398:, police units or intelligence services and had experience operating within highly organized bureaucracies. These warlords formed well-structured militias that not only established political and economic control over territories, but institutionalized bureaucracies to establish and maintain their monopolies over violence and rent and "incentivizing the behavior of citizens within a particular geographical space". Driscoll termed this warlordism "militia coalition politics". A truce was reached without any disarmament of militias; instead, the warlord coalitions reached a non-violent "order producing equilibrium", and eventually agreed upon a warlord-friendly civilian figurehead to assume head-of-state duties to demonstrate the
546:. Afghanistan unilaterally disputes the legitimacy of the border. Pashtuns are the prominent ethnic group in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and the Durand Line served to split their traditional homeland between two nation states. The partitioning of their tribal lands is viewed by Pashtun leaders as a threat to their dominance within Afghanistan, emboldening rival ethnic tribes, and has provoked cross-border tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan. While having significant political, economic and social impact on Afghanistan, the intervention of the
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182:"-producing resources. It may actually have a stabilizing effect on a region. In both cases there is an inherent inefficiency in the model, as "resources are wasted on unproductive arming and fighting." However, the functionality is often sustainable because it presents citizens with no choice but to accept rent levies in exchange for protection.
447:. When people live in a particular region dominated by a warlord, they can choose to flee or live within the political structure the warlords have created. If the warlords provide protection against external threats of violence, the people will be likely to stay and continue living and working in that region, even though they are being
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political power to exercise social order, welfare and regional defense within their territory was derived from hereditary rights or edicts from the monarch, their military strength afforded them independence and strength to negotiate for privileges. Should the feudal lord or other noble withdraw his support from the
325:. This has led to the formation of at least 93 "Partisan Armed Groups", armed militias loyal to regional warlords who, in exchange for their loyalty and willingness to use their private armies to quell the threats from these opposition groups, are granted a degree of autonomy within designated regions, the
186:, an American political scientist and sociologist, theorized that organized crime can function as a means for war and state making. He argues that the monopoly of crime by the stateâin this case being the warlordsâis in order to receive protection from external rivals as well as internal political rivals.
162:". In colonial empires warlords served in both cooperative political capacities and as leaders of rebellions. In modern states the presence of warlords is often seen as an indicator of state weakness or failure. American historian David G. Herrmann noted, "Warlordism is the default condition of humanity."
426:, posits that warlords can function as stationary bandits. In some African states, warlord politics can be a product of endowment-rich, extractable resources. Some nations, such as Liberia and Sierra Leone, have had stationary bandits who use extraction of resources such as diamonds, cobalt and timber ("
337:
Warlordism in
Afghanistanâanother state where the central government is unable to extend political, military or bureaucratic control over large swaths of territories outside the capitalâfunctions cooperatively within the framework of the state, at times. The warlords, with their established militias,
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in Europe, that commitment was contingent upon a bargaining process in which the king or queen had to guarantee additional territory, revenue, status or other privileges, meaning that these early
European states were weak and the relationship between the crown and feudal lords constituted the form of
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While warlords are commonly viewed as regional leaders who threaten the sovereignty of a state, there are a number of states where the central government functions in collusion with warlords to achieve its goal of exercising its sovereignty over regions that would otherwise fall outside its control.
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Under the feudal system of Europe, nobilityâwhether feudal lords, knights, princes or baronsâwere warlords in that they served as regional leaders who exercised military, economic and political control over subnational territories and maintained private armies to maintain that status. While their
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While most warlords have power vested in them through traditional tribal customs, some hold formal regional government positions, but in both cases cooperation with the central government remains voluntary and reliant on incentives. Beginning in 2008, as it became increasingly evident that the
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Historically, power in
Afghanistan has been decentralized and governance delegated locally to ethnic tribal leadership. Tribal leaders often act as local warlords, representing either a tribal confederacy, a tribal kinship group or a smaller tribal lineage grouping, and are expected to provide
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1: a supreme military leader; 2: a military commander exercising civil power seized or maintained by force usually purely from self-interest and usually over a limited region with or without recognition of a central government, sometimes having effective control over the central government or
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Political scientist Jesse
Driscoll uses the term "redistribution politics" to classify the bargaining process between warlords and the regime in states where cooperative warlord politics prevails, and when that bargaining leads to accords or informal arrangements concerning the extraction of
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central government in Kabul was incapable of extending its power and control to much of the country, the US military and diplomatic corps began exploring the option of engaging ethnic tribal warlords in negotiations, a strategy that continued through the Obama administration.
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to yield greater power for the warlords and a source of wealth for external firms. The result is a political system in which a dominant coalition of warlords' strips and distributes valuable assets in exchange for bureaucratic services and security from foreign firms.
