14200: 14198: 14195: 14193: 14190: 14189: 14188: 14185: 14181: 14178: 14176: 14173: 14172: 14171: 14168: 14166: 14163: 14159: 14156: 14154: 14153:German Empire 14151: 14150: 14149: 14146: 14142: 14139: 14137: 14134: 14133: 14132: 14129: 14125: 14122: 14120: 14117: 14116: 14115: 14112: 14110: 14107: 14103: 14100: 14098: 14095: 14093: 14090: 14088: 14085: 14083: 14080: 14079: 14078: 14075: 14073: 14070: 14066: 14063: 14061: 14058: 14057: 14055: 14053: 14050: 14048: 14045: 14043: 14040: 14038: 14035: 14033: 14030: 14029: 14027: 14025: 14021: 14015: 14012: 14010: 14007: 14005: 14002: 13998: 13995: 13993: 13990: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13965: 13964: 13963: 13960: 13958: 13955: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13936: 13933: 13931: 13928: 13926: 13923: 13922: 13921: 13918: 13914: 13911: 13909: 13906: 13904: 13901: 13899: 13896: 13895: 13894: 13893:Turco-Persian 13891: 13889: 13886: 13884: 13881: 13879: 13876: 13874: 13871: 13869: 13866: 13864: 13861: 13859: 13856: 13854: 13851: 13847: 13844: 13842: 13839: 13838: 13837: 13834: 13830: 13827: 13825: 13822: 13820: 13817: 13815: 13812: 13810: 13807: 13805: 13802: 13801: 13800: 13797: 13794: 13792: 13789: 13787: 13784: 13782: 13779: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13765: 13762: 13761: 13760: 13757: 13753: 13750: 13748: 13745: 13743: 13740: 13738: 13735: 13734: 13733: 13730: 13728: 13725: 13723: 13720: 13718: 13715: 13713: 13710: 13708: 13705: 13701: 13698: 13696: 13693: 13691: 13688: 13686: 13683: 13682: 13681: 13678: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13655: 13654: 13651: 13647: 13644: 13642: 13639: 13637: 13634: 13633: 13632: 13629: 13627: 13624: 13622: 13619: 13617: 13614: 13612: 13609: 13605: 13602: 13600: 13597: 13595: 13592: 13591: 13590: 13587: 13585: 13582: 13578: 13575: 13573: 13570: 13568: 13565: 13563: 13560: 13558: 13555: 13553: 13550: 13549: 13548: 13545: 13541: 13538: 13536: 13533: 13532: 13531: 13528: 13524: 13521: 13519: 13516: 13514: 13511: 13509: 13506: 13505: 13504: 13501: 13499: 13496: 13492: 13489: 13488: 13487: 13484: 13480: 13477: 13475: 13472: 13471: 13469: 13467: 13464: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13452: 13449: 13447: 13444: 13442: 13439: 13437: 13434: 13433: 13431: 13429: 13425: 13417: 13414: 13413: 13412: 13409: 13407: 13404: 13400: 13397: 13395: 13392: 13391: 13390: 13387: 13383: 13380: 13379: 13378: 13375: 13371: 13368: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13356: 13353: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13342: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13324: 13321: 13319: 13316: 13314: 13311: 13309: 13306: 13305: 13304: 13301: 13297: 13294: 13292: 13289: 13288: 13287: 13284: 13282: 13279: 13275: 13272: 13270: 13267: 13265: 13262: 13260: 13257: 13255: 13252: 13251: 13250: 13247: 13245: 13242: 13240: 13237: 13233: 13230: 13228: 13225: 13223: 13220: 13219: 13218: 13215: 13213: 13210: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13192: 13191: 13188: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13174: 13171: 13170: 13169: 13166: 13162: 13159: 13157: 13154: 13153: 13152: 13149: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13128: 13124: 13120: 13113: 13108: 13106: 13101: 13099: 13094: 13093: 13090: 13081: 13072: 13071: 13064: 13058: 13053: 13049: 13045: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13033: 13030: 13027: 13023: 13022: 13008: 13004: 13000: 12996: 12992: 12988: 12984: 12980: 12976: 12969: 12964: 12960: 12954: 12950: 12946: 12941: 12937: 12931: 12927: 12922: 12918: 12912: 12908: 12907: 12901: 12889: 12885: 12879: 12875: 12874: 12869: 12865: 12861: 12857: 12853: 12847: 12843: 12838: 12834: 12828: 12824: 12823: 12817: 12813: 12807: 12803: 12802: 12797: 12793: 12789: 12783: 12779: 12774: 12772: 12767: 12761: 12757: 12756: 12751: 12747: 12743: 12737: 12733: 12729: 12725: 12720: 12708: 12704: 12698: 12694: 12693: 12687: 12683: 12677: 12673: 12668: 12664: 12658: 12654: 12651:. Cambridge: 12650: 12649: 12644: 12640: 12636: 12632: 12626: 12622: 12617: 12605: 12601: 12595: 12591: 12590: 12584: 12580: 12574: 12569: 12568: 12561: 12557: 12551: 12547: 12546: 12540: 12536: 12530: 12526: 12522: 12518: 12514: 12510: 12506: 12500: 12496: 12491: 12487: 12481: 12477: 12476: 12470: 12466: 12460: 12456: 12455: 12449: 12445: 12439: 12435: 12430: 12418: 12414: 12408: 12404: 12403: 12397: 12393: 12387: 12383: 12380:. Cambridge: 12379: 12378: 12373: 12368: 12364: 12358: 12354: 12349: 12345: 12339: 12335: 12330: 12318: 12314: 12308: 12304: 12303: 12297: 12293: 12287: 12283: 12280:. Cambridge: 12279: 12278: 12273: 12268: 12256: 12252: 12246: 12242: 12241: 12235: 12231: 12225: 12221: 12216: 12212: 12206: 12202: 12197: 12185: 12181: 12180: 12174: 12170: 12164: 12160: 12155: 12143: 12139: 12133: 12129: 12128: 12122: 12118: 12112: 12108: 12103: 12091: 12087: 12081: 12077: 12076: 12070: 12059: 12053: 12049: 12048: 12042: 12038: 12032: 12028: 12023: 12019: 12013: 12009: 12008: 12002: 11990: 11986: 11980: 11977:. Routledge. 