Lingua franca - Knowledge

186: 1825: 219:

that have evolved into fully complex languages in the course of adaptation by subsequent generations. Pre-existing lingua francas such as French are used to facilitate intercommunication in large-scale trade or political matters, while pidgins and creoles often arise out of colonial situations and a specific need for communication between colonists and indigenous peoples. Pre-existing lingua francas are generally widespread, highly developed languages with many native speakers. Conversely, pidgins are very simplified means of communication, containing loose structuring, few grammatical rules, and possessing few or no native speakers.

1505: 3770: 1300: 1728: 950: 1689: 1085: 1160: 1942: 1638: 1416: 1956: 1703:-speaking tribal groups on the east coast of Africa with heavy influence from Arabic. The earliest examples of writing in Swahili are from 1711. In the early 19th century the use of Swahili as a lingua franca moved inland with the Arabic ivory and slave traders. It was eventually adopted by Europeans as well during periods of colonization in the area. German colonizers used it as the language of administration in 1450: 1571: 1060:, the medical community is primarily made up of workers from countries without English as a native language. In medical practices and hospitals, nurses typically communicate with other professionals in English as a lingua franca. This occurrence has led to interest in researching the consequences of the medical community communicating in a lingua franca. English is also sometimes used in 889:, standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals. This lasted from the 14th century to the end of the 16th, when French replaced Italian as the usual lingua franca in northern Europe. Italian musical terms, in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day. 464: 1538:

with the local languages. When Dutch, English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact. Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in the

598:

states that Tamil was also the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India. The language and its dialects were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration, literature and common usage until the 12th century AD. Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in

1620:

in which students are taught: "(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course); (b) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu and (c) English or any other modern European language." The order in non-Hindi speaking states is: "(a) the major language of the state or region; (b) Hindi;

1537:

served as lingua franca in the Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca

489:

historically served as a lingua franca throughout the majority of South Asia. The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggest that Sanskrit was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the

410:

has come to be interpreted as a general term for pidgins, creoles, and some or all forms of vehicular languages. This transition in meaning has been attributed to the idea that pidgin languages only became widely known from the 16th century on due to European colonization of continents such as The

218:

Lingua francas are often pre-existing languages with native speakers, but they can also be pidgins or creoles developed for that specific region or context. Pidgins are rapidly developed and simplified combinations of two or more established languages, while creoles are generally viewed as pidgins

156:

Linguae francae have developed around the world throughout human history, sometimes for commercial reasons (so-called "trade languages" facilitated trade), but also for cultural, religious, diplomatic and administrative convenience, and as a means of exchanging information between scientists and

1201:

emerging as the leading political, economic, and cultural power of Europe in the 16th century, the language was adopted by royal courts throughout the continent, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Russia, and as the language of communication between European academics, merchants, and

517:

replaced Classical Chinese within China as both the written and spoken lingua franca for speakers of different Chinese dialects, and because of the declining power and cultural influence of China in East Asia, English has since replaced Classical Chinese as the lingua franca in East Asia.

1628:

Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan and had gained significant influence amongst its people, administration and education. While it shares official status with English, Urdu is the preferred and dominant language used for inter-communication between different ethnic groups of Pakistan.

910:

the variety of Quechua that was used in writing for religious and administrative purposes in the Andean territories of the Spanish Empire, mostly in the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th century and has sometimes been referred to, both historically and in academia, as

645:, Latin was the common language of communication, science, and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage, and it eventually became a 1436:, both of which are countries where multiple official languages are spoken, Arabic has emerged as a lingua franca in part thanks to the population of the region being predominantly Muslim and Arabic playing a crucial role in Islam. In addition, after having fled from Eritrea due to 3627:

Snow, Charles T., Louisa Rowell Stark. 1971. Ancash Quechua: A Pedagogical Grammar. P.V 'The Quechua language is generally associated with the "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, which was used as a lingua franca through Peru and Bolivia with the spread of the Inca

969:

English is sometimes described as the foremost global lingua franca, being used as a working language by individuals of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in a variety of fields and international organizations to communicate with one another. English is the

3668:

Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Valejo. 1969. P. XV. 'Immediately following the Spanish Conquest the Quechua language, especially the prestigious "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, was used as a lingua franca throughout the Andean region by both missionaries and

1836:. Also called Prairie Sign Language, Plains Indian Sign Language, or First Nations Sign Language, this language functioned predominantly—and still continues to function—as a second language within most of the (now historical) countries of the Great Plains, from 1485:, its use has declined in post-Soviet states. Parts of the Russian speaking minorities outside Russia have emigrated to Russia or assimilated into their countries of residence by learning the local language and using it preferably in daily communication. 1496:, where Russian was only a political language used in international communication and where there was no Russian minority, the Russian language practically does not exist, and in schools it was replaced by English as the primary foreign language. 411:

Americas, Africa, and Asia. During this time, the need for a term to address these pidgin languages arose, hence the shift in the meaning of Lingua Franca from a single proper noun to a common noun encompassing a large class of pidgin languages.

1994: 1925:

functions, and across similar settings. The language has few set internal grammatical rules, instead co-opting national vocabularies of the speaker and audience, and modifying the words to bridge linguistic gaps, with heavy use of gestures and

1715:. Swahili is currently one of the national languages and it is taught in schools and universities in several East African countries, thus prompting it to be regarded as a modern-day lingua franca by many people in the region. Several 3408: 3278: 3236: 1118:, which also included parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. After the breakup of much of the empire in the Americas, its function as a lingua franca was solidified by the governments of the newly independent nations of what is now 1406:

is often used as the lingua franca instead, particularly in Southeast Asia, due to a longer history of immigration and trade networks with southern China, although Mandarin has also been adopted in some circles since the 2000s.

4148: 1240:

countries, French has transitioned from being only a lingua franca to the native language among some communities, mostly in urban areas or among the elite class. In other regions such as the French-speaking countries of the

425:(as the name of the particular language) was first recorded in English during the 1670s, although an even earlier example of the use of it in English is attested from 1632, where it is also referred to as "Bastard Spanish". 2477: 5312: 3122:

Preservation of Classical Maori', from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-language/page-10 (accessed 16 Mar

5002: 5090: 196:

Any language regularly used for communication between people who do not share a native language is a lingua franca. Lingua franca is a functional term, independent of any linguistic history or language structure.

230:

language is the native language of a specific geographical community, a lingua franca is used beyond the boundaries of its original community, for trade, religious, political, or academic reasons. For example,

1231:

colonial rule, most former colonies of these countries maintain French as an official language or lingua franca due to the many indigenous languages spoken in their territory. Notably, in most Francophone

1440:

and gone to some of the nearby Arab countries, Eritrean emigrants are contributing to Arabic becoming a lingua franca in the region by coming back to their homelands having picked up the Arabic language.

1056:, English has emerged as a lingua franca in certain situations where its use is perceived to be more efficient to communicate, especially among groups consisting of native speakers of many languages. In 4800: 683:

until English superseded it in the 1870s. The description of Māori language as New Zealand's 19th-century lingua franca has been widely accepted. The language was initially vital for all European and

3012: 907:(1438–1533) (or Inca lingua franca). Since the Incas didn't have writing, the evidence about the characteristics of this variety is scant and they have been a subject of significant disagreements. 1220:

was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. Nevertheless, it remains the second most used language in international affairs and is one of the

211:

may similarly be used for communication between language groups. But lingua franca is equally applicable to a non-creole language native to one nation (often a colonial power) learned as a

2391: 1719:

writers and politicians have unsuccessfully called for Swahili to become the lingua franca of Africa as a means of unifying the African continent and overcoming the legacy of colonialism.

1133:

Due to large numbers of immigrants from Latin America in the second half of the 20th century and resulting influence, Spanish has also emerged somewhat as a lingua franca in parts of the

1621:(c) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu but excluding (a) and (b) above; and (d) English or any other modern European language." Hindi has also emerged as a lingua franca in 4192: 4145: 687:

in New Zealand to learn, as Māori formed a majority of the population, owned nearly all the country's land and dominated the economy until the 1860s. Discriminatory laws such as the

655:

is the retrospective name for the language (formed out of many dialects, albeit all mutually intelligible) of both the North Island and the South Island for the 800 years before the

5152: 2475: 223:

languages are more developed than their ancestral pidgins, utilizing more complex structure, grammar, and vocabulary, as well as having substantial communities of native speakers.

5304: 4994: 4749: 414:

As recently as the late 20th century, some restricted the use of the generic term to mean only mixed languages that are used as vehicular languages, its original meaning.

5082: 4356: 3794: 2701: 1762:). It acts as a lingua franca in both Iran and Afghanistan between the various ethnic groups in those countries. The Persian language in South Asia, before the 1338:

is used as a lingua franca in Switzerland to some extent; however, English is generally preferred to avoid favoring it over the three other official languages.

4797: 2255: 1880: 3678:

Cf. also Durston (2007: 17): 'The 1550–1650 period can be considered both formative and classical in relation to the late colonial and republican production'.

2225: 866:. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities ( 4556: 4222: 2334: 346:

came to be widely used as the "lingua franca" of the region, although some scholars claim that the Mediterranean Lingua Franca was just poorly used Italian.

5226: 1144:

At present it is the second most used language in international trade, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture after English and French.

5274: 3006: 2138: 1550:

where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken. Portuguese and Spanish have a certain degree of

2062: 4274: 3988: 3736: 899:, the exact relationship and degree of closeness between which is controversial, and which have sometimes been identified with each other. These are: 3571: 1428:

was used as a lingua franca across the Islamic empires, whose sizes necessitated a common language, and spread across the Arab and Muslim worlds. In

1664:, with several nations codifying a local vernacular variety into several national literary standards: Indonesia notably adopts a variant spoken in 5485: 4506: 580:

in the fourth century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries.

5121: 2422: 1359: 1324: German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognized minority language (Squares: Geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale) 4975:

Dzahene-Quarshie, Josephine (December 2013). "Ghana's Contribution to the Promotion of Kiswahili: Challenges and Prospects for African Unity".

4167: 2181: 1984: 3914: 3618:

See Itier (2000: 47) for the distinction between the first and second enumerated senses, and the quote below for their partial identification.

2456:"An etymological dictionary of modern English : Weekley, Ernest, 1865–1954 : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive" 1989: 1202:

diplomats. With the expansion of Western colonial empires, French became the main language of diplomacy and international relations up until

971: 3853: 370: 3891: 2349:

Up to now have all proved transient and none has actually achieved the status of lingua franca with a large community of fluent speakers.

