832:
have been distinguished: 'dictionary criticism' (or evaluating the quality of one or more dictionaries, e.g. by means of reviews (see
Nielsen 1999), 'dictionary history' (or tracing the traditions of a type of dictionary or of lexicography in a particular country or language), 'dictionary typology' (or classifying the various genres of reference works, such as dictionary versus encyclopedia, monolingual versus bilingual dictionary, general versus technical or pedagogical dictionary), 'dictionary structure' (or formatting the various ways in which the information is presented in a dictionary), 'dictionary use' (or observing the reference acts and skills of dictionary users), and 'dictionary IT' (or applying
46:
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in all its aspects (see e.g. Nielsen 1994). In spite of a relatively long history of this type of dictionary, it is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its unilingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language. Not all genres
674:
Generally, lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary (Language for
General Purpose). Specialized
831:
Theoretical lexicography concerns the same aspects as lexicography, but aims to develop principles that can improve the quality of future dictionaries, for instance in terms of access to data and lexicographic information costs. Several perspectives or branches of such academic dictionary research
917:
in the 15th century, lexicography flourished. Dictionaries became increasingly widespread, and their purpose shifted from a way to store lexical knowledge to a mode of disseminating lexical information. Modern lexicographical practices began taking shape during the 18th and 19th centuries, led by
711:
are tasked with defining simple words as well as figuring out how compound or complex words or words with many meanings can be clearly explained. They also make decisions regarding which words should be kept, added, or removed from a dictionary. They are responsible for arranging lexical material
972:
began to impact the field, which had traditionally been a time-consuming, detail-oriented task. The advent of AI has been hailed by some as the "end of lexicography". Others are skeptical that human lexicographers will be outmoded in a field studying the particularly human substance of language.
675:
lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of specialized dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that are devoted to a (relatively restricted) set of linguistic and factual elements of one or more specialist subject fields, e.g.
639:, developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situations, and how users may best access the data incorporated in printed and
827:
incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen (2008) suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users' impression and actual use of specific dictionaries.
892:, or word lists with accompanying definitions, began to appear around 300 BCE, and the discipline begins to develop more steadily. Lengthier glosses started to emerge in the literary cultures of antiquity, including Greece,
957:
also enables lexicographers to discriminate different senses of a word based on said evidence. Additionally, lexicographers were now able to work nonlinearly, rather than being bound to a traditional
760:
Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and the compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects:
1234:
1326:
1303:
1280:
848:, learners' and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. 'semi-bilingual' or 'bilingualised' dictionaries such as Hornby's
1257:
773:
choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary (i.e. frame structure, distribution structure, macro-structure, micro-structure and
888:, and take the shape of mono- and bilingual word lists. They were organized in different ways including by subject and part of speech. The first extensive
1692:
Nielsen, Sandro (2009): "Reviewing printed and electronic dictionaries: A theoretical and practical framework". In S. Nielsen/S. Tarp (eds):
1756:
Lexicographica. International Annual for
Lexicography - Revue Internationale de Lexicographie - Internationales Jahrbuch für Lexikographie
1231:
1771:
1768:
697:
Lexicography is the practice of creating books, computer programs, or databases that reflect lexicographical work and are intended for
1953:
684:
1166:
651:, as distinct from lexicography. Some use "lexicology" as a synonym for theoretical lexicography; others use it to mean a branch of
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1300:
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which are widely accessible resources that present various aspects of lexicology, such as spelling, pronunciation, and meaning.
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changed lexicography again. With access to large databases, finding lexical evidence became significantly faster and easier.
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1968:
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and following
Nielsen 1994, specialized dictionaries are either multi-field, single-field or sub-field dictionaries.
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Traces of lexicography can be identified as early late 4th millennium BCE, with the first known examples being
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It is now widely accepted that lexicography is a scholarly discipline in its own right and not a sub-branch of
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935:
694:, as the chief object of study in lexicography is the dictionary (see e.g. Bergenholtz/Nielsen/Tarp 2009).