11976: 11975: 11969: 11965: 11959: 11955: 11950: 11946: 11940: 11936: 11931: 11927: 11921: 11917: 11916: 11910: 11898: 11894: 11888: 11884: 11883: 11877: 11873: 11867: 11863: 11862: 11857: 11853: 11849: 11843: 11839: 11834: 11833: 11812: 11808: 11804: 11797: 11789: 11784:Reprinted in 11780: 11776: 11769: 11750: 11746: 11739: 11733: 11717: 11713: 11709: 11702: 11694: 11690: 11686: 11680: 11664: 11660: 11656: 11650: 11634: 11630: 11626: 11620: 11612: 11606: 11602: 11595: 11579: 11575: 11574:gotheborg.com 11571: 11564: 11557: 11551: 11545: 11532: 11528: 11522: 11514: 11508: 11504: 11499: 11498: 11489: 11473: 11469: 11463: 11459: 11458: 11450: 11442: 11438: 11434: 11430: 11426: 11422: 11418: 11414: 11407: 11400: 11399:Porter (2016) 11395: 11388: 11387:Porter (2016) 11383: 11375: 11369: 11365: 11358: 11351: 11346: 11344: 11335: 11331: 11327: 11323: 11319: 11315: 11311: 11304: 11297: 11292: 11286:, p. 61. 11285: 11280: 11272: 11266: 11262: 11261: 11253: 11246: 11241: 11234: 11229: 11222: 11216: 11212: 11205: 11198: 11194: 11190: 11183: 11176: 11171: 11164: 11159: 11152: 11147: 11140: 11135: 11128: 11123: 11116: 11111: 11109: 11101: 11096: 11089: 11084: 11076: 11072: 11068: 11064: 11060: 11056: 11052: 11048: 11041: 11033: 11026: 11019: 11014: 11007: 11002: 10995: 10990: 10974: 10970: 10964: 10960: 10959: 10951: 10944: 10939: 10932: 10928: 10924: 10923:Reilly (2004) 10919: 10912: 10908: 10907:Reilly (2004) 10903: 10896: 10892: 10891:Reilly (2004) 10887: 10880: 10876: 10875:Reilly (2004) 10871: 10864: 10860: 10859:Reilly (2004) 10855: 10848: 10844: 10843:Reilly (2004) 10839: 10832: 10827: 10820: 10815: 10808: 10803: 10796: 10791: 10784: 10780: 10779:Reilly (2004) 10775: 10768: 10764: 10763:Reilly (2004) 10759: 10757: 10755: 10747: 10742: 10735: 10730: 10713: 10709: 10703: 10699: 10698: 10693: 10687: 10680: 10675: 10669: 10665: 10662: 10656: 10650: 10646: 10645: 10641: 10638: 10631: 10624: 10619: 10612: 10611:Rawski (1998) 10607: 10600: 10599:Rawski (1998) 10595: 10588: 10583: 10574: 10568: 10564: 10557: 10538: 10534: 10527: 10520: 10505: 10501: 10497: 10491: 10484: 10479: 10472: 10468: 10467:Sneath (2007) 10463: 10456: 10452: 10451:Sneath (2007) 10447: 10440: 10439:Porter (2016) 10435: 10433: 10431: 10429: 10427: 10425: 10423: 10415: 10410: 10403: 10398: 10391: 10387: 10386:Sneath (2007) 10382: 10375: 10370: 10363: 10358: 10351: 10346: 10339: 10334: 10327: 10322: 10320: 10318: 10316: 10314: 10306: 10301: 10294: 10289: 10273: 10269: 10263: 10259: 10258: 10250: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10220: 10219: 10211: 10195: 10191: 10187: 10181: 10173: 10167: 10163: 10162: 10154: 10138: 10134: 10128: 10124: 10123: 10115: 10099: 10095: 10091: 10087: 10083: 10079: 10075: 10071: 10067: 10063: 10056: 10050:, p. 92. 10049: 10044: 10042: 10034: 10029: 10023:, p. 91. 10022: 10017: 10009: 10004: 10002: 9994: 9975: 9971: 9964: 9958: 9951: 9947: 9942: 9933: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9912: 9906:, p. 28. 9905: 9900: 9894:, p. 27. 9893: 9888: 9881: 9880:Rawski (1998) 9876: 9869: 9868:Rawski (1998) 9864: 9862: 9853: 9852:两岸新编中国近代史．晚清卷 9846: 9838: 9836:9780429560347 9832: 9828: 9821: 9813: 9811:9789629374501 9807: 9803: 9796: 9780: 9776: 9770: 9763: 9758: 9750: 9744: 9740: 9739: 9731: 9724: 9719: 9712: 9707: 9701:, p. 39. 9700: 9699:Spence (2012) 9695: 9688: 9683: 9674: 9667: 9666:Rhoads (2000) 9662: 9655: 9650: 9643: 9638: 9631: 9630:Spence (2012) 9626: 9619: 9614: 9607: 9602: 9594: 9592:9783737007085 9588: 9584: 9583: 9575: 9560: 9554: 9547: 9542: 9535: 9534:Wright (1957) 9530: 9523: 9518: 9511: 9506: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9476: 9470:, p. 19. 9469: 9464: 9457: 9456:Spence (1990) 9452: 9445: 9439: 9423: 9419: 9415: 9409: 9402: 9401:Spence (2012) 9397: 9390: 9389:Spence (2012) 9385: 9378: 9373: 9367:, p. 68. 9366: 9361: 9355:, p. 35. 9354: 9349: 9343:, p. 72. 9342: 9341:Spence (2012) 9337: 9330: 9329:Spence (2012) 9325: 9318: 9317:Spence (2012) 9313: 9306: 9305:Perdue (2005) 9301: 9294: 9293:Spence (2012) 9289: 9281: 9279:9780861718061 9275: 9271: 9270: 9262: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9234: 9227: 9211: 9206: 9202: 9198: 9194: 9187: 9181: 9175: 9167: 9165:9781134362226 9161: 9157: 9156: 9148: 9140: 9138:9788120810679 9134: 9130: 9129: 9121: 9110: 9104: 9088: 9084: 9080: 9076: 9069: 9062: 9057: 9050: 9045: 9038: 9033: 9026: 9021: 9014: 9009: 9002: 8998: 8992: 8986:, p. 83. 8985: 8980: 8973: 8968: 8961: 8956: 8949: 8944: 8937: 8932: 8925: 8920: 8914:, p. 38. 8913: 8912:Spence (2012) 8908: 8906: 8898: 8894: 8889: 8882: 8878: 8877:Spence (1990) 8873: 8866: 8862: 8857: 8850: 8846: 8845:Rawski (1991) 8841: 8834: 8830: 8825: 8818: 8814: 8809: 8802: 8797: 8790: 8786: 8781: 8775:, p. 32. 8774: 8773:Spence (2012) 8769: 8756: 8750: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8720: 8714:, p. 65. 8713: 8708: 8701: 8696: 8687: 8680: 8676: 8675:Rawski (1991) 8671: 8662: 8655: 8650: 8648: 8631: 8627: 8621: 8617: 8616: 8608: 8592: 8588: 8582: 8578: 8577: 8569: 8562: 8558: 8553: 8546: 8541: 8534: 8529: 8522: 8517: 8501: 8497: 8493: 8487: 8479: 8473: 8470:. Routledge. 8469: 8468: 8460: 8458: 8450: 8445: 8437: 8433: 8430:(1): 23–39 . 8429: 8425: 8418: 8411: 8406: 8399: 8397:9780642278760 8393: 8389: 8382: 8366: 8362: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8341: 8334: 8329: 8321: 8315: 8311: 8304: 8285: 8284: 8276: 8269: 8264: 8255: 8253: 8244: 8237: 8222:. 