5182: 4407: 4720: 2609: 611:

until the 12th century AD. Tamil was used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as

4335: 1927: 4579: 4298: 2580: 3383: 3304: 1792:

is the lingua franca and most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and is known by most people who speak another Ethiopian language.

1777:

can also be seen as a lingua franca because it is the language of communication between speakers of different languages in Northern

1676:

having more native speakers; this standard is the sole official language spoken throughout the vast country despite being the first

5144: 4455: 3655:

Beyersdorff, Margot, Sabine Dedenbach-Salazar Sáenz. 1994. Andean Oral Traditions: Discourse and Literature. P.275. 'the primarily

2285: 1221: 1148: 983: 479:

remained the common language of a large part of Western Asia from several earlier empires, until it was supplanted in this role by

5530: 5501: 433:

The term is well established in its naturalization to English and so major dictionaries do not italicize it as a "foreign" term.

4775: 4746: 4708:... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the lingua franca of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ... 1692:

Geographic extent of Swahili. Dark green: native range. Medium green: official use. Light green: bilingual use but not official.

1265:, French is the lingua franca in professional sectors and education, even though it is not the native language of the majority. 5556: 4936: 3593: 1917:

parliamentary or committee sittings, during certain United Nations affairs, conducting international sporting events like the

5460: 5439: 4620: 4329: 4008: 3784: 3535: 3066: 3042: 2848: 2806: 1625:, a linguistically diverse state in Northeast India. It is estimated that nine-tenths of the state's population knows Hindi. 1539: 4903: 4695: 4653: 4381: 2854: 2812: 2369: 1889:, though a pidgin language, is present at most significant international gatherings, from which interpretations of national 1358:

along the Baltic and North Seas. German remains a widely studied language in Central Europe and the Balkans, especially in

779:

in 893. Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably

5566: 4249: 2751: 1478: 5054: 3086: 1076:

dialect has emerged. In the fields of technology and science, English emerged as a lingua franca in the 20th century.

5398: 5379: 4879: 4689: 4042: 3888:"Listening instruction and patient safety: Exploring medical English as a lingua franca (MELF) for nursing education" 3508: 3453: 3146: 2416: 2175: 2093: 2037: 4621:"Department for General Assembly and Conference Management – What are the official languages of the United Nations?" 3477: 2221: 642: 279: 153:

or dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native languages.

2341: 185: 5218: 1482: 177:—a language spoken internationally and by many people—is a language that may function as a global lingua franca. 17: 5282: 3162: 2638: 2310:

Dursteler, Eric R. (2012). "Speaking in Tongues: Language and Communication in the Early Modern Mediterranean".

3944: 2783: 2767: 1860:, the latter of which is now extinct (though Ktunaxa Sign Language is still used). Although unrelated, perhaps 1015: 31: 3808:

Tan, Jason (1997). "Education and Colonial Transition in Singapore and Hong Kong: Comparisons and Contrasts".

2135: 4961:, London, 1975.., pp. 98–99 ; T. Vernet, "Les cités-Etats swahili et la puissance omanaise (1650–1720), 275:

serve similar purposes as industrial and educational lingua francas across regional and national boundaries.

5305:"A Disability-Inclusive Response to COVID-19 – Policy Brief Executive Summary (International Sign Language)" 3432: 2050: 1130:, being the main language of government and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. 3728: 1922: 1437: 4266: 1833: 859: 638: 299: 158: 5493: 5068: 3523: 2664: 2162: 1134: 944: 656: 514: 5113: 1824: 5561: 3211: 3138: 713:, thanks to their ability to communicate to many people in the region through their native language. 4824:"Multilingual Language Practices in Education in Pakistan: The Conflict Between Policy and Practice" 4723:. Government of India Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Education. Archived from 4164: 3769: 1318: German is a co-official language, but not the first language of the majority of the population 497:

served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in East Asia, including China,

310:

and the eastern Mediterranean Sea used as the main language of commerce and diplomacy from the late

1330: German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizable minority, but has no legal recognition 1065: 4489: 1766:, was the region's lingua franca and a widely used official language in north India and Pakistan. 5551: 5334: 5248: 5024: 4995:"Hausa Language: 4 interesting things you should know about Nigeria's most widely spoken dialect" 4772:"Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India" 3861: 3563: 2894: 2112:. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 14. 1975. pp. 70–72 – via JSTOR. 1995:

List of languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language

1474: 1228: 772: 4419: 1852:. The relationship remains unknown between Hand Talk and other manual Indigenous languages like 1804:

in Nigeria, are used as lingua francas across the world. This is especially true in Africa, the

1562:

are used to facilitate communication in areas like the border area between Brazil and Uruguay.

1465:, areas formerly part of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. Its use remains prevalent in many 1147:

It is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world and is also one of the

1126:, where it is still spoken by a small minority, Spanish became the lingua franca of what is now 4060:"Spanish as the Second National Language of the United States: Fact, Future, Fiction, or Hope?" 3887: 2634: 1974: 1898: 1813: 1708: 1677: 1617: 1551: 1194: 1141:, especially in communities where native Spanish speakers form the majority of the population. 1053: 800: 776: 684: 453: 149:

systematically used to make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a

5174: 4403: 3357: 3329: 1879:

in pockets, but it has also been employed to create new or revive old languages, such as with

1453:

Areas where Russian is the majority language (medium blue) or a minority language (light blue)

727:. Between 9th and 11th century, it was the lingua franca of a great part of the predominantly 215:

and used for communication between diverse language communities in a colony or former colony.

4724: 4550: 4472: 4216: 4000: 3059:

Essays on Indian History and culture: Felicitation volume in Honour of Professor B. Sheik Ali

2925: 2920: 2603: 1902: 1857: 1853: 1731:

Areas with significant numbers of people whose first language is Persian (including dialects)

1665: 1661: 1049:, English is the primary medium of education and serves as the lingua franca among citizens. 680: 534: 4319: 2605:

A Compleat History of the Present Seat of War in Africa, Between the Spaniards and Algerines

827:

is used for various languages across Eurasia, and as the national script in various Slavic,

560:), also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic, or Biblical Greek, was the 4571: 4295: 2576: 1894: 1391: 1217: 903:

the variety of Quechua that was used as a lingua franca and administrative language in the

804: 720: 595: 4434:"Modernism and Authenticity as Reflected in Language Attitudes : The Case of Tunisia" 2455: 2028:

Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Pieter Muysken, ed.,

1711:, which influenced the choice to use it as a national language in what is now independent 1504: 863: 8: 2778:

Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East p.180

1861: 1669: 1597: 1579: 1534: 1370:

of the EU along English and French, but it is used less in that role than the other two.

1190: 1030: 999: 848: 840: 716: 705:. The Sogdians also ended up circulating spiritual beliefs and texts, including those of 577: 546: 506: 170: 27:

Language used to facilitate communication between groups without a common native language

2277: 1362:. It is recognized as an official language in countries outside of Europe, specifically 1312:": German is (co-)official language and first language of the majority of the population 5534: 5505: 5369: 4808: 4437: 4128: 4087: 4079: 3789: 2004: 1961: 1886: 1832:

The majority of pre-colonial North American nations communicated internationally using

1704: 1466: 1395: 896: 832: 676: 565: 3189:

Salient. Victoria University Student Newspaper. Volume 36, Number 21. 5 September 1973

1122:. While its usage in Spain's Asia-Pacific colonies has largely died out except in the 286:

have not had a great degree of adoption, so they are not described as lingua francas.

5456: 5435: 5394: 5375: 4875: 4845: 4771: 4685: 4526: 4415: 4325: 4245: 4238: 4132: 4091: 4038: 4004: 3940: 3531: 3504: 3449: 3142: 3062: 3038: 2844: 2834: 2802: 2779: 2763: 2747: 2516: 2511: 2494: 2412: 2171: 2089: 2033: 1688: 1673: 1622: 1481:. Russian is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Since the 1339: 1212: 1127: 1072:, the use of English as a lingua franca has led researchers to investigate whether a 892: 844: 803:

linguistic features. It spread also to not completely Slavic territories between the

755:. It was the first national and also international Slavic literary language (autonym 748: 744: 724: 604: 476: 388: 252: 162: 4928: 4601:

Simeone-Sinelle, Marie-Claude (2005). "Arabic Lingua Franca in the Horn of Africa".

2707: 1913:. International Sign, or IS and formerly Gestuno, interpreters can be found at many 1029:. In the post-colonial period, most of the newly independent nations which had many 1025:

became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the

652: 561: 5428: 5036: 4835: 4677: 4624: 4538: 4204: 4118: 4071: 4034:

El Español en Tres Mundos: Retenciones y Contactos Lingüísticos en América y África

3996: 3969: 3817: 3260:

Benton, Richard A. "CHANGES IN LANGUAGE USE IN A RURAL MAORI COMMUNITY 1963-1978."

3198: 2971: 2547: 2506: 2315: 2009: 1999: 1979: 1947: 1837: 1789: 1739: 1735: 1696: 1399: 1379: 1367: 1355: 1299: 1262: 1189:

as the prestige language of politics, trade, education, diplomacy, and military in

1119: 836: 828: 732: 697:

was used to facilitate trade between those who spoke different languages along the

694: 608: 573: 494: 396: 343: 335: 323: 319: 272: 268: 264: 232: 204: 146: 53: 2746:

The Last Lingua Franca: English Until the Return of Babel. Nicholas Ostler. Ch.7.

2149:– Notes for LG102, – University of Essex, Peter L. Patrick – Week 11, Autumn term. 1268:

French continues to be used as a lingua franca in certain cultural fields such as

1185:

French is sometimes regarded as the first global lingua franca, having supplanted

5511: 5450: 4895: 4863: 4804: 4753: 4679: 4647: 4373: 4302: 4171: 4152: 4032: 2976: 2838: 2796: 2697: 2566:

Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, Simon and Schuster, 1980

2552: 2535: 2481: 2361: 2142: 1872: 1801: 1700: 1335: 768: 502: 315: 260: 256: 220: 212: 166: 38: 5249:"Oneida Sign language created to connect deaf community with culture | CBC News" 4155:– Copyright 2003 Quaderns Digitals Todos los derechos reservados ISSN 1575-9393. 1727: 986:

and many other international and regional organizations and has also become the

949: 660: 463: 3659:

domain of this lingua franca – sometimes referred to as "classical" Quechua'...