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Nielsen, Sandro (2008) "The effect of lexicographical information costs on dictionary making and use", in
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1958:
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One important consideration is the status of 'bilingual lexicography', or the compilation and use of the
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profiling the intended users (i.e. linguistic and non-linguistic competences) and identifying their needs
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Lexicography at a
Crossroads: Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, Lexicographical Tools Tomorrow
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852:, which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries (see Marello 1998).
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designing the best way in which users can access the data in printed and electronic dictionaries
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2003:
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translating collocations, phrases and examples in bi- and multilingual dictionaries
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309:
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1993:
1730:(Janua Linguarum. Series maior 39). Prague: Academia / The Hague, Paris: Mouton.
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1238:
897:
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868:. Ancient lexicography usually consisted of word lists documenting a language's
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1552:
Manual of
Specialised Lexicography: The Preparation of Specialised Dictionaries
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919:
914:
725:
663:
323:
1117:
19:"Dictionary structure" redirects here. For the dictionary data structure, see
2073:
1129:
1032:
1449:"Generative AI and Lexicography: The Current State of the Art Using ChatGPT"
1418:"Generative AI and Lexicography: The Current State of the Art Using ChatGPT"
1211:(2 ed.). Almaty: Al-Farabi Kazakh National University. pp. 93–94.
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and the art of compiling dictionaries.. It is divided into two separate
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34:
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1637:
ed. by A. Davies & C. Elder, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 54–81.
767:
defining the communicative and cognitive functions of the dictionary
1859:
1024:
881:
636:
620:
608:
1694:
Lexicography in the 21st
Century. In honour of Henning Bergenholtz
1864:
1569:
Chasing the Sun: Dictionary-Makers and the
Dictionaries They Made
1055:
910:
was first applied to this type of text by the late 14th century.
869:
724:
Coined in
English 1680, the word "lexicography" derives from the
628:
575:
1661:
Marello, Carla (1998) "Hornby's bilingualized dictionaries", in
844:
of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g.
1806:
698:
655:
pertaining to the inventory of words in a particular language.
624:
181:
1209:
English lexicology and lexicography : theory and practice
904:
published the first formal etymological compendium. The word
590:
1791:
1612:
Hartmann, R.R.K. & James, Gregory (comps.) (1998/2001)
865:
813:
selecting equivalents in bi- and multi-lingual dictionaries
1781:
1630:. Payap University Graduate School Linguistics Department.
780:
selecting words and affixes for systematization as entries
770:
selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary
1801:
1372:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. p. 24.
968:
In the early 21st century, the increasing ubiquity of
850:(Oxford) Advanced Learner's Dictionary English-Chinese
643:. This is sometimes referred to as "metalexicography".
1792:
1405:(online ed.). Oxford Academic. pp. 528–535.
1390:(online ed.). Oxford Academic. pp. 506–521.
1354:(online ed.). Oxford Academic. pp. 605–615.
794:
forms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized
823:One important goal of lexicography is to keep the
1696:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 23–41.
1403:The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics
1388:The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics
872:. Other early word lists have been discovered in
2071:
647:There is some disagreement on the definition of
1782:Euralex – European Association for Lexicography
1649:Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography
1787:Afrilex – African Association for Lexicography
716:) to facilitate understanding and navigation.
1822:
1602:, Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 3 volumes.
1447:de Schryver, GIlles-Maurice (December 2023).
1416:de Schryver, Gilles-Maurice (December 2023).
1159:"Lexicographer job profile | Prospects.ac.uk"
913:With the invention and spread of Gutenberg's
658:A person devoted to lexicography is called a
552:
1802:Asialex – Asian Association for Lexicography
1689:(AFRILEX-reeks/series 18), pp. 170–189.
1514:The Cambridge World History of Lexicography.
806:labeling definitions and pronunciations for
1446:
1415:
905:
836:to the process of dictionary compilation).