16 May 2011 8221: 8215: 8200: 8198:9781108424615 8194: 8190: 8189: 8181: 8166: 8162: 8155: 8140: 8136: 8130: 8122: 8116: 8112: 8105: 8097: 8091: 8083: 8081:9787552632859 8077: 8073: 8066: 8047: 8043: 8039: 8035: 8031: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8014: 8006: 8002: 7996: 7994: 7992: 7984: 7980: 7979:Norman (1988) 7975: 7968: 7963: 7954: 7952: 7944: 7939: 7937: 7932: 7916: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7892: 7888: 7879:Chinese: 7876: 7870: 7854: 7848: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7820: 7816: 7800: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7768: 7764: 7748: 7742: 7741:ashan-i amban 7738: 7734: 7733:ashan i amban 7730: 7716: 7712: 7703:Chinese: 7700: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7682: 7668: 7664: 7648: 7642: 7633:Chinese: 7630: 7622: 7616: 7610: 7603: 7597: 7591:in 1911–1912. 7590: 7584: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7553: 7548: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7517: 7513: 7504:Chinese: 7501: 7497: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7456: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7360: 7355: 7344: 7341: 7330: 7323: 7320: 7316: 7315: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7298: 7289: 7287: 7286: 7281: 7277: 7276: 7271: 7267: 7266: 7261: 7257: 7256: 7251: 7247: 7246: 7241: 7237: 7236: 7231: 7230: 7225: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7212:Chinese opera 7209: 7205: 7201: 7197: 7190: 7186: 7181: 7177: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7145: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7102: 7098: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7071: 7066: 7062: 7061: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7049: 7039: 7035: 7030: 7021: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7005: 6998: 6994: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6967: 6963: 6961: 6956: 6952: 6948: 6943: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6860: 6857: 6856:Canton Cohong 6853: 6849: 6845: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6811: 6803: 6801: 6792: 6790: 6781: 6770: 6759: 6748: 6737: 6726: 6715: 6706: 6697: 6686: 6675: 6664: 6653: 6642: 6631: 6620: 6609: 6598: 6587: 6579: 6567: 6565: 6561: 6555: 6546: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6525:trade balance 6521: 6514: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6493: 6490: 6484: 6482: 6481:Western world 6478: 6474: 6469: 6465: 6459: 6456: 6451: 6443: 6438: 6430: 6425: 6415: 6412: 6406: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6343: 6341: 6337: 6332: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6303: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6259: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6192: 6187: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6152: 6148: 6147:Potala Palace 6144: 6140: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6112: 6110: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6080: 6070: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6057: 6051: 6049: 6041: 6037: 6027: 6020:Qing nobility 6017: 6015: 6009: 6001: 5997: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5980: 5979:Qing literati 5970: 5968: 5963: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5940: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5918: 5910: 5906: 5901: 5891: 5887: 5884:demanded the 5883: 5879: 5874: 5872: 5867: 5861: 5859: 5854: 5850: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5829:Qing literati 5820: 5818: 5814: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5796:Kumul Khanate 5793: 5789: 5785: 5784:Dungan revolt 5781: 5777: 5773: 5768: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5708: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5611: 5608: 5600: 5590: 5586: 5580: 5579: 5574:This section 5572: 5568: 5563: 5562: 5554: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5511: 5496: 5491: 5485: 5476: 5469: 5464: 5455: 5453: 5449: 5448: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5402: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5375: 5372: 5367: 5363: 5361: 5360:privy council 5356: 5352: 5351:Grand Council 5348: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5304: 5302: 5301:United States 5298: 5294: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5209: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5178: 5173: 5169: 5163: 5153: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5114:conservatives 5111: 5102: 5098: 5096: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5059: 5057: 5056:royal cabinet 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5001: 4995: 4991: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4947: 4943: 4941: 4936: 4932: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4877:Juye Incident 4874: 4870: 4869:Summer Palace 4865: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4834: 4829: 4825: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4777: 4775: 4771: 4768:known as the 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4636: 4632: 4623: 4619: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4571:civil service 4568: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4485: 4480: 4476: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4445:Canton System 4442: 4438: 4434: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4390: 4385: 4376: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4322: 4318: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4299: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4258: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4229: 4225: 4224:Grand Council 4221: 4211: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4192: 4191:Potala Palace 4188: 4184: 4180: 4171: 4169: 4165: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4112: 