2956: 1914: 1876: 1865: 1774: 1759: 1645: 1613: 1555: 1489: 1288: 1237: 1115: 1069: 1026: 1022: 975: 824: 796: 736: 688: 634: 612: 600: 556: 525: 331: 240: 208: 174: 157:

other scholars of different nationalities. The term is taken from the medieval

150: 5342: 5252: 5040: 4840: 4823: 4542: 4208: 3035:

Precolonial India in practice: Society, Region and Identity in Medieval Andhra

1844:

in the East, down into what are now the northern states of Mexico and up into

387:) as well as the equivalent Italian—in all three cases, the literal sense is ' 5545: 5519: 4867: 4849: 4822:

Ashraf, Muhammad Azeem; Turner, David A.; Laar, Rizwan Ahmed (January 2021).

4075: 3757: 2930: 2876: 2520: 1969: 1890: 1751: 1470: 1207: 1105: Culturally important or secondary language (> 20% of the population) 1011: 979: 792: 743:

and church organization, culture, literature, education and diplomacy, as an

646: 3973: 2247: 1641:

Countries where pluricentric Malay is spoken, regardless of standard variety

4511: 3821: 2319: 1458: 1343: 1203: 1073: 1038: 1033:

opted to continue using English as one of their official languages such as

927: 767:). The Glagolitic alphabet was originally used at both schools, though the 710: 702: 641:

and subsequently throughout the realms of the Roman Empire. Even after the

569: 444:, with the former being first-listed or only-listed in major dictionaries. 4123: 4106: 2951: 2051:"Speaking in Tongues: Science's centuries-long hunt for a common language" 1828:

Rough territorial extent of Hand Talk (in purple) within the US and Canada

1781:

and other West African countries, including the northern region of Ghana.

1193:

Europe and later spreading around the world with the establishment of the

701:, which is why native speakers of Sogdian were employed as translators in 5477: 5055:"Amharic Language: How it become Ethiopia's Lingua Franca – Addis Herald" 3433:

https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-maori-i-te-ohanga-maori-in-the-economy/page-3

1918: 1763: 1747: 1716: 1649: 1493: 1291:

and its institutions either alongside or at times, in place, of English.

1233: 1123: 1084: 1061: 919: 904: 886: 882:) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim. 521: 467: 311: 248: 4441: 4083: 4059: 4037:(in Spanish). Universidad de Valladolid, Secretariado de Publicaciones. 3469: 3057:

Murthy, Srinivasa; Rao, Surendra; Veluthat, Kesavan; Bari, S.A. (1990),

1559: 1159: 4433: 3915:"English as a common language in Switzerland: a positive or a problem?" 3835: 3762: 3656: 2408:, G.Babiniotes, Kentro Lexikologias(Legicology Center) LTD Publications 1755: 1543: 1351: 1309: 1258: 922:

functioned as lingua franca in the Caucasus region and in southeastern

227: 2086:

Scientific Babel: How Science Was Done Before and After Global English

1068:, or with foreigners who are not fluent in the local language. In the 974:

in the world, primarily due to the historical global influence of the

672: 524:

was the lingua franca of the Hellenistic culture. Koine Greek (Modern

4757: 2644: 1809: 1805: 1648:

is understood across a cultural region in Southeast Asia called the "

1583: 1509: 1403: 1347: 1111: 1042: 991: 816: 812: 698: 624: 591: 587: 583: 283: 3352: 3350: 3163:"New Zealand literature - Modern Maori, Poetry, Novels | Britannica" 2991:

Bubenik, V. (2007). "The rise of Koiné". In A. F. Christidis (ed.).

1637: 1415: 490:

1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.

2883:(3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. pp. 63–66. 2332: 1955: 1941: 1849: 1712: 1657: 1609: 1462: 1429: 1041:. In other former colonies with several official languages such as 1007: 923: 871: 852: 820: 752: 706: 486: 327: 4666:... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ... 1114:, becoming a lingua franca in the territories and colonies of the 964: Official or administrative language, but not native language 4456:

Schools Teaching in Creole Instead of French on the Rise in Haiti

3347: 2993:

A history of Ancient Greek: from the beginnings to late antiquity

2333:

Directorate-General for Translation, European Commission (2011).

1778: 1433: 1363: 1273: 1269: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1138: 1003: 995: 788: 780: 740: 576:. It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of 510: 480: 5145:"Native American Hand Talkers Fight to Keep Sign Language Alive" 4678:

Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher; Alex Pulsipher; Holly M. Hapke (2005),

4507:

Brexit: English is losing its importance in Europe, says Juncker

4477:

A History of Cookbooks From Kitchen to Page over Seven Centuries

3081: 3079: 3077: 691:

contributed to the demise of Māori language as a lingua franca.

4747:"How Hindi Became the Language of Choice in Arunachal Pradesh." 3384:"Demand For Māori Language Skills at Work Rises in New Zealand" 3305:"Demand For Māori Language Skills at Work Rises in New Zealand" 3212:"LibGuides: The Polynesian expansion across the Pacific: Maori" 1910: 1906: 1841: 1653: 1425: 1387: 1284: 1198: 808: 784: 620: 616: 392: 339: 307: 200: 3268:, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20705517. Accessed 15 Mar. 2024. 1449: 1287:, French has been increasingly used as a lingua franca in the 5531:"An introduction to the original Mediterranean Lingua Franca" 4436:. Vol. 30, no. 1/2. Civilisations. pp. 37–59. 3960:

Alan Grier, David (2017). "The Lingua Franca of Technology".

3074: 2833: 1869: 1601: 1570: 1547: 1383: 1277: 1186: 1057: 1034: 879: 867: 728: 668: 630: 498: 368: 362: 5027:(1997). "An Analysis of the Linguistic Situation in Ghana". 2843:. Oxford University Press. pp. 6–19, 203–212, 236–245. 2670: 4572:"How Lingua Franca Helps Different Cultures to Communicate" 4267:"Seduction Still Works : French—a Language in Decline" 4107:"Heritage language socialization at work: Spanish in Miami" 2126:. Oxford University Press, July 2018. Web. 1 November 2018. 1845: 1743: 1616:. Many Hindi-speaking North Indian states have adopted the 1608:

as dual standard varieties, serves as the lingua franca of

1605: 1473:

and some other states in Eastern Europe, as well as in pre-

1174: Official language, but not a majority native language 1046: 875: 775:, where it superseded Glagolitic as the official script in 97: 91: 74: 65: 4318:

Battye, Adrian; Hintze, Marie-Anne; Rowlett, Paul (2003).

4244:. Translated by Richard Howard. New York Review of Books. 3989:"The Spanish Language in Latin America since Independence" 3526:(2003) , Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), 2495:"English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingualism?" 1469:. Russian has some presence as a minority language in the 3709: 1210:

as the leading global superpower. Stanley Meisler of the

664: 88: 68: 62: 2666:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

2340:. Europa (web portal). pp. 8, 22–23. Archived from 926:, and was widely spoken at the court and in the army of 663:

shared a common language that was used for trade, inter-

5114:"Who put Native American sign language in the US mail?" 4649:

Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts

4645: 3448:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 151–154. 1421:

Dark green: majority; light green: significant minority

473:

The use of lingua francas has existed since antiquity.

391:', leading to the direct translation: 'language of the 4681:

World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives

4357:

What are the official languages of the United Nations?

3993:

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History

3687:

See e.g. Taylor 1975: 7–8 for the dating and the name

2147:

Pidgin and Creole Languages: Origins and Relationships

4798:"How Hindi Became Arunachal Pradesh's Lingua Franca." 3056: 3037:, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 27–37, 2662: 2629: 2627: 2536:"On the Conceptual History of the Term Lingua Franca" 1064:

between people who do not share one of Switzerland's

762: 756: 318:. During that period, a simplified version of mainly 94: 82: 71: 56: 4479:, University of California Press, 13 September 2017. 4321:

The French Language Today: A Linguistic Introduction

3553:(Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin) 1937: 1206:

when it was replaced by English due the rise of the

326:

in the western Mediterranean that incorporated many

85: 59: 5478:"English – the universal language on the Internet?" 5069:"Amharic as a lingua franca and tool of domination" 4317: 2801:. BRILL Academic. pp. 197–223 with footnotes. 1864:played and continues to play a similar role across 915:('common language') (or Standard Colonial Quechua). 539: 356: 350: 79: 5427: 4490:Push to bid adieu to English as EU’s lingua franca 4237: 3840:The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English 2624: 2088:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 1110:The Spanish language spread mainly throughout the 403:was a term that applied to all Western Europeans. 5207:. New York : Dover Publications 1969. (p. 7) 4555:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 4221:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 4146:"¿Por qué los brasileños deben aprender español?" 1390:, which are home to many mutually unintelligible 5543: 4974: 4821: 4570:M. A., Geography; B. A., English and Geography. 3594:"Why Italian is the language of music and opera" 3199:https://teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-2 2995:. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 342–345. 2795:Sheldon Pollock (1996). Jan E. M. Houben (ed.). 2692: 2690: 2688: 4866:(1992). "Malay as a pluricentric language". In 4862: 4603:Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics 4600: 3700:Following the terminology of Durston (2007: 40) 2794: 2633: 1477:China. It remains the official language of the 586:was once the lingua franca for most of ancient 278:Even though they are used as bridge languages, 4671: 4404:The Syndrome of the French Language in Algeria 3785:"How the English Language Conquered the World" 3621: 3111:Ko Aotearoa Tēnei, Te Taumata Tuarua - Wai 262 1985:List of languages by number of native speakers 1812:, Southeast Asia and in parts of Australia by 1660:, and certain parts of the Philippines. It is 679:, Māori language was the lingua franca of the 306:), the pidgin language that people around the 4983:: 69–85 – via Academic Search Complete. 4527:"Chinese as a lingua franca in Greater China" 4235: 3637:Following the terminology of Durston 2007: 40 2685: 1990:List of languages by total number of speakers 1699:developed as a lingua franca between several 1342:used to be the Lingua franca during the late 314:to the 18th century, most notably during the 4639: 2335:"Studies on translation and multilingualism" 1578:(red) is a linguistic region in India where 1222:six official languages of the United Nations 1149:six official languages of the United Nations 458: 382: 376: 5341:. H3 WORLD TV. 26 July 2019. Archived from 4289: 3135:Making Peoples: A History of New Zealanders 2696: 2669:, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, archived from 2540:Apples: Journal of Applied Language Studies 1656:, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern 1457:Russian is in use and widely understood in 406:Through changes of the term in literature, 106: 4412:International Journal of Arts and Sciences 4396: 3959: 3885: 3854:"Why Does Everyone Speak English in Fiji?" 3710:Lars Johanson; Éva Á. Castó (1998). "14". 2840:The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics 2396:online dictionary, Greek Language Center ( 2170:. Publ. Office of the Europ. Union. 2010. 2030:From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics 1523: Official and administrative language 1346:till the mid-15th century periods, in the 1052:Even in countries not associated with the 984:co-official language of the United Nations 349:In Lingua Franca (the specific language), 189:Trade languages of the world in 1908 from 4839: 4796:Roychowdhury, Adrija (27 February 2018). 4296:The World's 10 Most Influential Languages 4186: 4184: 4122: 3530:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2999: 2895:"Reclaiming a Common Language | BU Today" 2643:, Oxford University Press, archived from 2551: 2510: 2309: 1875:. The original Hand Talk is found across 1764:British colonized the Indian subcontinent 1180: Administrative or cultural language 5421:(48 ed.). São Paulo: Hucitec Press. 5391:Status and Use of African Lingua Francas 5142: 3912: 1823: 1726: 1687: 1636: 1569: 1503: 1448: 1414: 1298: 1158: 1083: 948: 462: 184: 5416: 4959:Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa 4613: 4431: 4264: 3986: 3881: 3879: 3729:"The Linguistic Colonialism of English" 3470:"Who Were the Sogdians, | The Sogdians" 2990: 2984: 2913: 2205: 2110:Italian-Based Pidgins and Lingua Franca 1394:and, in the case of Taiwan, indigenous 1354:when extensive trading was done by the 564:of Greek spoken and written during the 173:from the 11th to the 19th centuries. A 14: 5544: 5488:Lingua franca del Mediterraneo o Sabir 5448: 5425: 5407: 5335:"DEAFGPS: International Sign Connects" 5175:"Indian Sign Language Council of 1930" 5111: 4923: 4921: 4569: 4473:How French Cuisine Took Over the World 4190: 4181: 4057: 4030: 4001:10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.371 3934: 3836:"Pure Fiji English (Basilectal FijiE)" 3480:from the original on 11 September 2021 3132: 3061:, New Delhi: Mittal, pp. 85–106, 3032: 2875: 2703:MerriamWebster's Collegiate Dictionary 2658: 2656: 2654: 2601: 2595: 2569: 2533: 2083: 355:is from the Italian for 'a language'. 5388: 5219:"Indigenous sign languages in Canada" 5124:from the original on 15 February 2020 5023: 4778:from the original on 13 November 2019 4745:Chandra, Abhimanyu (22 August 2014). 4374:"Why the future of French is African" 4104: 3937:Euro-English assessing variety status 3723: 3721: 3522: 3498: 3262:The Journal of the Polynesian Society 2492: 2305: 2303: 2187:from the original on 27 February 2020 2077: 1540:Portuguese-speaking African countries 895:is either of two historical forms of 649:in the modern linguistic definition. 555: 5367: 5185:from the original on 17 October 2022 5155:from the original on 17 October 2022 4713: 4698:from the original on 17 October 2022 4656:from the original on 17 October 2022 4582:from the original on 17 October 2022 4531:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 4338:from the original on 17 October 2022 4197:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 4031:Granda, Germán de (1 January 1991). 3876: 3782: 3691:and Adelaar 2007: 183 for the dating 3574:from the original on 17 October 2022 3446:Interpreters in Early Imperial China 3443: 3264:, vol. 89, no. 4, 1980, pp. 455–78. 3015:from the original on 8 February 2015 3008:Scroll.in – News. Politics. Culture. 2857:from the original on 17 October 2022 2815:from the original on 17 October 2022 2612:from the original on 17 October 2022 2435:Franc and (prefix) franco- (Φράγκος 2258:from the original on 5 December 2014 2157: 2155: 1529: Cultural or secondary language 1303:Legal statuses of German in Europe: 4918: 3886:Tweedie, Gregory; Johnson, Robert. 3807: 3492: 3358:"Revitalizing Endangered Languages" 3330:"Revitalizing Endangered Languages" 2651: 2384: 2228:from the original on 21 August 2020 2222:"Lingua Franca, Pidgin, and Creole" 2048: 1795: 1492:countries that were members of the 799:while retaining characteristically 377: 24: 5526:, Diego de Haedo and other sources 5361: 5181:. Grande Polpo Deaf. 9 June 2012. 5093:from the original on 24 April 2021 5005:from the original on 21 April 2021 4524: 4384:from the original on 11 April 2021 3894:from the original on 3 August 2020 3860:. 26 February 2018. Archived from 3797:from the original on 1 March 2022. 3739:from the original on 24 April 2021 3718: 3564:"Italian: The Language That Sings" 3381: 3302: 3271: 2964: 2406:Lexico tes Neas Hellenikes Glossas 2300: 2065:from the original on 3 August 2020 2042: 1479:Commonwealth of Independent States 657:European settlement of New Zealand 637:, became the dominant language in 191:The Harmsworth Atlas and Gazetteer 180: 169:used especially by traders in the 25: 5578: 5470: 5216: 5143:Hilleary, Cecily (3 April 2017). 4939:from the original on 23 July 2019 4265:Meisler, Stanley (1 March 1986). 3913:Stephens, Thomas (4 April 2021). 3113:(2011), Waitangi Tribunal, pp. 41 2706:, Merriam-Webster, archived from 2372:from the original on 31 July 2020 2164:LINGUA FRANCA:CHIMERA OR REALITY? 2152: 1819: 862:was largely based on Italian and 855:, Central, North, and East Asia. 322:in the eastern Mediterranean and 280:international auxiliary languages 5327: 5315:from the original on 11 May 2021 5297: 5267: 5241: 5229:from the original on 11 May 2021 5210: 5197: 5167: 5136: 5105: 5075: 5061: 5047: 5017: 4987: 4968: 4951: 4906:from the original on 16 May 2021 4900:Asian Languages & Literature 4888: 4874:. Gruyter. pp. 402–3, 413. 4856: 4815: 4790: 4764: 4739: 4646:Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi (1994), 4623:. United Nations. Archived from 4594: 4563: 4518: 4499: 4482: 4465: 4448: 4425: 4277:from the original on 2 July 2015 3768: 3501:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 3362:THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW 3334:THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW 3209: 2583:from the original on 11 May 2015 2512:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2003.00242.x 2288:from the original on 15 May 2021 2248:"Language – Pidgins and creoles" 1954: 1940: 643:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 122: 52: 5410:The Lingua Franca in the Levant 5112:Graber, Jennifer (9 May 2018). 4414:. 3(3): 77 – 89 (2009) CD-ROM. 4366: 4350: 4311: 4258: 4229: 4158: 4139: 4098: 4064:Review of Research in Education 4051: 4024: 3987:Stavans, Ilan (26 April 2017). 3980: 3953: 3928: 3906: 3846: 3828: 3801: 3776: 3751: 3703: 3694: 3681: 3672: 3662: 3649: 3640: 3631: 3612: 3586: 3556: 3551:The Lingua Franca in the Levant 3543: 3516: 3462: 3437: 3426: 3401: 3375: 3322: 3296: 3254: 3229: 3216:libguides.stalbanssc.vic.edu.au 3203: 3192: 3180: 3155: 3126: 3116: 3104: 3087:"History of the Māori language" 3050: 3026: 2944: 2887: 2869: 2827: 2798:Ideology and Status of Sanskrit 2788: 2772: 2762:A Dictionary of Buddhism p.350 2756: 2740: 2731: 2722: 2560: 2527: 2486: 2469: 2448: 2354: 2326: 2270: 2240: 1668:specifically as the basis for " 5408:Kahane, Henry Romanos (1958). 5029:African Languages and Cultures 4977:Journal of Pan African Studies 4488:Chazan, Guy and Jim Brunsden. 