199:
408:
in the 19th century, Algerian Lingua Franca was heavily gallicised (to the extent that locals are reported having believed that they spoke French when conversing in Lingua Franca with the
Frenchmen, who in turn thought they were speaking Arabic), and this version of the language was spoken into the nineteen hundreds.... Algerian French was indeed a dialect of French, although Lingua Franca certainly had had an influence on it.... Lingua Franca also seems to have affected other languages.
503:
Many aspects of Lingua Franca are still largely up for debate and different scholars have different opinions. That is because Lingua Franca was a primarily oral language, with some accounts of it and examples in literature, but very little by way of real examples of the language in use. That may also
407:
As the use of Lingua Franca spread in the
Mediterranean, dialectal fragmentation emerged, the main difference being more use of Italian and Provençal vocabulary in the Middle East, while Ibero-Romance lexical material dominated in the Maghreb. After France became the dominant power in the latter area
517:
Alternate origins for the term lingua franca include its translation as "free language", perhaps referring to free trade, or a translation from Arabic meaning "Latin language" or "trade language". It has also been translated to mean "Venetician" or "western language" or simply to mean "French
576:
Although written representations of, and/or extra-linguistic comments on, LF come from more than one period and more than one area of the
Mediterranean, the principal documentation of this contact language is circumscribed by the area of the Maghreb in the period between the second half of the
234:
describes Sabir as a "fifteenth century proto-pidgin" and "a relic of the original Lingua Franca, a medieval language used by
Mediterranean traders and by the Crusaders." Operstein and McMahon categorize Sabir and "Lingua Franca" as separate but related languages.
412:, for instance, displayed some remarkable similarities with it, in particular the use of Italian participles as past or perfective markers. It seems reasonable to assume that these similarities have been transmitted through Italian foreigner talk stereotypes.
416:
The similarities contribute to discussions of the classification of Lingua Franca as a language. Although its official classification is that of a pidgin, some scholars adamantly oppose that classification and believe it would be better viewed as an
439:-influenced version of Lingua Franca with the local languages. When English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn the "broken Portuguese". A process of
680:
510:
Although the language is officially classified as a pidgin, some scholars argue that to be inaccurate and pointing instead toward an interlanguage of
Italian or a
3010:
3670:
888:
Brown, Joshua. 2024. "Digital approaches to multilingual text analysis: the
Dictionnaire de la langue franque and its morphology as hybrid data in the past".
1042:
805:
5939:
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801:
590:
809:
711:
5944:
5450:
5054:
4813:
2970:
787:
4658:
4573:
5682:
4774:
3003:
1081:
428:
593:[History of the Italian Language: Linguistic exchanges in the Mediterranean and the lingua franca] (in Italian). Archived from
3211:
3091:
2996:
4362:
3943:
5934:
3436:
3118:
1532:
846:
630:
577:
sixteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century (Cifoletti 1989, 2004; Camus
Bergareche 1993; Arends 1998; Couto 2002)
1464:
1049:
5919:
5914:
4454:
4093:
1267:
1262:
1206:
1094:
1367:
1257:
198:
5443:
5047:
4806:
4542:
3903:
1482:
3313:
892:(edited by Lorella Viola and Paul Spence). Digital Research in the Arts and Humanities. London: Routledge, pp.213-229.
5675:
4504:
4075:
2321:
948:
919:
904:
882:
705:
4346:
3429:
2381:
976:
Hitchcock, Louise A., and Aren M. Maeir. 2016. "A Pirate's Life for me: The
Maritime culture of the Sea Peoples."
654:
561:
3842:
1669:
1274:
1074:
159:
873:
Brown, Joshua. 2022. "On the
Existence of a Mediterranean Lingua Franca and the Persistence of Language Myths".
3800:
2469:
2370:
2340:
961:
Drusteler, Eric R. 2012. "Speaking in
Tongues: Language and communication in the Early Modern Mediterranean."
5904:
5899:
5436:
5040:
4799:
3220:
3123:
2277:
1955:
189:
5909:
5894:
5668:
5248:
5112:
4927:
3330:
3204:
3096:
379:
was reduced, and Venetian influences can be seen in the dropping of certain vowels and intervocalic stops.
3346:
2404:
1807:
5253:
5079:
4995:
3614:
3189:
3054:
2283:
1252:
1181:
387:
This mixed language was used widely for commerce and diplomacy and was also current among slaves of the
5929:
5341:
4990:
3049:
3044:
2566:
2138:
1573:
1131:
1067:
781:
594:
431:
that he developed, Lingua Franca was known by Mediterranean sailors including the Portuguese. When the
317:
813:
435:
the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a
5924:
5281:
5215:
4435:
4374:
2153:
2065:
1674:
1515:
1230:
1159:
1141:
1124:
1119:
1109:
5868:
450:
The theory is one way of explaining the similarities between most of the European-based pidgins and
427:(1842–1927) was the first scholar to investigate the Lingua Franca systematically. According to the
5583:
4634:
4170:
4164:
4054:
3086:
3039:
2858:
2762:
1635:
1583:
1362:
1310:
183:
5949:
5200:
4158:
4058:
3276:
3271:
3197:
2226:
1817:
1771:
1652:
1625:
1564:
1501:
1447:
1154:
1114:
1037:
1822:
5803:
5752:
5525:
5475:
5388:
5258:
5148:
5143:
5011:
4836:
4152:
4046:
3863:
3308:
2944:
2160:
1578:
1524:
1176:
471:
432:
3250:
1054:
620:
507:
Debated aspects are the language's classification and the origin of the term "lingua franca".
5742:
5711:
5515:
5210:
5125:
4879:
4721:
3235:
2976:
2921:
2727:
2722:
2375:
2353:
2244:
2172:
1995:
1657:
1420:
2640:
1608:
5459:
5063:
4822:
4471:
4384:
3885:
2926:
2700:
2316:
2289:
2215:
2075:
1874:
1802:
1754:
1748:
1711:
1694:
5747:
3318:
2710:
2123:
1191:
761:
591:"Storia della Lingua Italiana: Gli scambi linguistici nel Mediterraneo e la lingua franca"
8:
5843:
5593:
5568:
5535:
5485:
5361:
5103:
3291:
2411:
2303:
2271:
2265:
1886:
1846:
1812:
1640:
1404:
436:
333:
227:
41:
4461:
2674:
2107:
1782:
1716:
480:
4727:
4050:
3392:
3362:
3133:
3064:
2916:
2645:
2501:
2459:
2425:
2419:
2309:
2252:
2209:
2192:
1930:
1923:
1759:
1547:
1488:
1344:
1332:
1211:
1149:
537:
532:
2694:
1186:
175:
5727:
5578:
5573:
5467:
5272:
5135:
5071:
4970:
4962:
4947:
4942:
4536:
4224:
4135:
4009:
3937:
3705:
3372:
3286:
3281:
2873:
2852:
2772:
2732:
2591:
2519:
2513:
2437:
2329:
2239:
2180:
2092:
2050:
1851:
1797:
1603:
1588:
1559:
1542:
1452:
1415:
1384:
1372:
1291:
1279:
1196:
1171:
1165:
1090:
1059:
944:
915:
900:
878:
852:
842:
701:
626:
495:, which literally means "Cape Look and Escape" in Lingua Franca and ancient Italian.