4107: 4103: 4101: 4095: 4093: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4048: 4043: 4042:Son of Heaven 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3995:neo-Confucian 3992: 3988: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3969:High Qing era 3966: 3956: 3954: 3948: 3946: 3942: 3932: 3922: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3902: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3886: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3841:Son of Heaven 3838: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3822:Chen Yuanyuan 3819: 3815: 3811: 3806: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3767: 3762: 3752: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3732:Tiancong Khan 3729: 3725: 3721: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3702:imperial seal 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3643: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3611: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3534: 3528: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3497: 3487: 3481: 3476: 3464: 3452: 3443: 3437: 3432: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3400: 3392: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3249:Dungan Revolt 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3209:High Qing era 3205: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3138:prince regent 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3090:at the time. 3089: 3086:, it was the 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3028: 3022: 3004: 2992: 2987: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2973: 2972: 2970: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2935: 2933: 2930: 2928: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2918: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2908: 2907:Green Ukraine 2905: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2865: 2862:Modern period 2859: 2858: 2851: 2848: 2845: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2820:Northern Yuan 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2763: 2761: 2758: 2757: 2751: 2750: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2670: 2668: 2667:Xianbei state 2665: 2663: 2660: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2642:Takri Kingdom 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2605: 2602: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2585: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2564: 2554: 2549: 2547: 2542: 2540: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2524: 2521: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2493: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2486:Naval history 2484: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2472: 2471: 2470: 2469:Music history 2467: 2465: 2464:Media history 2462: 2460: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2450: 2449:Legal history 2447: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2431: 2423: 2422: 2403:1949–present) 2399: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2391: 2383: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2373: 2370: 2369: 2364: 2354: 2353: 2349: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2337: 2321: 2320: 2316: 2315: 2308: 2307: 2303: 2302: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2289: 2286: 2265: 2264: 2260: 2257: 2252: 2251: 2247: 2244: 2239: 2238: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2228: 2220: 2219: 2218:Southern Song 2215: 2210: 2209: 2208:Northern Song 2205: 2204: 2198: 2197: 2193: 2192: 2185: 2184: 2178: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2166: 2146: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2140: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2130: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2110: 2109: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2078: 2077: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2066: 2064: 2056: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2045: 2041: 2040: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2029: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2008: 2004: 2003: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1991: 1987: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1974: 1967: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1939:(206–202 BCE) 1937: 1936: 1932: 1931: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1919: 1914:(221–207 BCE) 1912: 1911: 1907: 1906: 1903: 1896: 1890: 1889: 1879:(475–221 BCE) 1877: 1874: 1858: 1855: 1854: 1852:(771–256 BCE) 1850: 1849: 1845: 1840: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1817: 1816: 1812: 1811: 1793: 1792: 1788: 1787: 1770: 1769: 1765: 1764: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1722: 1721: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1709: 1705: 1704: 1687: 1686: 1682: 1681: 1677: 1676: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1661: 1660: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1614: 1606: 1603:Daicing gurun 1602: 1600: 1596: 1593:Daiqing gurun 1592: 1590: 1586: 1578: 1575: 1574: 1571: 1569: 1568:Manchu script 1565: 1560: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1537: 1533: 1523: 1520: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1489: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1447: 1441: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1389: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1370: 