Varieties of Arabic

3783:, there are significant linguistic differences between Arabic Christian and Muslim inhabitants of the city. The Christians of Baghdad are a well-established community, and their dialect has evolved from the sedentary vernacular of urban medieval Iraq. The typical Muslim dialect of Baghdad is a more recent arrival in the city and comes from Bedouin speech instead. In Baghdad, as elsewhere in the Arab world, the various communities share MSA as a prestige dialect, but the Muslim colloquial dialect is associated with power and money, given that that community is the more dominant. Therefore, the Christian population of the city learns to use the Muslim dialect in more formal situations, for example, when a Christian school teacher is trying to call students in the class to order. 2551:. This refers to the level of respect accorded to a language or dialect within a speech community. The formal Arabic language carries a considerable prestige in most Arabic-speaking communities, depending on the context. This is not the only source of prestige, though. Many studies have shown that for most speakers, there is a prestige variety of vernacular Arabic. In Egypt, for non-Cairenes, the prestige dialect is Cairo Arabic. For Jordanian women from Bedouin or rural background, it may be the urban dialects of the big cities, especially including the capital Amman. Moreover, in certain contexts, a dialect relatively different from formal Arabic may carry more prestige than a dialect closer to the formal language—this is the case in Bahrain, for example. 2558:. For example, a woman on a TV program could appeal to the authority of the formal language by using elements of it in her speech in order to prevent other speakers from cutting her off. Another process at work is "leveling", the "elimination of very localised dialectical features in favour of more regionally general ones." This can affect all linguistic levels—semantic, syntactic, phonological, etc. The change can be temporary, as when a group of speakers with substantially different Arabics communicate, or it can be permanent, as often happens when people from the countryside move to the city and adopt the more prestigious urban dialect, possibly over a couple of generations. 3573:); loanwords from MSA replace or are sometimes used alongside native words evolved from Classical Arabic in colloquial dialects. It tends to be used in serious discussions by well-educated people, but is generally not used in writing except informally. It includes a large number of foreign loanwords, chiefly relating to the technical and theoretical subjects it is used to discuss, sometimes used in non-intellectual topics. Because it can generally be understood by listeners who speak varieties of Arabic different from those of the speaker's country of origin, it is often used on television, and it is also becoming the language of instruction at universities. 3536:(MSA). It is a modification and simplification of Classical Arabic that was deliberately created for the modern age. Consequently, it includes many newly coined words, either adapted from Classical Arabic (much as European scholars during the Renaissance coined new English words by adapting words from Latin), or borrowed from foreign, chiefly European, languages. Although it is principally a written language, it is spoken when people read aloud from prepared texts. Highly skilled speakers can also produce it spontaneously, though this typically occurs only in the context of media broadcasts – particularly in 3548:– where the speakers want to be simultaneously understood by Arabic speakers in all the various countries where these networks' target audiences live. If highly skilled speakers use it spontaneously, it is spoken when Arabic speakers of different dialects communicate with each other. Commonly used as a written language, it is found in most books, newspapers, magazines, official documents, and reading primers for small children; it is also used as another version of literary form of the Qur'an and in modernized revisions of writings from Arab literary heritage. 9718: 3429: 3278:)– are particularly divergent in some respects, especially in their vocabularies, since they are less influenced by classical Arabic. However, historically they fall within the same dialect classifications as the varieties that are spoken in countries where Arabic is the dominant language. Because most of these peripheral dialects are located in Muslim majority countries, they are now influenced by Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, the Arabic varieties of the Qur'an and their Arabic-speaking neighbours, respectively. 664: 372: 12240: 1153:, but faraway varieties tend not to be. Varieties west of Egypt are particularly disparate, with Egyptian Arabic speakers claiming difficulty in understanding North African Arabic speakers, while North African Arabic speakers' ability to understand other Arabic speakers is mostly due to the widespread popularity of Egyptian and Levantine popular media (for example Syrian or Lebanese TV shows). This phenomenon is called 5343:). It is associated with a concomitant decrease in the amount of pharyngealization of emphatic consonants, so that in some dialects emphasis spreading is the only way to distinguish emphatic consonants from their plain counterparts. It also pharyngealizes consonants between the source consonant and affected vowels, although the effects are much less noticeable than for vowels. Emphasis spreading does 6525: 32: 418:. Many aspects of the variability attested to in these modern variants can be found in the ancient Arabic dialects in the peninsula. Likewise, many of the features that characterize (or distinguish) the various modern variants can be attributed to the original settler dialects as well as local native languages and dialects. Some organizations, such as 3713:, to Modern Standard Arabic: Harrat et al. (2015, comparing MSA to two Algerian dialects, Tunisian, Palestinian, and Syrian), El-Haj et al. (2018, comparing MSA to Egyptian, Levantine, Gulf, and North African Arabic), and Abu Kwaik et al. (2018, comparing MSA to Algerian, Tunisian, Palestinian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Egyptian). 2562:

very weak grasp of the formal language. In another example, groups of educated speakers from different regions will often use dialectical forms that represent a middle ground between their dialects rather than trying to use the formal language, to make communication easier and more comprehensible. For example, to express the

3373:, and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research by Trentman & Shiri indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. 3412:

colloquial varieties depends on the speaker, the topic, and the situation—amongst other factors. Today even the least educated citizens are exposed to MSA through public education and exposure to mass media, and so tend to use elements of it in speaking to others. This is an example of what linguistics researchers call

3408:. It is rarely used except in reciting the Qur'an or quoting older classical texts. (Arabic speakers typically do not make an explicit distinction between MSA and Classical Arabic.) Modern Standard Arabic was deliberately developed in the early part of the 19th century as a modernized version of Classical Arabic. 3586:'colloquial of the basically educated': This is the everyday language that people use in informal contexts, and that is heard on television when non-intellectual topics are being discussed. It is characterized, according to Badawi, by high levels of borrowing. Educated speakers usually code-switch between 4621:

New passives have often been developed by co-opting the original reflexive formations in CA, particularly verb forms V, VI and VII (In CA these were derivational, not inflectional, as neither their existence nor exact meaning could be depended upon; however, they have often been incorporated into the

3356:

Even within countries where the official language is Arabic, different varieties of Arabic are spoken. For example, within Syria, the Arabic spoken in Homs is recognized as different from the Arabic spoken in Damascus, but both are considered to be varieties of "Levantine" Arabic. And within Morocco,

10284:

Conference Proceedings, Arabic Dialect Identification in the Context of Bivalency and Code-Switching, El-Haj, Mahmoud, Rayson, Paul, Aboelezz, Mariam, Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018), 2018, European Language Resources Association

3767:

provides an excellent illustration. A major distinction can be made between the Shiite Bahraini, who are the oldest population of Bahrain, and the Sunni population that began to immigrate to Bahrain in the 18th century. The Sunni form a minority of the population but the ruling family of Bahrain is

9372:

are elided in various circumstances in unstressed syllables (typically, in open syllables; for example, in Egyptian Arabic, this occurs only in the middle vowel of a VCVCV sequence, ignoring word boundaries). In Levantine, however, clusters of three consonants are almost never permitted. If such a

2561:

This process of accommodation sometimes appeals to the formal language, but often does not. For example, villagers in central Palestine may try to use the dialect of Jerusalem rather than their own when speaking with people with substantially different dialects, particularly since they may have a

9490:

phoneme occurs doubled, in emphatic and non-emphatic varieties. Some have attempted to make the vowel allophones autonomous and eliminate the emphatic consonants as phonemes. Others have asserted that emphasis is actually a property of syllables or whole words rather than of individual vowels or

3736:

The religion of Arabic speakers is sometimes involved in shaping how they speak Arabic. As is the case with other variables, religion cannot be seen in isolation. It is generally connected with the political systems in the different countries. Religion in the Arab world is not usually seen as an

2543:

Arabic is characterized by a wide number of varieties; however, Arabic speakers are often able to manipulate the way they speak based on the circumstances. There can be a number of motives for changing one's speech: the formality of a situation, the need to communicate with people with different

630:

classification, Arabic dialectologists distinguish between two basic norms: Bedouin and Sedentary. This is based on a set of phonological, morphological, and syntactic characteristics that distinguish between these two norms. However, it is not really possible to keep this classification, partly

9605:

Most commonly, it falls on the last syllable containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by two consonants; but never farther from the end than the third-to-last syllable. This maintains the presumed stress pattern in CA (although there is some disagreement over whether stress could move

5174:

Those types corresponding to CA forms VIII and X are rare and completely unproductive, while some of the non-CA types are productive. At one point, form IX significantly increased in productivity over CA, and there are perhaps 50–100 of these verbs currently, mostly stative but not necessarily

9613:

In CA and MSA, stress cannot occur on a final long vowel; however, this does not result in different stress patterns on any words, because CA final long vowels are shortened in all modern dialects, and any current final long vowels are secondary developments from words containing a long vowel

3411:

People often use a mixture of both colloquial and formal Arabic. For example, interviewers or speechmakers generally use MSA in asking prepared questions or making prepared remarks, then switch to a colloquial variety to add a spontaneous comment or respond to a question. The ratio of MSA to

2611:

is most likely to be used as it is not associated with a particular region and is the closest to a dialectical middle ground for this group of speakers. Moreover, given the prevalence of movies and TV shows in Egyptian Arabic, the speakers are all likely to be familiar with it. Iraqi/Kuwaiti

437:, used for everyday speaking situations. The latter vary from country to country, from speaker to speaker (according to personal preferences, education and culture), and depending on the topic and situation. In other words, Arabic in its natural environment usually occurs in a situation of 622:

speech, the countryside and major cities, ethnic groups, religious groups, social classes, men and women, and the young and the old. These differences are to some degree bridgeable. Often, Arabic speakers can adjust their speech in a variety of ways according to the context and to their

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This also results in consonant clusters of great length, which are (more or less) syllabified according to a sonority hierarchy. For some subdialects, in practice, it is very difficult to tell where, if anywhere, there are syllabic peaks in long consonant clusters in a phrase such as

9485:

occurs in some words (particularly foreign borrowings) even in the absence of any emphatic consonants anywhere in the word. (Some linguists have postulated additional emphatic phonemes in an attempt to handle these circumstances; in the extreme case, this requires assuming that

8924:. (The allophonic distribution still exists to a large extent, although not in any predictable fashion; nor is one or the other variety used consistently in different words derived from the same root. Furthermore, although derivational suffixes (in particular, relational 3768:

Sunni and the colloquial language represented on TV is almost invariably that of the Sunni population. Therefore, power, prestige and financial control are associated with the Sunni Arabs. This is having a major effect on the direction of language change in Bahrain.

10266:

Harrat S., Meftouh K., Abbas M., Jamoussi S., Saad M., Smaili K., (2015), Cross-Dialectal Arabic Processing. In: Gelbukh A. (eds), Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing. CICLing 2015. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 9041. Springer, Cham.

3611:, 'colloquial of the illiterates': This is very colloquial speech characterized by the absence of any influence from MSA and by relatively little foreign borrowing. These varieties are the almost entirely naturally evolved direct descendants of Classical Arabic. 4502:

Because of the absolute prohibition in all Arabic dialects against having two vowels in hiatus, the above changes occurred only when a consonant preceded the ending. When a vowel preceded, the forms either remained as-is or lost the final vowel, becoming

3330:(which have a limited vocabulary consisting mostly of Arabic words, but lack most Arabic morphological features) are in widespread use along the southern edge of the Sahara, and have been for a long time. In the eleventh century, the medieval geographer 2789:

In general the rural varieties are more conservative than the sedentary varieties and the rural varieties within the Arabian peninsula are even more conservative than those elsewhere. Within the sedentary varieties, the western varieties (particularly,

9218:

have merged, obscuring the original distribution. In this dialect, the two varieties have completely split into separate phonemes, with one or the other used consistently across all words derived from a particular root except in a few situations.

2639:

Sometimes a certain dialect may be associated with backwardness and does not carry mainstream prestige—yet it will continue to be used as it carries a kind of covert prestige and serves to differentiate one group from another when necessary.

5009:

has greatly rearranged the system of verbal derivation, so that the traditional system of forms I through X is not applicable without some stretching. It would be more accurate to describe its verbal system as consisting of two major types,

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The most significant differences between rural Arabic and non-rural Arabic are in syntax. The sedentary varieties in particular share a number of common innovations from CA. This has led to the suggestion, first articulated by

2544:

dialects, to get social approval, to differentiate oneself from the listener, when citing a written text to differentiate between personal and professional or general matters, to clarify a point, and to shift to a new topic.

4852:

is lost here as well. In Egyptian Arabic, for example, this pronoun is marked in this case only by lengthening of the final vowel and concomitant stress shift onto it, but the "h" reappears when followed by another suffix.

3515:, 'heritage classical': The Classical Arabic of Arab literary heritage and the Qur'an. This is primarily a written language, but it is heard in spoken form at the mosque or in religious programmes on television, but with a 3615:

Almost everyone in Egypt is able to use more than one of these levels of speech, and people often switch between them, sometimes within the same sentence. This is generally true in other Arabic-speaking countries as well.

8941:

Certain other consonants, depending on the dialect, also cause pharyngealization of adjacent sounds, although the effect is typically weaker than full emphasis spreading and usually has no effect on more distant vowels.

4418:

The CA dual was marked not only on nouns, but also on verbs, adjectives, pronouns and demonstratives; the dual in those varieties that have them is analyzed as plural for agreement with verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and

4407:

are exceptions). This dual marking differs syntactically from the frozen dual in that it cannot take possessive suffixes. In addition, it differs morphologically from the frozen dual in various dialects, such as

2656:). The distinction stems from the settlement patterns in the wake of the Arab conquests. As regions were conquered, army camps were set up that eventually grew into cities, and settlement of the rural areas by 3376:

Egyptian Arabic is one of the most widely understood Arabic dialects due to a thriving Egyptian television and movie industry, and Egypt's highly influential role in the region for much of the 20th century.

10529: 3561:, 'colloquial of the cultured' (also called Educated Spoken Arabic, Formal Spoken Arabic, or Spoken MSA by other authors): This is a vernacular dialect that has been heavily influenced by MSA, i.e. 10226:

Taha, Zeinab A. “EDUCATED SPOKEN ARABIC: HOW COULD IT HELP IN REDEFINING THE ACTFL GUIDELINES?” Al-'Arabiyya, 40/41, 2007, pp. 104–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43195689. Accessed 10 July 2021.

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The result is that there is no distinction between short and long vowels; borrowings from CA have "long" vowels (now pronounced half-long) uniformly substituted for original short and long vowels.

8981:, the effect is sometimes described as half as powerful as an emphatic consonant, as a vowel with uvular consonants on both sides is affected similarly to having an emphatic consonant on one side. 2324:

languages. Though they have features similar to each other, they are not a homogeneous unit and still belong philologically to the same family groupings as their non-Judeo counterpart varieties.

3691:

when the Arabic alphabet is unavailable or difficult to use for technical reasons; this is also used in Modern Standard Arabic when Arabic speakers of different dialects communicate each other.

9410:

also cannot tolerate long vowels followed by two consonants, and shortens them. (Such an occurrence was rare in CA, but often occurs in modern dialects as a result of elision of a short vowel.)

8866:, or a combination of the two. (The phonetic effects of the two are only minimally different from each other.) Usually there is some associated lip rounding; in addition, the stop consonants 3671:, whose supporters published several books in his transcription. In 1944, Abdelaziz Pasha Fahmi, a member of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Egypt proposed the replacement of the 8893:

is also in the process of splitting into emphatic and non-emphatic varieties, with the former causing emphasis spreading, just like other emphatic consonants. Originally, non-emphatic

2554:

Language mixes and changes in different ways. Arabic speakers often use more than one variety of Arabic within a conversation or even a sentence. This process is referred to as

10297:

Kathrein Abu Kwaik, Motaz Saad, Stergios Chatzikyriakidis, Simon Dobnika, A Lexical Distance Study of Arabic Dialects, Procedia Computer Science, Volume 142, 2018, Pages 2–13,

10178:

5.C. Holes, "Community, dialect and urbanization in the Arabic-speaking Middle East," Bulletin of the school of oriental and African studies, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 270–287, 1995.

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with the Latin alphabet. His proposal was discussed in two sessions in the communion but was rejected, and faced strong opposition in cultural circles. The Latin alphabet (as "

631:

because the modern dialects, especially urban variants, typically amalgamate features from both norms. Geographically, modern Arabic varieties are classified into five groups:

3501:

proposed the following distinctions between the different "levels of speech" involved when speakers of Egyptian Arabic switch between vernacular and formal Arabic varieties:

4294:

never natively appear as phonemes in Arabic dialects, and they are always restricted to loanwords, with their usage depending on the speaker and they can be pronounced

10165:

Trentman, E., & Shiri, S. (2020). The mutual intelligibility of Arabic dialects: Implications for the classroom. Critical Multilingualism Studies, 8, 104–134. (

6206:

dialects. However, most other dialects of Arabic will use this pronunciation in learned words that are borrowed from Standard Arabic into the respective dialect.