400:
313:
309:
247:
3382:
2715:
1684:
1662:
877:(edited by Karen Bennett and Angelo Cattaneo). London: Routledge, pp. 169–189.
562:"The syntactic structures of Lingua Franca in the Dictionnaire de la langue franque"
511:
328:) in the western Mediterranean area at first, Lingua Franca later came to have more
5793:
5788:
5737:
5732:
5706:
5649:
5644:
5634:
5629:
5616:
5601:
5498:
5395:
5351:
5346:
5333:
5299:
5243:
5235:
5220:
5183:
5153:
4952:
4932:
4907:
4889:
4844:
4481:
3980:
3915:
3387:
3377:
3303:
3266:
3146:
3108:
3101:
3071:
3059:
3019:
2826:
2816:
2801:
2789:
2705:
2654:
2618:
2596:
2583:
2577:
2506:
2495:
2399:
2364:
2348:
2197:
2185:
2118:
2082:
2070:
2038:
1963:
1935:
1908:
1738:
1733:
1721:
1701:
1689:
1630:
1537:
1494:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1389:
1320:
1304:
1201:
1011:
988:
966:
936:
927:
The Lingua Franca in the Levant: Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin
409:
349:
329:
325:
321:
267:
254:, and it originally referred specifically to the language that was used around the
219:
77:
2601:
2551:
1028:
5838:
5818:
5798:
5639:
5624:
5606:
5543:
5520:
5493:
5402:
5374:
5315:
5225:
5205:
5192:
5169:
5016:
4937:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4902:
4897:
4869:
4861:
4839:
4674:
4608:
4487:
4368:
4220:
4214:
4208:
4081:
3970:
3947:
3897:
3516:
3081:
2910:
2896:
2777:
2679:
2669:
2613:
2464:
2452:
2392:
2387:
2202:
2131:
2113:
2087:
2060:
1990:
1947:
1859:
1840:
1792:
1679:
1645:
1598:
1593:
1315:
1247:
1219:
932:
527:
451:
424:
392:
361:
353:
345:
89:
4733:
2988:
1913:
1045:. It includes articles about the language from various authors and sample texts.
5848:
5823:
5563:
5508:
5021:
4874:
4447:
4400:
4394:
4388:
4281:
4182:
4027:
3974:
3931:
3919:
3891:
3836:
3805:
3504:
3481:
3367:
3298:
3171:
3141:
3076:
2961:
2868:
2863:
2784:
2664:
2626:
2358:
1918:
1864:
1834:
1726:
1410:
1338:
1284:
943:(edited and translated by Glenn G. Gilbert), Cambridge University Press, 1980.
757:
492:
440:
357:
259:
4429:
4275:
3166:
2007:
1015:
856:
5888:
5863:
5783:
5773:
5553:
4312:
4287:
4242:
3646:
3452:
3113:
2903:
2806:
2794:
2526:
2234:
1891:
1829:
1325:
467:
418:
372:
337:
275:
231:
223:
203:
152:
4441:
4318:
3626:
16:
Lingua franca of the Mediterranean Basin between the 11th and 19th centuries
5873:
5757:
5503:
5120:
4380:
3469:
2685:
2545:
1985:
1940:
970:
463:
371:. The infinitive was used for all verb forms and the lexicon was primarily
4646:
3997:
3219:
983:
Lang, George. 1992. "The Literary Settings of Lingua Franca (1300-1830)."
143:
5808:
4780:
4236:
4129:
4106:
3830:
3664:
3410:
2747:
2740:
2477:
2043:
376:
4602:
4417:
2012:
5833:
5813:
5428:
5094:
5032:
4791:
4567:
4526:
4324:
4308:
4003:
3925:
3642:
2055:
2025:
2017:
1973:
1968:
1618:
1377:
992:
697:, G.Babiniotes, Kentro Lexikologias(Legicology Center) LTD Publications
459:
251:
5660:
836:
263:
4768:
4691:
4624:
4614:
4585:
4520:
4265:
4259:
4202:
4123:
4087:
4021:
4015:
3879:
3859:
3792:
3733:
3723:
3632:
3603:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3510:
3161:
3151:
3034:
2821:
2659:
2001:
1296:
998:
Operstein, Natalie. 2018. "Inflection in Lingua Franca: from Haedo's
455:
168:
136:
4652:
2447:
5858:
4764:
4743:
4640:
4628:
4561:
4532:
4514:
4423:
4356:
4352:
4330:
4269:
4198:
3964:
3909:
3873:
3869:
3824:
3788:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3717:
3711:
3701:
3694:
3676:
3658:
3652:
3620:
3609:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3539:
3533:
3492:
3488:
3475:
3156:
2606:
2442:
2258:
1706:
1554:
368:
2811:
5410:
5294:
4760:
4739:
4704:
4697:
4618:
4510:
4475:
4304:
4230:
4194:
4186:
4176:
4100:
3782:
3739:
3727:
3688:
3682:
3638:
3599:
3498:
3421:
2430:
2295:
2033:
1457:
1442:
444:
396:
341:
61:
53:
49:
45:
5853:
5778:
5692:
5369:
5084:
4579:
3776:
3770:
3325:
3240:
2632:
1978:
1901:
1881:
1613:
941:
Pidgin and Creole languages: selected essays by Hugo Schuchardt
488:
388:
288:("to know") in most Iberian languages and of Italian and Latin
255:
98:
69:
65:
447:
to be substituted by the languages of the peoples in contact.
5558:
1896:
1869:
897:
Lingua Franca – Histoire d'une langue métisse en Méditerranée
741:
736:
730:
725:
57:
812:(5th ed.). Milwaukee, WI, United States. Archived from
367:
The grammar of the language used aspects from many of its
838:
The elusive case of lingua franca : fact and fiction
487:
Lingua Franca left traces in present Algerian slang and
491:. There are traces even in geographical names, such as
474:. Those languages use forms similar to or derived from
1089:
625:(in German). Cambridge University Press. p. 256.
614:
612:
262:. However, the term "Franks" was actually applied to
1781:
1029:
Dictionnaire de la Langue Franque ou Petit Mauresque
504:
reflect the language's unfixed and changing nature.
3515:
Malay+Chinese+Javanese+Sundanese+Arabic+Dutch
308:Based mostly on Northern Italy's languages (mainly
29:
653:
609:
403:in the eastern Mediterranean after the year 1000.