1368: 1364: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1319: 1315: 1310: 1306: 1301: 1298: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1284:Dynastic name 1282: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1247: 1244: 1240: 1234: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1192: 1188: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1167: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1112: 1110: 1106: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1076: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1027: 995: 993: 990: 989: 981: 979: 976: 975: 967: 965: 962: 961: 953: 951: 948: 947: 944: 938: 935: 928: 927: 924: 921: 914: 913: 910: 907: 900: 899: 896: 893: 886: 885: 882: 881: 878: 875: 873: 870: 869: 865: 859: 856: 854: 851: 849: 846: 845: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 802: 798: 792: 789: 783: 779: 776: 770: 766: 763: 757: 753: 750: 744: 740: 737: 731: 727: 724: 718: 714: 710: 703: 699: 696: 695:2nd Opium War 690: 686: 683: 677: 673: 670: 669:1st Opium War 664: 660: 657: 651: 647: 643: 634: 630: 627: 619: 615: 612: 606: 602: 599: 596: 592: 583: 579: 574: 570: 569: 567: 563: 559: 556: 553: 547: 543:, Prince Qing 542: 538: 532: 528: 524: 522: 518: 514: 510:, Prince Chun 509: 505: 499: 495: 492: 486: 482: 478: 476: 472: 468: 465: 462: 456: 453: 450: 444: 441: 438: 432: 428: 424: 422: 418: 415: 412: 408: 405: 402: 400: 396: 390: 389: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 323: 322: 320: 317: 315: 312: 311: 309: 305: 299: 298: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 263: 261: 259: 255: 248: 244: 242: 239: 238: 236: 232: 228: 224: 216: 212: 208: 204: 203: 201: 197: 190: 185: 181: 170: 166: 137:" (1911–1912) 136: 126: 125: 122: 118: 113: 106: 99: 94: 85: 70: 66: 55: 54: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 19543:Qing dynasty 19445: 17636:Qing dynasty 17635: 17585:Treaty ports 17547: 17540: 17514:Other topics 17287: 17280: 17258: 17246: 17229: 17224:Peiwen Yunfu 17222: 17200: 17193: 17164: 16913:Beiyang Army 16895:Zongli Yamen 16751:Da-Qing Bank 16568:Red Lanterns 16221:Qing dynasty 16220: 16160:South Africa 16155:Sierra Leone 16102: 15932:Two Sicilies 15867:Papal States 15667: 15606: 15499: 15365: 15125:Cook Islands 14978: 14964:Saudi Arabia 14893: 14320:Contemporary 14170:Indo-Persian 14158:Nazi Germany 14102:Contemporary 14086: 14004:Vijayanagara 13903:Great Seljuk 13814:Thessalonica 13742:Golden Horde 13382:Carthaginian 13161:Neo-Assyrian 13146:Neo-Sumerian 13068: 13063:Ming dynasty 13007:the original 12978: 12975:Modern China 12974: 12948: 12925: 12905: 12892:. Retrieved 12872: 12841: 12821: 12799: 12796:Têng, Ssu-yü 12777: 12753: 12723: 12711:. Retrieved 12691: 12671: 12647: 12620: 12608:. Retrieved 12588: 12566: 12544: 12524: 12494: 12474: 12453: 12433: 12421:. Retrieved 12401: 12376: 12352: 12333: 12321:. Retrieved 12301: 12276: 12259:. Retrieved 12239: 12219: 12200: 12188:. Retrieved 12184:the original 12178: 12158: 12146:. Retrieved 12126: 12106: 12094:. Retrieved 12074: 12061:. Retrieved 12046: 12026: 12006: 11993:. Retrieved 11973: 11953: 11934: 11914: 11901:. Retrieved 11881: 11860: 11837: 11815:. Retrieved 11806: 11796: 11787: 11778: 11768: 11758:13 September 11756:. Retrieved 11749:the original 11744: 11732: 11720:. Retrieved 11711: 11701: 11693:the original 11688: 11679: 11669:13 September 11667:. Retrieved 11658: 11649: 11639:13 September 11637:. Retrieved 11633:the original 11628: 11619: 11600: 11594: 11582:. Retrieved 11573: 11563: 11555: 11554:Boda, Yang. 11550: 11535:. Retrieved 11521: 11496: 11488: 11478:10 September 11476:. Retrieved 11456: 11449: 11416: 11412: 11406: 11394: 11382: 11363: 11357: 11317: 11313: 11303: 11291: 11279: 11259: 11252: 11240: 11228: 11210: 11204: 11196: 11192: 11182: 11170: 11158: 11146: 11134: 11122: 11095: 11083: 11050: 11046: 11040: 11031: 11025: 11013: 11001: 10989: 10977:, retrieved 10957: 10950: 10938: 10918: 10902: 10886: 10870: 10854: 10838: 10831:Daily (2013) 10826: 10819:Daily (2013) 10814: 10809:, p. 1. 10807:Daily (2013) 10802: 10790: 10774: 10741: 10729: 10716:. Retrieved 10696: 10686: 10674: 10655: 10648: 10635: 10630: 10618: 10606: 10594: 10582: 10562: 10556: 10544:. Retrieved 10532: 10519: 10508:, retrieved 10499: 10490: 10485:, p. 3. 10478: 10462: 10446: 10409: 10397: 10381: 10369: 10357: 10345: 10333: 10300: 10288: 10276:. Retrieved 10256: 10249: 10237:. Retrieved 10217: 10210: 10198:. Retrieved 10189: 10180: 10160: 10153: 10141:. Retrieved 10121: 10114: 10102:. Retrieved 10069: 10065: 10055: 10028: 10016: 10000: 9993: 9981:. Retrieved 9969: 9957: 9941: 9932: 9916: 9911: 9899: 9887: 9875: 9851: 9850:王建朗 (2016). 9845: 9826: 9820: 9801: 9795: 9783:. Retrieved 9779:the original 9769: 9757: 9737: 9730: 9718: 9706: 9694: 9682: 9673: 9661: 9649: 9637: 9625: 9613: 9601: 9581: 9574: 9562:. Retrieved 9553: 9541: 9529: 9522:Hevia (2003) 9517: 9510:Platt (2012) 9505: 9493:. Retrieved 9484: 9475: 9463: 9451: 9443: 9438: 9426:. Retrieved 9422:the original 9417: 9408: 9396: 9384: 9372: 9360: 9348: 9336: 9324: 9312: 9300: 9288: 9268: 9261: 9236: 9232: 9226: 9216:17 September 9214:. Retrieved 9203:(20220303). 9200: 9196: 9186: 9174: 9154: 9147: 9127: 9120: 9103: 9091:. Retrieved 9082: 9078: 9068: 9056: 9044: 9032: 9020: 9008: 9000: 8991: 8979: 8972:Ebrey (1993) 8967: 8960:Faure (2007) 8955: 8943: 8931: 8919: 8888: 8872: 8856: 8840: 8824: 8808: 8796: 8780: 8768: 8760:《清世祖實錄》，《明史》 8755:Shanhai Pass 8749: 8737:. Retrieved 8728: 8719: 8707: 8695: 8686: 8670: 8661: 8654:Ebrey (2010) 8634:. Retrieved 8614: 8607: 8595:. 