655:. Speakers from distant areas, across national borders, within countries and even between cities and villages, can struggle to understand each other's dialects. 623:

intentions—for example, to speak with people from different regions, to demonstrate their level of education or to draw on the authority of the spoken language.

4906:

In combination with the fusion of the indirect object and the development of new mood markers, this results in morpheme-rich verbal complexes that can approach

3775:

also illustrates how there can be significant differences in how Arabic is spoken on the basis of religion. The study referred to here was conducted before the

9737: 3349:

Immigrant speakers of Arabic often incorporate a significant amount of vocabulary from the host-country language in their speech, in a situation analogous to

1160:

One factor in the differentiation of the varieties is the influence from other languages previously spoken or still presently spoken in the regions, such as

8595:

Modern dialects have smoothed out the morphophonemic variations, typically by losing the associated verbs or moving them into another paradigm (for example,

4519:, respectively. Combined with other phonetic changes, this resulted in multiple forms for each clitic (up to three), depending on the phonetic environment. 4369:

The dialects differ in how exactly the new indicative was developed from the old forms. The sedentary dialects adopted the old subjunctive forms (feminine

4415:

The productive dual differs from CA in that its use is optional, whereas the use of the CA dual was mandatory even in cases of implicitly dual reference.

9864:مقارنة بين العامية اللبنانية واللغة الفصحى في ألبوم "أنا والليل" لمروان خوريمقارنة بين العامية اللبنانية واللغة الفصحى في ألبوم "أنا والليل" لمروان خوري 4634:

has retained the inflected passive up to the modern era, though this feature is on its way to extinction as a result of the influence of other dialects.

4448:

makes the most use of it, to the extent that the constructed genitive is no longer productive, and used only in certain relatively frozen constructions.

3385:

Another way that varieties of Arabic differ is that some are formal and others are colloquial (that is, vernacular). There are two formal varieties, or

9203:"you (fem.) must write". Other dialects, in the North, make a clear distinction; they say /xəssək təktəb/ "you want to write", and not */xəssk ətkətb/. 5186:, most of these types show no stem difference between perfect and imperfect, which is probably why the languages has incorporated new types so easily. 3627:, when the Cairo elite began to trend towards colloquial writing. A record of the Cairo vernacular of the time is found in the dictionary compiled by 488:

language, which maintained a cultured variant and several vernacular versions for centuries, until it disappeared as a spoken language, while derived

10196:

Allen, R. (2000). The Arabic Language in Theory and Practice. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 34(2), 197–199. doi:10.1017/S0026318400040438

6571: 78: 9680: 1092:

Arab dialectologists have now adopted a more detailed classification for modern variants of the language, which is divided into five major groups:

10571: 10474:

Pereira, C. (2007). 'Urbanization and dialect change: The dialect of Tripoli, Libya.' in C. Miller, E. Al-Wer, D. Caubet and J.C.E. Watson (eds),

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is less pronounced than elsewhere; usually it only spreads to the nearest full vowel on either side, although with some additional complications.

2805:

The following example illustrates similarities and differences between the literary, standardized varieties, and major urban dialects of Arabic.

10618: 433:, a major distinction exists between the formal standardized language, found mostly in writing or in prepared speech, and the widely diverging 9491:

consonants. None of these proposals seems particularly tenable, however, given the variable and unpredictable nature of emphasis spreading.)

13526: 10357: 3404:), is used in contexts such as writing, broadcasting, interviewing, and speechmaking. The other, Classical Arabic, is the language of the 12276: 4396:

A frozen dual persists as the regular plural marking of a small number of words that normally come in pairs (e.g., eyes, hands, parents).

10187:

O. F. Zaidan and C. Callison-Burch, "Arabic dialect identification," Computational Linguistics, vol. 40, pp. 171–202, March 2014 2012.

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Loss of a separately distinguished feminine plural in verbs, pronouns and demonstratives. This is usually lost in adjectives as well.

12839: 10408:

Badawi, S.A. (1973). Mustawayāt al-'Arabīyah al-mu'āṣirah fī Miṣr: Baḥth fī 'alāqat al-lughah bi-al-ḥaḍārah, Cairo: Dār al-Ma'ārif.

9822:"HIGH VARIETY VS LOW VARIETY CULTURE IN THE ARABIC LANGUAGE: THE TENSIONS BETWEEN FUSHÂ AND 'ÂMIYYA IN THE CONTEMPORARY ARAB WORLD" 5359:, with the result that these two phonemes are always distinguishable regardless of the nearby presence of other emphatic phonemes. 4348:

In CA, there was no number agreement between subject and verb when the subject was third-person and the subject followed the verb.

12790: 12765: 10771: 4665:

In some Bedouin dialects it still marks indefiniteness on any noun, although this is optional and often used only in oral poetry.

10554:

Heath, Jeffrey "Ablaut and Ambiguity: Phonology of a Moroccan Arabic Dialect" (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987)

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in learned words that are borrowed from Standard Arabic into the respective dialect or when Arabs speak Modern Standard Arabic.

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Solid area fill: variety natively spoken by at least 25% of the population of that area or variety indigenous to that area only

10020: 9166:, which is deleted when unstressed. Tunisian maintains this distinction, but deletes these vowels in non-final open syllables. 12824: 10778: 10439:

El-Hassan, S. (1997). 'Educated Spoken Arabic in Egypt and the Levant: A critical review of diglossia and related concepts.'

10078: 441:, which means that its native speakers often learn and use two linguistic forms substantially different from each other, the 10044: 4958:, the distinction between active and passive participles has disappeared except in form I and in some Classical borrowings. 4885:

Agreement (verbal, adjectival) with inanimate plurals is plural, rather than feminine singular or feminine plural, as in CA.

3761:, and this becomes a bit like one's ethnicity. Religion as a sociolinguistic variable should be understood in this context. 2660:

Arabs gradually followed thereafter. In some areas, sedentary dialects are divided further into urban and rural variants.

1154: 1086: 12859: 12854: 9050: 9042: 3250:"Peripheral" varieties of Arabic – that is, varieties spoken in countries where Arabic is not a dominant language and a 11239: 9749: 2530: 20: 8580:, or "on the line" (between characters); or in certain cases, a diacritic ʾalif maddah (" ʾalif") is inserted over an 550:, is standardized and universally understood by those literate in Arabic. Western scholars make a distinction between 10586: 10566: 10517: 5315:

is backed to in the vicinity of emphatic consonants. The domain of emphasis spreading is potentially unbounded; in

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techniques, that Levantine dialects (and especially Palestinian) were the closest colloquial varieties, in terms of

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in most of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Tunisia, parts of Yemen, rural Palestinian, Eastern Libyan, and some rural

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Some endings of third-weak verbs have been replaced by those of the strong verbs (or vice versa, in some dialects).

4074: 2404: 9381: – between the second and third consonants in Egyptian Arabic, and between the first and second in 12785: 12775: 12269: 11886: 10783: 10425:

Blanc, D. (1960) 'Style variations in Arabic: A sample of interdialectical conversation.' in C.A. Ferguson (ed.)

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dialects rendered newspapers, letters, accounts, stories, and translations of some parts of their liturgy in the

2786:

developed in the army staging camps in Iraq, whence the remaining parts of the modern Arab world were conquered.

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is the study of how language usage is affected by societal factors, e.g., cultural norms and contexts (see also

13722: 13692: 13677: 13114: 11413: 10679: 9892: 9469: 9275: 9027: 8987: 8846: 8802: 3319:, and it uses only a Latin-based alphabet. It is the only Semitic language among the official languages of the 1226: 536:

whilst the formal language is subsequently learned in school. While vernacular varieties differ substantially,

10596: 9781:"The Limitations of Reading to Young Children in Literary Arabic: The Unspoken Struggle with Arabic Diglossia" 3728:). The following sections examine some of the ways that modern Arab societies influence how Arabic is spoken. 3623:. Vernacular Arabic was first recognized as a written language distinct from Classical Arabic in 17th century 13778: 12770: 12682: 11861: 10638: 9623:, the rule is similar, but stress falls on the second-to-last syllable in words of the form ...VCCVCV, as in 9311: 7146: 7016: 6880: 6835: 6789: 6374: 6364: 6345: 6337: 6262: 5652: 5643: 5634: 5625: 5599: 5590: 5581: 5572: 5516: 4560:

The forms given here were the original forms, and have often suffered various changes in the modern dialects.

4024: 4016: 3334:

records a text in an Arabic-based pidgin, probably one that was spoken in the region corresponding to modern

674: 8858:

The nature of "emphasis" differs somewhat from variety to variety. It is usually described as a concomitant

13637: 12849: 12834: 11178: 10729: 9590: 9546: 9509: 9319: 9283: 9252: 8920:

To a large extent, Western Arabic dialects reflect this, while the situation is rather more complicated in

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These dialects tend to use form V and VI active participles as the passive participles of forms II and III.

4155: 2797:

A number of cities in the Arabic world speak a "Bedouin" variety, which acquires prestige in that context.

2688:) as well as in the Bedouin dialects across all Arabic-speaking countries, but is voiceless mainly in post- 9635: 9624: 9564: 9560: 9524: 9520: 9420: 9416: 9369: 9365: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9297: 9238: 9234: 9230: 9215: 9211: 9200: 9189: 9177: 9155: 9151: 9141: 9137: 9125: 9121: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9083: 9064: 9005: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8933: 8929: 8925: 8906: 8902: 8882:

are dental and lightly aspirated when non-emphatic, but alveolar and completely unaspirated when emphatic.

8824: 8820: 8816: 8757: 8699: 8695: 8691: 8679: 8604: 8600: 8596: 8537: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6513: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6454: 6331: 6327: 6098: 5998: 5993: 5892: 5791: 5671: 5565: 5560: 5466: 5461: 5324: 5312: 5300: 5293: 5286: 5279: 5269: 5262: 5215: 5211: 5183: 5179: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5030: 5023: 5019: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4934: 4920: 4900: 4896: 4849: 4845: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4819: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4760: 4756: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4707: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4672: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4640: 4611:

All dialects except some Bedouin dialects of the Arabian peninsula share the following innovations from CA

4594: 4588: 4576: 4572: 4554: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4496: 4492: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4275: 4250: 4234: 4230: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2705: 2693: 2673: 2608: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 422:, consider these approximately 30 different varieties to be separate languages, while others, such as the 13512: 13448: 12844: 12558: 9291: 9019: 8995: 8838: 8830: 8810: 8794: 8778: 5253: 4339: 4335: 3706: 2534: 2417:

throughout history, including a number of new ones emerging today. These may be broadly divided into the

547: 10403: 1025:

Dotted area fill: speakers of this variety are mixed with speakers of other Arabic varieties in the area

13712: 12703: 12696: 12262: 11822: 11301: 10508:

Arabic Varieties: Far and Wide. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference of AIDA Bucharest 2015

9501: 8869: 8751: 6415: 5772: 5763: 5755: 5746: 5729: 5720: 5711: 5695: 5678: 5607: 5350: 5330: 5237: 4125: 2370: 12417: 2566:"there is" (as in, "there is a place where..."), Arabic speakers have access to many different words: 13768: 13632: 13362: 12653: 12631: 12615: 12364: 12344: 12309: 11575: 11565: 11542: 9588: 9580: 9552: 9544: 9538: 9536: 9528: 9507: 9499: 9480: 9478: 9467: 9459: 9453: 9451: 9443: 9435: 9427: 9374: 9317: 9309: 9303: 9301: 9289: 9281: 9273: 9265: 9264:, the effects are even more extreme (and complex), where both high-mid and low-mid allophones exist ( 9250: 9242: 9181: 9159: 9129: 9077: 9075: 9048: 9040: 9025: 9017: 9009: 8993: 8985: 8954: 8948: 8946: 8912: 8910: 8894: 8886: 8875: 8867: 8844: 8836: 8828: 8808: 8800: 8792: 8776: 8761: 8749: 8738: 8722: 8714: 8703: 8683: 8667: 8659: 8646: 8638: 8626: 8618: 8610: 8585: 8550: 8496: 8461: 8426: 8424: 8416: 8372: 8335: 8293: 8251: 8243: 8202: 8194: 8153: 8111: 8070: 8062: 8021: 8013: 7972: 7931: 7923: 7848: 7807: 7799: 7758: 7721: 7680: 7639: 7598: 7557: 7515: 7507: 7466: 7429: 7364: 7356: 7319: 7278: 7237: 7198: 7196: 7188: 7144: 7136: 7092: 7051: 7014: 7006: 7001: 6968: 6960: 6919: 6910: 6878: 6870: 6833: 6825: 6787: 6779: 6771: 6730: 6722: 6684: 6598: 6413: 6390: 6372: 6362: 6351: 6343: 6335: 6312: 6302: 6300: 6284: 6276: 6260: 6248: 6232: 6209: 6187: 6129: 6118: 6110: 6102: 6025: 6012: 6003: 5974: 5965: 5956: 5948: 5939: 5930: 5922: 5914: 5905: 5897: 5873: 5864: 5857: 5855: 5847: 5838: 5829: 5823: 5821: 5813: 5806: 5804: 5796: 5770: 5761: 5753: 5744: 5735: 5727: 5718: 5709: 5701: 5693: 5684: 5676: 5650: 5641: 5632: 5623: 5614: 5605: 5597: 5588: 5579: 5570: 5541: 5532: 5523: 5514: 5506: 5497: 5488: 5479: 5471: 5348: 5336: 5328: 5251: 5243: 5235: 4668:

In other dialects it marks indefiniteness on post-modified nouns (by adjectives or relative clauses).

4153: 4123: 4072: 4022: 4014: 3862: 3659:, adding diacritics and other conventions for letters that exist in Judeo-Arabic but not Hebrew. The 1851: 1821: 1748: 1726: 1240: 1182: 581: 175: 9717: 9602:

The placement of the stress accent is extremely variable between varieties; nowhere is it phonemic.

8827:) "hers". The residue of this rule applies also in the Maltese language, where neither etymological 13773: 13125: 12748: 12243: 12151: 11633: 10631: 9429: 8956: 8648: 8620: 8463: 8337: 8295: 8245: 8196: 8064: 8023: 7925: 7809: 7468: 7094: 7053: 6962: 6921: 6872: 6773: 6724: 6600: 6550: 6369:

in most of the Arabian peninsula, Algeria, Iraq, Upper Egypt, Sudan, parts of the Levant and Yemen.

6189: 6112: 6027: 5543: 5245: 4538:

remained. Mesopotamian dialects in southeastern Turkey are an exception for they retain the ending

3541: 2817:

True pronunciations differ; transliterations used approach an approximate demonstration. Also, the

2472: 2237: 57: 10166: 13167: 13104: 12928: 12314: 11398: 11341: 10744: 9675: 8877: 8705: 8661: 8418: 8411: 8155: 7600: 7517: 6286: 6250: 6195: 5875: 5866: 5849: 5840: 5831: 5815: 5798: 4618:

Loss of the inflected passive (i.e., marked through internal vowel change) in finite verb forms.

3282: 1496: 561:

The largest differences between the classical/standard and the colloquial Arabic are the loss of

415: 11700: 10302: 5234:

When it comes to phonetics the Arabic dialects differ in the pronunciation of the short vowels (

5143:

There are also a certain number of quinquiliteral or longer verbs, of various sorts, e.g. weak:

4787:

as an indicative prefix in some Persian Gulf states; and, in South Arabian Arabic (viz. Yemen),

2156: 1533:, extinct in Iberia, surviving among Andalusi communities in Morocco and Algeria) – (ISO 639–3: 13652: 12490: 12327: 12304: 12299: 11506: 11466: 11391: 11386: 11150: 10686: 9607: 9554: 8546: 6865: 6567: 6278: 4907: 4822:

in the third-person masculine enclitic pronoun, when attached to a word ending in a consonant.

3533: 3516: 3370: 2882: 2822: 2737: 2663:

The most obvious phonetic difference between the two groups is the pronunciation of the letter

2497: 1150: 1082: 627: 555: 442: 411: 253: 170: 74: 12885: 9882: 8564:

was written, it is reflected in the orthography of written Arabic, where a diacritic known as

445:(often called MSA in English) as the official language and a local colloquial variety (called 19:

This article is about the extant varieties of Arabic. For the historical language family, see

13535: 13492: 13064: 12737: 12403: 12389: 12232: 12065: 12017: 11827: 11809: 11802: 11792: 11787: 11779: 11599: 11334: 11306: 11296: 11100: 10724: 10217:

Questions from Prospective Students on the varieties of Arabic Language – online Arab Academy

9136:

except when directly followed by a single consonant; this sound may appear allophonically as

8896: 8888: 8740: 8716: 6448: 6234: 5273: 5219: 3684: 2649: 2380: 2360: 2355: 2348: 1790: 1085:

is high within each of those two groups, while the intelligibility between the two groups is

525: 403: 160: 13662: 10591: 10460:

Holes, C. (1995). 'Community, dialect and urbanization in the Arabic-speaking Middle-East.'