3018:
5886:
4465:
3829:South Sudan local languages
1055:Lingua franca in the Mediterranean (Google book)
278:. Its other name in the Mediterranean area was
5676:
5444:
5048:
4807:
4367:Chinese+Javanese+Sundanese+Arabic+Dutch
3437:
3205:
3004:
1075:
399:. Historically, the first to use it were the
289:
283:
202:Map of Europe and the Mediterranean from the
875:Language Dynamics in the Early Modern Period
766:An etymological dictionary of modern English
295:
2971:languages with more than 5 million speakers
555:
553:
429:monogenetic theory of the origin of pidgins
5683:
5669:
5451:
5437:
5055:
5041:
4814:
4800:
3444:
3430:
3212:
3198:
3011:
2997:
2554:(mixed Romani–Ibero- and Occitano-Romance)
1082:
1068:
786:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
685:online dictionary, Greek Language Center (
375:, with a Spanish interface. As in Arabic,
3468:Cameroon Pidgin+French+English
810:"Foreword to A Glossary of Lingua Franca"
5940:Languages attested from the 11th century
5458:
5062:
4821:
800:
550:
443:caused the Lingua Franca and Portuguese
197:
5690:
756:
618:
5887:
395:and European renegades in precolonial
5945:Languages extinct in the 19th century
5664:
5432:
5036:
4795:
3425:
3193:
2992:
1063:
834:
559:
401:Genoese and Venetian trading colonies
230:from the 11th to the 19th centuries.
914:, Cambridge University Press, 1989,
695:Lexico tes Neas Hellseenikes Glossas
344:). Lingua Franca also borrowed from
222:, or languages, that were used as a
13:
3497:Hebrew+Aramaic+German+Slavic
3451:
2975:Languages between parentheses are
958:. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
835:Nolan, Joanna (31 December 2019).
673:
14:
5961:
4633:Gallo-Italic languages
4446:Gallo-Italic languages
4045:American Sign Language
3487:English+Chinese+Malay+Tamil
3480:Italian+Spanish+French+Arab
2855:(unknown further classification)
1022:
1004:Dictionnaire de la langue franque
956:The Elusive Case of Lingua Franca
588:
4347:Malay trade and creole languages
3028:Italian languages & dialects
4486:Southeast Asian languages
3843:Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic
3503:Chinese+Mongolian+Tibetan
978:Palestine Exploration Quarterly
929:, University of Illinois, 1958.
890:Multilingual Digital Humanities
867:
5413:, extinct as native in Morocco
4453:Hunsrückisch German
3801:English-based creole languages
2979:of the language on their left.
2849:(Western Romance-based pidgin)
828:
794:
750:
646:
582:
1:
3509:Chinese+Tagalog+English
3221:French-based creole languages
622:Understanding Language Change
5935:History of the Mediterranean
4928:South Oran and Figuig Berber
4623:Italian languages
4457:(when Portuguese-influenced)
4450:(when Portuguese-influenced)
4169:Romance languages
4163:Iranian languages
4157:Aramaic languages
4096:(when Portuguese-influenced)
3474:Bengali+Persian+Arabic
742:
731:
724:Franc and (prefix) franco- (
433:Portuguese started exploring
336:elements, especially on the
238:
7:
5920:Extinct languages of Europe
5915:Extinct languages of Africa
5829:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
5549:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
4351:English+Chinese+Tamil
4151:Arabic languages
2846:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
1050:Tales in Sabir from Algeria
1038:A Glossary of Lingua Franca
521:
212:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
104:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
24:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
10:
5966:
4460:Bantu languages
4375:Sri Lankan Malay
2548:(mixed Portuguese–Spanish)
1574:Gallo-Italic of Basilicata
1368:Central−Southern Calabrian
737:
726:
382:
318:Occitano-Romance languages
303:
5766:
5720:
5699:
5615:
5594:Main liturgical languages
5592:
5534:
5484:
5466:
5383:
5362:Main liturgical languages
5360:
5332:
5308:
5280:
5271:
5234:
5191:
5182:
5162:
5134:
5111:
5102:
5093:
5070:
5004:
4983:
4961:
4888:
4860:
4853:
4829:
4752:
4713:
4683:
4667:
4594:
4551:
4496:
4409:
4339:
4296:
4251:
4144:
4115:
4067:
4036:
3989:
3956:
3868:English+Malay+Tamil
3851:
3816:
3525:
3459:
3403:
3355:
3339:
3259:
3228:
3180:
3132:
3027:
2953:
2937:
2888:
2837:
2761:
2565:
2538:
2487:
2339:
2225:
2171:
2152:
2103:
1770:
1523:
1514:
1475:
1355:
1240:
1229:
1140:
1102:
1016:10.1007/s11525-018-9320-8
687:Kentro Hellenikes Glossas
660:Oxford English Dictionary
498:
256:Eastern Mediterranean Sea
182:
166:
150:
134:
129:
119:Official language in
117:
112:
86:
76:
37:
28:
23:
4171:Judaeo-Romance languages
4165:Judaeo-Iranian languages
4055:Philippine Sign Language
3223:and pidgins by continent
1856:North American dialects
1363:Extreme Southern Italian
689:), lemma Franc (Φράγκος
619:McMahon, A.M.S. (1994).
543:
340:(now referred to as the
270:. Later, the meaning of
97:primarily Romance-based
4578:Norwegian+Swedish
4572:Norwegian+Spanish
4566:Norwegian+Russian
4428:Italian languages
4159:Judeo-Aramaic languages
4059:Malaysian Sign Language
3890:Mongolian+Tibetan
1275:Central−Northern Latian
1041:, fifth edition, 2005,
700:. Komvos.edu.gr. 2002.
410:Eritrean Pidgin Italian
30:
5869:Southern Italian Koiné
5804:Judeo-Arabic languages
5753:Gallo-Italic of Sicily
5721:Contemporary languages
5617:Main foreign languages
5526:Tunisian Sign Language
5476:Modern Standard Arabic
5389:Modern Standard Arabic
5334:Main foreign languages
5012:Algerian Sign Language
4466:
4153:Judeo-Arabic languages
4047:Bolivian Sign Language
3864:Chinese Pidgin English
1579:Gallo-Italic of Sicily
925:Henry Romanos Kahane,
683:Lexico Triantaphyllide
472:Chinese Pidgin English
414:
296:
290:
284:
207:
5743:Italian Sign Language
5712:Italian Sign Language
5516:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic
4690:Chinese+English
4584:Swedish+English
4373:Sinhalese+Tamil
3914:Inter-topolects
3878:English+Tagalog
3556:Chinese+Tagalog
2066:Poitevin–Saintongeais
954:Nolan, Joanna. 2020.
768:. London. p. 595
405:
316:) and secondarily on
274:expanded to mean any
264:all Western Europeans
201:
5905:Languages of Tunisia
5900:Languages of Algeria
5767:Historical languages
5536:Historical languages
5486:Vernacular languages
5460:Languages of Tunisia
5254:Eastern Middle Atlas
5064:Languages of Morocco
4823:Languages of Algeria
4560:Danish+English
4430:Macaronic Portuguese
4385:North Moluccan Malay
4276:Macaronic Portuguese
3942:Malay+Javanese
3671:Manglish (Malayalam)
1875:St. Marys Bay French
1399:Neapolitan–Calabrese
971:10.1093/pastj/gts023
560:Operstein, Natalie.