1829:
1815:
1486:The Oxford Guide to Practical Lexicography
1206:
1118:"English lexicography in the Internet era"
559:
545:
1633:Kirkness, Alan (2004) "Lexicography", in
685:Language for specific purposes dictionary
90:Learn how and when to remove this message
16:Art and science of compiling dictionaries
1367:
752:), "to scratch, to inscribe, to write".
744:), "speech", "word" (in turn from λέγω (
679:. Such a dictionary is usually called a
53:This article includes a list of general
1196:. London: J.F. and C. Rivington, et al.
1186:
1115:
2072:
1349:
1333:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1310:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1287:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1264:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1241:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1122:The Routledge Handbook of Lexicography
1810:
1749:International Journal of Lexicography
1663:International Journal of Lexicography
1586:Teaching and Researching Lexicography
1453:International Journal of Lexicography
1422:International Journal of Lexicography
1381:
1379:
1363:
1361:
1345:
1343:
1312:An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon
1500:Modern Lexicography: An Introduction
1400:
1385:
1193:A Dictionary of the English Language
748:), "to say", "to speak") and γράφω (
701:use. These include dictionaries and
449:Conservative and innovative language
39:
2035:International scientific vocabulary
1777:Dictionary Society of North America
1635:The Handbook of Applied Linguistics
1352:The Oxford Handbook of Lexicography
1091:Dictionary Society of North America
1081:English lexicology and lexicography
13:
1797:Nordic Federation for Lexicography
1628:Cognitive Grammar and lexicography
1475:
1376:
1358:
1340:
803:specifying pronunciations of words
732:), "lexicographer", from λεξικόν (
593:of compiling, writing and editing
59:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2106:
1741:
740:, "of or for words", from λέξις (
26:For the term in mathematics, see
2055:
1836:
994:Monolingual learner's dictionary
529:
44:
1600:Lexicography: Critical Concepts
1550:& Tarp, Sven (eds.) (1995)
1440:
1409:
1394:
1169:from the original on 2018-10-29
1124:, Routledge, pp. 540–553,
918:notable lexicographers such as
900:, and the Middle East. In 636,
864:texts uncovered in the city of
825:lexicographic information costs
662:and is, according to a jest of
1954:Language-for-specific-purposes
1598:Hartmann, R.R.K. (ed.) (2003)
1484:& Rundell, Michael (2008)
1317:
1294:
1271:
1248:
1225:
1200:
1180:
1151:
1116:Jackson, Howard (2017-10-02),
1109:
810:and dialect, where appropriate
1:
1401:Hans, Patrick (1 July 2013).
1386:Hans, Patrick (1 July 2013).
1102:
949:During the 20th century, the
1762:
1709:Computer Corpus Lexicography
1673:The Bilingual LSP Dictionary
1516:Cambridge University Press.
1512:Considine, John, ed. (2019)
1467:– via Oxford Academic.
1436:– via Oxford Academic.
1337:, on Perseus Digital Library
1314:, on Perseus Digital Library
1291:, on Perseus Digital Library
1268:, on Perseus Digital Library
1245:, on Perseus Digital Library
719:
389:Functional discourse grammar
255:Ethnography of communication
7:
2045:List of online dictionaries
1370:The History of Lexicography
1368:Hartmann, Reinhard (1986).
976:
509:Second-language acquisition
10:
2111:
1614:Dictionary of Lexicography
1207:Dzharasova, T. T. (2020).
855:
755:
187:Syntax–semantics interface
32:
25:
18:
2053:
2027:
1883:
1844:
1651:, Cambridge U.P. 2nd ed.
499:Philosophy of linguistics
399:Interactional linguistics
1130:10.4324/9781315104942-34
1076:Specialised lexicography
959:lexicographical ordering
944:Joseph Emerson Worcester
669:
601:Theoretical lexicography
33:Not to be confused with
2095:Linguistics terminology
1769:Centre for Lexicography
1665:11,4, pp. 292–314.