761:, a dictator. The modern Warlord Era began in 1916 upon his death. The national government existed and handled foreign affairs, but it had little internal control until the late 1920s. A period of provincial and local rule under military strongmen known as the
366:. During the stateâwarlord bargaining phase, warlords in Afghanistan have a high motivation to prolong war to create political instability, expose weakness of the central state, prompt regional criticism against the government and continue economic extraction.
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are able to maintain a monopoly of violence within certain territories. They form coalitions with competing warlords and local tribal leaders to present the central government with a challenge, and often the state will bargain to gain access to resources or "
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868:, extract from region to region and stay mobile. Warlords in Mongolia could be characterized by this title because of the Mongol Empire's lack of definitive borders and consistent expansion and conquest during the 13th and 14th centuries.
430:") in order to increase their political power. They often enforce their right to these resources by claiming to be protecting the people. These warlords, or stationary bandits, often partner with compliant foreign firms and create
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in 2006 after a period of enforced exile in
Nigeria. He was found guilty in April 2012 of all 11 charges levied by the Special Court, including terror, murder and rape. In May 2012 he was sentenced to 50 years in prison.
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Stationary bandits can amass power because of their economic connections with foreign firms. Oftentimes warlords will exert violence on a particular region in order to gain control. Once in control, these warlords can
133:. It was not widely used until the 1920s, when it was used to describe the chaos after 1918, when provincial military leaders took local control and launched the period that would come to be known in China as the
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and occupation (2001â2021) have not noticeably disrupted the primacy of ethnic tribal authority, and thus the power and influence of warlords, in ordering Afghan society. Although the United States and its
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in pre-modern-state Europe was an example of warlordism, as the state regime was unable to "exercise a monopoly on the use of force within its territory" and the monarch relied on the commitment of loyal
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and was recognized by foreign nations, Chiang was accused by some of being a warlord because of his rise by military campaign. The two-year
Northern Expedition campaign (1926â28) not only defeated the
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The other major consideration in categorizing warlords is through the lens of history. Warlordism was a widespread, dominant political framework that ordered many of the world's societies until the
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and
Afghanistan, has proved a source of contention in Afghanistan and a source of challenge for the tribal authorities of Afghanistan. The line, which was negotiated between British diplomat and
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and extract rent and resources. "By limiting access to these privileges, members of the dominant warlord coalition create credible incentives to cooperate rather than fight among themselves."
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have expended a considerable amount of time, effort and resources attempting to foment the centralization of government and consolidation of power in the state with its seat of power in
520:), as well as a number of proportionally smaller tribes. The Pashtuns are the largest and most dominant ethnic tribe in the country, whose name translates to "Land of the Pashtuns".
1880:
414:" for the warlords, providing them with resources to increase their power and influence over these societies. As Driscoll observed, the "warlords colluded to create a state".
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is applied retroactively to describe the leaders of regional armies who threatened or used violence to expand their rule, including those who rose to lead and unify kingdoms.
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Within political science there is a growing body of research and analysis on warlordism that has emerged within weak states that have gained independence as a result of the
451:. The trade-off becomes protection for extraction, and this political framework is common in periphery regions of countries which do not have a strong central government.
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became globally ubiquitous. Often warlord governance in pre-modern state history was constructed along tribal or kinship lines and was congruent with early perception of "
671:. His critics say that he bullied and bought his way to power, and once he obtained it he established himself as one of the most brutal and murderous warlords in Africa.
464:
Modern-day
Afghanistan is a multiethnic, multilingual country inhabited by distinct and often competing tribal societies, its national borders defined only following the
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1853:
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663:-embezzling warlord who aided and abetted African rebels who committed heinous atrocities against millions of African people. After seizing power from President
698:; and a plethora of businessmenâlocal and foreignâwho were bent on making money in Liberia and disregarded UN disapproval. Taylor was detained by the UN-backed
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powerholders in the areas where they resided. Such free companies would arise in a situation when the recognized central power had collapsed, such as in the
280:. Warlord states are disproportionately concentrated within two regionsâthe former European colonies of Africa and the former Soviet republics of Eurasia.
297:, warlords can serve as useful allies of a central government that is unable to establish a monopoly over the use of force within its national territory.
864:
and his immediate successors, conquered nearly all of Asia and
European Russia. Roving bandits, contrary to the concept of stationary bandits offered by
190:
rentâwhich can refer to natural resources, territory, labor, revenue or privilege. In his study of warlordism in
Georgia and Tajikistan, Driscoll cites "
78:. Warlords have existed throughout much of history, albeit in a variety of different capacities within the political, economic, and social structure of
2105:
1916:
2072:
1054:), Syria and Tajikistan (Gorno-Badakhshan). Other areas include the eastern part of Ukraine, Lebanon, South Sudan, Mexico, Colombia, and Haiti.