7790: 2171: 584:

and (for most varieties) the loss of the distinctive conjugation and agreement for feminine

13597: 13572: 13419: 13130: 12468: 11968: 11728: 11648: 11128: 9437: 8253: 8204: 8113: 8072: 8015: 7974: 7933: 7850: 7801: 7760: 7723: 7641: 7431: 7358: 7190: 7138: 7008: 6970: 6827: 6781: 6732: 6686: 6392: 6353: 6314: 6131: 6104: 5616: 5534: 5508: 5499: 5473: 4583:) have merged in the form I perfect tense. They had already merged in CA, except in form I. 4220:

Also spelled Ammiya, Amiyya, Ammiyya, 'Ammiyya, 'Ammiya, Amiyah, Ammiyah, Amiyyah, Ammiyyah

3864: 2287: 2277: 2272: 303: 229: 13697: 10769: 10601: 9819: 4363: 3532:, 'contemporary classical' or 'modernized classical': This is what Western linguists call 8: 13687: 13617: 13612: 13433: 13071: 13014: 12942: 12903: 12879: 12724: 12539: 12027: 11837: 11710: 11533: 10998: 10935: 10272: 8724: 6149: 4628:

contains a newly developed inflected passive that looks somewhat like the old CA passive.

3845: 3700: 3421: 3161: 3154: 2779: 2385: 1847: 1710: 1266: 1222: 1097: 667:

Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic (excluding Jewish Judeo-Arabic) per

644: 558:

while speakers of Arabic generally do not consider CA and MSA to be different varieties.

521: 423: 293: 10926: 10432:

Dendane, Z. (1994). 'Sociolinguistic variation in an Arabic speech community: Tlemcen.'

513: 13737: 13682: 13667: 13587: 13567: 13557: 12195: 11881: 11797: 11594: 11519: 11258: 11244: 10453:

Holes, C. (1983). 'Bahrain dialects: Sectarian differences exemplified through texts.'

9971: 9843: 9802: 9571:

dialects, which is probably a secondary development). The diphthongs are maintained in

7593: 7551: 7502: 7046: 6576: 6256: 5175:

referring to colors or bodily defects. However, this type is no longer very productive.

4892: 4557:

has been retained, but takes the form of a long vowel rather than a short one as in CA.

3710: 2563: 2338: 1910: 1780: 501: 83: 13257: 13135: 11264: 11061: 11043: 10836: 3647:

was taught as a separate subject under French colonization, and some textbooks exist.

13702: 13657: 13642: 13622: 13562: 13547: 13405: 13199: 13078: 12951: 12712: 12670: 12544: 12337: 12285: 11942: 11615: 11555: 11318: 11210: 11121: 10764: 10562: 10298: 10074: 9888: 9847: 9806: 9745: 9596: 9477:

The two allophones are in the process of splitting phonemically in some dialects, as

9376: 9183: 9161: 9131: 8859: 8456: 7183: 7131: 6141: 6137: 6043:

The main dialectal variations in Arabic consonants revolve around the six consonants

6014: 6005: 5976: 5967: 5958: 5950: 5941: 5932: 5924: 5916: 5907: 5899: 4568:

Various simplifications have occurred in the range of variation in verbal paradigms.

3628: 3566: 3308: 3180: 2538: 2421:

pidgins and creoles, which share a common ancestry, and incipient immigrant pidgins.

2126: 1991: 1987: 1867: 1826: 1734: 1718: 1714: 1294: 1256: 1248: 1244: 1230: 1120: 1093: 1046: 1038: 652: 597: 566: 529: 489: 419: 407: 399: 298: 209: 165: 11695: 11225: 11052: 9000:

cause no emphasis spreading and may have little or no effect on adjacent vowels. In

8102: 4278:

is a native phoneme/allophone only in Iraqi, Gulf and some rural Levantine dialects.

2783: 2518: 2146: 1301: 13747: 13742: 13732: 13727: 13717: 13707: 13592: 13582: 13485: 13440: 13426: 13236: 13187: 13150: 13055: 13041: 13007: 12977: 12958: 12923: 12689: 12663: 12637: 12597: 12590: 12530: 12513: 12485: 12461: 12353: 11963: 11761: 11742: 11705: 11584: 11514: 11457: 11369: 11215: 11200: 11145: 11107: 10811: 10754: 10714: 9944: 9934: 9833: 9792: 9572: 9401: 9382: 9361: 9173: 9117: 8367: 8325: 7716: 7424: 7351: 6199: 5320: 4802: 4768: 4625: 4409: 4362:

Loss of original mood distinctions other than the indicative and imperative (i.e.,

4324: 3835: 3721: 3316: 3312: 3300: 3097: 3078: 3071: 3028: 3009: 2818: 2806: 2744: 2548: 2297: 2166: 1886: 1863: 1855: 1839: 1797: 1730: 1722: 1550: 1506: 1479: 1286: 1262: 1212: 1208: 1200: 1172: 1101: 1041:

groups. Arabic dialectologists formerly distinguished between just two groups: the

648: 570: 562: 551: 517: 505: 497: 493: 430: 283: 12105: 11442: 9498:

did not develop allophones of the vowels /a/ and /aː/, and both are pronounced as

4563:

All of these changes were triggered by the loss of final short vowels (see below).

3428: 1682: 1123:

groups do not correspond to borders of modern states. In the western parts of the

316: 13672: 13647: 13627: 13602: 13577: 13453: 13357: 13331: 13280: 13145: 13085: 12993: 12986: 12970: 12964: 12891: 12642: 12518: 12508: 12146: 12075: 12012: 12006: 11875: 11750: 11690: 11550: 11494: 11479: 11474: 11447: 11437: 11381: 11354: 11329: 11230: 11187: 11169: 10759: 10739: 10674: 10382:

Abdel-Jawad, H. (1986). 'The emergence of a dialect in Jordanian urban centres.'

10214: 9655: 9631: 9620: 9407: 9397: 9357: 9328: 9226:, the allophonic effect of emphatic consonants is more pronounced than elsewhere. 9223: 9207: 9169: 9001: 8978: 8974: 8921: 8769: 8634: 8617:

has reappeared medially in various words due to borrowing from CA. (In addition,

8288: 8238: 8189: 8057: 8008: 7967: 7918: 7753: 7675: 7314: 6505: 6398: 6292: 6240: 6145: 5356: 5316: 5207: 5203: 5194: 5006: 4984: 4969: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4914: 4806: 4798: 4780: 4764: 4461:

Pronominal clitics ending in a short vowel moved the vowel before the consonant.

4445: 4404: 4400: 4377:), while many of the Bedouin dialects adopted the old indicative forms (feminine 3830: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3672: 3664: 3656: 3644: 3636: 3632: 3620: 3570: 3343: 3116: 3052: 2990: 2971: 2952: 2945: 2791: 2526: 2414: 2304: 2104: 1960: 1898: 1874: 1804: 1660: 1653: 1649: 1621: 1557: 1546: 1518: 1374: 1340: 1306: 1282: 1204: 1190: 1186: 1164: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1066: 1042: 640: 636: 632: 601: 589: 509: 478: 342: 308: 288: 273: 268: 152: 12604: 10021:"Arabic Dialects Compared: Maghrebi, Egyptian, Levantine, Hejazi, Gulf, and MSA" 13607: 13413: 13367: 13337: 13314: 13308: 13192: 13140: 13021: 12795: 12624: 12226: 12156: 12090: 11995: 11769: 11658: 11653: 11638: 11623: 11589: 11374: 10749: 10691: 10576: 10522: 10268: 9634:, stress is final in words of the (original) form CaCaC, after which the first 8788: 7880: 7794: 6820: 4878:

The following innovations are characteristic of many or most sedentary dialects

4388:

The sedentary dialects subsequently developed new mood distinctions; see below.

3840: 3688: 3660: 3498: 3320: 3286: 2555: 2514: 2418: 2200: 2042: 1922: 1859: 1770: 1601: 1591: 1290: 1168: 533: 335: 321: 278: 10306: 9962:

Eisele, John C. (1987). "Arabic dialectology: A Review of Recent Literature".

9820:

Yoyo Yoyo; Abdul Mukhlis; Thonthowi Thonthowi; Ferawati Ferawati (June 2020).

8737:. In all of northern Africa, a phonemic distinction has emerged between plain 13762: 13347: 13342: 13252: 12999: 12524: 12188: 12183: 12169: 12115: 12050: 12032: 11918: 11903: 11897: 11866: 11685: 11680: 11665: 11628: 11489: 11484: 11408: 11364: 11220: 11194: 10719: 10706: 10344: 9997: 9495: 8506:

When adjacent to vowels, the following simplifications take place, in order:

7843: 7634: 7273: 7232: 6716: 6679: 6540: 6296: 6244: 5015: 4810: 4438: 3820: 3631:. More recently, many plays and poems, as well as a few other works exist in 3624: 3619:

The spoken dialects of Arabic have occasionally been written, usually in the

3358: 3304: 3251: 3225: 3206: 3135: 2810: 2743:

The other major phonetic difference is that the rural varieties preserve the

2677: 2447: 2430: 2232: 2210: 2086: 2064: 1972: 1948: 1934: 1633: 1457: 1408: 577: 214: 47: 12438: 9939: 9670: 4425: 3737:

individual choice. Rather, it is matter of group affiliation: one is born a

2547:

An important factor in the mixing or changing of Arabic is the concept of a

1089:: Maghrebi speakers are more likely to understand Mashriqi than vice versa. 663: 371: 13273: 12161: 12120: 12060: 12040: 12000: 11913: 11908: 11675: 11670: 11560: 11283: 11269: 10973: 10883: 10856: 9838: 9821: 9445: 9423:

have two strongly divergent allophones, depending on the phonetic context.

8863: 8784: 8640: 8628: 8612: 8587: 8552: 8498: 8374: 8329: 8143: 7682: 7559: 7509: 7366: 7321: 7280: 7239: 6560: 6489: 6384: 6308: 6268: 6225: 6211: 6120: 6086: 6062: 5525: 5490: 5481: 4973: 4813:

lack an indicative prefix. Rural dialects in Tunisia however, may use /ta/.

4713: 4631: 3825: 3652: 3648: 3294: 3290: 2328: 2178: 1998: 1627: 1452: 1447: 1270: 1216: 1070: 410:. There are considerable variations from region to region, with degrees of 219: 67: 11986: 11071: 11062: 11053: 11044: 11035: 11026: 11025: 11017: 11008: 10999: 10990: 10981: 10971: 10963: 10953: 10945: 10936: 10927: 10918: 10909: 10899: 10891: 10881: 10873: 10864: 10854: 10846: 10837: 10828: 10827: 9797: 9780: 9705: 9645: 9068: 8560:

Because this change had already happened in Meccan Arabic at the time the

4433: 2929: 2915: 2901: 2887: 2875:كُنْتُ أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَقْرَأَ كِتَابًا عَن تَارِيخِ المَرأَةِ فِي فَرَنسَا 362: 13504: 12898: 12583: 12055: 11985: 11947: 11891: 11643: 10804: 9862: 9036: 7712: 7179: 7127: 6762: 6272: 6217: 6153: 4399:

In addition, a productive dual marking on nouns exists in most dialects (

4355: 3850: 3361:

is considered different from the Arabic spoken elsewhere in the country.

3339: 3187: 2748: 2733: 2689: 2501: 2434: 2389: 2374: 2364: 2342: 2332: 2291: 2281: 2259: 2226: 2204: 2194: 2160: 2150: 2120: 2080: 2058: 2036: 2020: 2014: 1843: 1812: 1784: 1774: 1764: 1698: 1676: 1595: 1583: 1579: 1573: 1534: 1510: 1500: 1483: 1473: 1436: 1402: 1368: 1334: 1252: 1050: 1005: 994: 983: 972: 961: 950: 939: 928: 917: 906: 895: 884: 873: 862: 851: 840: 829: 818: 807: 796: 785: 774: 763: 752: 741: 730: 719: 708: 697: 686: 593: 10944: 10890: 10863: 10396:

Abu-Melhim, A. R. (1991). 'Code-switching and accommodation in Arabic.'

9975: 6202:

Yemen and parts of Oman, Northern Iraq, parts of the Levant, especially

4323:

All varieties, sedentary and nomadic, differ in the following ways from

3369:

Geographically distant colloquial varieties usually differ enough to be

12445: 12396: 11205: 11114: 10980: 10592:

Israeli Hebrew and Modern Arabic – a Few Differences and Many Parallels

9948: 9710: 8682:, particularly in the second singular feminine enclitic pronoun, where 8674:

in the Persian Gulf, Iraq, some Rural Palestinian dialects and in some

8234: 6421: 6165: 5011: 4752:

The indicative is marked by a prefix, while the subjunctive lacks this.

4622:

inflectional system, especially in more innovative sedentary dialects).

3750: 3725: 3545: 3335: 1124: 669: 532:

and more. The regionally prevalent variety is learned as the speaker's

434: 391: 224: 123: 11070: 11016: 11007: 10962: 10955: 10908: 10901: 10872: 9180:

is converted to labialization of an adjacent velar, or is merged with

6078: 6070: 2652:

is between sedentary and nomadic varieties (often misleadingly called

12410: 12110: 10479: 10404:

https://www.academia.edu/843265/writing_Arabic_in_the_Latin_letters._

9261: 8633:

in many dialects, although the two are marginally distinguishable in

8561: 7547: 6184:, but it is also used partially across those countries in some words. 4889: 3537: 3414: 3350: 2938:

kuntu ʔuriːdu ʔan ʔaqraʔa kitaːban ʕan taːriːχi‿lmarʔati fiː faransaː

2697: 619: 574: 438: 355: 12254: 11034: 10845: 10605: 10476:

Arabic in the city: Issues in dialect contact and language variation

10286: 9765: 9188:. This schwa then deletes everywhere except in certain words ending 7630: 13048: 12452: 12424: 12095: 12085: 10788: 10513:

A Bibliography of Association Internationale de Dialectologie Arabe

9606:

farther back than the third-to-last syllable), and is also used in

7963: 7839: 7589: 7498: 7269: 7087: 6476:, Sudan, most of the Levant, parts of the Arabian peninsula (urban 6440: 6046: 4671:

All Arabic dialects preserve a form of the CA adverbial accusative

4253:

is not part of the phonemic inventory of urban Levantine dialects.

3776: 3680: 3668: 3562: 3331: 13182: 11978: 10623: 10526:

L'arabe parlé à Mardin. Monographie d'un parler arabe périphérique

10253:

Yaghan, M. (2008). "Araby: A Contemporary Style of Arabic Slang".

8592:

is probably one of the most difficult issues in Arabic orthography

5029:

The triliteral type encompasses traditional form I verbs (strong:

4444:

The Bedouin dialects make the least use of the analytic genitive.

1037:

The greatest variations between kinds of Arabic are those between

414:

that are often related to geographical distance and some that are

13231: 12567: 12431: 12130: 10794: 9869:

In terms of usage, Arabic is divided into Arabic fusha and amiya.

9867:(Undergraduate). Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim. 9568: 9147: 8734: 8675: 8284: 8147: 8106: 8053: 6485: 6481: 6428: 6221: 6181: 6177: 6173: 5222: 4739:

All sedentary dialects share the following additional innovations

4644: 4263: 3780: 3764: 3676: 3640: 3275: 3271: 2701: 2657: 2653: 2648:

A basic distinction that cuts across the entire geography of the

2321: 1074: 1045:(eastern) dialects, east of Libya which includes the dialects of 615: 580:, except in a few relic varieties; restriction in the use of the 387: 8909:

and a following consonant, while emphatic occurred mostly near

4699:

before form II, III and IV active, and before all passives, and

4345:

Verbal agreement between subject and object is always complete.

13459: 12373: 12045: 11973: 10669: 10654: 7310: 7228: 7083: 6766: 6675: 6509: 6436: 6425: 6380: 4683:

Verb form II sometimes gives causatives, but is not productive.