282:, a term cognate of
260:language of commerce
5910:Languages of Sicily
5895:Pidgins and creoles
5569:Phoenician language
5409:Formerly native to
4442:Dekasegi Portuguese
4424:Porglish/Portuglish
4319:Dekasegi Portuguese
2227:Galician–Portuguese
1253:Central Marchigiano
912:Pidgins and Creoles
899:, Actes Sud, 2008,
895:Dakhlia, Jocelyne,
228:Mediterranean Basin
42:Mediterranean Basin
5700:Official languages
5468:Official languages
5095:Native vernaculars
5072:Official languages
4728:Canadian Ukrainian
4603:Portuñol/Portunhol
4436:Bengali Portuguese
4418:Portuñol/Portunhol
4051:Thai Sign Language
4026:Gallo-Italic
3841:Jordanian+Bengali
3134:Pidgin & Mixed
2641:Catalan Ribagorçan
2488:Pyrenean–Mozarabic
1760:Judaeo-Piedmontese
1670:Bustocco–Legnanese
1465:Northern Calabrian
993:10.1007/BF00316757
589:Bruni, Francesco.
538:Lingua Franca Nova
533:Mozarabic language
478:for 'to know' and
208:
5930:Romance languages
5882:
5881:
5658:
5657:
5579:Vandalic language
5574:Numidian language
5426:
5425:
5328:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5267:
5266:
5178:
5177:
5030:
5029:
4984:Foreign languages
4979:
4978:
4830:Official language
4789:
4788:
4647:Frespañol/Fragnol
4537:Solombala English
4472:Gira da Tabatinga
4399:Makassarese
4136:Cappadocian Greek
4010:Meridional French
3998:Frespañol/Fragnol
3938:Tangwang language
3716:Singaporean
3706:Solombala English
3419:
3418:
3187:
3186:
2986:
2985:
2962:extinct languages
2884:
2883:
2561:
2560:
2520:Navarro-Aragonese
2405:Peruvian Ribereño
2330:Judaeo-Portuguese
2245:Galician–Asturian
2148:
2147:
2139:Old Gallo-Romance
2093:Wisconsin Walloon
1510:
1509:
1483:Dalmatian Romance
1091:Romance languages
937:The Lingua Franca
848:978-3-030-36456-4
782:cite encyclopedia
632:978-0-521-44665-5
248:Frankish language
246:meant literally "
196:
195:
5957:
5925:Italian language
5789:Berber languages
5738:Regional Italian
5685:
5678:
5671:
5662:
5661:
5602:Classical Arabic
5453:
5446:
5439:
5430:
5429:
5396:Classical Arabic
5278:
5277:
5216:Sanhaja de Srair
5189:
5188:
5109:
5108:
5100:
5099:
5057:
5050:
5043:
5034:
5033:
4875:Algerian Saharan
4858:
4857:
4816:
4809:
4802:
4793:
4792:
4720:Belarusian
4601:Portuguese
4519:Belarusian
4482:Judeo-Portuguese
4469:
4317:Portuguese
4274:Portuguese
4092:Portuguese
3775:Vietnamese
3693:Portuguese
3446:
3439:
3432:
3423:
3422:
3214:
3207:
3200:
3191:
3190:
3147:Italian Eritrean
3020:Italian language
3013:
3006:
2999:
2990:
2989:
2507:Judaeo-Aragonese
2496:Andalusi Romance
2349:Amazonic Spanish
2186:Western Asturian
2169:
2168:
2108:Franco-Provençal
1779:
1778:
1675:Comasco–Lecchese
1533:Emilian–Romagnol
1521:
1520:
1321:Regional Italian
1311:Italo-Australian
1238:
1237:
1160:Megleno-Romanian
1084:
1077:
1070:
1061:
1060:
1034:
963:Past and Present
861:
860:
832:
826:
825:
823:
821:
802:Parkvall, Mikael
798:
792:
791:
785:
777:
775:
773:
754:
748:
747:
745:
740:
739:
734:
729:
728:
721:
719:
714:on 24 March 2012
710:. Archived from
677:
671:
670:
668:
666:
657:
650:
644:
643:
641:
639:
616:
607:
606:
604:
602:
597:on 28 March 2009
586:
580:
579:
573:
571:
566:
557:
484:for "children".
452:creole languages
299:
293:
287:
268:Byzantine Period
266:during the late
220:contact language
192:
178:
162:
146:
139:
92:
33:
21:
20:
5965:
5964:
5960:
5959:
5958:
5956:
5955:
5954:
5885:
5884:
5883:
5878:
5819:Maghrebi Arabic
5762:
5716:
5695:
5689:
5659:
5654:
5611:
5607:Biblical Hebrew
5588:
5584:Ottoman Turkish
5544:African Romance
5530:
5494:Tunisian Arabic
5480:
5462:
5457:
5427:
5422:
5403:Medieval Hebrew
5379:
5356:
5320:
5304:
5263:
5259:Eastern Morocco
5230:
5174:
5158:
5130:
5089:
5066:
5061:
5031:
5026:
5005:Other languages
5000:
4975:
4957:
4884:
4854:Local languages
4849:
4825:
4820:
4790:
4785:
4748:
4709:
4679:
4675:Te Parau Tinito
4663:
4657:Norwegian
4609:Belgranodeutsch
4590:
4553:
4547:
4525:Norwegian
4509:Ukrainian
4505:Deutschrussisch
4492:
4488:Macanese Patois
4462:Cafundó dialect
4405:
4363:Baba Malay
4335:
4292:
4247:
4215:Judeo-Malayalam
4213:Malayalam
4209:Judaeo-Georgian
4140:
4111:
4082:Belgranodeutsch
4076:Deutschrussisch
4063:
4038:
4032:
3985:
3952:
3944:Baba Malay
3898:Hezhou language
3847:
3812:
3675:Malaysian
3669:Malayalam
3619:Hungarian
3521:
3461:
3455:
3450:
3420:
3415:
3399:
3351:
3335:
3255:
3246:Petit Mauresque
3224:
3218:
3188:
3183:
3176:
3128:
3023:
3017:
2987:
2982:
2949:
2933:
2911:Pannonian Latin
2897:African Romance
2880:
2833:
2764:
2757:
2695:Judeo-Provençal
2568:
2557:
2534:
2483:
2393:Chilean Chilote
2335:
2221:
2162:
2158:
2155:
2144:
2132:Moselle Romance
2099:
1948:Missouri French
1909:Franco-Ontarian
1784:
1773:
1766:
1506:
1471:
1448:Southern Latian
1351:
1316:Maltese Italian
1248:Central Italian
1232:
1225:
1220:Common Romanian
1136:
1120:Italo-Dalmatian
1098:
1088:
1032:
1025:
980:148(4):245-264.