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2016:
1780:
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was a period ranging from 966â968 characterized by chaos and civil war. The reason this period received the title of "Twelve Warlords War", or
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983:
892:. The ensuing two years were marked by local warlords rebelling in order to seize power within their local governments and challenging the
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In exchange for peaceful coexistence, the warlord coalitions are granted special status and privileges, including the right to maintain
194:, property ownership and transfers, privatization in non-transparent closed-bid settings, complex credit swaps cemented via marriages,
170:
Economist Stergios Skaperdas views warlordism as a defaultâalbeit inefficientâcompetitive economic model that emerges in states where
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1648:
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In the case of Afghanistan, stateâwarlord bargaining sometimes extends beyond these informal accords and elevates to the status of
564:
1881:"United States Agency for International Development â U.S. FOREIGN ASSISTANCE FOR AFGHANISTAN POST PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PLAN"
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2336:
1546:
North, Douglass C.; Wallis, John Joseph; Weingast, Barry R. (1 January 2009). "Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders".
559:
362:, in which the warlords are appointed to formal government positions, such as regional governor; a title which provides them
2395:
Sanborn, Joshua. "The genesis of Russian warlordism: Violence and governance during the First World War and the Civil War."
656:
2383:
1184:
Waldron, Arthur (1991). "The warlord: Twentieth-century Chinese understandings of violence, militarism, and imperialism".
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in a highly critical essay on the aristocracy in England, "Piracy and war gave place to trade, politics and letters; the '
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Warlordism was widespread in Civil War-era Russia (1918â22). Many territories were not under the control of either the
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2000:
1941:
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542:, was a political boundary drawn in 1893 which clearly defined and demarcated the border between Afghanistan and the
1830:
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Waldron, Arthur. "The warlord: Twentieth-century Chinese understandings of violence, militarism, and imperialism."
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are typically not considered warlords as they created more stable military and governing structures that claimed
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was "warlord", but they were not warlords in the sense of the word today. Other warlords could be found in the
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of 1930. This war essentially ended the Warlord Era, albeit with the continuing autonomy of several provinces.
699:
551:
571:, tribal warlords continue to maintain political influence and power throughout the country outside of Kabul.
1403:
Driscoll, Jesse (1 June 2013). "Warlords: Strong-Arm Brokers in Weak States by Kimberly Marten. Ithaca, NY".
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until the Japanese invasion of 1931; and a number of local warlords with infamous reputations, such as
622:
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1483:
Pirates, Terrorists, and Warlords: The History, Influence, and Future of Armed Groups Around the World
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Franz H. Michael, âMilitary Organization and Power Structure of China during the Taiping Rebellion.â
588:
106:
The first appearance of the word "warlord" dates to 1856, when used by American philosopher and poet
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1800:
769:(KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party) consolidated its rule over much of the country under Generalissimo
610:
31:
17:
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Nation-building and Identity Conflicts: Facilitating the Mediation Process in Southern Philippines
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were born and shaped in part from the heavy influence of roving bandits. These warlords, such as
679:
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and the right "to profit from the 'economy of violence' that they establish in their own areas".
1706:
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secured power in 1965âhave "franchised violence to regional warlords" to counter the inroads of
893:
683:
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the property or resources from the people and land and redistribute the riches in exchange for
399:
268:, that feudal lord or noble was now ascribing to the political order of ungoverned warlordism.
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to the rest of the world. This opened up Georgia and Tajikistan as states eligible to receive
1966:
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regionsâresulting in armed conflict and civil war. Many strongmen warlords had served in the
232:
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to their respective "constituencies". There are four dominant ethnic tribes in Afghanistan (
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administration, and sometimes obtaining de facto or de jure recognition of foreign powers."
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653:
532:
363:
352:
326:
294:
290:
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Reno, William. "Illicit markets, violence, warlords, and governance: West African cases."
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Zartman, I. William (1 June 1999). "Warlord Politics and African States by William Reno".
884:, is because of the struggle for power after the illegitimate succession to the throne by
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precipitated the rise of militant, independence-seeking nationalist movements within the
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to the law-lord; the privilege was kept, whilst the means of obtaining it were changed."
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848:. At the time of disintegration, many warlords tried to enthrone themselves or rule the
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in support of the crown for specific military campaigns. As noted French philosopher
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is low, but that innately evolves into an institution governing political order that
149:
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1917:"U.S. Backs Karzai's Efforts to Strengthen Afghan Central Government | IIP Digital"
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Reno, William. Warlord Politics and African States. 1999. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
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Local warlords with their own militias began to emerge in the effort to defeat the
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States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China
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court. As a result, the country fractured into 12 regions, each led by a warlord.
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613:. These territories were controlled by warlords of various political colors. The
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1967:"Strengthening the Strategic Partnership of the United States and Afghanistan"
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ascended with legitimacy into his role of leadership of the KMT by succeeding
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1890:. Joint Task Force, US Mission â Afghanistan. 1 February 2010. Archived from
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political rule within the agreed-upon territory, exert force to retain their
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202:, and bribery", as principal sources of exchange in redistribution politics.