3714:. Routledge. pp. 248–261. 3528:English Pronouncing Dictionary 3011:, scroll.in, 6 February 2015, 2977:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 2214: 2199: 2129: 2116: 2102: 2022: 1742:, is the official language of 1168: Majority native language 1088:Spanish language distribution 958: Majority native language 953:English language distribution 771:was developed early on at the 723:language, is the first Slavic 493:Until the early 20th century, 428: 203:are therefore lingua francas; 32:Lingua franca (disambiguation) 13: 1: 5557:Languages by place in society 5490:of professor Francesco Bruni" 5417:Melatti, Julio Cezar (1983). 5083:"Plains Indian Sign Language" 3783:Chua, Amy (18 January 2022). 3598:I Virtuosi dell'Opera Di Roma 2577:"Online Etymology Dictionary" 2362:"lingua franca | linguistics" 2015: 1565: 1546:, and to a certain extent in 1499: 1163:French language distribution 513:. In the early 20th century, 5492:(in Italian). Archived from 5374:. Cornell University Press. 4902:. University of Washington. 4545:(inactive 8 September 2024). 4211:(inactive 8 September 2024). 1923:World Federation of the Deaf 1483:collapse of the Soviet Union 1366:. German is also one of the 1216:said that the fact that the 795:, and principalities of the 289: 7: 5371:Pidgin and Creole Languages 5120:. Oxford University Press. 4965:, 72(2), 2002, pp. 102–105. 4652:, University of Wisconsin, 4240:When The World Spoke French 4193:"French as a lingua franca" 2663:Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2499:Journal of Sociolinguistics 2208:Pidgin and Creole Languages 2084:Gordin, Michael D. (2015). 1933: 1672:" for national use despite 860:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 763: 675:. After the signing of the 633:, through the power of the 540: 447: 436:Its plurals in English are 419:Online Etymology Dictionary 383: 300:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 159:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 10: 5583: 5279:European Union of the Deaf 4812:. Retrieved 12 March 2019. 4761:. Retrieved 12 March 2019. 4454:Felicien, Marie Michelle. 4308:. Retrieved 11 April 2011. 4111:Journal of World Languages 3137:(1st ed.). Auckland: 2640:Oxford Dictionaries Online 2553:10.17011/apples/2015090104 2278:"Definition of VERNACULAR" 1784: 1722: 1683: 1444: 1373: 1227:As a legacy of French and 1135:Southwestern United States 1099: Co-official language 1079: 945:English as a lingua franca 942: 938: 731:states and populations in 562:common supra-regional form 557:[elinistiˈciciˈni] 515:vernacular written Chinese 451: 363: 36: 29: 5567:Italian words and phrases 5449:Ostler, Nicholas (2010). 5426:Ostler, Nicholas (2005). 5251:. NewsHub. Archived from 5041:10.1080/09544169708717813 4841:10.1177/21582440211004140 4609:– via Academia.edu. 4543:10.1017/S0267190506000080 4209:10.1017/S0267190506000031 4058:Macías, Reynaldo (2014). 3503:(3rd ed.), Longman, 3139:Penguin Books New Zealand 2957:Dictionary.com Unabridged 2400:), lemma Franc ( Φράγκος 2398:Kentro Hellenikes Glossas 2206:Romaine, Suzanne (1988). 1410: 1380:Standard Mandarin Chinese 1294: 1154: 933: 823:. Nowadays, the Cyrillic 757: 529: 459:Historical lingua francas 5516:Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme 4963:Journal des Africanistes 4721:"Three Language Formula" 4324:. Taylor & Francis. 4076:10.3102/0091732X13506544 3187:High or Classical Māori: 3033:Talbot, Cynthia (2001), 2737:Ostler, 2010 pp. 163–167 1848:Country stopping before 1769: 1632: 1382:is the lingua franca of 671:, and education through 551:'Common Greek'; 37:Not to be confused with 5368:Hall, R.A. Jr. (1966). 4933:Encyclopædia Britannica 4402:Maamri, Malika Rebai. " 4170:6 February 2021 at the 4151:17 October 2022 at the 3974:10.1109/MC.2017.3001253 3935:Mollin, Sandra (2005). 3499:Wells, John C. (2008), 2493:House, Juliane (2003). 2480:12 October 2014 at the 2411:. Komvos.edu.gr. 2002. 2366:Encyclopædia Britannica 2282:www.merriam-webster.com 2252:Encyclopedia Britannica 1093: Official language 1066:four official languages 847:-speaking countries in 773:Preslav Literary School 689:Native Schools Act 1867 369: 357: 351: 5524:L'Impresario da Smyrna 5452:The Last Lingua Franca 4872:Pluricentric Languages 4834:(1): 215824402110041. 4803:21 August 2020 at the 4752:21 August 2020 at the 4432:Stevens, Paul (1980). 4236:Marc Fumaroli (2011). 4105:Lynch, Andrew (2023). 3858:Raiwasa Private Resort 3822:10.1080/03050069728587 3733:Brown Political Review 3549:Henry Romanos Kahane. 3133:Belich, Jamie (1996). 2837:; Chaofen Sun (2015). 2728:Ostler, 2005 pp. 38–40 2394:Lexico Triantaphyllide 2136:Intro Sociolinguistics 1975:Global language system 1893:are given, such as in 1829: 1814:Indigenous Australians 1732: 1693: 1642: 1618:three-language formula 1593: 1552:mutual intelligibility 1531: 1454: 1422: 1332: 1195:French colonial empire 1182: 1107: 1054:English-speaking world 966: 851:, Eastern Europe, the 470: 454:List of lingua francas 193: 5389:Heine, Bernd (1970). 5223:University of Calgary 5205:Indian sign language. 4301:12 March 2008 at the 4271:The Los Angeles Times 4124:10.1515/jwl-2022-0048 3810:Comparative Education 3646:Durston 2007: 40, 322 3444:Lung, Rachel (2011). 2926:CollinsDictionary.com 2881:The Sanskrit Language 2347:on 15 November 2012. 2049:Nye, Mary Jo (2016). 1858:Plateau Sign Language 1854:Keresan Sign Language 1827: 1730: 1691: 1680:of some Indonesians. 1640: 1573: 1517: Native language 1507: 1452: 1418: 1302: 1162: 1087: 952: 681:Colony of New Zealand 466: 421:states that the term 188: 5455:. New York: Walker. 5275:"International Sign" 5089:. 21 December 2017. 4460:Global Press Journal 4191:Wright, Sue (2006). 4165:Spanish in the World 3712:The Turkic Languages 2673:on 25 September 2015 2320:10.1093/pastj/gts023 1881:Oneida Sign Language 1392:varieties of Chinese 1283:As a consequence of 1218:Treaty of Versailles 1031:indigenous languages 972:most spoken language 805:Carpathian Mountains 721:Eastern South Slavic 361:is related to Greek 243:but it is used as a 30:For other uses, see 5430:Empires of the Word 5285:on 28 November 2018 5025:Obeng, Samuel Gyasi 4727:on 22 February 2012 4363:, 23 December 2023. 4178:, 18 November 2019. 3141:. pp. 57, 67. 2635:Oxford Dictionaries 2602:Morgan, J. (1632). 2534:Brosch, C. (2015). 2141:22 May 2018 at the 1862:Inuit Sign Language 1598:Hindustani language 1419:Arabic language map 1261:) and parts of the 1000:international trade 849:Southeastern Europe 815:, corresponding to 717:Old Church Slavonic 578:Alexander the Great 395:'. During the late 171:Mediterranean Basin 125:), also known as a 5434:. London: Harper. 5345:on 30 October 2021 5311:. United Nations. 5255:on 30 October 2021 5203:Tomkins, William. 5071:. 12 January 2022. 5043:– via JSTOR. 4935:. 27 August 2014. 4929:"Swahili language" 4809:The Indian Express 4627:on 12 October 2007 4525:Li, David (2006). 4505:Rankin, Jennifer. 4462:, 13 November 2019 3939:. Tübingen: Narr. 3824:– via JSTOR. 3790:The New York Times 3167:www.britannica.com 2980:. Merriam-Webster. 2835:William S.-Y. Wang 2710:on 10 October 2020 2579:. Etymonline.com. 2322:– via JSTOR. 2312:Past & Present 2122:"vehicular, adj." 2005:Universal language 1962:Linguistics portal 1887:International Sign 1830: 1733: 1705:German East Africa 1694: 1643: 1594: 1532: 1467:post-Soviet states 1455: 1423: 1396:Formosan languages 1333: 1183: 1108: 967: 758:словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ 677:Treaty of Waitangi 566:Hellenistic period 471: 194: 139:auxiliary language 123:§ Usage notes 121:; for plurals see 5496:on 28 March 2009. 5462:978-0-8027-1771-9 5441:978-0-00-711871-7 5001:. 23 March 2021. 4868:Clyne, Michael G. 4331:978-0-203-41796-6 4176:Language Magazine 4010:978-0-19-936643-9 3864:on 27 August 2022 3766:(22nd ed., 2019) 3735:. 25 April 2017. 3537:978-3-12-539683-8 3413:www.thepost.co.nz 3283:www.thepost.co.nz 3241:www.thepost.co.nz 3091:nzhistory.govt.nz 3068:978-81-7099-211-0 3044:978-0-19-513661-6 2899:Boston University 2850:978-0-19-985633-6 2808:978-90-04-10613-0 1800:Creoles, such as 1707:, later becoming 1623:Arunachal Pradesh 1368:working languages 1360:former Yugoslavia 1340:Middle Low German 1213:Los Angeles Times 1128:Equatorial Guinea 893:Classical Quechua 764:slověnĭskŭ językŭ 749:National language 745:Official language 725:literary language 550: 538: 530:Ελληνιστική Κοινή 417:Douglas Harper's 16:(Redirected from 5574: 5562:Interlinguistics 5538: 5537:on 8 April 2010. 5533:. Archived from 5509: 5508:on 9 April 2009. 5504:. Archived from 5497: 5481: 5466: 5445: 5433: 5422: 5419:Índios do Brasil 5413: 5404: 5385: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5281:. Archived from 5271: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5236: 5234: 5214: 5208: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5140: 5134: 5133: 5131: 5129: 5109: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5098: 5087:Sam Noble Museum 5079: 5073: 5072: 5065: 5059: 5058: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5021: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5010: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4972: 4966: 4955: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4925: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4892: 4886: 4885: 4860: 4854: 4853: 4843: 4819: 4813: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4768: 4762: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4703: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4663: 4661: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4554: 4546: 4522: 4516: 4503: 4497: 4486: 4480: 4471:Notaker, Henry. 4469: 4463: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4429: 4423: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4380:. 7 April 2019. 4370: 4364: 4354: 4348: 4347: 4345: 4343: 4315: 4309: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4243: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4220: 4212: 4188: 4179: 4162: 4156: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4126: 4102: 4096: 4095: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4019: 4017: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3910: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3883: 3874: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3772: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3746: 3744: 3725: 3716: 3715: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3692: 3685: 3679: 3676: 3670: 3669:administrators.' 