4550: 3746: 3738: 3327: 3307:. Its vocabulary has acquired a large number of loanwords from 3285:, a nearly extinct variety that has been heavily influenced by 3263: 3255: 2931:

kuntu ʾurīdu an ʾaqraʾa kitāban ʿan tārīḫi‿l-marʾati fī faransā

2729: 2685: 2522: 2410: 2317: 1194: 1054: 585: 395: 180: 10413:

Functions of code-switching in Egypt: Evidence from monologues

10156:"Arabic Language." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. 9373:

cluster would occur, it is broken up through the insertion of

6054: 6035: 4424:

Development of an analytic genitive construction to rival the

2844:

I wanted to read a book about the history of women in France.

2711: 1015: Sparsely populated area or no indigenous Arabic speakers 484:

This situation is often compared in Western literature to the

12125: 12080: 12070: 10989: 10917: 10799: 9731: 9729: 9727: 8730: 8565: 8185: 7914: 7884: 7671: 7461: 6477: 6473: 6432: 6402: 6203: 6161: 6157: 3754: 3742: 3405: 2725: 2719: 2681: 1234: 1176: 1078: 1062: 1058: 485: 460: 133: 10012: 9434:(but not usually to other sounds derived from this, such as 8645:

can elide this sound, whereas words beginning with original

4706:

Some Bedouin dialects in the Arabian peninsula have uniform

4601:

Doubled verbs now have the same endings as third-weak verbs.

3540:

and debate programs on pan-Arab television networks such as

573:, along with the evolution of a new system; the loss of the 12100: 9576: 6955: 6951: 6914: 6406: 6169: 4546: 3772: 3267: 3259: 2668: 605: 9724: 5986: 5885: 5783: 5663: 5553: 5453: 4256: 4238: 4201: 4192: 4182: 4173: 4164: 4143: 4134: 4103: 4085: 4062: 4052: 4043: 4033: 4004: 4000: 3990: 3971: 3961: 3952: 3943: 3933: 3923: 3913: 3904: 3901: 3892: 3873: 3639:; books of poetry, at least, exist for most varieties. In 2813:

language descended from Maghrebi Arabic is also provided.

2676:

in the urban varieties of the Arabian Peninsula (e.g. the

10467:

Mitchell, T.F. (1986). 'What is educated spoken Arabic?'

10402:

Al-Sawi, M. (5..4). 'Writing Arabic with Roman letters.'

9393:

Original final long vowels are shortened in all dialects.

4749:

Development of a new indicative-subjunctive distinction.

3981: 3882: 3758: 3281:

Probably the most divergent non-creole Arabic variety is

2800: 10518:

AIDA – Association Internationale de Dialectologie Arabe

5018:, each with a mediopassive variant marked by a prefixal 10434:

Cahiers de Dialectologie et de Linguistique Contrastive

9575:

and some urban Tunisian dialects, particularly that of

9296:), in addition to front-rounded allophones of original 8936:

in the expected fashion, inflectional suffixes do not).

3023:

kənt ndōr nəgra ktāb ʕan tārīḵ ləmra/ləʔləyāt və vrāns

10462:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

9927:

Journal of Nationalism, Memory & Language Politics

8698:). In a very few Moroccan varieties, it affricates to 3569:, wherein scores of words were borrowed directly from 3066:

kont ʕāyez ʔaʔra ketāb ʕan tarīḵ es-settāt fe faransa

2985:

kŭnt ḥayəb nəqṛa ktāb ʕla t-tārīḵ təʕ enssa fi fṛānsa

2576:

Egypt, the Levant, and most of the Arabian Peninsula:

10073:. British School of Archaeology in Iraq. p. 11. 8745:

and emphatic , thanks to the merging of short vowels.

8381: 6172:

and to lesser extent in some parts (mostly rural) of

3797:

Different regional representations for some phonemes

3220:

kunt ʔabḡa ʔaɡra kitāb ʕan tārīḵ al-ḥarīm fi faransa

10045:"Mesopotamian Languages — Department of Archaeology" 9884:

A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: (Arab.-Engl.)

9595:

also occur in some other Tunisian dialects, such as

9390:

CA long vowels are shortened in some circumstances.

4995:, and the first person plural, originally marked by 3432:

Arabic diglossia diagram according to El-Said Badawi

3380: 3042:

ridt naqra ktieb dwar il-ġrajja tan-nisa fi Franza.

2936: 2922: 2908: 2894: 2794:) are less conservative than the eastern varieties. 471: 453: 376:

Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic

324: 311: 10559:

Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties

10469:International Journal of the Sociology of Language 8772:; this is still distinguishable from the sequence . 8584:. (As a result, proper spelling of words involving 6512:(Urfa, Siirt and Mardin), they respectively become 5319:, the entire word is usually affected, although in 4791:is used in the north around the San'aa region, and 3239:kont aʃti ʔagra ketāb ʕan tarīḵ l-mare beh farānsa 3201:kint ʔabī ʔagra kitāb ʕan tārīḵ il-ḥarīm b-faransa 1022:

Hatched area fill: minority scattered over the area

10384:International Journal of the Sociology of Language 10285:(ELRA), Miyazaki, Japan, el-haj-etal-2018-arabic, 9415:In most dialects, particularly sedentary ones, CA 6420:in the Persian Gulf and southern Iraq and coastal 6311:, though this pronunciation is fading in favor of 3130:kēn badde ʔeʔra ktēb ʕan tērīḵ l-mara b-f(a)ransa 1069:(western) dialects which includes the dialects of 9987: 9985: 6566:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 5210:, puts the demonstrative pronoun after the noun ( 4393:Loss of dual marking everywhere except on nouns. 3705:Three scientific papers concluded, using various 3175:redet ʔaqre ketāb ʕan tārīḵ l-imrayyāt eb-franse 3111:kan beddi ʔaqraʔ ktāb ʕan tārīḵ l-mara b-faransa 614:). Further substantial differences exist between 73:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 13760: 10487:Arabic sociolinguistics: Issues and perspectives 10422:, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 9913: 9911: 9681:International Association of Arabic Dialectology 5225:rather than fronting them, as in other dialects. 5193:The following innovations are characteristic of 4968:The following innovations are characteristic of 4928:"You (plural) aren't bringing her (them) to us." 4650:When this marker still appears, it is variously 3092:kān baddi ʔagra ktāb ʕan tārīḵ l-mara b-faransa 2966:kənt nḥəbb năqṛa ktēb ʕla tērīḵ enssa fi fṛānsa 477:, meaning "common or everyday language" in the 9353:respectively in some other particular dialects. 9113:Original final short vowels are mostly deleted. 6334:) varies widely from a dialect to another with 4456:In CA, it took gender, number and case endings. 3004:kunt bāḡi naqra ktāb ʕla tārīḵ enssa fe-fransa 569:word order; the loss of the previous system of 10587:Columbia Arabic Dialect Modeling (CADIM) Group 10345:Feature 81A: Order of Subject, Object and Verb 10215:http://www.arabacademy.com/faq/arabic_language 9982: 9742:Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World 9458:occurs; elsewhere, a strongly fronted variant 8862:, but in most sedentary varieties is actually 6508:dialects. In Arabic-speaking towns of Eastern 6220:, as well as some North African towns such as 5258:) and a number of selected consonants, mainly 4675:suffix, which was originally a tanwiin marker. 1713:are influenced by the Mesopotamian languages ( 742:Libyan Arabic – Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic 426:, consider them all to be dialects of Arabic. 16:Family of dialects/variants of Arabic language 13520: 12270: 10639: 9993:"Arabic, a great language, has a low profile" 9908: 6101:varies widely from a dialect to another with 4491:Similarly, the feminine plural verbal marker 4453:The relative pronoun is no longer inflected. 4229:In Egypt, when there is a need to transcribe 3694: 3245: 3149:kān biddi ʔra ktāb ʕan tārīḵ l-mara b-fransa 2508: 10429:, Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press. 10269:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18111-0_47 9920:"The Arabic Language: A Latin of Modernity?" 9778: 9658:, phonetic stress is often not recognizable. 9639: 9059: 5080:The quadriliteral type encompasses strong : 4848:is used, but in many sedentary dialects the 3716: 3606: 3601: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3576: 3556: 3551: 3527: 3522: 3510: 3505: 3391: 3386: 2873: 2866: 2859: 2852: 2825:differs significantly from region to region. 2482: 2476: 2457: 2451: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2220: 2214: 2188: 2182: 2136: 2130: 2114: 2108: 2096: 2090: 2074: 2068: 2052: 2046: 2030: 2024: 2008: 2002: 1964: 1952: 1938: 1926: 1914: 1902: 1890: 1878: 1758: 1752: 1692: 1686: 1670: 1664: 1611: 1605: 1567: 1561: 1528: 1522: 1467: 1461: 1430: 1424: 1418: 1412: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1362: 1356: 1350: 1344: 1328: 1322: 1316: 1310: 1144: 1139: 1133: 1128: 609: 541: 464: 446: 111: 10583:(New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) 10307:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2018.10.456 9766:"Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: ara" 6295:and consonantally in the Yemeni dialect of 5323:and some other varieties, it is blocked by 4592:verbs have disappeared, often merging with 1104:, Egypto-Sudanic or Nile Valley (including 394:languages) are the linguistic systems that 13534: 13527: 13513: 12277: 12263: 10646: 10632: 9008:adjacent to either sound is a fully front 8791:with glottal closure: . In some varieties 8733:, for instance, and the Jewish variety in 4302:. In general; most speakers can pronounce 3565:from MSA (this is similar to the literary 2643: 370: 10018: 9938: 9917: 9887:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 319. 9837: 9796: 9740:. In Brown, Keith; Ogilve, Sarah (eds.). 9426:Adjacent to an emphatic consonant and to 9327:On the other hand, emphasis spreading in 6194:in most of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, 5311:Emphasis spreading is a phenomenon where 4795:is used in the southwest region of Ta'iz. 4244: 3364: 2868:لَمْ أَجِد سِوَى هٰذَا الكِتَابِ القَدِيم 2409:There have been a number of Arabic-based 10496:, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 10159: 10068: 8961:often cause partial backing of adjacent 4530:(second singular masculine) both became 4317: 4223: 3427: 2924:lam ʔad͡ʒid siwaː haːða‿lkitaːbi‿lqadiːm 2636:respectively), but now sound different. 2624:all evolve from Classical Arabic forms ( 1149:. Nearby varieties of Arabic are mostly 662: 481:), in different aspects of their lives. 9860: 9785:Theory and Practice in Language Studies 9404:, unstressed long vowels are shortened. 9082:'s and in some dialects also velarized 5347:affect the affrication of non-emphatic 4366:, jussive, energetic I, energetic II). 4281: 3679:") is used by Arabic speakers over the 3338:. In some regions, particularly around 2316:Jewish varieties are influenced by the 13761: 10537:, Centro Studi Camito-Semitici, Milan. 10247: 9961: 9735: 9324:), all depending on adjacent phonemes. 9024:is more likely to have an effect than 8815:, for some speakers of Cairene Arabic 8678:dialects when adjacent to an original 8637:, since words beginning with original 3127:ma l(a)ʔēt ʔilla ha-le-ktēb l-ʔ(a)dīm 2801:Examples of major regional differences 2398: 1594:(Baggara, Shuwa Arabic) – (ISO 639–3: 600:. Unlike other dialect groups, in the 13508: 12284: 12258: 10627: 10358:"LANGUAGE VARIATION IN WESTERN AMMAN" 10355: 10071:LANGUAGES OF IRAQ, ANCIENT AND MODERN 5973: 5938: 5306: 4680:Loss of verb form IV, the causative. 3602: 3577: 3552: 3523: 3506: 1705: 1032: 592:in particular, also have significant 398:speakers speak natively. Arabic is a 10547:Fischer W. & Jastrow O., (1980) 10455:Zeitschrift fur arabische Linguistik 10446:Ferguson, C.A. (1972). 'Diglossia.' 9880: 6518: 4783:. It is not infrequent to encounter 3651:throughout the Arab world who spoke 3396:, One of these, known in English as 3063:ma-lʔet-ʃ ʔella l-ketāb el-ʔadīm da 2917:lam ʾaǧid siwā hāḏa‿l-kitābi‿l-qadīm 2861:عِنْدَمَا ذَهَبْتُ إِلَى المَكْتَبَة 2758:ذ, and merge the CA emphatic sounds 2491: 25: 10653: 10427:Contributions to Arabic linguistics 10398:Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics. 10365:Language Variation in Western Amman 9744:. Elsevier Science. p. 53,54. 9640: 9060: 4987:has replaced first person singular 4431:Compare the similar development of 3387: 3217:ma ligīt ḡēr hāda l-kitāb al-gadīm 3198:ma ligēt ʔilla ha-l-kitāb il-qadīm 3172:ma ligēt ḡīr hāḏe l-ketab el-ʕatīg 3089:ma lagēteʃ ʔilla ha-l-ktāb l-gadīm 2874: 2867: 2860: 2854:أَنَا أُحِبُّ القِرَاءَةَ كَثِيرًا 2853: 2477: 2452: 2311: 2242: 2215: 2183: 2131: 2109: 2091: 2069: 2047: 2025: 2003: 1981: 1965: 1953: 1939: 1927: 1915: 1903: 1891: 1879: 1753: 1687: 1665: 1606: 1562: 1523: 1472:, extinct in Sicily) – (ISO 639–3: 1462: 1419: 1413: 1385: 1379: 1351: 1345: 1317: 1311: 1140: 1129: 610: 542: 465: 447: 112: 13: 13491:Languages between parentheses are 12231:Languages between parentheses are 10619:Swadesh lists: Varieties of Arabic 10501: 9699: 6556:for transliterated languages, and 6536:of its non-English content, using 6148:Yemen and parts of Oman, Southern 5206:, probably under the influence of 5155:"dodge, fake"; remnant CA form X: 4269: 4262:is also a possible alternative in 2672:, which is pronounced as a voiced 2531:Communication accommodation theory 1834: 63:for transliterated languages, and 43:of its non-English content, using 21:Classification of Arabic languages 14: 13790: 10612: 10602:Varieties of Arabic Swadesh lists 10287:https://aclanthology.org/L18-1573 9144:in certain phonetic environments. 8843:are pronounced as such, but give 6024:Most dialects of Arabic will use 5003:suffix of the other plural forms. 4553:), the second singular masculine 4534:, while second singular feminine 3791: 3381:Formal and vernacular differences 3236:ma legēt-ʃ ḏajje l-ketāb l-gadīm 2896:ʔana: ʔuħibːu‿lqiraːʔata kaθiːran 1644: 1541: 1277: 658: 459:in many Arab countries, meaning " 12239: 12238: 10549:Handbuch der Arabischen Dialekte 9861:Muwafiq, Muhammad Rizqi (2019). 9826:Arabi: Journal of Arabic Studies 9738:"Arabic Languages, Variation in" 9716: 9172:, under the strong influence of 9058:In some dialects, words such as 6523: 4895:on the verb, involving a prefix 3230:ʔana bajn ʔaḥibb el-gerāje gawi 3146:ma laʔēt ʔilla ha-l-ktāb l-ʔdīm 3108:ma lagēt ʔilla hal-ktāb l-gadīm 3083:ʔana/ʔani kṯīr baḥebb il-qirāʔa 3039:sibt biss dan il-ktieb il-qadim 3020:ma jbart mahu ḏə ləktāb l-qadīm 3001:ma-lqīt ḡīr hād le-ktāb le-qdīm 2982:ma-lqīt ḡīr hād lə-ktāb lə-qdīm 2405:Arabic-based pidgins and creoles 30: 10349: 10338: 10329: 10320: 10311: 10291: 10278: 10260: 10238: 10229: 10220: 10208: 10199: 10190: 10181: 10172: 10150: 10141: 10132: 10123: 10114: 10105: 10096: 10087: 10062: 10037: 9955: 9494:Unlike other Arabic varieties, 4805:and at least some varieties of 2963:ma-lqīt kān ha-lə-ktēb lə-qdīm 2910:ʕindamaː ðahabtu ʔila‿lmaktabah 2903:ʿindamā ḏahabtu ʾila‿l-maktabah 2889:ʾana ʾuḥibbu‿l-qirāʾata kaṯīran 1138:, and in the eastern parts, as 1127:, varieties are referred to as 13495:of the language on their left. 12235:of the language on their left. 10535:Introduzione ai dialetti arabi 10019:Hooshmand, Dana (2019-07-11). 9874: 9854: 9813: 9772: 9758: 9260:In some varieties, such as in 9241:are also affected, and are to 9098:Classical Arabic short vowels 6572:multilingual support templates 4692:in imperfect verbal prefixes. 4579:(traditionally transliterated 4571:Third-weak verbs with radical 4214: 2466: 2266: 764:Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic 492:became new languages, such as 79:multilingual support templates 1: 10572:Versteegh, Dialects of Arabic 10561:Georgetown University Press. 10393:, Weisbaden: Otto Harasowitz. 9687: 5362: 4999:alone, is also marked by the 4844:After a vowel, the bare form 4237:), is approximated to using 604:group, first-person singular 463:" or "colloquial"; or called 10730:Ancient South Arabian script 10697:Influence on other languages 9692: 8568:is inserted either above an 6152:, some parts of the Levant, 5296:, in addition to the dental 5229: 5178:Due to the merging of short 5092:"speak nasally"; hollow-2 : 4728:when the following vowel is 4720:when the following vowel is 3786: 3211:ʔana marra ʔaḥubb al-girāya 3192:ʔāna wāyid ʔaḥibb il-qirāʾa 3166:ʔāni kulliš ʔaḥebb lu-qrāye 2995:ʔāna kanebɣi naqra b-ez-zāf 2841:I only found this old book. 2838:When I went to the library, 7: 11987: 11072: 11063: 11054: 11045: 11036: 11027: 11018: 11009: 11000: 10991: 10982: 10972: 10964: 10954: 10946: 10937: 10928: 10919: 10910: 10900: 10892: 10882: 10874: 10865: 10855: 10847: 10838: 10829: 10770: 10391:Christian Arabic of Baghdad 9664: 9646: 9176:, goes even further. Short 9069: 5120:"inquire"; hollow-2-weak : 4833:in sedentary dialects, but 4545:In the dialect of southern 4480:; third singular masculine 4353:Loss of case distinctions ( 3731: 3707:natural language processing 3607: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3557: 3528: 3511: 3392: 3121:ʔana ktīr bḥebb l-ʔ(i)rēye 3102:ʔana ktīr baḥebb il-qirāʔa 2937: 2930: 2923: 2916: 2909: 2902: 2895: 2888: 2535:Prestige (sociolinguistics) 2483: 2458: 2254: 2248: 2221: 2189: 2137: 2115: 2097: 2075: 2053: 2031: 2009: 1759: 1693: 1671: 1612: 1568: 1529: 1468: 1431: 1425: 1397: 1391: 1363: 1357: 1329: 1323: 1145: 1134: 472: 454: 10: 13795: 10597:Peripheral Arabic Dialects 10551:, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden. 10375: 9918:Kamusella, Tomasz (2017). 9233:is affected as above, but 8984:The pharyngeal consonants 6216:in most of the Levant and 5401:Jordanian (Western Amman) 5104:"eat" (slang); hollow-3 : 4542:for first person singular. 4131: 4117: 3856: 3698: 3695:Linguistic distance to MSA 3246:Other regional differences 3079:Northern Jordanian (Irbid) 3057:ʔana baḥebb el-ʔerāya awi 2976:ʔāna nḥəbb nəqṛa b-ez-zaf 2960:wăqtəlli mʃit l-əl-măktba 2724:) in the urban centers of 2512: 2509:Language mixing and change 2441: 2424: 2402: 2371:Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic 1854:, and to a lesser extent, 1155:asymmetric intelligibility 18: 13543: 13477: 13404: 13323: 13300: 13293: 13245: 13224: 13215: 13208: 13175: 13166: 13159: 13112: 13103: 13033: 12941: 12916: 12872: 12817: 12758: 12747: 12736: 12651: 12614: 12575: 12566: 12557: 12499: 12478: 12381: 12372: 12363: 12325: 12292: 12218: 12211:Islam and Arabic language 12204: 12139: 12026: 11956: 11935: 11860: 11778: 11760: 11721: 11614: 11574: 11541: 11532: 11505: 11465: 11456: 11430: 11317: 11177: 11168: 11159: 11138: 11092: 11083: 10820: 10705: 10662: 10418:Bassiouney, Reem (2009). 10411:Bassiouney, Reem (2006). 10102:Abdel-Jawad, 1986, p. 58. 9559:(but merge with original 9110:undergo various changes. 9092: 8953:and the uvular consonant 7002:South Mesopotamian Arabic 6611: 6608: 6412:other variations include 6231:other variations include 6011: 6002: 5985: 5964: 5947: 5896: 5891: 5884: 5872: 5846: 5837: 5795: 5790: 5782: 5769: 5726: 5717: 5675: 5670: 5662: 5649: 5596: 5587: 5578: 5552: 5540: 5505: 5496: 5487: 5452: 5389: 5386: 5383: 5380: 5377: 5374: 5371: 4933:(NOTE: Versteegh glosses 4921:/ma-bi-t-ɡib-u-ha-lnaː-ʃ/ 4255: 4200: 4191: 4189: 4181: 4172: 4163: 4161: 4142: 4133: 4102: 4100: 4094: 4092: 4084: 4061: 4059: 4051: 4042: 4032: 4030: 3999: 3989: 3980: 3970: 3960: 3951: 3942: 3932: 3922: 3920: 3912: 3900: 3891: 3889: 3881: 3872: 3801: 3717:Sociolinguistic variables 3595:ʿāmmiyyat al-mutanawwarīn 3583:ʿāmmiyyat al-mutanawwarīn 3359:Arabic of the city of Fes 3233:ḥīn sert salā el-maktabe 3179: 3153: 3124:lamma reḥt ʕal-makt(a)be 3070: 3046: 3014:ʔānə nəbqi ləgrāye ḥattə 2944: 2732:. The latter were mostly 2700:in a few words mostly in 2680:in the ancient cities of 1868:Ancient Egyptian language 1852:Western Aramaic languages 1822:South Mesopotamian Arabic 1811:varieties) – (ISO 639–3: 1749:North Mesopotamian Arabic 841:North Mesopotamian Arabic 369: 353: 348: 332: 262: 244: 202: 149: 139: 129: 119: 110: 105: 13488:or historical languages. 12152:Arabic script in Unicode 11887:Jordanian Bengali Pidgin 11247:(North-Eastern Tunisian) 10544:, Carocci Editore, Rome. 10317:Bassiouney, 2009, p.105. 10205:Bassiouney, 2009, p. 11. 10111:Bassiouney, 2009, p. 19. 10093:Bassiouney, 2009, p. 29. 10069:Postgate, J. N. (2007). 9614:followed by a consonant. 9345:in CA completely become 8702:. Elsewhere, it remains 6480:and parts of Yemen). In 5410:Palestinian (Jerusalem) 4338:may be more common than 4233:or (also a reduction of 3517:modernized pronunciation 3140:ʔana ktīr bḥebb l-ʔraye 3033:jien inħobb naqra ħafna 2692:urban centers as either 2600:Modern Standard Arabic: 2473:Arabic-Javanese of Klego 1846:) are influenced by the 588:. Many Arabic dialects, 11414:Western Egyptian Bedawi 10478:, London and New York: 10420:Arabic Sociolinguistics 10389:Abu-Haidar, F. (1991). 10326:Holes, 1984, p.433-457. 10129:Holes 1995: 39, p. 118. 