933:Hugo Schuchardt
870:
865:
864:
849:
833:
829:
819:
817:
816:on 4 March 2016
799:
795:
779:
778:
771:
769:
758:Weekley, Ernest
755:
751:
717:
715:
708:
679:
678:
674:
664:
662:
655:"lingua franca"
652:
651:
647:
637:
635:
633:
617:
610:
600:
598:
587:
583:
569:
567:
564:
558:
551:
546:
528:African Romance
524:
501:
425:Hugo Schuchardt
393:Barbary pirates
385:
306:
276:bridge language
241:
188:
174:
158:
155:
142:
135:
120:
113:Official status
108:
93:
90:Language family
88:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5963:
5953:
5952:
5950:Lingua francas
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5880:
5879:
5877:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5824:Medieval Greek
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5770:
5768:
5764:
5763:
5761:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5740:
5735:
5730:
5724:
5722:
5718:
5717:
5715:
5714:
5709:
5703:
5701:
5697:
5696:
5688:
5687:
5680:
5673:
5665:
5656:
5655:
5653:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5621:
5619:
5613:
5612:
5610:
5609:
5604:
5598:
5596:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5586:
5581:
5576:
5571:
5566:
5564:Punic language
5561:
5556:
5551:
5546:
5540:
5538:
5532:
5531:
5529:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5512:
5511:
5506:
5496:
5490:
5488:
5482:
5481:
5479:
5478:
5472:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5456:
5455:
5448:
5441:
5433:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5406:
5399:
5392:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5377:
5372:
5366:
5364:
5358:
5357:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5344:
5338:
5336:
5330:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5318:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5305:
5303:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5286:
5284:
5275:
5269:
5268:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5261:
5256:
5251:
5246:
5240:
5238:
5232:
5231:
5229:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5197:
5195:
5186:
5180:
5179:
5176:
5175:
5173:
5172:
5166:
5164:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5140:
5138:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5128:
5126:Judeo-Moroccan
5123:
5117:
5115:
5106:
5097:
5091:
5090:
5088:
5087:
5082:
5076:
5074:
5068:
5067:
5060:
5059:
5052:
5045:
5037:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5024:
5022:Tetuani Ladino
5019:
5014:
5008:
5006:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4998:
4993:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4973:
4967:
4965:
4959:
4958:
4956:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4894:
4892:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4866:
4864:
4855:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4847:
4842:
4833:
4831:
4827:
4826:
4819:
4818:
4811:
4804:
4796:
4787:
4786:
4784:
4783:
4777:
4771:
4756:
4754:
4750:
4749:
4747:
4746:
4736:
4730:
4724:
4717:
4715:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4707:
4701:
4694:
4687:
4685:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4677:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4655:
4649:
4643:
4639:Galician
4637:
4631:
4621:
4611:
4605:
4598:
4596:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4588:
4582:
4576:
4570:
4564:
4557:
4555:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4539:
4529:
4523:
4517:
4507:
4500:
4498:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4490:
4484:
4478:
4458:
4451:
4444:
4440:Japanese
4438:
4432:
4426:
4420:
4413:
4411:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4401:Makassar Malay
4397:
4391:
4389:Ambonese Malay
4377:
4371:
4365:
4359:
4349:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4327:
4321:
4315:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4284:
4282:Fiuman dialect
4280:Croatian
4278:
4272:
4262:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4245:
4239:
4233:
4227:
4217:
4211:
4207:Georgian
4205:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4183:Judaeo-Spanish
4179:
4167:
4161:
4155:
4148:
4146:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4138:
4132:
4126:
4119:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4103:
4097:
4090:
4084:
4078:
4071:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4061:
4042:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4030:
4028:Franco-Italian
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4002:Japanese
4000:
3993:
3991:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3979:Javanese
3977:
3967:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3940:
3934:
3932:Maojia dialect
3928:
3922:
3920:Shaozhou Tuhua
3912:
3908:Japanese
3906:
3900:
3894:
3892:Wutun language
3888:
3882:
3876:
3866:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3839:
3837:Cypriot Arabic
3833:
3827:
3820:
3818:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3806:Englishization
3803:
3795:
3785:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3736:
3730:
3720:
3714:
3710:Sicilian
3708:
3698:
3691:
3685:
3679:
3673:
3667:
3661:
3655:
3649:
3637:Japanese
3635:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3615:Hong Kong
3612:
3606:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3513:
3507:
3505:Wutun language
3501:
3495:
3485:
3478:
3472:
3465:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3453:Interlanguages
3449:
3448:
3441:
3434:
3426:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3407:
3405:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3359:
3357:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3236:Burundi Pidgin
3232:
3230:
3226:
3225:
3217:
3216:
3209:
3202:
3194:
3185:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3062:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3031:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3016:
3015:
3008:
3001:
2993:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2973:
2964:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2941:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2914:
2907:
2900:
2892:
2890:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2850:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2769:
2767:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2737:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2720:
2719:
2718:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2691:
2690:
2689:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2662:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2635:
2630:
2627:Judaeo-Catalan
2623:
2622:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2594:
2586:
2573:
2571:
2563:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2555:
2549:
2542:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2516:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2499:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2434:
2433:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2382:Latin American
2378:
2373:
2361:
2359:Judaeo-Spanish
2356:
2351:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2312:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2286:
2281:
2274:
2262:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2237:
2231:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2212:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2195:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2177:
2175:
2166:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2127:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2010:
2005:
1988:
1983:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1854:
1849:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1789:
1787:
1776:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1752:
1745:
1744:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1672:
1667:
1666:
1665:
1650:
1649:
1648:
1643:
1628:
1623:
1622:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1562:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1529:
1527:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1502:Judaeo-Italian
1499:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1439:
1438:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1370:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1348:
1347:
1335:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1244:
1242:
1235:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1162:
1157:
1155:Istro-Romanian
1152:
1146:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1112:
1106:
1104:
1103:Major branches
1100:
1099:
1095:classification
1087:
1086:
1079:
1072:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1035:
1024:
1023:External links
1021:
1020:
1019:
996:
987:76(1): 64-76.
981:
974:
959:
952:
930:
923:
922:, p. 607.