3666: 3660: 3653: 3647: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3629: 3625: 3619: 3616: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3600:. 4 January 2022 3590: 3584: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3560: 3554: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3520: 3514: 3513: 3496: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3441: 3435: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3421: 3419: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3396: 3394: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3354: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3340: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3275: 3269: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3247: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3207: 3201: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3173: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3083: 3072: 3071: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3022: 3020: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2873: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2792: 2786: 2776: 2770: 2760: 2754: 2744: 2738: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2694: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2660: 2649: 2648: 2631: 2622: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2590: 2588: 2573: 2567: 2564: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2531: 2525: 2524: 2514: 2490: 2484: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2464: 2462: 2452: 2446: 2445: 2432: 2430: 2425:on 24 March 2012 2421:. Archived from 2388: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2346: 2339: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2307: 2298: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2263: 2244: 2238: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2224:. 3 April 2015. 2218: 2212: 2211: 2203: 2197: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2186: 2169: 2159: 2150: 2133: 2127: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2081: 2075: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2046: 2040: 2026: 2010:Working language 2000:Interlinguistics 1980:Language contact 1964: 1959: 1958: 1950: 1948:Languages portal 1945: 1944: 1868:and the various 1796:Creole languages 1740:Iranian language 1586:) serves as the 1528: 1522: 1516: 1490:Central European 1400:Chinese diaspora 1356:Hanseatic League 1329: 1323: 1317: 1307: 1263:French Caribbean 1179: 1173: 1167: 1120:Hispanic America 1104: 1098: 1092: 963: 957: 766: 760: 759: 685:Chinese migrants 574:Byzantine Empire 559: 554: 545: 543: 541:Ellinistikí Kiní 533: 531: 495:Literary Chinese 397:Byzantine Empire 386: 380: 379: 374: 366: 365: 360: 354: 336:Slavic languages 265:Standard Chinese 120: 117: 114: 111: 108: 104: 103: 100: 99: 96: 93: 90: 87: 84: 81: 77: 76: 73: 70: 67: 64: 61: 58: 21: 5582: 5581: 5577: 5576: 5575: 5573: 5572: 5571: 5542: 5541: 5529: 5512:Juan del Encina 5500: 5484: 5476: 5473: 5463: 5442: 5401: 5382: 5364: 5362:Further reading 5359: 5358: 5348: 5346: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5318: 5316: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5288: 5286: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5258: 5256: 5247: 5246: 5242: 5232: 5230: 5215: 5211: 5202: 5198: 5188: 5186: 5173: 5172: 5168: 5158: 5156: 5141: 5137: 5127: 5125: 5110: 5106: 5096: 5094: 5081: 5080: 5076: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5053: 5052: 5048: 5022: 5018: 5008: 5006: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4973: 4969: 4956: 4952: 4942: 4940: 4927: 4926: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4894: 4893: 4889: 4882: 4864:Asmah Haji Omar 4861: 4857: 4820: 4816: 4805:Wayback Machine 4795: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4770: 4769: 4765: 4754:Wayback Machine 4744: 4740: 4730: 4728: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4701: 4699: 4692: 4676: 4672: 4659: 4657: 4644: 4640: 4630: 4628: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4599: 4595: 4585: 4583: 4568: 4564: 4548: 4547: 4523: 4519: 4504: 4500: 4496:, 28 June 2016. 4494:Financial Times 4487: 4483: 4475:, excerpt from 4470: 4466: 4453: 4449: 4430: 4426: 4401: 4397: 4387: 4385: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4355: 4351: 4341: 4339: 4332: 4316: 4312: 4303:Wayback Machine 4294: 4290: 4280: 4278: 4263: 4259: 4252: 4234: 4230: 4214: 4213: 4189: 4182: 4172:Wayback Machine 4163: 4159: 4153:Wayback Machine 4144: 4140: 4103: 4099: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4029: 4025: 4015: 4013: 4011: 3985: 3981: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3933: 3929: 3919: 3917: 3911: 3907: 3897: 3895: 3884: 3877: 3867: 3865: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3806: 3802: 3781: 3777: 3767: 3756: 3752: 3742: 3740: 3727: 3726: 3719: 3708: 3704: 3699: 3695: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3673: 3667: 3663: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3613: 3603: 3601: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3577: 3575: 3562: 3561: 3557: 3548: 3544: 3538: 3521: 3517: 3511: 3497: 3493: 3483: 3481: 3474:sogdians.si.edu 3468: 3467: 3463: 3456: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3427: 3417: 3415: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3392: 3390: 3382:Coffey, Clare. 3380: 3376: 3366: 3364: 3356: 3355: 3348: 3338: 3336: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3303:Coffey, Clare. 3301: 3297: 3287: 3285: 3277: 3276: 3272: 3259: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3235: 3234: 3230: 3220: 3218: 3210:Brar, Atarjit. 3208: 3204: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3171: 3169: 3161: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3131: 3127: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3095: 3093: 3085: 3084: 3075: 3069: 3055: 3051: 3045: 3031: 3027: 3018: 3016: 3005: 3004: 3000: 2989: 2985: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2950: 2949: 2945: 2935: 2933: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2902: 2901:. 28 April 2015 2893: 2892: 2888: 2874: 2870: 2860: 2858: 2851: 2832: 2828: 2818: 2816: 2809: 2793: 2789: 2777: 2773: 2761: 2757: 2745: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2698:Merriam-Webster 2695: 2686: 2676: 2674: 2661: 2652: 2647:on 16 May 2001. 2632: 2625: 2615: 2613: 2600: 2596: 2586: 2584: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2532: 2528: 2491: 2487: 2482:Wayback Machine 2474: 2470: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2453: 2449: 2428: 2426: 2419: 2390: 2389: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2344: 2337: 2331: 2327: 2308: 2301: 2291: 2289: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2261: 2259: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2231: 2229: 2220: 2219: 2215: 2204: 2200: 2190: 2188: 2184: 2178: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2153: 2143:Wayback Machine 2134: 2130: 2121: 2117: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2096: 2082: 2078: 2068: 2066: 2047: 2043: 2032:, 2008, p. 31. 2027: 2023: 2018: 1960: 1953: 1946: 1939: 1936: 1842:Anishinaabewaki 1840:in the West to 1822: 1802:Nigerian Pidgin 1798: 1787: 1772: 1725: 1686: 1635: 1568: 1556:mixed languages 1530: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1502: 1447: 1438:ongoing warfare 1420: 1413: 1376: 1331: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1313: 1305: 1297: 1238:Central African 1181: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1157: 1106: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1082: 965: 961: 959: 955: 947: 941: 936: 769:Cyrillic script 751:in the case of 653:Classical Māori 552: 461: 456: 450: 442:linguae francae 431: 316:Renaissance era 302:(also known as 292: 213:second language 209:mixed languages 183: 181:Characteristics 167:pidgin language 151:native language 131:common language 127:bridge language 118: 116:Frankish tongue 115: 112: 109: 78: 55: 51: 42: 39:French language 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Common language 15: 12: 11: 5: 5580: 5570: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5552:Lingua francas 5540: 5539: 5527: 5502:"Sample texts" 5498: 5482: 5472: 5471:External links 5469: 5468: 5467: 5461: 5446: 5440: 5423: 5414: 5405: 5399: 5386: 5380: 5363: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5326: 5296: 5266: 5240: 5217:Flynn, Darin. 5209: 5196: 5166: 5135: 5104: 5074: 5060: 5046: 5016: 4986: 4967: 4957:E. A. Alpers, 4950: 4917: 4887: 4880: 4855: 4814: 4789: 4763: 4738: 4712: 4690: 4670: 4638: 4612: 4593: 4562: 4517: 4498: 4481: 4464: 4447: 4424: 4395: 4365: 4349: 4330: 4310: 4288: 4257: 4251:978-1590173756 4250: 4228: 4180: 4157: 4138: 4117:(1): 111–132. 4097: 4050: 4043: 4023: 4009: 3979: 3952: 3945: 3927: 3905: 3875: 3845: 3827: 3816:(2): 303–312. 3800: 3775: 3750: 3717: 3702: 3693: 3689:lengua general 3680: 3671: 3661: 3648: 3639: 3630: 3620: 3611: 3585: 3555: 3542: 3536: 3515: 3509: 3491: 3461: 3454: 3436: 3425: 3400: 3374: 3346: 3321: 3295: 3270: 3253: 3228: 3202: 3191: 3179: 3154: 3147: 3125: 3115: 3103: 3073: 3067: 3049: 3043: 3025: 2998: 2983: 2963: 2960:(Online). n.d. 2943: 2912: 2886: 2877:Burrow, Thomas 2868: 2849: 2826: 2807: 2787: 2771: 2755: 2752:978-0802717719 2739: 2730: 2721: 2684: 2650: 2623: 2608:. p. 98. 2594: 2568: 2559: 2526: 2485: 2468: 2447: 2417: 2383: 2353: 2325: 2314:(217): 47–77. 