9940:10.1515/jnmlp-2017-0006 9676:Arabic (disambiguation) 8412:Cypriot Maronite Arabic 6431:dialects, and parts of 6358:being the most common: 6125:being the most common: 5434:Upper Egyptian (Sohag) 5431:Lower Egyptian (Cairo) 5214:"this X" instead of CA 5163:"deserve"; diminutive: 4908:polysynthetic languages 4639:Loss of the indefinite 4464:Hence, second singular 4306:, but cannot pronounce 3589:ʿāmmiyyat al-muṯaqqafīn 3558:ʿāmmiyyat al-muṯaqqafīn 3371:mutually unintelligible 3283:Cypriot Maronite Arabic 3195:lamman riḥt il-maktaba 3143:lamma reḥt ʕal-maktabe 3105:lamma ruḥt ʕal-mektebe 3086:lamma ruḥt ʕal-mektebe 3036:meta mort il-librerija 2644:Typological differences 1992:South Arabian Languages 1771:Cypriot Maronite Arabic 1497:Algerian Saharan Arabic 709:Algerian Saharan Arabic 416:mutually unintelligible 406:that originated in the 145:383 million (2024) 10492:Versteegh, K. (2001). 9839:10.24865/ajas.v5i1.195 9608:Modern Standard Arabic 8547:Modern Standard Arabic 6866:Jewish Baghdadi Arabic 6597:Reflexes of Classical 6492:they are consistently 6449:interdental consonants 5274:interdental consonants 5220:interrogative pronouns 3608:ʿāmmiyyat al-ʾummiyyīn 3534:Modern Standard Arabic 3494: 3398:Modern Standard Arabic 3365:Mutual intelligibility 3353:in the United States. 3346:(see the list below). 3226:Sanaani Arabic (Sanaa) 3214:lamma ruħt al-maktaba 3169:min reḥit lil-maktabe 3162:Mesopotamian (Baghdad) 3060:lamma roḥt el-maktaba 3010:Hassaniya (Nouakchott) 2998:melli mʃīt el-maktaba 2883:Modern Standard Arabic 2835:I love reading a lot. 2823:Modern Standard Arabic 2770:rather than sedentary 2498:Modern Standard Arabic 1711:Mesopotamian varieties 1652:are influenced by the 1549:are influenced by the 1285:are influenced by the 1083:mutual intelligibility 1029: 635:, Egyptian (including 556:Modern Standard Arabic 443:Modern Standard Arabic 412:mutual intelligibility 254:Modern Standard Arabic 12683:Christian Palestinian 12404:Ancient North Arabian 12018:Quranic Arabic Corpus 10725:Ancient North Arabian 10606:Swadesh-list appendix 10485:Suleiman, Y. (1994). 10441:Archivum Linguisticum 9798:10.17507/tpls.0902.01 9779:Riham Shendy (2019). 9016:. In other dialects, 8932:) affect a preceding 8756:(but not emphatic CA 8607:, a third-weak verb). 7542:ʾuddaam (or kuddaam) 6435:, as the 8th-century 6307:in some positions in 6291:in some positions in 6267:in some positions in 4526:(first singular) and 4318:Morphology and syntax 3431: 2991:Moroccan (Casablanca) 2979:ki rŭħt l-əl-măktaba 2809:, a highly divergent 2650:Arabic-speaking world 2588:Morocco and Algeria: 2381:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic 2361:Judeo-Moroccan Arabic 2356:Judeo-Egyptian Arabic 2349:Baghdad Jewish Arabic 1791:Baghdad Jewish Arabic 1151:mutually intelligible 666: 13779:Dialects by language 12781:Koy Sanjaq Christian 12469:Pre-classical Arabic 11969:Sun and moon letters 11129:Pre-classical Arabic 10557:Holes, Clive (2004) 10540:Durand, O., (2009), 10533:Durand, O., (1995), 10356:Fadda, Haya (2016). 10147:Holes, 1995, p. 294. 10120:Holes, 1983, p. 448. 9651:"mountain" becomes . 9573:the Maltese language 8945:The velar fricative 8557:is still pronounced. 6534:specify the language 6532:This article should 5132:"shoot"; irregular: 5061:"begin"; irregular: 4910:in their complexity. 4869:"he didn't throw it" 4841:in Bedouin dialects. 4825:The form is usually 4426:constructed genitive 3393:al-lugha(t) al-fuṣḥá 3017:līn gəst əl-məktəbə 2782:, that a simplified 2273:Central Asian Arabic 2157:Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic 1988:peninsular varieties 1856:the Turkish language 1741:North Mesopotamian ( 1227:Modern South Arabian 940:Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic 230:Pre-classical Arabic 41:specify the language 39:This article should 12625:Ashurian and Hatran 11823:Judeo-Tripolitanian 11302:Judeo-Tripolitanian 10604:(from Wiktionary's 10581:The Arabic Language 10542:Dialettologia araba 10494:The Arabic language 10489:, Richmond: Curzon. 10244:Al-Sawi, 2004, p. 7 10138:Blanc, 1960, p. 62. 10025:Discover Discomfort 9881:Wehr, Hans (1979). 9736:Al-Wer, E. (2018). 8783:) is pronounced in 8760:) is affricated to 8690:replaces Classical 6605: 6488:and other parts of 5440:Algerian (Algiers) 5368: 5033:"write"; geminate: 4522:The verbal markers 4381:, masculine plural 4373:, masculine plural 4340:verb–subject–object 4336:subject–verb–object 3798: 3701:Linguistic distance 3422:Linguistic register 3342:, the pidgins have 2399:Creoles and pidgins 2386:Judeo-Yemeni Arabic 1848:Canaanite languages 1840:Levantine varieties 1818:South Mesopotamian 852:Mesopotamian Arabic 424:Library of Congress 384:Varieties of Arabic 13246:Harari–East Gurage 12697:Jewish Palestinian 12196:MacArabic encoding 10049:www.arch.cam.ac.uk 9450:), a back variant 7552:Palestinian Arabic 7527:baʾara (or bakara) 7047:Judeo-Iraqi Arabic 6596: 6243:and some forms of 5443:Algierian ( Oran) 5407:Lebanese (Beirut) 5404:Syrian (Damascus) 5367: 5307:Emphasis spreading 4983:In the imperfect, 3796: 3711:lexical similarity 3663:was advocated for 3497:Egyptian linguist 3495: 3471:: pure colloquial 3315:and more recently 3303:is descended from 2972:Algerian (Algiers) 2957:nḥəbb năqṛa baṛʃa 2620:and North African 2339:Judeo-Iraqi Arabic 1990:are influenced by 1911:Palestinian Arabic 1781:Judeo-Iraqi Arabic 1706:Mesopotamian group 1650:Egyptian varieties 1547:Sudanese varieties 1033:Regional varieties 1030: 598:consonant clusters 565:; a different and 404:Afroasiatic family 13756: 13755: 13502: 13501: 13473: 13472: 13469: 13468: 13400: 13399: 13396: 13395: 13392: 13391: 13289: 13288: 13099: 13098: 13095: 13094: 12937: 12936: 12912: 12911: 12868: 12867: 12840:Koy Sanjaq Jewish 12632:Jewish Babylonian 12553: 12552: 12286:Semitic languages 12252: 12251: 12227:extinct languages 12166:MS-DOS codepages 11931: 11930: 11927: 11926: 11610: 11609: 11528: 11527: 11426: 11425: 11122:Old Hijazi Arabic 10335:Abu-Haidar, 1991. 10080:978-0-903472-21-0 9714:(27th ed., 2024) 9638:is elided. Hence 8860:pharyngealization 8851:in this context: 8530:iʔV uʔV → ijV uwV 8492: 8491: 8457:Andalusian Arabic 8385: 7964:El Hamma de Gabes 7184:Arabian Peninsula 7132:Arabian Peninsula 6860:guddaam, jiddaam 6594: 6593: 6574:may also be used. 6472:in some words in 6459:⟨ذ⟩ 6452:⟨ث⟩ 6330:(Modern Standard 6325:⟨ج⟩ 6323:Classical Arabic 6138:Arabian Peninsula 6096:⟨ق⟩ 6094:Classical Arabic 6022: 6021: 5446:Moroccan (Urban) 5437:Tunisian (Tunis) 5422:Kuwaiti (Kuwait) 5298:⟨ض⟩ 5291:⟨ظ⟩ 5284:⟨ذ⟩ 5277:⟨ث⟩ 5267:⟨ج⟩ 5260:⟨ق⟩ 5167:"act bourgeois", 5112:"redden"; weak : 5037:"smell"; hollow: 4888:Development of a 4210: 4209: 3741:(and even either 3629:Yusuf al-Maghribi 3567:Romance languages 3289:, and written in 3243: 3242: 3136:Syrian (Damascus) 3117:Lebanese (Beirut) 3098:Jordanian (Amman) 2738:Islamic Conquests 2570:Iraq and Kuwait: 2539:Dialect levelling 2492:Diglossic variety 2127:Indonesian Arabic 1827:Khuzestani Arabic 1735:Iranian languages 1519:Andalusian Arabic 1295:Romance languages 1283:Western varieties 1231:Old South Arabian 1047:Arabian Peninsula 1039:regional language 653:Peninsular Arabic 608:begin with a n- ( 490:Romance languages 420:SIL International 408:Arabian Peninsula 381: 380: 210:Proto-Afroasiatic 186:Colloquial Arabic 106:Colloquial Arabic 101: 100: 81:may also be used. 13786: 13769:Arabic languages 13529: 13522: 13515: 13506: 13505: 13298: 13297: 13222: 13221: 13213: 13212: 13173: 13172: 13164: 13163: 13110: 13109: 12978:northern dialect 12756: 12755: 12745: 12744: 12598:Biblical Aramaic 12591:Imperial Aramaic 12573: 12572: 12564: 12563: 12462:Nabataean Arabic 12379: 12378: 12370: 12369: 12345:Canaano-Akkadian 12279: 12272: 12265: 12256: 12255: 12242: 12241: 11990: 11539: 11538: 11463: 11462: 11399:Western Algerian 11346:Eastern Algerian 11342:Algerian Saharan 11272:(Lesser Kabylia) 11175: 11174: 11166: 11165: 11108:Nabataean Arabic 11090: 11089: 11075: 11066: 11057: 11048: 11039: 11030: 11021: 11012: 11003: 10994: 10985: 10977: 10967: 10959: 10949: 10940: 10931: 10922: 10913: 10905: 10895: 10887: 10877: 10868: 10860: 10850: 10841: 10832: 10812:Maltese alphabet 10775: 10755:Algerian Braille 10745:Eastern numerals 10715:Nabataean script 10648: 10641: 10634: 10625: 10624: 10415:, Leiden: Brill. 10369: 10368: 10362: 10353: 10347: 10342: 10336: 10333: 10327: 10324: 10318: 10315: 10309: 10295: 10289: 10282: 10276: 10264: 10258: 10251: 10245: 10242: 10236: 10233: 10227: 10224: 10218: 10212: 10206: 10203: 10197: 10194: 10188: 10185: 10179: 10176: 10170: 10163: 10157: 10154: 10148: 10145: 10139: 10136: 10130: 10127: 10121: 10118: 10112: 10109: 10103: 10100: 10094: 10091: 10085: 10084: 10066: 10060: 10059: 10057: 10056: 10041: 10035: 10034: 10032: 10031: 10016: 10010: 10009: 10007: 10006: 9989: 9980: 9979: 9970:(1/2): 199–269. 9959: 9953: 9952: 9942: 9924: 9915: 9906: 9905: 9903: 9901: 9878: 9872: 9871: 9858: 9852: 9851: 9841: 9817: 9811: 9810: 9800: 9776: 9770: 9769: 9762: 9756: 9755: 9733: 9722: 9721: 9720: 9703: 9671:Arabic diglossia 9649: 9643: 9642: 9637: 9626: 9594: 9586: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9550: 9542: 9534: 9526: 9522: 9513: 9505: 9484: 9473: 9465: 9457: 9449: 9441: 9433: 9422: 9418: 9402:Levantine Arabic 9383:Levantine Arabic 9380: 9371: 9367: 9362:Levantine Arabic 9352: 9348: 9344: 9340: 9323: 9315: 9307: 9299: 9295: 9287: 9279: 9271: 9256: 9248: 9240: 9236: 9232: 9217: 9213: 9202: 9191: 9187: 9179: 9165: 9157: 9153: 9143: 9139: 9135: 9128:into a phonemic 9127: 9123: 9118:Levantine Arabic 9109: 9105: 9101: 9085: 9081: 9072: 9066: 9063: 9062: 9054: 9046: 9031: 9023: 9015: 9007: 8999: 8991: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8952: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8916: 8908: 8904: 8901:occurred before 8900: 8892: 8881: 8873: 8850: 8842: 8834: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8806: 8798: 8782: 8767: 8759: 8755: 8744: 8729:in a few areas: 8728: 8720: 8709: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8681: 8673: 8665: 8652: 8644: 8632: 8624: 8616: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8591: 8556: 8539: 8502: 8467: 8430: 8422: 8379: 8378: 8341: 8326:Jewish Moroccans 8299: 8257: 8249: 8208: 8200: 8159: 8117: 8076: 8068: 8027: 8019: 7978: 7937: 7929: 7854: 7813: 7805: 7764: 7727: 7686: 7645: 7604: 7563: 7539:ʾahwe (or kahwe) 7536:ʾamar (or kamar) 7521: 7513: 7472: 7435: 7370: 7362: 7325: 7284: 7243: 7202: 7194: 7150: 7142: 7098: 7057: 7020: 7012: 6974: 6966: 6925: 6884: 6876: 6839: 6831: 6802:wakt (sporadic) 6793: 6785: 6777: 6736: 6728: 6690: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6606: 6604: 6595: 6589: 6586: 6580: 6565: 6559: 6555: 6549: 6545: 6539: 6527: 6526: 6519: 6515: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6460: 6456: 6453: 6419: 6396: 6378: 6368: 6357: 6349: 6341: 6333: 6329: 6326: 6318: 6306: 6290: 6282: 6266: 6254: 6238: 6215: 6193: 6135: 6124: 6116: 6108: 6100: 6097: 6090: 6082: 6074: 6066: 6058: 6050: 6039: 6031: 6018: 6009: 6000: 5995: 5989: 5980: 5971: 5962: 5954: 5945: 5936: 5928: 5920: 5911: 5903: 5894: 5888: 5879: 5870: 5861: 5853: 5844: 5835: 5827: 5819: 5810: 5802: 5793: 5786: 5776: 5767: 5759: 5750: 5741: 5733: 5724: 5715: 5707: 5699: 5690: 5682: 5673: 5666: 5656: 5647: 5638: 5629: 5620: 5611: 5603: 5594: 5585: 5576: 5567: 5562: 5556: 5547: 5538: 5529: 5520: 5512: 5503: 5494: 5485: 5477: 5468: 5463: 5456: 5398:Modern Standard 5369: 5366: 5354: 5342: 5334: 5326: 5321:Levantine Arabic 5314: 5302: 5299: 5295: 5292: 5288: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5241: 5217: 5213: 5185: 5181: 5171:"deal in drugs". 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5151:"scheme, plan", 5150: 5146: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5021: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4976:, west of Egypt) 4936: 4925:---bring--to.us- 4922: 4913:An example from 4902: 4898: 4851: 4847: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4821: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4769:Levantine Arabic 4762: 4758: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4709: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4674: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4642: 4626:Hassaniya Arabic 4596: 4590: 4578: 4574: 4556: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4410:Levantine Arabic 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4325:Classical Arabic 4311: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4277: 4273: 4267: 4259: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4236: 4232: 4227: 4221: 4218: 4204: 4195: 4185: 4176: 4167: 4159: 4146: 4137: 4129: 4113:Foreign Phonemes 4106: 4096: 4088: 4078: 4065: 4055: 4046: 4036: 4028: 4020: 4007: 3993: 3984: 3974: 3964: 3955: 3946: 3936: 3926: 3916: 3907: 3895: 3885: 3876: 3868: 3802:Native Phonemes 3799: 3795: 3722:Sociolinguistics 3610: 3605: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3580: 3560: 3555: 3531: 3526: 3514: 3509: 3395: 3390: 3389: 3053:Egyptian (Cairo) 2953:Tunisian (Tunis) 2940: 2933: 2926: 2919: 2912: 2905: 2898: 2891: 2877: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2863: 2862: 2856: 2855: 2829: 2828: 2780:Charles Ferguson 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2745:Classical Arabic 2723: 2715: 2707: 2696:(with being an 2695: 2675: 2610: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2549:prestige dialect 2486: 2480: 2479: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2312:Jewish varieties 2298:Khorasani Arabic 2258:) – (ISO 639–3: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2244: 2225:) – (ISO 639–3: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2193:) – (ISO 639–3: 2192: 2186: 2185: 2167:Tihamiyya Arabic 2140: 2134: 2133: 2119:) – (ISO 639–3: 2118: 2112: 2111: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2079:) – (ISO 639–3: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2057:) – (ISO 639–3: 2056: 2050: 2049: 2035:) – (ISO 639–3: 2034: 2028: 2027: 2013:) – (ISO 639–3: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1982:Peninsular group 1968: 1967: 1961:Damascene Arabic 1956: 1955: 1942: 1941: 1930: 1929: 1918: 1917: 1906: 1905: 1894: 1893: 1887:Jordanian Arabic 1882: 1881: 1798:Anatolian Arabic 1763:) – (ISO 639–3: 1762: 1756: 1755: 1731:Turkish language 1697:) – (ISO 639–3: 1696: 1690: 1689: 1675:) – (ISO 639–3: 1674: 1668: 1667: 1615: 1609: 1608: 1572:) – (ISO 639–3: 1571: 1565: 1564: 1551:Nubian languages 1532: 1526: 1525: 1507:Hassaniya Arabic 1471: 1465: 1464: 1435:) – (ISO 639–3: 1434: 1428: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1415: 1401:) – (ISO 639–3: 1400: 1394: 1388: 1387: 1382: 1381: 1367:) – (ISO 639–3: 1366: 1360: 1354: 1353: 1348: 1347: 1333:) – (ISO 639–3: 1332: 1326: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1313: 1287:Berber languages 1148: 1143: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1131: 1014: 1003: 992: 981: 970: 959: 948: 937: 926: 915: 904: 893: 882: 871: 860: 849: 838: 830:Levantine Arabic 827: 816: 805: 794: 783: 772: 761: 750: 739: 728: 717: 706: 695: 684: 613: 612: 571:grammatical mood 563:grammatical case 552:Classical Arabic 545: 544: 475: 468: 467: 457: 450: 449: 431:sociolinguistics 400:Semitic language 374: 365: 358: 338: 326: 313: 155: 115: 114: 103: 102: 96: 93: 87: 72: 66: 62: 56: 52: 46: 34: 33: 26: 13794: 13793: 13789: 13788: 13787: 13785: 13784: 13783: 13774:Arabic language 13759: 13758: 13757: 13752: 13539: 13533: 13503: 13498: 13465: 13388: 13319: 13285: 13241: 13225:Amharic–Argobba 13217: 13204: 13155: 13116: 13091: 13029: 12933: 12908: 12864: 12813: 12809:Urmia Christian 12750: 12739: 12732: 12647: 12610: 12549: 12509:Egyptian Arabic 12495: 12491:Modern Standard 12474: 12359: 12321: 12288: 12283: 12253: 12248: 12214: 12200: 12147:Arabic keyboard 12135: 12030: 12022: 12007:Mater lectionis 12001:Triliteral root 11952: 11923: 11864: 11856: 11774: 11756: 11717: 11606: 11570: 11524: 11501: 11452: 11422: 11313: 11293:Judeo-Maghrebi 11161: 11155: 11151:Modern Standard 11134: 11079: 10816: 10760:Maltese Braille 10740:Arabic numerals 10701: 10658: 10652: 10615: 10504: 10502:Further reading 10499: 10378: 10373: 10372: 10360: 10354: 10350: 10343: 10339: 10334: 10330: 10325: 10321: 10316: 10312: 10296: 10292: 10283: 10279: 10265: 10261: 10252: 10248: 10243: 10239: 10234: 10230: 10225: 10221: 10213: 10209: 10204: 10200: 10195: 10191: 10186: 10182: 10177: 10173: 10164: 10160: 10155: 10151: 10146: 10142: 10137: 10133: 10128: 10124: 10119: 10115: 10110: 10106: 10101: 10097: 10092: 10088: 10081: 10067: 10063: 10054: 10052: 10051:. 9 August 2013 10043: 10042: 10038: 10029: 10027: 10017: 10013: 10004: 10002: 9991: 9990: 9983: 9960: 9956: 9922: 9916: 9909: 9899: 9897: 9895: 9879: 9875: 9859: 9855: 9818: 9814: 9777: 9773: 9764: 9763: 9759: 9752: 9734: 9725: 9715: 9704: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9667: 9656:Moroccan Arabic 9632:Maghrebi Arabic 9621:Egyptian Arabic 9408:Egyptian Arabic 9398:Egyptian Arabic 9358:Egyptian Arabic 9329:Moroccan Arabic 9257:, respectively. 