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1047:), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Libya, Sudan, Somalia, Pakistan (
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As political scientist Dr. Ariel Hernandez documented, one example is the
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86:. The term is often applied in the context of China around the end of the
1740:
Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat
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The Imperial commanders-in-chief during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor
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382:, political scientist Jesse Driscoll emphasizes how the collapse of the
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Crafting Peace: Strategies to Deal with Warlords in Collapsing States.
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Other countries and territories with warlords include, Iraq, Myanmar (
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was the dictator of Mongolia for a short time. White generals such as
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faltered and the central authorities lost much of their control. The
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held territories in the Transbaikalia region, and the 'Bloody Baron'
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1854:"The Durand Line: Afghanistan's Controversial, Colonial-Era Border"
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1035:'s reign, in which he conquered the last remnants of the Danelaw.
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Ahram, Ariel I., and Charles King. "The warlord as arbitrageur."
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Goldstein, Mujib Mashal, Joseph; Sukhanyar, Jawad (24 May 2015).
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leaders in all parts of the Mongol Empire before. The empire and
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interdependent warlordism known as cooperative warlord politics.
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Warlordism as the dominant political order of pre-state societies
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309:, where successive presidential administrationsâat least since
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2073:"Afghans Form Militias and Call on Warlords to Battle Taliban"
1781:"The Role of the Pashtuns in Understanding the Afghan Crisis"
1234:
Skaperdas, Stergios (1 January 2002). "Warlord Competition".
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kingdoms of Europe, although it would not be completed until
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Understanding warlordism in the context of European feudalism
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1728:
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Marten, Kimberly. "Warlordism in comparative perspective."
1993:
Warlords, Strongman Governors, and the State in Afghanistan
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Warlords, strongman governors, and the state in Afghanistan
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Warlords, Strongman Governors, and The State in Afghanistan
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1525:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 316â340.
1510:. New York: Springer. pp. Chapter 5.4, Pages 101â103.
1278:"Tilly - Warmaking and statemaking as organized crime.pdf"
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418:
Ungoverned warlordism, or warlords as "stationary bandits"
264:, either in rebellion or to form an alliance with a rival
2185:
Roberts, J.A.G. (1 January 1989). "Warlordism in China".
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of Libya; the conservative former ruler of Ivory Coast,
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states, particularly those where armed groups challenge
27:
Person who has both military and civil control and power
2410:(2002) 39 (4): 435â446. doi:10.1177/0022343302039004004
1995:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1â75.
1593:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1â5.
271:
1621:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1â11.
686:(1991â2002). His close friends included the late Col.
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422:
One political theory, pioneered by American economist
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Reno, William. "Mafiya troubles, warlord crises." in
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Warlords and Coalition Politics in Post-Soviet States
2121:"Charles Taylor Sentenced to 50 Years for War Crimes"
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Warlords and Coalition Politics in Post-Soviet States
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Warlords and Coalition Politics in Post-Soviet States
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Warlords and Coalition Politics in Post-Soviet States
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Warlordism in Europe is usually connected to various
342:", loyalty from the warlord and peace in the region.
2047:"Decentralization â Decentralization in Afghanistan"
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1636:. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 12.
1545:
101:
2119:Simons, Marlise; Goodman, J. David (30 May 2012).
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1223:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 1.
47:, one of many warlords in early 20th-century China
1173:. London: George Routledge and Sons. p. 168.
908:companies and their chieftains, which often were
776:Among the prominent leaders called warlords were
2425:
674:During his term of office Taylor was accused of
283:
72:without a strong central or national government
2118:
958:in Italy can also be classified as warlords.
410:, which thereafter became a major source of "
178:or the threat of it to secure its access to "
2406:Skaperdas, Stergios. "Warlord Competition".
2104:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1990:
1588:
1520:
640:The term "warlord" was frequently used when
527:, which forms the border between modern-day
144:
2364:(Lynne Rienner, 1999), influential survey'
2355:Warlords: Strong Arm Brokers in Weak States
1357:
1221:Warlords: Strong Arm Brokers in Weak States
916:in Germany (1254â78), in France during the
390:âparticularly within the Central Asian and
1649:"Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development"
1303:
1301:
852:jointly; however, there had been powerful
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74:, typically through informal control over
1734:
1505:
1233:
1153:The Merriam Webster Unabridged Dictionary
1851:
1631:
1616:
1402:
1387:
1377:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1360:The Old Regime and The French Revolution
1307:
1100:List of countries by Failed States Index
954:, could be considered warlords. Several
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38:
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579:Russian Civil War and Chechen conflicts
54:are groups of individuals who exercise
14:
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2250:Official Website of the Royal Monarchy
1852:Siddique, Abubakar (25 October 2012).