2299: 2269: 2239: 2213: 2198: 2176: 2151: 2128: 2115: 2101: 2094: 2076: 2041: 2020: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1951: 1935: 1932: 1915:European Union 1891:sign languages 1877:Indian Country 1866:Inuit Nunangat 1821: 1820:Sign languages 1818: 1797: 1794: 1786: 1783: 1771: 1768: 1724: 1721: 1685: 1682: 1634: 1631: 1614:Northern India 1567: 1564: 1525: 1519: 1513: 1501: 1498: 1446: 1443: 1412: 1409: 1375: 1372: 1326: 1320: 1314: 1308: "German 1304: 1296: 1293: 1289:European Union 1176: 1170: 1164: 1156: 1153: 1116:Spanish Empire 1101: 1095: 1089: 1081: 1078: 1070:European Union 1027:British Empire 1023:United Kingdom 976:British Empire 960: 954: 943:Main article: 940: 937: 935: 932: 917: 916: 913:lengua general 908: 825:writing system 737:Eastern Europe 635:Roman Republic 601:Andhra Pradesh 572:and the early 460: 457: 452:Main article: 449: 446: 438:lingua francas 430: 427: 291: 288: 246: 241:United Kingdom 238: 182: 179: 175:world language 135:trade language 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5579: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5521: 5520:Carlo Goldoni 5517: 5513: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5489: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5474: 5464: 5458: 5454: 5453: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5432: 5431: 5424: 5420: 5415: 5411: 5406: 5402: 5400:3-8039-0033-6 5396: 5392: 5387: 5383: 5381:0-8014-0173-9 5377: 5373: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5330: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5254: 5250: 5244: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5206: 5200: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5170: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5139: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5108: 5092: 5088: 5084: 5078: 5070: 5064: 5056: 5050: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5026: 5020: 5004: 5000: 4999:Pulse Nigeria 4996: 4990: 4982: 4978: 4971: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4924: 4922: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4891: 4883: 4881:3-11-012855-1 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4811: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4793: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4760: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4748: 4742: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4709: 4697: 4693: 4691:0-7167-1904-5 4687: 4684:, Macmillan, 4683: 4682: 4674: 4667: 4655: 4651: 4650: 4642: 4626: 4622: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4597: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4566: 4558: 4552: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4515:, 5 May 2017. 4514: 4513: 4508: 4502: 4495: 4491: 4485: 4478: 4474: 4468: 4461: 4457: 4451: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4369: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4337: 4333: 4327: 4323: 4322: 4314: 4307: 4306:Top Languages 4304: 4300: 4297: 4292: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4253: 4247: 4242: 4241: 4232: 4224: 4218: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4187: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4161: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4142: 4134: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4101: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4054: 4046: 4044:9788477622062 4040: 4036: 4035: 4027: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3948: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3916: 3909: 3893: 3889: 3882: 3880: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3804: 3796: 3792: 3791: 3786: 3779: 3771: 3765: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3722: 3713: 3706: 3697: 3690: 3684: 3675: 3665: 3658: 3652: 3643: 3634: 3624: 3615: 3599: 3595: 3589: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3559: 3552: 3546: 3539: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3524:Jones, Daniel 3519: 3512: 3510:9781405881180 3506: 3502: 3495: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3465: 3457: 3455:9789027284181 3451: 3447: 3440: 3434: 3429: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3389: 3385: 3378: 3363: 3359: 3353: 3351: 3335: 3331: 3325: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3267: 3263: 3257: 3242: 3238: 3232: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3200: 3195: 3188: 3183: 3168: 3164: 3158: 3150: 3148:9781742288222 3144: 3140: 3136: 3129: 3119: 3112: 3107: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3046: 3040: 3036: 3029: 3014: 3010: 3009: 3002: 2994: 2987: 2979: 2978: 2973: 2967: 2959: 2958: 2953: 2947: 2932: 2931:HarperCollins 2928: 2927: 2922: 2916: 2900: 2896: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2842: 2841: 2836: 2830: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2791: 2785: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2749: 2743: 2734: 2725: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2699: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2672: 2668: 2667: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2646: 2642: 2641: 2636: 2630: 2628: 2611: 2607: 2606: 2598: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2563: 2554: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2530: 2522: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2489: 2483: 2479: 2476: 2472: 2457: 2451: 2444: 2442: 2438: 2424: 2420: 2418:960-86190-1-7 2414: 2410: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2357: 2350: 2343: 2336: 2329: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2306: 2304: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2273: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2243: 2227: 2223: 2217: 2209: 2202: 2183: 2179: 2177:9789279189876 2173: 2166: 2165: 2158: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2119: 2111: 2105: 2097: 2095:9780226000299 2091: 2087: 2080: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2055:Distillations 2052: 2045: 2039: 2038:90-272-3100-1 2035: 2031: 2025: 2021: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1993: 1991: 1988: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1970:Rosetta Stone 1968: 1967: 1963: 1957: 1952: 1949: 1943: 1938: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1826: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1793: 1791: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1729: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1690: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1639: 1630: 1626: 1624: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1592: 1590: 1589:lingua franca 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1511: 1506: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1471:Baltic states 1468: 1464: 1460: 1451: 1442: 1439: 1435: 1432:and parts of 1431: 1427: 1417: 1408: 1405: 1402:communities, 1401: 1398:. Among many 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1311: 1301: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1209: 1208:United States 1205: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1161: 1152: 1150: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137:and southern 1136: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1086: 1077: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1012:entertainment 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 980:United States 977: 973: 951: 946: 931: 929: 925: 921: 914: 909: 906: 902: 901: 900: 898: 894: 890: 888: 883: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 856: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 793:Lesser Poland 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 765: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 648: 647:dead language 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 603:districts of 602: 599:the southern 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 558: 548: 542: 536: 527: 523: 519: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 491: 488: 484: 482: 478: 474: 469: 465: 455: 445: 443: 439: 434: 426: 424: 423:Lingua Franca 420: 415: 412: 409: 408:lingua franca 404: 402: 398: 394: 390: 385: 375:) and Arabic 373: 372: 359: 353: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 298:derives from 297: 296:lingua franca 287: 285: 281: 276: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 245:lingua franca 244: 242: 236: 234: 229: 224: 222: 216: 214: 210: 207:and arguably 206: 202: 198: 192: 187: 178: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 154: 152: 148: 144: 143:link language 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 102: 49: 48:lingua franca 44: 40: 33: 19: 5535:the original 5523: 5515: 5506:the original 5494:the original 5487: 5451: 5429: 5418: 5409: 5390: 5370: 5347:. Retrieved 5343:the original 5338: 5329: 5317:. Retrieved 5308: 5299: 5287:. Retrieved 5283:the original 5278: 5269: 5257:. Retrieved 5253:the original 5243: 5231:. Retrieved 5222: 5212: 5204: 5199: 5187:. Retrieved 5178: 5169: 5157:. Retrieved 5148: 5138: 5126:. Retrieved 5117: 5107: 5095:. Retrieved 5086: 5077: 5063: 5049: 5032: 5028: 5019: 5007:. Retrieved 4998: 4989: 4980: 4976: 4970: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4941:. Retrieved 4932: 4908:. Retrieved 4899: 4896:"Indonesian" 4890: 4871: 4858: 4831: 4827: 4817: 4807: 4792: 4780:. Retrieved 4766: 4756: 4741: 4729:. Retrieved 4725:the original 4715: 4707: 4700:, retrieved 4680: 4673: 4665: 4658:, retrieved 4648: 4641: 4629:. Retrieved 4625:the original 4615: 4606: 4602: 4596: 4584:. Retrieved 4575: 4565: 4551:cite journal 4534: 4530: 4520: 4512:The Guardian 4510: 4501: 4493: 4484: 4476: 4467: 4459: 4450: 4427: 4411: 4398: 4386:. Retrieved 4377: 4368: 4360: 4352: 4340:. Retrieved 4320: 4313: 4305: 4291: 4279:. Retrieved 4270: 4260: 4239: 4231: 4217:cite journal 4200: 4196: 4175: 4160: 4141: 4114: 4110: 4100: 4067: 4063: 4053: 4033: 4026: 4014:. Retrieved 3992: 3982: 3965: 3961: 3955: 3936: 3930: 3918:. Retrieved 3908: 3896:. Retrieved 3866:. Retrieved 3862:the original 3857: 3848: 3839: 3830: 3813: 3809: 3803: 3788: 3778: 3761: 3753: 3741:. Retrieved 3732: 3711: 3705: 3696: 3688: 3683: 3674: 3664: 3657:catechetical 3651: 3642: 3633: 3623: 3614: 3602:. Retrieved 3597: 3588: 3576:. Retrieved 3567: 3558: 3550: 3545: 3527: 3518: 3500: 3494: 3482:. Retrieved 3473: 3464: 3445: 3439: 3428: 3416:. Retrieved 3412: 3403: 3391:. Retrieved 3387: 3377: 3367:12 September 3365:. Retrieved 3361: 3337:. Retrieved 3333: 3324: 3312:. Retrieved 3308: 3298: 3286:. Retrieved 3282: 3273: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3244:. Retrieved 3240: 3231: 3221:12 September 3219:. Retrieved 3215: 3205: 3194: 3186: 3182: 3170:. Retrieved 3166: 3157: 3134: 3128: 3118: 3110: 3106: 3096:12 September 3094:. Retrieved 3090: 3058: 3052: 3034: 3028: 3017:, retrieved 3007: 3001: 2992: 2986: 2975: 2966: 2955: 2946: 2936:24 September 2934:. Retrieved 2924: 2915: 2903:. Retrieved 2898: 2889: 2880: 2871: 2859:. Retrieved 2839: 2829: 2817:. Retrieved 2797: 2790: 2774: 2758: 2742: 2733: 2724: 2712:, retrieved 2708:the original 2702: 2675:, retrieved 2671:the original 2665: 2645:the original 2639: 2614:. Retrieved 2604: 2597: 2585:. Retrieved 2571: 2562: 2546:(1): 71–85. 