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Retrieved 8017: 8011: 7974: 7962: 7914: 7906: 7884: 7875: 7868:jūnjī dàchén 7866: 7853: 7846: 7838: 7812: 7799: 7792: 7784: 7760: 7747: 7740: 7732: 7708: 7699: 7692: 7684: 7660: 7647: 7638: 7629: 7609: 7596: 7583: 7575: 7567: 7547: 7539: 7531: 7509: 7500: 7453: 7340:China portal 7312: 7295: 7283: 7275:The Scholars 7273: 7263: 7253: 7243: 7233: 7227: 7193: 7151: 7134:Bada Shanren 7107: 7068: 7065:Zhang Zeduan 7058: 7052: 7048:Peiwen Yunfu 7046: 7043: 7038:Peking glass 7010:Liang Qichao 7006: 7002: 6996: 6964: 6944: 6909: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6866: 6841: 6799: 6788: 6614: 6563: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6517: 6485: 6460: 6450:Ming dynasty 6447: 6411:missionaries 6407: 6394: 6387: 6374:Hong Xiuquan 6371: 6344: 6319: 6315:Christianity 6299: 6224:Confucianism 6212:filial piety 6197: 6155: 6136: 6109:Sacred Edict 6082: 6067: 6060: 6052: 6045: 6010: 6006: 5988: 5985:Song dynasty 5982: 5957: 5953: 5946: 5936: 5932: 5924: 5900:Heilongjiang 5875: 5862: 5845: 5769: 5709: 5696: 5672: 5664: 5652: 5640: 5618: 5603: 5594: 5583:Please help 5578:verification 5575: 5516: 5468:China proper 5445: 5418:inner palace 5403: 5379: 5344: 5339: 5310: 5210: 5190:Ming dynasty 5186:bureaucratic 5183: 5150:Soviet Union 5144:. After the 5136:and founded 5107: 5079:Beiyang Army 5060: 5037: 5006: 4964: 4928: 4881:Jiaozhou Bay 4866: 4838: 4797:Itō Hirobumi 4778: 4731: 4727:Beiyang Army 4719:Zongli Yamen 4711:Li Hongzhang 4695:Zuo Zongtang 4692: 4668: 4651: 4649: 4628: 4567:Hong Xiuquan 4556: 4528:Treaty Ports 4492:mercantilist 4489: 4465: 4429: 4411:, while the 4394: 4366: 4358:Heilongjiang 4337: 4325: 4303:Siku Quanshu 4302: 4296: 4272: 4249: 4227: 4207: 4196: 4116: 4096: 4088: 4045: 4029: 4025: 4019: 4015:foot binding 4011:Sacred Edict 3984: 3949: 3917: 3889: 3881: 3869: 3865: 3834: 3814:Shanhai Pass 3807: 3799:Shun dynasty 3788: 3772: 3744: 3740: 3727: 3718:invade Korea 3706:Yuan dynasty 3698:Han mandarin 3683: 3647: 3610:Water Margin 3608: 3602: 3592: 3579:Heilongjiang 3556: 3510: 3506: 3504: 3495:nèiwài yījiā 3493: 3483: 3460: 3439: 3436:China proper 3433: 3402: 3388: 3378: 3371: 3369: 3320:Liang Qichao 3289: 3241:treaty ports 3206: 3178:Joseon Korea 3148:delayed the 3126:Shanhai Pass 3092: 3078:and in 1790 3064:Ming dynasty 3031: 3003:Qing dynasty 3002: 3000: 2800:Liao dynasty 2790:Later Balhae 2765:Tang dynasty 2717:Northern Yan 2459:LGBT history 2395: 2377: 2350: 2318: 2317: 2304: 2291: 2261: 2248: 2235: 2216: 2206: 2194: 2183:Ten Kingdoms 2179: 2132: 2119: 2106:Northern and 2104: 2074: 2052: 2042: 2010: 2000: 1994: 1988: 1982:(220–280 CE) 1976: 1963: 1953: 1943: 1933: 1921: 1908: 1848:Eastern Zhou 1846: 1838:Western Zhou 1836: 1813: 1789: 1766: 1742: 1718: 1712: 1706: 1683: 1673: 1551:Daiqing ulus 1450:Southern Min 1325:Hanyu Pinyin 1243:Southern Min 1130:Ch'ing ch'ao 1095:Hanyu Pinyin 1059:Chinese name 1050:Qing dynasty 1023: 964:Bogd Khanate 909:Ming dynasty 877:Succeeded by 876: 871: 626:Ming to Qing 535:• 1911 496:, Prince Rui 386: 377:Christianity 314:Confucianism 295: 226:Largest city 168: 120: 43: 19467: / 17638:(1644–1912) 17521:Aisin Gioro 17483:Paper money 17242:Qing poetry 16963:Wuwei Corps 16958:Shuishiying 16719:Family tree 16099:British Raj 16071:(Sri Lanka) 15957:Württemberg 15669:South Yemen 15557:Maguindanao 15450:Afghanistan 15211:Barotseland 15147:Saint Lucia 15120:New Zealand 15029:Netherlands 14802:Chhatrapati 14786:Sovereignty 14726:Aristocracy 13908:Khwarezmian 13841:Carolingian 13646:Rashtrakuta 13350:Shaishunaga 13249:Hellenistic 13232:New Kingdom 13222:Old Kingdom 12981:(1): 3–30. 12063:1 September 11915:The Manchus 11505:–331, 396. 11053:: 129–149. 10925:, pp. 10845:, pp. 10746:Bays (2012) 10734:Bays (2012) 10469:, pp. 10441:, p. . 10414:Rowe (2009) 10374:Rowe (2009) 10362:Rowe (2009) 10350:Rowe (2009) 10338:Rowe (2009) 10328:, p. . 10326:Rowe (2009) 10293:Rowe (2002) 10048:Rowe (2009) 10033:Rowe (2009) 10021:Rowe (2009) 9723:Rowe (2009) 9564:9 September 9428:30 December 9365:Rowe (2009) 9239:(1): 5–34. 9093:14 November 9061:Rowe (2009) 8974:, p. . 8636:19 November 8597:19 November 8506:15 February 8449:Zhao (2006) 8410:Zhao (2006) 8289:. p. 1 8268:Rowe (2009) 7981:, pp. 7943:Rowe (2009) 7903:Möllendorff 7835:Möllendorff 7793:dorgi yamun 7785:dorgi yamun 7781:Möllendorff 7729:Möllendorff 7693:aliha amban 7685:aliha amban 7681:Möllendorff 7564:Möllendorff 7528:Möllendorff 7278:(1750) and 7240:Pu Songling 7110:Calligraphy 7095:Orientalism 7087:chinoiserie 7014:Wang Guowei 6988:Qing poetry 6916:mathematics 6819: 1710 6505:Silver coin 6468:Grand Canal 6367:White Lotus 6248:White Lotus 5973:Qing gentry 5858:infanticide 5748:Tarim Basin 5657:prefectures 5503: 1820 5347:Inner Court 5326:Outer Court 5269:Netherlands 5194:Han Chinese 5089:he created 5075:Sun Yat-sen 4994:Yuan Shikai 4935:Kang Youwei 4793:Gapsin Coup 4766:proto-state 4762:gold miners 4707:Zeng Guofan 4679:Prince Gong 4596:Miao people 4588:Zeng Guofan 4157:. The 1689 4022:Inner Asian 3857:Pindale Min 3462:Zhōngguórén 3316:Kang Youwei 3312:Sun Yat-sen 3170:scholarship 3164:(including 3124:opened the 2657:Han dynasty 2578:History of 2506:Discoveries 2501:Cartography 2496:Archaeology 2434:Art