1218:
726:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
682:as a result of his involvement in the
1755:"Afghanistan: Warlords and Democracy"
1646:
1612:
1610:
1342:
1019:and nearly conquered all of England,
558:regime (1996â2001, 2021âpresent) and
792:, who had reputations as reformers;
272:Warlordism in the contemporary world
2390:Warlords in International Relations
2362:Warlord politics and African states
2324:(Cambridge University Press, 2015).
2187:Review of African Political Economy
2017:"A Tribal Strategy for Afghanistan"
1946:georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov
1752:
840:, Mongolia was divided between the
455:Contemporary examples of warlordism
24:
2292:
1607:
1308:Driscoll, Jesse (1 January 2015).
243:observed in their analyses of the
94:. The term may also be used for a
25:
2460:
1653:American Political Science Review
1485:. New York: Skyhorse Publishing.
1038:
707:Historical examples of warlordism
694:; the President of Burkina Faso,
235:and political scientists such as
1942:"U.S. Commitment to Afghanistan"
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938:mercenary captains, such as Sir
459:
121:, the term appeared in China as
102:Historical origins and etymology
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2238:
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2168:Diana Lary, âWarlord Studies.â
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2009:
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1358:Tocqueville, Alexis De (1856).
1347:. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
1122:
1015:, who was the commander of the
966:warlord, and so was his cousin
858:the states that emerged from it
637:from the prewar Tsarist state.
327:exclusive right to use violence
1392:. Cleveland: World Publishers.
1351:
1336:
1270:
1227:
1212:
1177:
1162:
1146:
700:Special Court for Sierra Leone
374:In his study of warlordism in
332:
300:
13:
1:
2397:Contemporary European History
2380:Crime, law and social change
1991:Mukhopadhyay, Dipali (2016).
1823:"The warlords of Afghanistan"
1589:Mukhopadhyay, Dipali (2014).
1521:Mukhopadhyay, Diwali (2014).
1169:Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1902).
1139:
930:Wars of Scottish Independence
644:were reignited in the 1990s.
642:Russian and Chechen conflicts
2021:Council on Foreign Relations
1742:. Columbia University Press.
970:, who was the leader of the
820:. Chiang also conquered and
476:. Afghanistan was briefly a
284:Cooperative warlord politics
7:
1440:Political Science Quarterly
1405:Political Science Quarterly
1248:10.1177/0022343302039004004
1057:
831:
129:), taken from the Japanese
10:
2465:
2415:American Historical Review
2156:18#4 (1949), pp. 469â483.
1186:American Historical Review
882:Anarchy of the 12 Warlords
871:
736:Chinese warlord coalitions
715:
647:
582:
29:
2408:Journal of Peace Research
2199:10.1080/03056248908703823
2172:6#4 (1980), pp. 439â470.
2154:Pacific Historical Review
1785:Perspectives on Terrorism
1738:; Dew, Andrea J. (2006).
1506:Hernandez, Ariel (2014).
1481:Norwitz, Jeffery (2009).
1236:Journal of Peace Research
1219:Marten, Kimberly (2012).
1027:, first man to unify the
899:
824:of rival warlords in the
601:(later in Moscow) or the
589:Category:Chechen warlords
145:Conceptions of warlordism
1971:U.S. Department of State
1921:iipdigital.usembassy.gov
1632:Driscoll, Jesse (2015).
1617:Driscoll, Jesse (2015).
1320:10.1017/cbo9781107478046
1115:
1003:; such examples include
711:
585:ChechenâRussian conflict
486:April Revolution of 1978
484:, which resulted in the
323:organized criminal gangs
90:, especially during the
32:Warlord (disambiguation)
2271:"King Edward the Elder"
1388:Hobsbawm, E.J. (1962).
1373:Skocpol, Theda (1979).
1095:Violent non-state actor
680:crimes against humanity
667:in a rebellion, Taylor
432:symbiotic relationships
214:suggested that classic
166:Economics of warlordism
96:supreme military leader
2439:Positions of authority
2382:52.3 (2009): 313-322.
2344:International Security
1647:Olson, Mancur (1993).
1345:Politics As A Vocation
1155:(2000) definition is:
1107:, including "voivode"
836:After the fall of the
822:conscripted the forces
739:
692:Félix Houphouët-Boigny
684:Sierra Leone Civil War
560:United States invasion
474:Emirate of Afghanistan
353:monopoly over violence
84:ungoverned territories
48:
2302:41.2 (2012): 169-186
1390:The Age of Revolution
1171:English Traits (1856)
1105:Voivodes of Wallachia
816:but also toppled the
733:
722:Warring States period
669:won elections in 1997
583:Further information:
370:Post-Soviet republics
360:political clientelism
233:Alexis de Tocqueville
42:
2357:(Cornell UP, 2012).