2543: 2539: 2529: 2502: 2498: 2488: 2471: 2459:. Retrieved 2450: 2440: 2439:and φράγκο- 2436: 2434: 2427:. Retrieved 2423:the original 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2392: 2386: 2374:. Retrieved 2365: 2356: 2348: 2342:the original 2328: 2311: 2290:. Retrieved 2281: 2272: 2260:. Retrieved 2251: 2242: 2230:. Retrieved 2216: 2207: 2201: 2189:. Retrieved 2163: 2146: 2131: 2123: 2118: 2109: 2104: 2085: 2079: 2067:. Retrieved 2061:(1): 40–43. 2058: 2054: 2044: 2029: 2024: 1885: 1838:Newe Segobia 1831: 1799: 1788: 1773: 1734: 1695: 1662:pluricentric 1652:" including 1644: 1627: 1595: 1588: 1587: 1575: 1533: 1487: 1459:Central Asia 1456: 1424: 1377: 1344:Hohenstaufen 1334: 1282: 1267: 1226: 1211: 1204:World War II 1191:early modern 1184: 1146: 1143: 1132: 1109: 1074:Euro English 1051: 1039:South Africa 1020: 990:language of 987: 968: 928:Safavid Iran 918: 912: 891: 884: 857: 801:South Slavic 715: 711:Christianity 693: 667:dialogue on 651: 629: 582: 570:Roman Empire 520: 492: 485: 475: 472: 441: 437: 435: 432: 422: 418: 416: 413: 407: 405: 400: 348: 303: 295: 293: 277: 255:. Likewise, 251:, alongside 225: 217: 199: 195: 190: 155: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 47: 45: 43: 4537:: 149–176. 4422:p. 10 of 13 3578:21 February 2714:25 February 2677:25 February 2191:15 December 1928:classifiers 1919:Deaflympics 1748:Afghanistan 1717:Pan-African 1650:Malay world 1494:Warsaw Pact 1124:Philippines 1062:Switzerland 920:Ajem-Turkic 905:Inca Empire 887:Renaissance 885:During the 797:Kievan Rus' 522:Koine Greek 468:Koine Greek 429:Usage notes 378:إِفْرَنْجِي 312:Middle Ages 249:Philippines 5546:Categories 4782:17 October 4631:25 January 4281:18 October 3968:(8): 104. 3946:382336250X 3920:4 December 3868:5 December 3763:Ethnologue 3604:10 January 3409:"The Post" 3279:"The Post" 3237:"The Post" 2784:0791401685 2768:0191579173 2505:(4): 557. 2210:. Longman. 2124:OED Online 2016:References 1756:Tajikistan 1709:Tanganyika 1670:Indonesian 1582:(based on 1580:Hindustani 1576:Hindi Belt 1566:Hindustani 1544:East Timor 1535:Portuguese 1500:Portuguese 1352:Baltic Sea 1310:Sprachraum 1259:Mauritania 982:. It is a 870:, Venice, 703:Tang China 384:ʾifranjiyy 237:vernacular 228:vernacular 226:Whereas a 5393:. BRILL. 5309:UN Web TV 5035:: 63–81. 4850:2158-2440 4828:SAGE Open 4758:Scroll.in 4702:18 August 4660:18 August 4576:ThoughtCo 4420:1944-6934 4203:: 35–60. 4133:255570955 4092:143648085 4070:: 33–57. 3898:6 January 3388:Lightcast 3309:Lightcast 2521:1467-9841 1921:, in all 1834:Hand Talk 1810:Melanesia 1806:Caribbean 1510:Lusophone 1404:Cantonese 1348:North Sea 1112:New World 1043:Singapore 1021:When the 992:diplomacy 874:, Milan, 864:Provençal 841:Caucasian 817:Wallachia 813:Black sea 733:Southeast 699:Silk Road 625:Bangalore 592:Sri Lanka 588:Tamilakam 584:Old Tamil 535:romanized 328:loanwords 294:The term 290:Etymology 284:Esperanto 5313:Archived 5227:Archived 5183:Archived 5153:Archived 5122:Archived 5097:24 April 5091:Archived 5009:21 April 5003:Archived 4943:29 April 4937:Archived 4910:24 April 4904:Archived 4801:Archived 4776:Archived 4750:Archived 4696:archived 4654:archived 4586:24 April 4580:Archived 4442:41802986 4388:24 April 4382:Archived 4378:BBC News 4342:19 March 4336:Archived 4299:Archived 4275:Archived 4168:Archived 4149:Archived 4084:43284061 3962:Computer 3892:Archived 3795:Archived 3743:24 April 3737:Archived 3572:Archived 3478:Archived 3418:15 March 3393:15 March 3339:15 March 3314:15 March 3288:15 March 3246:15 March 3172:15 March 3019:29 March 3013:archived 2879:(1973). 2861:19 March 2855:Archived 2819:19 March 2813:Archived 2610:Archived 2581:Archived 2478:Archived 2441:phranko- 2437:Phrankos 2402:Phrankos 2376:8 August 2370:Archived 2286:Archived 2256:Archived 2232:29 April 2226:Archived 2182:Archived 2139:Archived 2069:20 March 2063:Archived 1934:See also 1873:dialects 1850:Denendeh 1713:Tanzania 1678:language 1674:Javanese 1658:Thailand 1610:Pakistan 1560:Portuñol 1558:such as 1463:Caucasus 1461:and the 1430:Djibouti 1350:and the 1016:internet 1014:and the 1008:aviation 988:de facto 978:and the 924:Dagestan 872:Florence 853:Caucasus 833:Mongolic 821:Moldavia 811:and the 777:Bulgaria 753:Bulgaria 707:Buddhism 605:Chittoor 596:John Guy 487:Sanskrit 477:Akkadian 448:Examples 389:Frankish 371:Phránkoi 364:Φρᾰ́γκοι 282:such as 253:Filipino 147:language 5339:YouTube 5179:YouTube 5118:OUPblog 4870:(ed.). 4408:Archive 3842:. 2020. 3758:English 3628:Empire' 3568:NPR.org 2972:"Koine" 2952:"Koine" 2921:"Koine" 2905:23 July 2587:18 June 2461:18 June 2429:18 June 1790:Amharic 1785:Amharic 1779:Nigeria 1736:Persian 1723:Persian 1697:Swahili 1684:Swahili 1600:, with 1584:Dehlavi 1475:opening 1445:Russian 1434:Eritrea 1378:Today, 1374:Chinese 1364:Namibia 1274:fashion 1270:cuisine 1255:Morocco 1251:Tunisia 1247:Algeria 1243:Maghreb 1229:Belgian 1197:. With 1139:Florida 1080:Spanish 1004:tourism 996:science 939:English 897:Quechua 789:Bohemia 781:Croatia 741:liturgy 695:Sogdian 673:wānanga 609:Nellore 549: 537:: 511:Vietnam 481:Aramaic 344:Turkish 324:Spanish 320:Italian 273:Spanish 269:Russian 247:in the 239:in the 233:English 205:creoles 201:Pidgins 165:-based 163:Romance 145:, is a 110: 5459: 5438: 5397: 5378: 5349:11 May 5319:11 May 5289:11 May 5259:11 May 5233:11 May 5189:11 May 5159:11 May 5128:11 May 4878: 4848: 4731:16 May 4688: 4440: 4418: 4361:Ask UN 4328: 4248: 4131: 4090: 4082: 4041: 4016:2 June 4007: 3943: 3534: 3507: 3484:10 May 3452: 3145: 3065: 3041: 2847: 2805: 2782: 2766: 2750: 2616:8 June 2519: 2415: 2292:11 May 2262:11 May 2174: 2092: 2036: 1911:Auslan 1907:Libras 1754:) and 1654:Brunei 1527: 1521: 1515: 1426:Arabic 1411:Arabic 1388:Taiwan 1336:German 1328: 1322: 1316: 1306: 1295:German 1285:Brexit 1276:, and 1257:, and 1199:France 1178: 1172: 1166: 1155:French 1103: 1097: 1091: 962: 956: 934:Modern 845:Iranic 837:Uralic 829:Turkic 809:Danube 807:, the 785:Serbia 729:Slavic 621:Mandya 617:Mysore 568:, the 553:Greek: 509:, and 507:Ryūkyū 401:Franks 393:Franks 358:Franca 352:lingua 342:, and 340:Arabic 308:Levant 261:French 257:Arabic 221:Creole 5510:from 4438:JSTOR 4129:S2CID 4088:S2CID 4080:JSTOR 3266:JSTOR 3123:2024) 2345:(PDF) 2338:(PDF) 2185:(PDF) 2168:(PDF) 1909:, or 1870:Inuit 1775:Hausa 1770:Hausa 1760:Tajik 1738:, an 1701:Bantu 1646:Malay 1633:Malay 1602:Hindi 1548:Macau 1512:world 1384:China 1278:sport 1187:Latin 1058:Qatar 1035:Ghana 880:Siena 868:Genoa 739:, in 719:, an 669:marae 661:Māori 639:Italy 631:Latin 613:Kolar 526:Greek 503:Japan 499:Korea 332:Greek 330:from 304:Sabir 235:is a 141:, or 5457:ISBN 5436:ISBN 5395:ISBN 5376:ISBN 5351:2021 5321:2021 5291:2021 5261:2021 5235:2021 5191:2021 5161:2021 5130:2021 5099:2021 5011:2021 4945:2019 4912:2021 4876:ISBN 4846:ISSN 4784:2022 4733:2016 4704:2020 4686:ISBN 4662:2020 4633:2008 4588:2021 4557:link 4416:ISSN 4406:." ( 4390:2021 4344:2022 4326:ISBN 4283:2021 4246:ISBN 4223:link 4039:ISBN 4018:2021 4005:ISBN 3941:ISBN 3922:2023 3900:2018 3870:2023 3745:2021 3606:2023 3580:2019 3532:ISBN 3505:ISBN 3486:2021 3450:ISBN 3420:2024 3395:2024 3369:2023 3341:2024 3316:2024 3290:2024 3248:2024 3223:2023 3174:2024 3143:ISBN 3098:2023 3063:ISBN 3039:ISBN 3021:2022 2938:2014 2907:2023 2863:2022 2845:ISBN 2821:2022 2803:ISBN 2780:ISBN 2764:ISBN 2748:ISBN 2716:2018 2679:2018 2618:2013 2589:2015 2517:ISSN 2463:2015 2431:2015 2413:ISBN 2378:2017 2294:2021 2264:2021 2234:2019 2193:2018 2172:ISBN 2090:ISBN 2071:2018 2034:ISBN 1856:and 1846:Cree 1752:Dari 1744:Iran 1666:Riau 1612:and 1606:Urdu 1604:and 1596:The 1574:The 1554:and 1508:The 1386:and 1236:and 1234:West 1047:Fiji 1045:and 1037:and 876:Pisa 858:The 843:and 819:and 747:and 735:and 709:and 623:and 607:and 590:and 547:lit. 440:and 271:and 161:, a 107:lit. 5522:'s 5149:VOA 5037:doi 4836:doi 4539:doi 4205:doi 4119:doi 4072:doi 3997:doi 3970:doi 3818:doi 3760:at 2548:doi 2507:doi 2404:), 2316:doi 1903:BSL 1899:ASL 1895:LSF 1488:In 665:iwi 5548:: 5518:, 5514:, 5337:. 5307:. 5277:. 5225:. 5221:. 5177:. 5151:. 5147:. 5116:. 5085:. 5033:10 5031:. 4997:. 4979:. 4931:. 4920:^ 4898:. 4844:. 4832:11 4830:. 4826:. 4774:. 4706:, 4694:, 4664:, 4605:. 4578:. 4574:. 4553:}} 4549:{{ 4535:26 4533:. 4529:. 4509:, 4492:, 4458:, 4410:) 4376:. 4359:, 4334:. 4273:. 4269:. 4219:}} 4215:{{ 4201:26 4199:. 4195:. 4183:^ 4174:, 4127:. 4113:. 4109:. 4086:. 4078:. 4068:38 4066:. 4062:. 4003:. 3995:. 3991:. 3966:50 3964:. 3890:. 3878:^ 3856:. 3838:. 3814:33 3812:. 3793:. 3787:. 3731:. 3720:^ 3596:. 3570:. 3566:. 3476:. 3472:. 3411:. 3386:. 3360:. 3349:^ 3332:. 3307:. 3281:. 3239:. 3214:. 3165:. 3089:. 3076:^ 2974:. 2954:. 2929:. 2923:. 2897:. 2853:. 2811:. 2700:, 2687:^ 2653:^ 2637:, 2626:^ 2542:. 2538:. 2515:. 2501:. 2497:. 2433:. 2368:. 2364:. 2302:^ 2284:. 2280:. 2254:. 2250:. 2180:. 2154:^ 2145:– 2057:. 2053:. 1930:. 1905:, 1901:, 1897:, 1883:. 1816:. 1808:, 1746:, 1542:, 1280:. 1272:, 1253:, 1249:, 1224:. 1151:. 1018:. 1010:, 1006:, 1002:, 998:, 994:, 930:. 878:, 839:, 835:, 831:, 791:, 787:, 783:, 761:, 659:. 627:. 619:, 615:, 594:. 544:, 532:, 528:: 505:, 501:, 483:. 399:, 338:, 334:, 267:, 263:, 259:, 137:, 133:, 129:, 105:; 46:A 5486:" 5480:. 5465:. 5444:. 5412:. 5403:. 5384:. 5353:. 5323:. 5293:. 5263:. 5237:. 5193:. 5163:. 5132:. 5101:. 5057:. 5039:: 5013:. 4981:6 4947:. 4914:. 4884:. 4852:. 4838:: 4786:. 4735:. 4635:. 4607:2 4590:. 4559:) 4541:: 4444:. 4392:. 4346:. 4285:. 4254:. 4225:) 4207:: 4135:. 4121:: 4115:9 4094:. 4074:: 4047:. 4020:. 3999:: 3976:. 3972:: 3949:. 3924:. 3902:. 3872:. 3820:: 3747:. 3608:. 3582:. 3488:. 3458:. 3422:. 3397:. 3371:. 3343:. 3318:. 3292:. 3250:. 3225:. 3176:. 3151:. 3100:. 2940:. 2909:. 2865:. 2823:. 2718:. 2681:. 2620:. 2591:. 2556:. 2550:: 2544:9 2523:. 2509:: 2503:7 2465:. 2443:) 2380:. 2318:: 2296:. 2266:. 2236:. 2195:. 2098:. 2073:. 2059:2 1758:( 1750:( 1591:. 1245:( 381:( 367:( 119:' 113:' 101:/ 98:ə 95:k 92:ŋ 89:æ 86:r 83:f 80:ˈ 75:ə 72:w 69:ɡ 66:ŋ 63:ɪ 60:l 57:ˌ 54:/ 50:( 41:. 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index