history 2323:(1644–1912) 2310:(1368–1644) 2297:(1271–1368) 2267:(1115–1234) 2254:(1038–1227) 2250:Western Xia 2222:(1127–1279) 2054:Eastern Jin 2044:Western Jin 1969:(25–220 CE) 1965:Eastern Han 1945:Western Han 1824: 1046 1804: 1046 1800: 1250 1777: 1600 1753: 2070 1694: 8500 1675:Paleolithic 1666:Prehistoric 1599:Möllendorff 1562:Manchu name 1425:daai6 cing1 1411:Daaih Chīng 1273:Tshing tiâu 1259:Chheng tiâu 1204:Chīng Chìuh 872:Preceded by 858:Paper money 598:Late modern 585:(1910–1912) 576:(1636–1733) 565:Legislature 555:Yuan Shikai 217:(1644–1912) 209:(1636–1644) 114:(1889–1912) 39:Qin dynasty 18:Qing empire 19482:Categories 17189:Four Wangs 17080:mausoleums 17033:Golden Urn 17006:Inner Asia 16983:Xiang Army 16953:Hushenying 16878:Liangguang 16858:Liangjiang 16796:Lifan Yuan 16701:Government 16165:Tanganyika 16080:The Gambia 16008:Niuē-Fekai 15947:Yugoslavia 15847:Montenegro 15654:Upper Yafa 15649:Upper Asir 15286:Madagascar 15019:Luxembourg 14751:Government 14716:Abdication 14685:Hereditary 14613:Monarchies 14478:Portuguese 14359:Revival Le 14349:Vietnamese 13992:Later Tran 13962:Vietnamese 13858:Singhasari 13846:Holy Roman 13470:Bulgarian 13406:Satavahana 13377:Phoenician 13313:Achaemenid 13274:Indo-Greek 13254:Macedonian 13168:Babylonian 13074:1644–1912 12599:0295979380 12443:0521228093 11722:18 January 10909:, p. 10893:, p. 10877:, p. 10861:, p. 10781:, p. 10765:, p. 10707:0674445155 10572:0340741333 10453:, p. 10388:, p. 10239:8 November 10200:8 November 10104:8 November 10008:Wikisource 9948:, p. 9785:19 October 9654:Hsü (1990) 9546:Hsü (1990) 9495:7 November 9377:Hsü (1990) 9353:Hsü (1990) 8895:, p. 8879:, p. 8863:, p. 8847:, p. 8831:, p. 8815:, p. 8787:, p. 8677:, p. 8559:, p. 8424:Inner Asia 8020:(3): 500. 7923:References 7587:Briefly a 7260:Cao Xueqin 7196:literature 7130:Four Wangs 6974:See also: 6947:Opium Wars 6928:metallurgy 6870:Opium wars 6832:Puankhequa 6359:Opium Wars 6331:Franciscan 6101:State Cult 5827:See also: 5732:Lifan Yuan 5597:March 2022 5299:) and the 5233:consulates 5166:See also: 5156:Government 5110:abdication 4899:, and the 4845:Wade–Giles 4833:Hubert Vos 4813:Pescadores 4774:Amur river 4409:Inner Asia 4405:Lifan Yuan 4164:Dalai Lama 4064:Bogda Khan 3963:See also: 3849:Prince Gui 3845:pretenders 3818:Great Wall 3795:Li Zicheng 3759:See also: 3730:(Coins of 3686:Hong Taiji 3680:Hong Taiji 3640:" or the " 3515:Wade–Giles 3513:using the 3492:) and 3465:; Manchu: 3425:Inner Asia 3372:Great Qing 3364:See also: 3265:suzerainty 3225:Opium Wars 3192:including 3190:Inner Asia 3182:Lê dynasty 3114:Hong Taiji 3032:Great Qing 2707:Former Qin 2702:Former Yan 2511:Inventions 2241:(916–1125) 2212:(960–1127) 2200:(960–1279) 1867: – c. 1865: 770 1826: – c. 1802: – c. 1791:Late Shang 1779: – c. 1755: – c. 1696: – c. 1503:Дайчин Улс 1480:Tāi-tshing 1466:Tāi-chheng 1353:Wade–Giles 1218:cing1 ciu4 1177:Suzhounese 1123:Wade–Giles 611:Proclaimed 410:Government 399:Demonym(s) 50:Great Qing 17011:Manchuria 16978:Huai Army 16968:Yong Ying 16853:Shaan-Gan 16309:High Qing 16255:Later Jin 16135:Mauritius 16028:Rarotonga 16013:Nuku Hiva 16003:Mangareva 15978:Bora Bora 15857:Neuchâtel 15827:Lithuania 15732:Catalonia 15619:Sri Lanka 15572:Manchukuo 15547:Kurdistan 15501:Indonesia 15424:Talamanca 15384:Araucanía 15367:and other 15346:Wassoulou 15090:Australia 14766:Oligarchy 14471:Couronian 14109:Ethiopian 14097:Manchukuo 14052:Brazilian 13898:Ghaznavid 13868:Srivijaya 13819:Trebizond 13804:Byzantine 13786:North Sea 13781:Norwegian 13769:Almoravid 13752:Ilkhanate 13722:Majapahit 13695:Muromachi 13604:Solomonic 13589:Ethiopian 13503:Caliphate 13436:Aragonese 13264:Ptolemaic 13034:from the 13003:144587815 12610:2 October 12513:920818520 11918:. Wiley. 11441:202928323 11334:225162563 10086:0004-5608 9418:china.com 9085:: 59–92. 9049:Ho (2011) 9037:Ho (2011) 9025:Ho (2011) 9013:Ho (2011) 8712:Li (2002) 8700:Li (2002) 8090:cite book 8072:歷史與時事學法指導 8034:0020-8833 7928:Citations 7814:jūnjī chù 7511:Shèngjīng 7280:Li Ruzhen 7270:Wu Jingzi 7122:four arts 7024:Fine arts 6960:feng shui 6920:geography 6912:astronomy 6800:Altishahr 6520:New World 6403:indemnity 6355:Liang Afa 6327:Dominican 6157:Shamanism 6133:, Beijing 5929:Manchuria 5888:annexing 5792:Kashgaria 5788:Yakub Beg 5757:Manchuria 5744:Dzungaria 5740:Tian Shan 5629:censorate 5621:provinces 5553:in 1895. 5263:, Japan, 5229:legations 5138:Manchukuo 5126:Zhang Xun 4835:c. 1905)) 4449:Guangzhou 4441:Indonesia 4401:East Asia 4350:Manchuria 4246:1755–1758 3991:High Qing 3810:Wu Sangui 3539:Formation 3421:Manchuria 3158:Confucian 2947:Manchuria 2932:Manchukuo 2850:Qing rule 2835:Later Jin 2825:Ming rule 2815:Yuan rule 2712:Later Yan 2580:Manchuria 2187:(907–979) 2148:(690–705) 2138:(618–907) 2125:(581–618) 2112:(420–589) 2080:(304–439) 2058:(317–420) 2048:(266–316) 2016:(266–420) 1959:(9–23 CE) 1685:Neolithic 1649:Dynasties 1359:Ta Ch'ing 1183:Tshin záu 1145:Cing cháo 1101:Qīng cháo 895:Later Jin 780:1911–1912 767:1901–1911 754:1900–1901 728:1894–1895 715:1861–1895 700:1856–1860 687:1850–1864 674:1839–1842 661:1747–1792 648:1687–1758 631:1644–1662 369:Mongolian 353:Shamanism 330:Mongolian 307:Religion 96:1644–1912 19455:116°23′E 17463:Hongqian 17432:Currency 17302:Treaties 17208:Kaozheng 17155:Booi Aha 17097:Hetu Ala 17050:Timeline 17045:Xinjiang 17016:Mongolia 16973:Chu Army 16948:New Army 16905:Military 16843:Viceroys 16150:Rhodesia 16145:Pakistan 16064:Barbados 16033:Rimatara 16023:Rapa Iti 