2275:Royal Family History
1707:"The World Factbook"
1548:Journal of Democracy
1090:Strongman (politics)
746:of the 1860s as the
623:Ungern von Sternberg
468:of 1919 between the
466:Treaty of Rawalpindi
364:political legitimacy
315:communist insurgents
295:national sovereignty
200:price-fixing schemes
30:For other uses, see
2417:(1991): 1073-1100.
2373:Beyond state crisis
2346:31.3 (2007): 41-73
2027:on 23 February 2016
1897:on 23 February 2016
1803:on 22 February 2016
1343:Weber, Max (1965).
1025:Anglo-Saxon England
1001:Early Modern period
981:did hold the title
926:Kingdom of Scotland
888:after the death of
878:Twelve Warlords War
278:collapse of empires
108:Ralph Waldo Emerson
2388:Rich, Paul B. ed.
2353:Marten, Kimberly.
2317:pp 67â76, 108â145.
2311:20th century China
2309:Clubb, O. Edmund.
2300:Theory and Society
2246:"Alfred the Great"
2125:The New York Times
2077:The New York Times
1736:Shultz, Richard H.
1560:10.1353/jod.0.0060
1417:10.1002/polq.12046
1017:Great Heathen Army
989:direct translation
972:Arumer Zwarte Hoop
968:Pier Gerlofs Donia
922:Battle of Poitiers
918:Hundred Years' War
826:Central Plains War
818:Beiyang government
740:
659:was indicted as a
428:conflict resources
227:to mobilize their
76:local armed forces
49:
2337:978-0-7391-1765-1
2320:Driscoll, Jesse.
2051:web.worldbank.org
1753:Rahmaty, Sohrab.
1130:Afghan (ethnonym)
914:Great Interregnum
765:lasted until the
755:Republic of China
744:Taiping Rebellion
652:Liberia's former
603:White governments
408:international aid
249:French Revolution
16:(Redirected from
2456:
2449:1850s neologisms
2399:(2010): 195-213
2327:Lezhnev, Sasha.
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2225:English Monarchs
2217:
2211:
2210:
2193:(45/46): 26â33.
2182:
2176:
2166:
2160:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2095:
2093:
2091:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2023:. Archived from
2013:
2007:
2006:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1938:
1932:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1896:
1885:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1829:. Archived from
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1799:. Archived from
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1703:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1605:
1604:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1518:
1512:
1511:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1305:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1282:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1192:(4): 1085â1086.
1181:
1175:
1174:
1166:
1160:
1150:
1133:
1126:
1109:Vlad the Impaler
1033:Edward the Elder
999:and up into the
960:Ygo Gales Galama
751:bannerman armies
565:coalition allies
552:Afghan Civil War
538:and Afghan Emir
478:democratic state
311:Ferdinand Marcos
196:money laundering
21:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2424:
2423:
2375:(2002): 105-28.
2360:Reno, William.
2331:Plymouth 2005,
2295:
2293:Further reading
2290:
2289:
2279:
2277:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2254:
2252:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2229:
2227:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2183:
2179:
2167:
2163:
2151:
2147:
2137:
2135:
2117:
2113:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2087:
2069:
2065:
2055:
2053:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2030:
2028:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2003:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1950:
1948:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1925:
1923:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1883:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1862:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1834:
1833:on 5 March 2016
1827:Washington Post
1821:
1820:
1816:
1806:
1804:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1761:
1751:
1747:
1733:
1726:
1716:
1714:
1705:
1704:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1665:10.2307/2938736
1645:
1641:
1630:
1626:
1615:
1608:
1601:
1587:
1583:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1519:
1515:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1479:
1475:
1452:10.2307/2657770
1436:
1432:
1401:
1397:
1386:
1382:
1371:
1367:
1356:
1352:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1306:
1299:
1289:
1287:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1271:
1232:
1228:
1217:
1213:
1198:10.2307/2164996
1182:
1178:
1167:
1163:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1136:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1060:
1041:
1007:of Ireland and
987:, of which the
948:Catalan Company
902:
874:
846:Western Mongols
834:
806:Chiang Kai-shek
802:Zhang Zongchang
796:, who ruled in
771:Chiang Kai-shek
728:
716:Main articles:
714:
709:
696:Blaise Compaoré
688:Muammar Gaddafi
650:
591:
581:
536:Mortimer Durand
502:social services
462:
457:
420:
404:sovereign state
396:Soviet military
372:
335:
303:
286:
274:
253:democratization
210:Noted theorist
208:
168:
152:
147:
119:First World War
104:
66:control over a
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2462:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2404:
2393:
2386:
2376:
2369:
2358:
2351:
2340:
2325:
2318:
2307:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2262:
2237:
2212:
2177:
2161:
2145:
2111:
2063:
2038:
2008:
2001:
1983:
1958:
1933:
1908:
1872:
1844:
1814:
1771:
1745:
1724:
1695:
1686:
1659:(3): 567â576.