910:John A. Holm,
908:
893:
886:
869:
866:
863:
862:
847:
827:
793:
749:
706:
672:
645:
631:
608:
581:
548:
547:
545:
542:
541:
540:
535:
530:
523:
520:
512:koiné language
500:
497:
493:Cape Guardafui
441:relexification
384:
381:
305:
302:
240:
237:
194:
193:
186:
180:
179:
172:
164:
163:
156:
151:
148:
147:
140:
132:
131:
130:Language codes
127:
126:
121:
118:
115:
114:
110:
109:
107:
106:
96:
94:
87:
84:
83:
80:
74:
73:
39:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5962:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5890:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5864:Siculo-Arabic
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5784:Tosk Albanian
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5774:Ancient Greek
5772:
5771:
5769:
5765:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5744:
5741:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5725:
5723:
5719:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5704:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5691:Languages of
5686:
5681:
5679:
5674:
5672:
5667:
5666:
5663:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5614:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5599:
5597:
5595:
5591:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5575:
5572:
5570:
5567:
5565:
5562:
5560:
5557:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5541:
5539:
5537:
5533:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5501:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5487:
5483:
5477:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5454:
5449:
5447:
5442:
5440:
5435:
5434:
5431:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5412:
5407:
5405:
5404:
5400:
5398:
5397:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5386:
5385:
5382:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5363:
5359:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5335:
5331:
5317:
5316:African Latin
5314:
5313:
5311:
5307:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5270:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5237:
5233:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5201:Central Atlas
5199:
5198:
5196:
5194:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5181:
5171:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5161:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5141:
5139:
5137:
5133:
5127:
5124:
5122:
5119:
5118:
5116:
5114:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5092:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5058:
5053:
5051:
5046:
5044:
5039:
5038:
5035:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5003:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4988:
4986:
4982:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4960:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4863:
4859:
4856:
4852:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4835:
4834:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4817:
4812:
4810:
4805:
4803:
4798:
4797:
4794:
4782:
4778:
4776:
4775:Scots Yiddish
4772:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4759:English
4758:
4757:
4755:
4751:
4745:
4741:
4738:Russian
4737:
4735:
4731:
4729:
4726:English
4725:
4723:
4722:West Polesian
4719:
4718:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4703:Visayan
4702:
4699:
4696:English
4695:
4693:
4689:
4688:
4686:
4682:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4666:
4660:
4656:
4654:
4651:Guarani
4650:
4648:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4636:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4620:
4616:
4613:English
4612:
4610:
4606:
4604:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4593:
4587:
4583:
4581:
4577:
4575:
4571:
4569:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4550:
4544:
4541:Chinese
4540:
4538:
4534:
4531:English
4530:
4528:
4524:
4522:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4506:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4495:
4489:
4485:
4483:
4479:
4477:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4456:
4452:
4449:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4437:
4434:Bengali
4433:
4431:
4427:
4425:
4422:English
4421:
4419:
4416:Spanish
4415:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4379:Ternate
4378:
4376:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4364:
4361:Chinese
4360:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4338:
4332:
4329:Chinese
4328:
4326:
4322:
4320:
4316:
4314:
4313:Bonin English
4310:
4306:
4303:English
4302:
4301:
4299:
4295:
4289:
4288:Judeo-Italian
4285:
4283:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4264:Spanish
4263:
4261:
4258:English
4257:
4256:
4254:
4250:
4244:
4243:Judeo-Marathi
4240:
4238:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4216:
4212:
4210:
4206:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4193:English
4192:
4188:
4184:
4181:Spanish
4180:
4178:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4160:
4156:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4137:
4134:Turkish
4133:
4131:
4127:
4125:
4122:English
4121:
4120:
4118:
4114:
4108:
4105:Yiddish
4104:
4102:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4089:
4086:English
4085:
4083:
4080:Spanish
4079:
4077:
4074:Russian
4073:
4072:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4035:
4029:
4025:
4023:
4019:
4017:
4014:English
4013:
4011:
4008:Occitan
4007:
4005:
4001:
3999:
3996:Spanish
3995:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3982:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3966:
3963:English
3962:
3961:
3959:
3955:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3939:
3935:
3933:
3930:Hmongic
3929:
3927:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3905:
3902:Russian
3901:
3899:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3887:
3884:Tibetan
3883:
3881:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3858:English
3857:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3840:
3838:
3834:
3832:
3828:
3826:
3823:English
3822:
3821:
3819:
3815:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3787:Yiddish
3786:
3784:
3781:Visayan
3780:
3778:
3774:
3772:
3768:
3766:
3763:Turkish
3762:
3760:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3748:
3744:
3741:
3738:Tagalog
3737:
3735:
3732:Swedish
3731:
3729:
3725:
3722:Spanish
3721:
3719:
3715:
3713:
3709:
3707:
3703:
3700:Russian
3699:
3696:
3692:
3690:
3686:
3684:
3681:Namibia
3680:
3678:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3666:
3663:Maltese
3662:
3660:
3656:
3654:
3651:Kannada
3650:
3648:
3647:Bonin English
3644:
3640:
3636:
3634:
3631:Italian
3630:
3628:
3624:
3622:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3589:
3585:
3583:
3579:
3577:
3574:Finnish
3573:
3571:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3553:
3550:Chinese
3549:
3547:
3543:
3541:
3538:Bengali
3537:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3500:
3496:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3483:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3471:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3458:
3454:
3447:
3442:
3440:
3435:
3433:
3428:
3427:
3424:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3348:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3215:
3210:
3208:
3203:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3192:
3182:autochthonous
3179:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:United States
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3014:
3009:
3007:
3002:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2991:
2978:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2952:
2946:
2945:Proto-Romance
2943:
2942:
2940:
2938:Reconstructed
2936:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2904:British Latin
2901:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2887:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2848:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2783:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2760:
2750:
2749:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2723:Vivaro-Alpine
2721:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2656:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2564:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2529:
2528:
2527:Old Navarrese
2524:
2523:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2432:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2424:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2376:Equatoguinean
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
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2015:
2014:
2011:
2009:
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1828:
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1627:
1626:Judeo-Italian
1624:
1620:
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1610:
1607:
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1597:
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1421:Castelmezzano
1419:
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1331:
1327:
1326:Swiss Italian
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1295:
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1243:
1239:
1236:
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1228:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1207:Transylvanian
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1166:Daco-Romanian
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1115:Italo-Western
1113:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1080:
1078:
1073:
1071:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1043:Alan D. Corré
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1017:
1013:
1010:28: 145-185.
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
994:
990:
986:
985:Neophilologus
982:
979:
975:
972:
968:
964:
960:
957:
953:
950:
949:0-521-22789-5
946:
942:
938:
934:
931:
928:
924:
921:
920:0-521-35940-6
917:
913:
909:
906:
905:2-7427-8077-7
902:
898:
894:
891:
887:
884:
883:9780367552145
880:
876:
872:
871:
858:
854:
850:
844:
840:
839:
831:
815:
811:
807:
806:Alan D. Corré
803:
797:
789:
783:
767:
763:
759:
753:
746:
744:
733:
713:
709:
707:960-86190-1-7
703:
699:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
676:
661:
656:
649:
634:
628:
624:
623:
615:
613:
596:
592:
585:
578:
563:
556:
554:
549:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
525:
519:
515:
513:
508:
505:
496:
494:
490:
485:
483:
482:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
448:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
420:
419:interlanguage
413:
411:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
380:
378:
374:
373:Italo-Romance
370:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
338:Barbary Coast
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
301:
298:
292:
286:
281:
277:
273:
272:lingua franca
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
244:Lingua franca
236:
233:
232:April McMahon
229:
225:
224:lingua franca
221:
217:
213:
205:
204:Catalan Atlas
200:
191:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
171:
170:
165:
161:
157:
154:
153:Linguist List
149:
145:
141:
138:
133:
128:
125:
122:
116:
111:
105:
102:
101:
100:
95:
91:
85:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
40:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
5874:Vulgar Latin
5828:
5758:Modern Greek
5548:
5417:
5408:
5401:
5394:
5387:
5289:
5211:Judeo-Berber
5113:Pre-Hilalian
4779:German
4732:Polish
4645:French
4607:German
4552:Scandinavian
4503:German
4480:Hebrew
4381:Manado Malay
4323:French
4286:Hebrew
4229:Slavic
4175:German
4128:Hebrew
4099:Hebrew
4020:Hebrew
3896:Uyghur
3751:Telugu
3687:Polish
3657:Korean
3598:Hebrew
3586:German
3580:French
3562:Danish
3532:Arabic
3470:Camfranglais
3356:Indian Ocean
3292:Saint Lucian
3245:
3022:in the world
2966:
2957:
2909:
2902:
2895:
2845:
2844:
2746:
2739:
2701:Languedocien
2693:
2686:Judeo-Gascon
2684:
2625:
2576:
2546:Barranquenho
2525:
2518:
2494:
2476:
2418:
2380:
2363:
2354:Extremaduran
2328:
2302:
2288:
2276:
2264:
2257:
2214:
2173:Asturleonese
2137:
2130:
2088:West Walloon
2076:Saintongeais
2024:
2000:
1996:Anglo-Norman
1954:
1887:Newfoundland
1847:Jersey Legal
1839:
1747:
1712:Southwestern
1695:Vallassinese
1584:Gallo-Picene
1525:Gallo-Italic
1487:
1403:
1398:
1337:
1303:
1218:
1164:
1040:
1007:
1003:
999:
984:
977:
962:
955:
940:
926:
911:
896:
889:
874:
868:Bibliography
841:. Springer.