15952:Valencia 15927:Tavolara 15917:Scotland 15882:Portugal 15842:Moldavia 15727:Bulgaria 15722:Brittany 15697:Asturias 15577:Mongolia 15567:Maldives 15429:Trinidad 15419:Suriname 15377:Americas 15361:Zimbabwe 15356:Zanzibar 15341:Wituland 15316:Ngazidja 15311:Ndzuwani 15246:Ethiopia 14969:Thailand 14949:Malaysia 14929:Cambodia 14879:Eswatini 14675:Elective 14660:Absolute 14451:Japanese 14414:Scottish 14394:American 14386:Colonial 14315:Imperial 14283:Moroccan 14219:Japanese 14197:Afsharid 14056:Burmese 14042:Austrian 13997:Later Le 13972:Early Le 13957:Venetian 13883:Tiwanaku 13796:Hellenic 13759:Moroccan 13690:Kamakura 13680:Japanese 13663:Saffarid 13616:Georgian 13530:Chalukya 13508:Rashidun 13498:Calakmul 13466:Bruneian 13345:Haryanka 13323:Sasanian 13318:Parthian 13269:Bactrian 13259:Seleucid 13239:Goguryeo 13217:Egyptian 13151:Assyrian 13141:Akkadian 13132:Colonies 13044:Archived 12995:20062627 12888:Archived 12870:(1977). 12752:(1990). 12707:Archived 12604:Archived 12417:Archived 12317:Archived 12255:Archived 12142:Archived 12090:Archived 11989:Archived 11897:Archived 11858:(2012). 11811:Archived 11716:Archived 11663:Archived 11578:Archived 11531:Archived 11472:Archived 11075:34206810 10973:archived 10712:Archived 10694:(1999). 10664:Archived 10640:Archived 10537:Archived 10504:archived 10278:8 August 10272:Archived 10233:Archived 10194:Archived 10192:. 2012. 10137:Archived 10098:Archived 9974:Archived 9925:6931635M 9489:Archived 9087:Archived 8733:Archived 8630:Archived 8591:Archived 8500:Archived 8371:14 March 8365:Archived 8293:22 March 8046:Archived 7909:, 7901:, 7841:, 7833:, 7827:ᠨᠠᠰᡥᡡᠨ ᡳ 7787:, 7779:, 7735:, 7727:, 7687:, 7679:, 7662:shàngshū 7615:Dulimbai 7570:, 7562:, 7534:, 7526:, 7326:See also 7301:Yuan Mei 7288:(1827). 7232:and the 7185:Qianlong 7170:Wei Yuan 7166:Lin Zexu 7158:Gu Yanwu 7154:Dai Zhen 7114:painting 7075:ceramics 7034:Daoguang 6936:printing 6924:ceramics 6848:the West 6789:Khalkhas 6513:Chopmark 6509:Xuantong 6228:Buddhism 6161:Tungusic 6089:Tian Xia 6073:Religion 5954:liangmin 5950:literati 5925:Guandong 5853:smallpox 5724:Xinjiang 5643:) and a 5633:governor 5531:Xinjiang 5438:Jiangnan 5430:Mongolia 5322:chancery 5295:(or the 5281:Portugal 4791:led the 4614:and the 4548:Shanghai 4504:Lin Zexu 4459:and the 4289:Mongolia 4285:Xinjiang 4240:Dzungars 4228:de facto 4119:Dzungars 4070:"). The 4030:hūwangdi 3941:smallpox 3901:Jiangnan 3658:Liaoyang 3654:Hetu Ala 3644:Tartars" 3599:Jianzhou 3567:Jurchens 3517:system. 3467:ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ 3441:Zhōngguó 3413:Manjusri 3401:, while 3202:Xinjiang 3198:Mongolia 3180:and the 3162:Buddhism 3144:and the 3136:and his 3048:Shenyang 3034:, was a 2805:Xingliao 2687:Goguryeo 2622:Gojoseon 2569:a series 2567:Part of 2474:Timeline 2401:(Taiwan, 2381:of China 1895:Imperial 1644:Timeline 1618:a series 1616:Part of 1545:SASM/GNC 1419:Jyutping 1339:Bopomofo 1212:Jyutping 1109:Bopomofo 841:Currency 319:Buddhism 286:Tibetans 207:Shenyang 19452:39°55′N 17634:in the 17448:Zhiqian 17440:Coinage 17177:Economy 17148:culture 16883:Yun-Gui 16873:Min-Zhe 16868:Sichuan 16863:Huguang 16709:Emperor 16230:History 16140:Nigeria 16115:Ireland 16043:Tahuata 16018:Raiatea 15998:Huahine 15973:Abemama 15966:Oceania 15937:Tuscany 15892:Romania 15887:Prussia 15852:Navarre 15832:Majorca 15812:Ireland 15807:Imereti 15802:Iceland 15797:Hungary 15792:Hanover 15787:Granada 15777:Germany 15772:Georgia 15767:Galicia 15757:Finland 15747:Corsica 15742:Cilicia 15712:Bavaria 15702:Austria 15687:Albania 15659:Vietnam 15602:Sarawak 15592:Qu'aiti 15527:Kathiri 15490:Dapitan 15465:Bukhara 15414:Miskito 15336:Tunisia 15326:Shilluk 15236:Dahomey 15226:Burundi 15216:Bagirmi 15196:Adamawa 15115:Jamaica 15110:Grenada 15095:Bahamas 15059:Oceania 15009:Denmark 15004:Belgium 14999:Andorra 14914:Bahrain 14889:Morocco 14884:Lesotho 14863:Current 14854:Pharaoh 14807:Emperor 14746:Dynasty 14700:Regency 14680:Federal 14670:Diarchy 14624:Monarch 14518:largest 14513:Empires 14493:Swedish 14488:Spanish 14483:Russian 14446:Italian 14421:Chinese 14409:English 14404:British 14399:Belgian 14374:Vietnam 14364:Tay son 14310:Tsarist 14305:Russian 14300:Ottoman 14266:Dzungar 14261:Khoshut 14234:Mexican 14229:Maratha 14212:Pahlavi 14192:Safavid 14187:Iranian 14114:Haitian 14077:Chinese 14037:Ashanti 14009:Wagadou 13935:Eastern 13930:Western 13913:Timurid 13873:Tibetan 13863:Songhai 13853:Serbian 13774:Almohad 13764:Idrisid 13668:Samanid 13658:Tahirid 13653:Iranian 13631:Kannauj 13611:Genoese 13547:Chinese 13540:Eastern 13535:Western 13523:Fatimid 13518:Abbasid 13513:Umayyad 13486:Burmese 13446:Ayyubid 13441:Angevin 13411:Xianbei 13399:Eastern 13394:Western 13340:Magadha 13303:Iranian 13296:Xiongnu 13281:Hittite 13190:Chinese 13178:Kassite 13127:Ancient 13119:Empires 13050:at the 12894:12 July 12860:2424772 12645:(ed.). 12434:Chinese 12423:5 March 12374:(ed.). 12274:(ed.). 12261:15 June 12190:17 June 12148:15 June 12096:12 July 11995:12 July 11829:Sources 11777:(ed.). 11659:The Met 11067:7581277 10979:16 June 10718:15 June 10546:15 June 10510:15 June 10471:105–106 10143:11 July 10094:2563132 9983:13 June 9253:2718931 8739:21 July 8725:"China" 8055:24 July 8042:2600793 7983:133–134 7825:ᠴᠣᡠ᠋ᡥᠠᡳ 7721:ᠠᠰᡥᠠᠨ ᡳ 7710:shìláng 7297:Cuisine 7292:Cuisine 7250:Shen Fu 7036:period 6863:Revenue 6735:KHANATE 6724:KHANATE 6722:CRIMEAN 6695:KHANATE 6693:BUKHARA 6684:KHANATE 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