1626:Inglis, Douglas (2004)
1350:Durkin, Philip (2015).
1335:A Greek–English Lexicon
1289:A Greek–English Lexicon
1266:A Greek–English Lexicon
1243:A Greek–English Lexicon
1011:Single-field dictionary
970:artificial intelligence
666:, a "harmless drudge".
641:electronic dictionaries
74:more precise citations.
2040:List of lexicographers
1728:Manual of lexicography
1647:Landau, Sidney (2001)
1498:Béjoint, Henri (2000)
1046:List of lexicographers
1041:Linguistic description
1007:Multi-field dictionary
999:Specialized dictionary
951:invention of computers
906:
800:organizing definitions
787:, phrases and examples
681:specialized dictionary
587:Practical lexicography
336:Theoretical frameworks
290:Philosophy of language
270:History of linguistics
1969:Monolingual learner's
1588:, Pearson Education.
963:alphabetical ordering
230:Conversation analysis
1707:Ooi, Vincent (1998)
1548:Bergenholtz, Henning
1015:Sub-field dictionary
989:Bilingual dictionary
841:bilingual dictionary
736:), neut. of λεξικός
580:academic disciplines
474:Internet linguistics
384:Construction grammar
2090:Applied linguistics
2009:Spelling dictionary
1919:Defining vocabulary
1537:. Peter Lang 2009.
1533:, Tarp, S. (eds.):
1465:10.1093/ijl/ecad021
1434:10.1093/ijl/ecad021
1163:www.prospects.ac.uk
1029:defining dictionary
692:applied linguistics
409:Systemic functional
204:Applied linguistics
146:General linguistics
28:Lexicographic order
2061:Linguistics portal
1894:Advanced learner's
1329:2021-04-13 at the
1306:2021-04-21 at the
1283:2021-04-17 at the
1260:2021-05-14 at the
1237:2021-04-12 at the
1061:Lexical definition
1003:Picture dictionary
902:Isidore of Seville
862:Sumerian cuneiform
677:legal lexicography
514:Theory of language
484:Origin of language
439:Autonomy of syntax
394:Grammaticalization
240:Discourse analysis
235:Corpus linguistics
2067:
2066:
1736:978-90-279-1921-2
1711:, Edinburgh U.P.
1702:978-90-272-2336-4
1681:978-3-8233-4533-6
1643:978-1-4051-3809-3
1622:978-0-415-14144-4
1608:978-0-415-25365-9
1594:978-0-582-36977-1
1560:978-90-272-1612-0
1543:978-3-03911-799-4
1508:978-0-19-829951-6
1494:978-0-19-927771-1
1218:978-601-04-0595-0
1139:978-1-315-10494-2
1096:Dreaming of Words
569:
568:
357:Distributionalism
300:Psycholinguistics
100:
99:
92:
21:Associative array
2102:
2059:
1959:Machine-readable
1831:
1824:
1817:
1808:
1807:
1724:Zgusta, Ladislav
1582:Hartmann, R.R.K.
1554:, J. Benjamins.
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940:Peter Mark Roget
909:
896:, China, India,
574:is the study of
561:
554:
547:
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479:LGBT linguistics
469:Internationalism
444:Compositionality
305:Sociolinguistics
280:Neurolinguistics
275:Interlinguistics
260:Ethnomethodology
102:
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70:this article by
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1669:Nielsen, Sandro
1565:Green, Jonathon
1527:Bergenholtz, H.
1478:
1476:Further reading
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324:Writing systems
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1496:
1488:, Oxford U.P.
1482:Atkins, B.T.S.
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1071:Idioms Lexicon
1068:
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1019:LSP dictionary
996:
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975:
946:, and others.