1639:
1624:
1606:
1600:978-1107023925
1599:
1581:
1538:
1531:
1513:
1498:
1492:978-1602397088
1491:
1473:
1446:(2): 346â347.
1430:
1411:(2): 352â353.
1395:
1380:
1365:
1350:
1335:
1328:
1297:
1269:
1242:(4): 435â446.
1226:
1211:
1176:
1161:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1111:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1040:
1039:Other examples
1037:
901:
898:
873:
870:
833:
830:
713:
710:
708:
705:
657:Charles Taylor
649:
646:
595:Red government
580:
577:
470:United Kingdom
461:
458:
456:
453:
445:monetary value
419:
416:
371:
368:
334:
331:
319:Islamic rebels
302:
299:
285:
282:
273:
270:
237:E. J. Hobsbawm
229:private armies
207:
204:
172:state capacity
167:
164:
151:
148:
146:
143:
103:
100:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2461:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2366:online review
2363:
2359:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2323:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2251:
2247:
2241:
2226:
2222:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2107:
2101:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2067:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2004:
2002:9781107595859
1998:
1994:
1987:
1972:
1968:
1962:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1893:
1889:
1888:www.usaid.gov
1882:
1876:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1848:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1779:Kfir, Isaac.
1775:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1729:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1700:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1635:
1628:
1620:
1613:
1611:
1602:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1532:9781107023925
1528:
1524:
1517:
1509:
1502:
1494:
1488:
1484:
1477:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1399:
1391:
1384:
1376:
1369:
1361:
1354:
1346:
1339:
1331:
1329:9781107478046
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1304:
1302:
1286:
1279:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1222:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1180:
1172:
1165:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1131:
1125:
1121:
1110:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1062:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1046:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
993:British Isles
990:
986:
985:
980:
975:
973:
969:
965:
962:was a famous
961:
957:
953:
952:Hugh Calveley
949:
945:
944:Roger de Flor
941:
940:John Hawkwood
937:
933:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
897:
895:
891:
887:
886:DÆ°ÆĄng Tam Kha
883:
879:
869:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:Mongol Empire
829:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
749:
745:
737:
732:
727:
723:
719:
704:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
655:
645:
643:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
590:
586:
576:
572:
570:
566:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
534:
533:civil servant
530:
526:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
452:
450:
446:
442:
436:
433:
429:
425:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
367:
365:
361:
356:
354:
350:
349:
343:
341:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
298:
296:
292:
291:decentralized
281:
279:
269:
267:
263:
257:
254:
250:
246:
245:Ancien RĂ©gime
242:
241:Theda Skocpol
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
217:
213:
203:
201:
197:
193:
187:
185:
184:Charles Tilly
181:
177:
176:uses violence
173:
163:
161:
157:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
115:
113:
109:
99:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
2414:
2407:
2396:
2389:
2379:
2372:
2361:
2354:
2343:
2328:
2321:
2310:
2299:
2278:. Retrieved
2274:
2265:
2253:. Retrieved
2249:
2240:
2228:. Retrieved
2224:
2215:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2170:Modern China
2169:
2164:
2153:
2148:
2136:. Retrieved
2124:
2114:
2088:. Retrieved
2076:
2066:
2054:. Retrieved
2050:
2041:
2029:. Retrieved
2025:the original
2020:
2011:
1992:
1986:
1974:. Retrieved
1970:
1961:
1949:. Retrieved
1945:
1936:
1924:. Retrieved
1920:
1911:
1899:. Retrieved
1892:the original
1887:
1875:
1863:. Retrieved
1859:The Atlantic
1857:
1847:
1835:. Retrieved
1831:the original
1826:
1817:
1805:. Retrieved
1801:the original
1788:
1784:
1774:
1762:. Retrieved
1759:The Diplomat
1758:
1748:
1739:
1715:. Retrieved
1710:
1689:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1633:
1627:
1618:
1590:
1584:
1554:(1): 55â68.