837:
830:
818:. Retrieved
814:the original
796:
770:. Retrieved
765:
752:
723:
716:. Retrieved
712:the original
696:
692:
688:
684:
681:
675:
663:. Retrieved
659:
648:
636:. Retrieved
621:
599:. Retrieved
595:the original
584:
575:
568:. Retrieved
516:
509:
506:
502:
486:
479:
475:
464:Sranan Tongo
449:
423:
421:of Italian.
415:
406:
386:
366:
307:
279:
271:
258:as the main
243:
242:
215:
211:
209:
184:Linguasphere
167:
123:
103:
82:19th century
18:
5809:Koine Greek
5309:Undescribed
5136:Hilal-Mâqil
4781:Lachoudisch
4773:Scots
4393:Dutch
4241:Indic
4235:Greek
4219:Tatar
4130:Judeo-Greek
4107:Lachoudisch
4037:French Sign
3969:Malay
3936:Santa
3835:Greek
3831:Juba Arabic
3745:Tamil
3697:/Portuglish
3665:Maltenglish
3625:Irish
3608:Hindi
3592:Greek
3568:Dutch
3544:Czech
3393:Seychellois
3363:Bourbonnais
3251:Petit nègre
3167:Macarrônico
3114:Switzerland
2922:Campidanese
2748:Old Catalan
2741:Old Occitan
2478:Old Spanish
2412:Rioplatense
2216:Old Leonese
2044:Cotentinais
2008:Guernésiais
1931:Frenchville
1924:New England
1803:Bourbonnais
1755:Piedmontese
1749:Old Lombard
1641:Bergamasque
1565:Sammarinese
1033:(In French)
1000:Topographia
965:217: 4-77.
665:13 December
518:language".
377:vowel space
294:and French
5889:Categories
5844:Phoenician
5834:Old Norman
5814:Late Latin
4918:Tagargrent
4568:Russenorsk
4527:Russenorsk
4410:Portuguese
4325:Franponais
4309:Wasei-eigo
4004:Franponais
3926:E language
3797:See also:
3769:Urdu
3757:Thai
3643:Wasei-eigo
3627:Béarlachas
3373:Chagossian
3331:Belle Isle
3319:Lanc-Patuá
3287:Martinican
3282:Guadeloupe
2969:indicates
2927:Logudorese
2460:Philippine
2426:Andalusian
2420:Peninsular
2310:Estremenho
2266:Portuguese
2193:Cantabrian
2026:Law French
2018:Sercquiais
1852:Meridional
1813:Champenois
1808:Burgundian
1619:Tabarchino
1609:Monégasque
1548:Parmigiano
1405:Neapolitan
1378:Manduriano
1345:Florentine
1212:Wallachian
1182:Bukovinian
1008:Morphology
857:1160234008
820:4 December
460:Papiamento
454:, such as
437:Portuguese
334:Portuguese
252:Late Latin
5206:Tashelhit
5154:Hassaniya
4913:Tachelhit
4880:Hassānīya
4769:Yeshivish
4714:Ukrainian
4692:Hokaglish
4659:Norspañol
4625:Cocoliche
4615:Spanglish
4586:Swenglish
4574:Norspañol
4554:languages
4521:Trasianka
4266:Cocoliche
4260:Itanglese
4203:Yeshivish
4124:Greeklish
4088:Denglisch
4022:Zarphatic
4016:Franglais
3924:Tai
3880:Hokaglish
3860:Chinglish
3793:Yeshivish
3734:Swenglish
3724:Spanglish
3633:Itanglese
3604:Yeshivish
3594:Greeklish
3588:Denglisch
3582:Franglais
3558:Hokaglish
3552:Chinglish
3546:Czenglish
3511:Hokaglish
3462:languages
3460:Multiple
3388:Rodriguan
3378:Mauritian
3304:Louisiana
3277:Grenadian
3272:Dominican
3267:Antillean
3162:Cocoliche
3152:Itanglese
3124:Venezuela
3040:Australia
3035:Argentina
2977:varieties
2960:indicate
2917:Sardinian
2874:Triestine
2822:Sursilvan
2733:Mentonasc
2711:Provençal
2660:Auvergnat
2646:Valencian
2602:Mallorcan
2592:Algherese
2567:Occitano-
2514:Navarrese
2502:Aragonese
2438:Castilian
2341:Castilian
2317:Uruguayan
2290:Brazilian
2253:Minderico
2247:/Eonavian
2210:Mirandese
2124:Valdôtain
2110:/Arpitan
2051:Orléanais
2002:Auregnais
1986:Mayennais
1936:Louisiana
1818:Ardennais
1798:Berrichon
1604:Intemelio
1560:Forlivese
1543:Bolognese
1489:Dalmatian
1453:Tarantino
1416:Benevento
1373:Salentino
1333:Sassarese
1297:Gallurese
1280:Romanesco
1233:Dalmatian
1197:Moldavian
1192:Maramureș
1150:Aromanian
456:Tok Pisin
369:lexifiers
346:Tamazight
239:Etymology
169:Glottolog
137:ISO 639-3
5859:Siculian
5748:Arbëresh
5728:Sicilian
5411:Moriscos
5249:Tabeldit
5121:Northern
4971:Korandje
4948:Mozabite
4943:Tidikelt
4938:Taznatit
4923:Temacine
4870:Algerian
4837:Standard
4765:Yinglish
4744:Balachka
4668:Tahitian
4641:Castrapo
4629:Lunfardo
4562:Danglish
4533:Runglish
4515:Balachka
4357:Manglish
4353:Singlish
4331:Kyowa-go
4297:Japanese
4270:Lunfardo
4225:Krymchak
4199:Yinglish
4039:Language
3965:Dunglish
3910:Kyowa-go
3874:Manglish
3870:Singlish
3825:Arablish
3789:Yinglish
3765:Turklish
3759:Tinglish
3753:Tenglish
3747:Tanglish
3718:Singlish
3712:Siculish
3702:Runglish
3695:Porglish
3677:Manglish
3659:Konglish
3653:Kanglish
3621:Hunglish
3610:Hinglish
3576:Finglish
3570:Dunglish
3564:Danglish
3540:Banglish
3534:Arablish
3493:Manglish
3489:Singlish
3476:Dobhashi
3314:Karipúna
3309:Guianese
3260:Americas
3157:Lunfardo
3097:Slovenia
3065:Dalmatia
2853:Venetian
2827:Vallader
2817:Surmiran
2790:Cadorino
2773:Friulian
2706:Limousin
2675:Béarnese
2637:Western
2619:Northern
2607:Menorcan
2597:Balearic
2588:Eastern
2584:dialects
2443:Castrapo
2400:Peruvian
2371:dialects
2304:European
2272:dialects
2259:Portugis
2240:Galician
2181:Asturian
2119:Savoyard
2071:Poitevin
2039:Cauchois
2013:Jèrriais
1860:Canadian
1739:Varesino
1734:Ticinese
1722:Novarese
1717:Cremunés
1707:Ossolano
1702:Milanese
1690:Lecchese
1658:Brianzöö
1589:Ligurian
1555:Romagnol
1436:Arianese
1431:Irpinian
1426:Cilentan
1390:Pantesco
1385:Sicilian
1356:Southern
1292:Corsican
1268:Macerata
1263:Fabriano
1202:Oltenian
1172:dialects
1132:Southern
1031:, 1830.