9224:Moroccan Arabic 9208:Moroccan Arabic 9170:Moroccan Arabic 9150:dialects merge 9120:dialects merge 9095: 9055:causes backing. 9004:, for example, 9002:Egyptian Arabic 8979:Moroccan Arabic 8975:Moroccan Arabic 8922:Egyptian Arabic 8799:is devoiced to 8770:Moroccan Arabic 8635:Egyptian Arabic 8599:"read" becomes 8540:is simply lost. 8527:aʔi aʔw → aj aw 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8229:qǝddam, gǝddam 8048:qoddem, geddem 7177: 7125: 6590: 6584: 6581: 6575: 6563: 6557: 6553: 6551:transliteration 6547: 6543: 6537: 6528: 6524: 6458: 6451: 6379:in most of the 6324: 6136:in most of the 6095: 6084: 6076: 6068: 6060: 6052: 6044: 6033: 5788: 5668: 5458: 5413:Hejazi (Urban) 5365: 5357:Moroccan Arabic 5335:(and sometimes 5317:Egyptian Arabic 5309: 5297: 5290: 5283: 5276: 5266: 5259: 5232: 5204:Egyptian Arabic 5195:Egyptian Arabic 5007:Moroccan Arabic 4985:Maghrebi Arabic 4970:Maghrebi Arabic 4956:Moroccan Arabic 4915:Egyptian Arabic 4893:negative marker 4799:Tunisian Arabic 4781:Moroccan Arabic 4765:Egyptian Arabic 4688:Uniform use of 4586:Form I perfect 4446:Moroccan Arabic 4419:demonstratives. 4405:Moroccan Arabic 4320: 4315: 4314: 4286: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4261: 4249: 4245: 4228: 4224: 4219: 4215: 4206: 4197: 4187: 4178: 4169: 4148: 4139: 4115: 4108: 4098: 4090: 4080: 4067: 4057: 4048: 4038: 4009: 3995: 3986: 3976: 3966: 3957: 3948: 3938: 3928: 3918: 3909: 3897: 3887: 3878: 3794: 3789: 3734: 3719: 3703: 3697: 3689:cellular phones 3683:or for sending 3673:Arabic alphabet 3665:Lebanese Arabic 3657:Hebrew alphabet 3645:Maghrebi Arabic 3637:Egyptian Arabic 3633:Lebanese Arabic 3621:Arabic alphabet 3578:عامية المتنورين 3571:Classical Latin 3481: 3480:and colloquial 3472: 3463: 3451: 3442: 3433: 3383: 3367: 3248: 3207:Hejazi (Jeddah) 3047:Egypto-Sudanic 2935: 2934: 2921: 2920: 2907: 2906: 2893: 2892: 2803: 2792:Moroccan Arabic 2717: 2709: 2666: 2646: 2541: 2527:Creole language 2511: 2494: 2469: 2444: 2427: 2407: 2401: 2314: 2305:Shirvani Arabic 2269: 2105:Hadhrami Arabic 1984: 1899:Lebanese Arabic 1875:Cilician Arabic 1837: 1835:Levantine group 1805:Baghdadi Arabic 1727:Eastern Aramaic 1708: 1661:Egyptian Arabic 1654:Coptic language 1647: 1622:Bimbashi Arabic 1558:Sudanese Arabic 1544: 1375:Tunisian Arabic 1341:Algerian Arabic 1307:Moroccan Arabic 1280: 1187:Ottoman Turkish 1035: 1028: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1001: 997: 990: 986: 979: 975: 968: 964: 957: 953: 946: 942: 935: 931: 924: 920: 913: 909: 902: 898: 891: 887: 880: 876: 869: 865: 858: 854: 847: 843: 836: 832: 825: 821: 814: 810: 803: 799: 797:Sudanese Arabic 792: 788: 781: 777: 770: 766: 759: 755: 753:Egyptian Arabic 748: 744: 737: 733: 731:Tunisian Arabic 726: 722: 720:Algerian Arabic 715: 711: 704: 700: 698:Moroccan Arabic 693: 689: 682: 661: 602:Maghrebi Arabic 590:Maghrebi Arabic 377: 361: 354: 343:Arabic alphabet 339: 334: 258: 247: 240: 205: 198: 176:Central Semitic 156: 153:Language family 151: 142: 141:Native speakers 113:اللهجات العربية 97: 91: 88: 82: 70: 64: 60: 58:transliteration 54: 50: 44: 35: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13792: 13782: 13781: 13776: 13771: 13754: 13753: 13751: 13750: 13745: 13740: 13735: 13730: 13725: 13720: 13715: 13713:Serbo-Croatian 13710: 13705: 13700: 13695: 13690: 13685: 13680: 13675: 13670: 13665: 13660: 13655: 13650: 13645: 13640: 13635: 13630: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13570: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13550: 13544: 13541: 13540: 13532: 13531: 13524: 13517: 13509: 13500: 13499: 13497: 13496: 13489: 13478: 13475: 13474: 13471: 13470: 13467: 13466: 13464: 13463: 13456: 13451: 13446: 13445: 13444: 13430: 13423: 13416: 13410: 13408: 13402: 13401: 13398: 13397: 13394: 13393: 13390: 13389: 13387: 13386: 13385: 13384: 13383: 13382: 13379: 13376: 13373: 13370: 13360: 13355: 13354: 13353: 13340: 13335: 13327: 13325: 13321: 13320: 13318: 13317: 13312: 13304: 13302: 13295: 13291: 13290: 13287: 13286: 13284: 13283: 13278: 13277: 13276: 13271: 13270: 13269: 13266: 13263: 13249: 13247: 13243: 13242: 13240: 13239: 13234: 13228: 13226: 13219: 13210: 13206: 13205: 13203: 13202: 13197: 13196: 13195: 13190: 13179: 13177: 13170: 13161: 13157: 13156: 13154: 13153: 13148: 13143: 13138: 13133: 13128: 13122: 13120: 13107: 13101: 13100: 13097: 13096: 13093: 13092: 13090: 13089: 13082: 13075: 13068: 13061: 13060: 13059: 13052: 13037: 13035: 13031: 13030: 13028: 13027: 13026: 13025: 13011: 13004: 13003: 13002: 12997: 12990: 12983: 12982: 12981: 12962: 12955: 12947: 12945: 12939: 12938: 12935: 12934: 12932: 12931: 12926: 12920: 12918: 12914: 12913: 12910: 12909: 12907: 12906: 12901: 12896: 12895: 12894: 12889: 12876: 12874: 12870: 12869: 12866: 12865: 12863: 12862: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12842: 12837: 12832: 12827: 12821: 12819: 12815: 12814: 12812: 12811: 12806: 12805: 12804: 12801: 12793: 12788: 12783: 12778: 12773: 12768: 12762: 12760: 12753: 12742: 12734: 12733: 12731: 12730: 12729: 12728: 12716: 12709: 12708: 12707: 12700: 12693: 12686: 12674: 12667: 12659: 12657: 12649: 12648: 12646: 12645: 12640: 12635: 12628: 12620: 12618: 12612: 12611: 12609: 12608: 12605:Middle Aramaic 12601: 12594: 12587: 12579: 12577: 12570: 12561: 12555: 12554: 12551: 12550: 12548: 12547: 12542: 12537: 12536: 12535: 12534: 12533: 12516: 12511: 12505: 12503: 12501:Dialect groups 12497: 12496: 12494: 12493: 12488: 12482: 12480: 12476: 12475: 12473: 12472: 12465: 12458: 12457: 12456: 12449: 12442: 12435: 12428: 12421: 12414: 12400: 12393: 12385: 12383: 12376: 12367: 12361: 12360: 12358: 12357: 12350: 12349: 12348: 12333: 12331: 12323: 12322: 12320: 12319: 12318: 12317: 12312: 12302: 12296: 12294: 12290: 12289: 12282: 12281: 12274: 12267: 12259: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12246: 12236: 12229: 12219: 12216: 12215: 12213: 12212: 12208: 12206: 12202: 12201: 12199: 12198: 12193: 12192: 12191: 12186: 12181: 12178: 12175: 12172: 12164: 12159: 12157:ISO/IEC 8859-6 12154: 12149: 12143: 12141: 12137: 12136: 12134: 12133: 12128: 12123: 12118: 12113: 12108: 12103: 12098: 12093: 12091:Naskh (script) 12088: 12083: 12078: 12073: 12068: 12063: 12058: 12053: 12048: 12043: 12037: 12035: 12024: 12023: 12021: 12020: 12015: 12010: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11983: 11982: 11981: 11976: 11971: 11960: 11958: 11954: 11953: 11951: 11950: 11945: 11939: 11937: 11933: 11932: 11929: 11928: 11925: 11924: 11922: 11921: 11916: 11911: 11906: 11901: 11894: 11889: 11884: 11879: 11871: 11869: 11858: 11857: 11855: 11854: 11853: 11852: 11849: 11846: 11843: 11835: 11834: 11833: 11828:Judeo-Tunisian 11825: 11820: 11819: 11818: 11815: 11810:Judeo-Moroccan 11807: 11806: 11805: 11795: 11793:Judeo-Egyptian 11790: 11788:Judeo-Algerian 11784: 11782: 11776: 11775: 11773: 11772: 11770:Bedouin Arabic 11766: 11764: 11758: 11757: 11755: 11754: 11747: 11746: 11745: 11740: 11737: 11734: 11725: 11723: 11719: 11718: 11716: 11715: 11714: 11713: 11708: 11703: 11698: 11693: 11683: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11663: 11662: 11661: 11656: 11651: 11641: 11636: 11631: 11626: 11620: 11618: 11612: 11611: 11608: 11607: 11605: 11604: 11603: 11602: 11592: 11587: 11581: 11579: 11572: 11571: 11569: 11568: 11563: 11558: 11553: 11547: 11545: 11536: 11530: 11529: 11526: 11525: 11523: 11522: 11517: 11511: 11509: 11503: 11502: 11500: 11499: 11498: 11497: 11492: 11482: 11477: 11471: 11469: 11460: 11454: 11453: 11451: 11450: 11445: 11440: 11434: 11432: 11428: 11427: 11424: 11423: 11421: 11420: 11419: 11418: 11417: 11416: 11403: 11402: 11401: 11396: 11395: 11394: 11389: 11382:Moroccan koiné 11379: 11378: 11377: 11367: 11359: 11358: 11357: 11355:Tunisian koiné 11351:Eastern Hilal 11349: 11348: 11347: 11344: 11339: 11338: 11337: 11335:Judeo-Algerian 11330:Algerian koiné 11326:Central Hilal 11323: 11321: 11315: 11314: 11312: 11311: 11310: 11309: 11307:Judeo-Tunisian 11304: 11299: 11297:Judeo-Moroccan 11291: 11290: 11289: 11288: 11287: 11281: 11275: 11274: 11273: 11267: 11262: 11250: 11249: 11248: 11237: 11236: 11235: 11234: 11233: 11228: 11223: 11218: 11213: 11208: 11191: 11183: 11181: 11172: 11163: 11157: 11156: 11154: 11153: 11148: 11142: 11140: 11136: 11135: 11133: 11132: 11125: 11118: 11111: 11104: 11096: 11094: 11087: 11081: 11080: 11078: 11077: 11068: 11059: 11050: 11041: 11032: 11023: 11014: 11005: 10996: 10987: 10978: 10969: 10960: 10951: 10942: 10933: 10924: 10915: 10906: 10897: 10888: 10879: 10870: 10861: 10852: 10843: 10834: 10824: 10822: 10818: 10817: 10815: 10814: 10809: 10808: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10792: 10786: 10781: 10776: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10750:Arabic Braille 10747: 10742: 10737: 10736: 10735: 10727: 10722: 10717: 10711: 10709: 10703: 10702: 10700: 10699: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10683: 10682: 10672: 10666: 10664: 10660: 10659: 10651: 10650: 10643: 10636: 10628: 10622: 10621: 10614: 10613:External links 10611: 10610: 10609: 10599: 10594: 10589: 10584: 10577:Kees Versteegh 10574: 10569: 10555: 10552: 10545: 10538: 10531: 10523:George Grigore 10520: 10515: 10510: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10497: 10490: 10483: 10472: 10465: 10458: 10451: 10444: 10437: 10430: 10423: 10416: 10409: 10406: 10400: 10394: 10387: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10371: 10370: 10348: 10337: 10328: 10319: 10310: 10290: 10277: 10259: 10246: 10237: 10228: 10219: 10207: 10198: 10189: 10180: 10171: 10158: 10149: 10140: 10131: 10122: 10113: 10104: 10095: 10086: 10079: 10061: 10036: 10011: 9981: 9954: 9933:(2): 117–145. 9907: 9893: 9873: 9853: 9812: 9771: 9757: 9751:978-0080877747 9750: 9723: 9697: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9685: 9684: 9678: 9673: 9666: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9660: 9659: 9652: 9628: 9617: 9616: 9615: 9600: 9519:CA diphthongs 9517: 9516: 9515: 9492: 9475: 9413: 9412: 9411: 9405: 9394: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9354: 9336: 9335: 9334: 9333: 9332: 9325: 9258: 9227: 9204: 9196: 9167: 9145: 9114: 9094: 9091: 9090: 9089: 9088: 9087: 9056: 9033: 8982: 8939: 8938: 8937: 8883: 8856: 8789:Kuwaiti Arabic 8773: 8746: 8721:is pronounced 8711: 8666:often becomes 8656: 8655: 8654: 8608: 8593: 8558: 8543: 8542: 8541: 8534: 8531: 8528: 8525: 8522: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8483: 8480: 8477: 8474: 8471: 8468: 8459: 8453: 8452: 8449: 8446: 8443: 8440: 8437: 8434: 8431: 8414: 8408: 8407: 8404: 8401: 8398: 8395: 8392: 8389: 8386: 8370: 8364: 8363: 8360: 8357: 8354: 8351: 8348: 8345: 8342: 8333: 8322: 8321: 8318: 8315: 8312: 8309: 8306: 8303: 8300: 8291: 8280: 8279: 8276: 8273: 8270: 8267: 8264: 8261: 8258: 8241: 8231: 8230: 8227: 8224: 8221: 8218: 8215: 8212: 8209: 8192: 8182: 8181: 8178: 8175: 8172: 8169: 8166: 8163: 8160: 8151: 8140: 8139: 8136: 8133: 8130: 8127: 8124: 8121: 8118: 8109: 8099: 8098: 8095: 8092: 8089: 8086: 8083: 8080: 8077: 8060: 8050: 8049: 8046: 8043: 8040: 8037: 8034: 8031: 8028: 8011: 8001: 8000: 7997: 7994: 7991: 7988: 7985: 7982: 7979: 7970: 7960: 7959: 7956: 7953: 7950: 7947: 7944: 7941: 7938: 7921: 7911: 7910: 7907: 7904: 7901: 7898: 7895: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7877: 7876: 7873: 7870: 7867: 7864: 7861: 7858: 7855: 7846: 7836: 7835: 7832: 7829: 7826: 7823: 7820: 7817: 7814: 7797: 7787: 7786: 7783: 7780: 7777: 7774: 7771: 7768: 7765: 7756: 7750: 7749: 7746: 7743: 7740: 7737: 7734: 7731: 7728: 7719: 7709: 7708: 7705: 7702: 7699: 7696: 7693: 7690: 7687: 7678: 7668: 7667: 7664: 7661: 7658: 7655: 7652: 7649: 7646: 7637: 7627: 7626: 7623: 7620: 7617: 7614: 7611: 7608: 7605: 7596: 7586: 7585: 7582: 7579: 7576: 7573: 7570: 7567: 7564: 7555: 7544: 7543: 7540: 7537: 7534: 7533:ʾaal (or kaal) 7531: 7530:waʾt (or wakt) 7528: 7525: 7524:ʾalb (or kalb) 7522: 7505: 7495: 7494: 7491: 7488: 7485: 7482: 7479: 7476: 7473: 7464: 7458: 7457: 7454: 7453:gahwe – gahweh 7451: 7448: 7445: 7442: 7439: 7436: 7427: 7421: 7420: 7413: 7406: 7399: 7392: 7385: 7378: 7371: 7354: 7348: 7347: 7344: 7341: 7338: 7335: 7332: 7329: 7326: 7317: 7307: 7306: 7303: 7300: 7297: 7294: 7291: 7288: 7285: 7276: 7266: 7265: 7262: 7259: 7256: 7253: 7250: 7247: 7244: 7235: 7225: 7224: 7221: 7218: 7215: 7212: 7209: 7206: 7203: 7186: 7173: 7172: 7169: 7166: 7163: 7160: 7157: 7154: 7151: 7134: 7121: 7120: 7117: 7114: 7111: 7108: 7105: 7102: 7099: 7090: 7080: 7079: 7076: 7073: 7070: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7058: 7049: 7043: 7042: 7039: 7036: 7033: 7030: 7027: 7024: 7021: 7004: 6997: 6996: 6993: 6990: 6987: 6984: 6981: 6978: 6975: 6958: 6948: 6947: 6944: 6941: 6938: 6935: 6932: 6929: 6926: 6917: 6907: 6906: 6903: 6900: 6897: 6894: 6891: 6888: 6885: 6868: 6862: 6861: 6858: 6855: 6852: 6849: 6846: 6843: 6840: 6823: 6821:Baghdad Arabic 6816: 6815: 6812: 6809: 6806: 6803: 6800: 6797: 6794: 6769: 6759: 6758: 6755: 6752: 6749: 6746: 6743: 6740: 6737: 6720: 6713: 6712: 6709: 6706: 6703: 6700: 6697: 6694: 6691: 6682: 6672: 6671: 6670:"in front of" 6668: 6665: 6662: 6659: 6656: 6653: 6649: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6610: 6592: 6591: 6570:. Knowledge's 6531: 6529: 6522: 6496:. They remain 6445: 6444: 6410: 6388: 6370: 6321: 6320: 6229: 6207: 6185: 6020: 6019: 6010: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5982: 5981: 5972: 5963: 5946: 5937: 5912: 5895: 5890: 5881: 5880: 5871: 5862: 5845: 5836: 5811: 5794: 5789: 5781: 5778: 5777: 5768: 5751: 5742: 5725: 5716: 5691: 5674: 5669: 5661: 5658: 5657: 5648: 5639: 5630: 5621: 5612: 5595: 5586: 5577: 5568: 5563: 5558: 5549: 5548: 5539: 5530: 5521: 5504: 5495: 5486: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5444: 5441: 5438: 5435: 5432: 5429: 5426: 5423: 5420: 5414: 5411: 5408: 5405: 5402: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5391: 5388: 5387:Nilo-Egyptian 5385: 5382: 5379: 5376: 5375:Dialect group 5373: 5364: 5361: 5308: 5305: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5226: 5200: 5199: 5197: 5190: 5189: 5188: 5187: 5176: 5172: 5141: 5078: 5004: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4965: 4964: 4963: 4962: 4944: 4943: 4942: 4931: 4930: 4929: 4926: 4923: 4911: 4886: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4871: 4870: 4860: 4842: 4816: 4815: 4814: 4796: 4755:The prefix is 4753: 4747: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4736: 4735: 4734: 4733: 4711: 4704: 4686: 4685: 4684: 4678: 4677: 4676: 4669: 4666: 4663: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4608: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4602: 4599: 4584: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4558: 4543: 4520: 4500: 4489: 4459: 4458: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4449: 4442: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4416: 4413: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4389: 4386: 4360: 4351: 4350: 4349: 4343: 4331: 4330: 4328: 4319: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4280: 4268: 4254: 4243: 4222: 4212: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4199: 4190: 4188: 4180: 4171: 4162: 4160: 4150: 4149: 4141: 4132: 4130: 4120: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4109: 4101: 4099: 4093: 4091: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4069: 4068: 4060: 4058: 4050: 4041: 4039: 4031: 4029: 4011: 4010: 3998: 3996: 3988: 3979: 3977: 3969: 3967: 3959: 3950: 3941: 3939: 3931: 3929: 3921: 3919: 3911: 3899: 3890: 3888: 3880: 3871: 3869: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3793: 3792:Writing system 3790: 3788: 3785: 3733: 3730: 3718: 3715: 3696: 3693: 3661:Latin alphabet 3613: 3612: 3599: 3574: 3563:borrowed words 3553:عامية المثقفين 3549: 3520: 3512:fuṣḥá at-turāṯ 3499:Al-Said Badawi 3446:: colloquial ( 3382: 3379: 3366: 3363: 3321:European Union 3247: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3237: 3234: 3231: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3184: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3138: 3132: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3113: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3090: 3087: 3084: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3044: 3043: 