1551:
1547:
1541:
1522:
1516:
1507:
1501:
1482:
1476:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1408:
1404:
1398:
1389:
1383:
1374:
1368:
1359:
1353:
1344:
1338:
1310:
1288:. Retrieved
1284:
1272:
1239:
1235:
1229:
1220:
1214:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1170:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1124:
1052:Tribal Areas
1042:
982:
979:Maximilian I
976:
936:Free company
934:
924:, or in the
909:
903:
875:
866:Mancur Olson
862:Genghis Khan
853:
835:
814:Beiyang Army
794:Zhang Zuolin
786:Feng Yuxiang
775:
741:
673:
651:
639:
592:
573:
548:Soviet Union
522:
490:
463:
437:
424:Mancur Olson
421:
384:Soviet Union
373:
357:
346:
344:
336:
304:
287:
275:
258:
209:
188:
169:
156:modern state
153:
138:
137:. In China,
130:
122:
116:
111:
105:
88:Qing Dynasty
70:, often one
51:
50:
45:Zhang Zuolin
36:
2090:15 February
2056:15 February
2031:15 February
1976:15 February
1951:15 February
1926:15 February
1901:16 February
1865:15 February
1837:15 February
1807:15 February
1764:15 February
1717:15 February
1711:www.cia.gov
1029:Anglo-Saxon
997:Middle Ages
995:during the
956:condottieri
928:during the
810:Sun Yat-sen
804:. Although
763:Warlord Era
759:Yuan Shikai
757:was led by
718:Warlord Era
554:(1989â96),
550:(1979â89),
544:British Raj
525:Durand Line
460:Afghanistan
441:expropriate
333:Afghanistan
307:Philippines
301:Philippines
192:land reform
135:Warlord Era
117:During the
92:Warlord Era
2444:Warlordism
2428:Categories
1140:References
1085:Plutocracy
1005:Brian Boru
984:Kriegsherr
920:after the
784:province,
778:Yan Xishan
767:Kuomintang
738:as of 1925
676:war crimes
665:Samuel Doe
635:legitimacy
540:Abdur Khan
400:legitimacy
380:Tajikistan
223:and other
2221:"Guthrum"
2133:0362-4331
2100:cite news
2085:0362-4331
1797:2334-3745
1681:145312307
1576:153774943
1568:1086-3214
1460:1538-165X
1425:1538-165X
1264:220944037
1075:Despotism
906:mercenary
890:NgĂŽ Quyá»n
798:Manchuria
773:in 1928.
654:president
599:Petrograd
482:1973 coup
388:republics
216:feudalism
212:Max Weber
112:war-lords
64:political
2434:Warlords
2280:16 March
2255:16 March
2230:16 March
1290:23 April
1070:Caudillo
1065:Anocracy
1058:See also
1045:Wa State
910:de facto
854:de facto
832:Mongolia
790:Wu Peifu
619:Semyonov
529:Pakistan
506:Pashtuns
494:security
480:until a
472:and the
449:extorted
392:Caucasus
348:de facto
289:In such
225:nobility
131:gunbatsu
60:economic
56:military
52:Warlords
43:Marshal
18:Warlords
2392:(1999).
2313:(1965)
2207:4006008
1673:2938736
1468:2657770
1285:Dropbox
1256:1555276
1206:2164996
1049:Pashtun
1013:Danelaw
1011:of the
1009:Guthrum
964:Frisian
872:Vietnam
850:khanate
842:Eastern
661:diamond
648:Liberia
631:Denikin
627:Kolchak
617:ataman
615:Cossack
556:Taliban
514:Hazaras
498:justice
376:Georgia
266:kingdom
221:knights
2419:online
2401:online
2384:online
2348:online
2335:
2315:online
2304:online
2205:
2174:online
2158:online
2138:18 May
2131:
2083:
1999:
1795:
1679:
1671:
1597:
1574:
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1529:
1489:
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1458:
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1326:
1262:
1254:
1204:
1021:Alfred
900:Europe
788:, and
782:Shanxi
748:Manchu
734:Major
724:, and
611:Rostov
518:Uzbeks
516:, and
510:Tajiks
247:, the
160:nation
80:states
68:region
62:, and
2203:JSTOR
1895:(PDF)
1884:(PDF)
1791:(4).
1713:. CIA
1677:S2CID
1669:JSTOR
1572:S2CID
1464:JSTOR
1281:(PDF)
1260:S2CID
1252:JSTOR
1202:JSTOR
1116:Notes
894:DÆ°ÆĄng
712:China
569:Kabul
402:as a
139:Junfa
123:Junfa
2333:ISBN
2282:2016
2257:2016
2232:2016
2140:2016
2129:ISSN
2106:link
2092:2016
2081:ISSN
2058:2016
2033:2016
1997:ISBN
1978:2016
1953:2016
1928:2016
1903:2016
1867:2016
1839:2016
1809:2016
1793:ISSN
1766:2016
1719:2016
1595:ISBN
1564:ISSN
1527:ISBN
1487:ISBN
1456:ISSN
1421:ISSN
1324:ISBN
1292:2016
1128:See
1080:Feud
876:The
844:and
678:and
609:and
607:Omsk
587:and
523:The
500:and
412:rent
378:and
340:rent
321:and
262:king
251:and
239:and
180:rent
2195:doi
1661:doi
1556:doi
1448:doi
1444:114
1413:doi
1409:128
1316:doi
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1194:doi
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950:or
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