804:(2005).
760:(1921).
743:phranko-
732:Phrankos
691:Phrankos
601:28 March
522:See also
481:piquenho
310:Venetian
218:, was a
190:51-AAB-c
176:ling1242
160:pml.html
5794:Elymian
5733:Italian
5707:Italian
5650:Turkish
5645:Spanish
5635:Italian
5630:English
5509:Matmata
5418:Extinct
5352:English
5347:Spanish
5300:Spanish
5295:Haketia
5282:Western
5273:Romance
5244:Tarifit
5221:Ghomara
5149:Eastern
5144:Western
4996:English
4963:Songhay
4953:Tamahaq
4933:Tarifit
4908:Chaouïa
4898:Chenoua
4767:,
4763:,
4761:Heblish
4753:Yiddish
4742:,
4740:Surzhyk
4705:Bisalog
4700:/Englog
4698:Taglish
4684:Tagalog
4635:Chipilo
4627:,
4619:Llanito
4617:,
4595:Spanish
4543:Kyakhta
4535:,
4513:,
4511:Surzhyk
4497:Russian
4476:Kalunga
4467:cupópia
4455:Hunsrik
4383:,
4311:,
4307:,
4305:Engrish
4268:,
4252:Italian
4237:Yevanic
4231:Knaanic
4223:,
4201:,
4197:,
4195:Heblish
4187:Haketia
4185:,
4177:Yiddish
4101:Yiddish
4094:Hunsrik
3981:Javindo
3973:,
3946:,
3918:,
3916:Linghua
3904:Kyakhta
3862:,
3852:Chinese
3791:,
3783:Bislish
3742:/Englog
3740:Taglish
3728:Llanito
3726:,
3704:,
3689:Poglish
3683:Namlish
3645:,
3641:,
3639:Engrish
3602:,
3600:Heblish
3526:English
3499:Yiddish
3404:Oceania
3383:Réunion
3368:Agalega
3347:Tây Bồi
3299:Haitian
3109:Somalia
3092:Romania
3055:Croatia
2958:Italics
2859:Chipilo
2802:Romansh
2765:Romance
2763:Rhaeto-
2728:Gardiol
2680:Landese
2670:Aranese
2655:Occitan
2614:Central
2578:Catalan
2569:Romance
2470:Creoles
2465:Saharan
2453:Murcian
2431:Llanito
2388:Chilean
2365:Spanish
2322:Creoles
2296:Mineiro
2278:African
2203:Riberan
2198:Leonese
2163:Iberian
2156:Romance
2083:Walloon
2056:Paydret
2034:Augeron
1974:Vosgien
1969:Gaumais
1964:Lorrain
1956:Creoles
1919:Muskrat
1865:Acadian
1793:Angevin
1783:Langues
1774:Romance
1680:Comasco
1653:Western
1646:Cremish
1636:Eastern
1631:Lombard
1599:Genoese
1594:Brigasc
1538:Emilian
1516:Western
1495:Istriot
1458:Vastese
1443:Molisan
1305:Italian
1241:Central
1187:Crișana
1142:Eastern
1125:Western
1110:Eastern
1002:to the
808:(ed.).
772:18 June
762:"frank"
738:φράγκο-
727:Φράγκος
718:18 June
445:lexicon
397:Algiers
383:History
350:Turkish
342:Maghreb
330:Spanish
326:Occitan
322:Catalan
314:Genoese
304:Origins
226:in the
206:of 1375
78:Extinct
62:Lebanon
54:Tunisia
50:Algeria
46:Morocco
5854:Sicani
5839:Norman
5799:Hebrew
5779:Arabic
5693:Sicily
5640:German
5625:French
5521:French
5499:Berber
5375:Hebrew
5370:Arabic
5342:French
5236:Zenati
5226:Gharbi
5184:Berber
5170:Darija
5104:Arabic
5085:Arabic
5080:Berber
5017:Domari
4991:French
4903:Kabyle
4890:Berber
4862:Arabic
4845:Berber
4840:Arabic
4653:Jopará
4580:Svorsk
4448:Talian
4369:Betawi
4221:Karaim
4145:Hebrew
4068:German
3990:French
3971:Betawi
3948:Betawi
3886:Daohua
3817:Arabic
3777:Vinish
3771:Urdish
3517:Betawi
3326:Michif
3241:Nouchi
3229:Africa
3172:Talian
3102:Istria
3087:Mexico
3060:Istria
3050:Canada
3045:Brazil
2889:Others
2869:Talian
2864:Fiuman
2838:Others
2778:Fornes
2716:Niçard
2665:Gascon
2633:Patuet
2539:Others
2448:Castúo
2154:Ibero-
2114:Faetar
2061:Picard
1991:Norman
1979:Welche
1902:Magoua
1892:Quebec
1882:Brayon
1841:French
1823:Rémois
1772:Gallo-
1727:Pavese
1685:Laghée
1663:Canzés
1614:Royasc
1476:Others
1411:Barese
1339:Tuscan
1285:Sabino
1258:Ancona
1231:Italo-
947:
918:
903:
881:
855:
845:
704:
638:29 May
629:
570:29 May
499:Debate
489:Polari
389:bagnio
362:Arabic
354:French
297:savoir
291:sapere
99:pidgin
70:Cyprus
66:Greece
44:(esp.
38:Region
5849:Punic
5559:Latin
5554:Greek
5504:Jerba
5290:Sabir
5193:Atlas
5163:Koiné
4734:Balak
4395:Petjo
4340:Malay
4116:Greek
3975:Petjo
3957:Dutch
3482:Sabir
3142:Sabir
3082:Malta
3077:Libya
3072:Italy
2812:Putèr
2807:Jauer
2795:Nones
2785:Ladin
2284:Asian
1941:Houma
1914:Métis
1897:Joual
1870:Chiac
1835:Gallo
1785:d'oïl
1177:Banat
565:(PDF)
544:Notes
476:sabir
358:Greek
285:saber
280:Sabir
250:" in
216:Sabir
214:, or
58:Libya
31:sabir
4355:and
3872:and
3491:and
3411:Tayo
3340:Asia
2967:Bold
2552:Caló
2235:Fala
2161:West
945:ISBN
916:ISBN
901:ISBN
879:ISBN
853:OCLC
843:ISBN
822:2015
788:link
774:2015
735:and
720:2015
702:ISBN
667:2011
640:2023
627:ISBN
603:2009
572:2023
470:and
468:Krio
360:and
332:and
324:and
312:and
210:The
124:none
4470:),
1012:doi
1006:."
989:doi
967:doi
939:".
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144:pml
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