928:Brothers Grimm
920:Samuel Johnson
915:printing press
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797:defining words
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728:λεξικογράφος (
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714:alphabetically
709:Lexicographers
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664:Samuel Johnson
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2080:Lexicography
1999:Single-field
1934:Etymological
1929:Encyclopedic
1909:Biographical
1886:dictionaries
1838:Lexicography
1837:
1755:
1748:
1727:
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1232:λεξικογράφος
1227:
1208:
1202:
1192:
1182:
1171:. Retrieved
1162:
1153:
1143:, retrieved
1121:
1111:
967:
948:
936:James Murray
932:Noah Webster
924:Vladimir Dal
912:
907:dictionarium
859:
849:
838:
830:
822:
785:collocations
759:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
723:
707:
696:
689:
673:
659:
657:
646:
623:features of
621:paradigmatic
613:orthographic
600:
595:dictionaries
586:
572:Lexicography
571:
570:
367:Glossematics
347:Constituency
319:interpreting
157:Lexicography
156:
86:
77:
58:
2004:Specialized
1974:Multi-field
1939:Explanatory
1870:Phrase book
1675:, G. Narr.
1571:, J. Cape.
1531:Nielsen, S.
1086:Terminology
653:linguistics
617:syntagmatic
519:Terminology
494:Orthography
414:Usage-based
315:Translating
210:Acquisition
115:Linguistics
72:introducing
2085:Lexicology
2074:Categories
1944:Historical
1924:Electronic
1914:Conceptual
1855:Dictionary
1772:EN version
1428:(4): 356.
1173:2018-10-29
1145:2022-09-16
1103:References
1066:Vocabulary
1051:Lexicology
984:Dictionary
783:selecting
777:structure)
649:lexicology
633:vocabulary
489:Orismology
374:Functional
362:Generative
352:Dependency
172:Pragmatics
162:Morphology
152:Diachronic
55:references
35:Lexicology
2014:Sub-field
1904:Bilingual
1884:Types of
1875:Thesaurus
1845:Types of
1763:Societies
790:choosing
720:Etymology
712:(usually
607:study of
605:scholarly
464:Iconicity
459:Etymology
379:Cognitive
342:Formalist
295:Phonetics
285:Philology
177:Semantics
167:Phonology
1860:Glossary
1327:Archived
1304:Archived
1281:Archived
1258:Archived
1235:Archived
1190:(1785).
1167:Archived
1025:Glossary
977:See also
882:Sanskrit
878:Akkadian
874:Egyptian
808:register
703:thesauri
637:language
609:semantic
576:lexicons
265:Forensic
245:Distance
192:Typology
107:a series
105:Part of
1989:Rhyming
1984:Reverse
1979:Picture
1964:Medical
1899:Anagram
1865:Lexicon
1726:(1971)
1687:Lexikos
1671:(1994)
1584:(2001)
1567:(1996)
1255:λεξικός
1056:Lexicon
890:glosses
886:Eblaite
870:lexicon
856:History
756:Aspects
738:lexikos
734:lexicon
635:) of a
629:lexicon
627:of the
625:lexemes
603:is the
220:Applied
130:History
125:Outline
68:improve
2019:Visual
1734:
1717:
1700:
1679:
1655:
1641:
1620:
1606:
1592:
1575:
1558:
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1520:
1506:
1492:
1215:
1136:
926:, the
884:, and
750:grapho
699:public
535:Portal
433:Topics
182:Syntax
57:, but
2028:Other
1949:Idiom
1324:γράφω
1278:λέξις
961:like
792:lemma
742:lexis
726:Greek
670:Focus
591:craft
135:Index
1994:Rime
1732:ISBN
1715:ISBN
1698:ISBN
1677:ISBN
1653:ISBN
1639:ISBN
1618:ISBN
1604:ISBN
1590:ISBN
1573:ISBN
1556:ISBN
1539:ISBN
1518:ISBN
1504:ISBN
1490:ISBN
1301:λέγω
1213:ISBN
1134:ISBN
894:Rome
866:Uruk
746:lego
619:and
317:and
310:Text
1461:doi
1430:doi
1126:doi
846:LSP
683:or
2076::
1529:,
1457:36
1455:.
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1420:.
1378:^
1360:^
1342:^
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