3040: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3025: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3002: 2999: 2996: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2927: 2913: 2899: 2885: 2879: 2878: 2871: 2864: 2857: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2802: 2799: 2784:koiné language 2678:Hejazi dialect 2664: 2645: 2642: 2607:In this case, 2605: 2604: 2598: 2592: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2556:code-switching 2519:Koiné language 2515:Code-switching 2510: 2507: 2506: 2505: 2500:– (ISO 639–3: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2468: 2465: 2464: 2463: 2443: 2440: 2439: 2438: 2433:– (ISO 639–3: 2426: 2423: 2403:Main article: 2400: 2397: 2396: 2395: 2394: 2393: 2383: 2378: 2368: 2358: 2353: 2352: 2351: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2308: 2302: 2301: 2300: 2295: 2290:– (ISO 639–3: 2285: 2280:– (ISO 639–3: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2263: 2235: 2230: 2208: 2203:– (ISO 639–3: 2201:Dhofari Arabic 2198: 2176: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159:– (ISO 639–3: 2154: 2149:– (ISO 639–3: 2147:Sanʽani Arabic 2144: 2143: 2142: 2084: 2062: 2043:Bahrani Arabic 2040: 2018: 1983: 1980: 1979: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1970: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1932: 1923:Fellahi Arabic 1908: 1896: 1884: 1836: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1829: 1824: 1816: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1794: 1793: 1783:– (ISO 639–3: 1778: 1773:– (ISO 639–3: 1768: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1702: 1680: 1646: 1645:Egyptian group 1643: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1638: 1637: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1602:Bagirmi Arabic 1592:Chadian Arabic 1589: 1588: 1587: 1582:– (ISO 639–3: 1543: 1542:Sudanese group 1540: 1539: 1538: 1516: 1515: 1514: 1509:– (ISO 639–3: 1504: 1499:– (ISO 639–3: 1491: 1490: 1489: 1488: 1487: 1482:– (ISO 639–3: 1455: 1450: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1406: 1372: 1338: 1279: 1278:Maghrebi group 1276: 1275: 1274: 1260: 1238: 1220: 1198: 1180: 1034: 1031: 1027: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1011: 1009: 1000: 998: 989: 987: 984:Cypriot Arabic 978: 976: 967: 965: 956: 954: 951:Hadrami Arabic 945: 943: 934: 932: 929:Sanaani Arabic 923: 921: 918:Dhofari Arabic 912: 910: 901: 899: 890: 888: 879: 877: 874:Baharna Arabic 868: 866: 857: 855: 846: 844: 835: 833: 824: 822: 813: 811: 802: 800: 791: 789: 786:Chadian Arabic 780: 778: 769: 767: 758: 756: 747: 745: 736: 734: 725: 723: 714: 712: 703: 701: 692: 690: 681: 678: 660: 659:Classification 657: 546:), the formal 534:first language 379: 378: 375: 367: 366: 359: 351: 350: 349:Language codes 346: 345: 340: 336:Writing system 333: 330: 329: 328: 327: 319: 314: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 264: 260: 259: 257: 256: 250: 248: 246:Standard forms 245: 242: 241: 239: 238: 237: 236: 235: 234: 233: 232: 208: 206: 203: 200: 199: 197: 196: 195: 194: 193: 192: 191: 190: 189: 188: 159: 157: 150: 147: 146: 143: 140: 137: 136: 131: 127: 126: 121: 120:Native to 117: 116: 108: 107: 99: 98: 77:. Knowledge's 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13791: 13780: 13777: 13775: 13772: 13770: 13767: 13766: 13764: 13749: 13746: 13744: 13741: 13739: 13736: 13734: 13731: 13729: 13726: 13724: 13721: 13719: 13716: 13714: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13704: 13701: 13699: 13696: 13694: 13691: 13689: 13686: 13684: 13681: 13679: 13676: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13639: 13636: 13634: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13545: 13542: 13537: 13530: 13525: 13523: 13518: 13516: 13511: 13510: 13507: 13494: 13490: 13487: 13483: 13480: 13479: 13476: 13462: 13461: 13457: 13455: 13452: 13450: 13447: 13443: 13442: 13438: 13437: 13436: 13435: 13431: 13429: 13428: 13424: 13422: 13421: 13417: 13415: 13412: 13411: 13409: 13407: 13403: 13380: 13377: 13374: 13371: 13369: 13366: 13365: 13364: 13361: 13359: 13356: 13351: 13350: 13349: 13346: 13345: 13344: 13341: 13339: 13336: 13334: 13333: 13329: 13328: 13326: 13322: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13310: 13306: 13305: 13303: 13299: 13296: 13292: 13282: 13279: 13275: 13272: 13267: 13264: 13261: 13260: 13259: 13256: 13255: 13254: 13251: 13250: 13248: 13244: 13238: 13235: 13233: 13230: 13229: 13227: 13223: 13220: 13214: 13211: 13207: 13201: 13198: 13194: 13191: 13189: 13186: 13185: 13184: 13181: 13180: 13178: 13174: 13171: 13169: 13168:Ethio-Semitic 13165: 13162: 13158: 13152: 13149: 13147: 13144: 13142: 13139: 13137: 13134: 13132: 13129: 13127: 13124: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13102: 13088: 13087: 13083: 13081: 13080: 13076: 13074: 13073: 13069: 13067: 13066: 13062: 13058: 13057: 13053: 13051: 13050: 13046: 13045: 13044: 13043: 13039: 13038: 13036: 13032: 13024: 13023: 13019: 13018: 13017: 13016: 13012: 13010: 13009: 13005: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12995: 12991: 12989: 12988: 12984: 12980: 12979: 12975: 12974: 12973: 12972: 12968: 12967: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12960: 12956: 12954: 12953: 12949: 12948: 12946: 12944: 12940: 12930: 12929:Judeo-Aramaic 12927: 12925: 12922: 12921: 12919: 12915: 12905: 12902: 12900: 12897: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12887: 12883: 12882: 12881: 12878: 12877: 12875: 12871: 12861: 12858: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12846: 12843: 12841: 12838: 12836: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12826: 12823: 12822: 12820: 12816: 12810: 12807: 12802: 12799: 12798: 12797: 12794: 12792: 12789: 12787: 12784: 12782: 12779: 12777: 12774: 12772: 12769: 12767: 12764: 12763: 12761: 12757: 12754: 12752: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12735: 12727: 12726: 12722: 12721: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12714: 12710: 12706: 12705: 12701: 12699: 12698: 12694: 12692: 12691: 12687: 12685: 12684: 12680: 12679: 12678: 12675: 12673: 12672: 12668: 12666: 12665: 12661: 12660: 12658: 12656: 12655: 12650: 12644: 12641: 12639: 12636: 12634: 12633: 12629: 12627: 12626: 12622: 12621: 12619: 12617: 12613: 12607: 12606: 12602: 12600: 12599: 12595: 12593: 12592: 12588: 12586: 12585: 12581: 12580: 12578: 12574: 12571: 12569: 12565: 12562: 12560: 12556: 12546: 12543: 12541: 12538: 12532: 12529: 12528: 12527: 12526: 12525:Siculo-Arabic 12522: 12521: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12507: 12506: 12504: 12502: 12498: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12483: 12481: 12477: 12471: 12470: 12466: 12464: 12463: 12459: 12455: 12454: 12450: 12448: 12447: 12443: 12441: 12440: 12436: 12434: 12433: 12429: 12427: 12426: 12422: 12420: 12419: 12415: 12413: 12412: 12408: 12407: 12406: 12405: 12401: 12399: 12398: 12394: 12392: 12391: 12387: 12386: 12384: 12380: 12377: 12375: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12362: 12356: 12355: 12351: 12347: 12346: 12342: 12341: 12340: 12339: 12335: 12334: 12332: 12330: 12329: 12324: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12307: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12297: 12295: 12291: 12287: 12280: 12275: 12273: 12268: 12266: 12261: 12260: 12257: 12245: 12237: 12234: 12230: 12228: 12224: 12221: 12220: 12217: 12210: 12209: 12207: 12203: 12197: 12194: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12182: 12179: 12176: 12173: 12171: 12168: 12167: 12165: 12163: 12160: 12158: 12155: 12153: 12150: 12148: 12145: 12144: 12142: 12138: 12132: 12129: 12127: 12124: 12122: 12119: 12117: 12116:Sini (script) 12114: 12112: 12109: 12107: 12106:Ruqʿah script 12104: 12102: 12099: 12097: 12094: 12092: 12089: 12087: 12084: 12082: 12079: 12077: 12074: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12064: 12062: 12059: 12057: 12054: 12052: 12051:Hijazi script 12049: 12047: 12044: 12042: 12039: 12038: 12036: 12034: 12029: 12025: 12019: 12016: 12014: 12011: 12009: 12008: 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11984: 11980: 11977: 11975: 11972: 11970: 11967: 11966: 11965: 11962: 11961: 11959: 11955: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11940: 11938: 11934: 11920: 11917: 11915: 11912: 11910: 11907: 11905: 11902: 11900: 11899: 11895: 11893: 11890: 11888: 11885: 11883: 11880: 11878: 11877: 11873: 11872: 11870: 11868: 11863: 11859: 11850: 11847: 11844: 11841: 11840: 11839: 11836: 11831: 11830: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11821: 11816: 11813: 11812: 11811: 11808: 11804: 11801: 11800: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11786: 11785: 11783: 11781: 11777: 11771: 11768: 11767: 11765: 11763: 11759: 11753: 11752: 11748: 11744: 11741: 11738: 11735: 11732: 11731: 11730: 11729:Central Asian 11727: 11726: 11724: 11720: 11712: 11709: 11707: 11704: 11702: 11701:Taʽizzi-Adeni 11699: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11689: 11688: 11687: 11684: 11682: 11679: 11677: 11674: 11672: 11669: 11667: 11664: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11646: 11645: 11642: 11640: 11637: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11625: 11622: 11621: 11619: 11617: 11613: 11601: 11598: 11597: 11596: 11593: 11591: 11588: 11586: 11583: 11582: 11580: 11577: 11573: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11548: 11546: 11544: 11540: 11537: 11535: 11531: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11512: 11510: 11508: 11504: 11496: 11493: 11491: 11488: 11487: 11486: 11483: 11481: 11478: 11476: 11473: 11472: 11470: 11468: 11464: 11461: 11459: 11455: 11449: 11446: 11444: 11441: 11439: 11436: 11435: 11433: 11429: 11415: 11412: 11411: 11410: 11407: 11406: 11404: 11400: 11397: 11393: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11384: 11383: 11380: 11376: 11373: 11372: 11371: 11368: 11366: 11363: 11362: 11360: 11356: 11353: 11352: 11350: 11345: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11332: 11331: 11328: 11327: 11325: 11324: 11322: 11320: 11316: 11308: 11305: 11303: 11300: 11298: 11295: 11294: 11292: 11285: 11282: 11280:Traras-Msirda 11279: 11278: 11276: 11271: 11268: 11266: 11263: 11260: 11257: 11256: 11254: 11253: 11251: 11246: 11243: 11242: 11241: 11238: 11232: 11229: 11227: 11224: 11222: 11219: 11217: 11214: 11212: 11209: 11207: 11204: 11203: 11202: 11199: 11198: 11197: 11196: 11192: 11190: 11189: 11185: 11184: 11182: 11180: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11164: 11158: 11152: 11149: 11147: 11144: 11143: 11141: 11137: 11131: 11130: 11126: 11124: 11123: 11119: 11117: 11116: 11112: 11110: 11109: 11105: 11103: 11102: 11098: 11097: 11095: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11082: 11076: 11074: 11069: 11067: 11065: 11060: 11058: 11056: 11051: 11049: 11047: 11042: 11040: 11038: 11033: 11031: 11029: 11024: 11022: 11020: 11015: 11013: 11011: 11006: 11004: 11002: 10997: 10995: 10993: 10988: 10986: 10984: 10979: 10976: 10975: 10970: 10968: 10966: 10961: 10958: 10957: 10952: 10950: 10948: 10943: 10941: 10939: 10934: 10932: 10930: 10925: 10923: 10921: 10916: 10914: 10912: 10907: 10904: 10903: 10898: 10896: 10894: 10889: 10886: 10885: 10880: 10878: 10876: 10871: 10869: 10867: 10862: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10851: 10849: 10844: 10842: 10840: 10835: 10833: 10831: 10826: 10825: 10823: 10819: 10813: 10810: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10790: 10787: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10774: 10773: 10768: 10767: 10766: 10763: 10761: 10758: 10756: 10753: 10751: 10748: 10746: 10743: 10741: 10738: 10733: 10732: 10731: 10728: 10726: 10723: 10721: 10720:Arabic script 10718: 10716: 10713: 10712: 10710: 10708: 10704: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10681: 10678: 10677: 10676: 10673: 10671: 10668: 10667: 10665: 10661: 10656: 10649: 10644: 10642: 10637: 10635: 10630: 10629: 10626: 10620: 10617: 10616: 10607: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10582: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10567:1-58901-022-1 10564: 10560: 10556: 10553: 10550: 10546: 10543: 10539: 10536: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10505: 10495: 10491: 10488: 10484: 10481: 10477: 10473: 10470: 10466: 10463: 10459: 10456: 10452: 10449: 10445: 10442: 10438: 10435: 10431: 10428: 10424: 10421: 10417: 10414: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10401: 10399: 10395: 10392: 10388: 10385: 10381: 10380: 10366: 10359: 10352: 10346: 10341: 10332: 10323: 10314: 10308: 10304: 10300: 10294: 10288: 10281: 10274: 10270: 10263: 10257:24(2): 39–52. 10256: 10255:Design Issues 10250: 10241: 10235:Badawi, 1973. 10232: 10223: 10216: 10211: 10202: 10193: 10184: 10175: 10168: 10162: 10153: 10144: 10135: 10126: 10117: 10108: 10099: 10090: 10082: 10076: 10072: 10065: 10050: 10046: 10040: 10026: 10022: 10015: 10000: 9999: 9998:The Economist 9994: 9988: 9986: 9977: 9973: 9969: 9965: 9958: 9950: 9946: 9941: 9936: 9932: 9928: 9921: 9914: 9912: 9896: 9890: 9886: 9885: 9877: 9870: 9866: 9865: 9857: 9849: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9823: 9816: 9808: 9804: 9799: 9794: 9790: 9786: 9782: 9775: 9767: 9761: 9753: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9732: 9730: 9728: 9719: 9713: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9698: 9682: 9679: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9668: 9657: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9633: 9629: 9622: 9618: 9612: 9611: 9609: 9604: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9592: 9584: 9578: 9574: 9570: 9556: 9548: 9540: 9532: 9518: 9511: 9503: 9497: 9496:Hejazi Arabic 9493: 9489: 9482: 9476: 9471: 9463: 9455: 9447: 9439: 9431: 9425: 9424: 9414: 9409: 9406: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9392: 9391: 9389: 9384: 9378: 9363: 9359: 9355: 9337: 9330: 9326: 9321: 9313: 9305: 9293: 9285: 9277: 9269: 9263: 9259: 9254: 9246: 9228: 9225: 9221: 9220: 9209: 9205: 9201:/xsˤsˤktktbi/ 9197: 9194: 9193: 9185: 9175: 9171: 9168: 9163: 9149: 9146: 9133: 9119: 9115: 9112: 9111: 9097: 9096: 9079: 9073: 9071: 9057: 9052: 9044: 9038: 9034: 9029: 9021: 9013: 9003: 8997: 8989: 8983: 8980: 8976: 8958: 8950: 8944: 8943: 8940: 8923: 8919: 8918: 8914: 8898: 8890: 8884: 8879: 8871: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8854: 8848: 8840: 8832: 8812: 8804: 8796: 8790: 8786: 8780: 8774: 8771: 8765: 8753: 8747: 8742: 8736: 8732: 8726: 8718: 8712: 8707: 8687: 8677: 8671: 8663: 8657: 8650: 8642: 8636: 8630: 8622: 8614: 8609: 8594: 8589: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8559: 8554: 8548: 8544: 8535: 8532: 8529: 8526: 8508: 8507: 8505: 8504: 8500: 8494: 8493: 8487: 8484: 8481: 8478: 8475: 8472: 8469: 8465: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8454: 8450: 8447: 8444: 8441: 8438: 8435: 8432: 8428: 8420: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8409: 8405: 8402: 8399: 8396: 8393: 8390: 8387: 8383: 8376: 8371: 8369: 8366: 8365: 8361: 8358: 8355: 8352: 8349: 8346: 8343: 8339: 8334: 8331: 8327: 8324: 8323: 8319: 8316: 8313: 8310: 8307: 8304: 8301: 8297: 8292: 8290: 8286: 8282: 8281: 8277: 8274: 8271: 8268: 8265: 8262: 8259: 8255: 8247: 8242: 8240: 8236: 8233: 8232: 8228: 8225: 8222: 8219: 8216: 8213: 8210: 8206: 8198: 8193: 8191: 8187: 8184: 8183: 8179: 8176: 8173: 8170: 8167: 8164: 8161: 8157: 8152: 8149: 8145: 8142: 8141: 8137: 8134: 8131: 8128: 8125: 8122: 8119: 8115: 8110: 8108: 8104: 8101: 8100: 8096: 8093: 8090: 8087: 8084: 8081: 8078: 8074: 8066: 8061: 8059: 8055: 8052: 8051: 8047: 8044: 8041: 8038: 8035: 8032: 8029: 8025: 8017: 8012: 8010: 8006: 8003: 8002: 7998: 7995: 7992: 7989: 7986: 7983: 7980: 7976: 7971: 7969: 7965: 7962: 7961: 7957: 7954: 7951: 7948: 7945: 7942: 7939: 7935: 7927: 7922: 7920: 7916: 7913: 7912: 7908: 7905: 7902: 7899: 7896: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7886: 7882: 7879: 7878: 7874: 7871: 7868: 7865: 7862: 7859: 7856: 7852: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7837: 7833: 7830: 7827: 7824: 7821: 7818: 7815: 7811: 7803: 7798: 7796: 7792: 7789: 7788: 7784: 7782:gahwa, gahawa 7781: 7778: 7775: 7772: 7769: 7766: 7762: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7747: 7744: 7741: 7738: 7735: 7732: 7729: 7725: 7720: 7718: 7717:Sa'idi Arabic 7714: 7711: 7710: 7706: 7703: 7700: 7697: 7694: 7691: 7688: 7684: 7679: 7677: 7673: 7670: 7669: 7665: 7662: 7659: 7656: 7653: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7638: 7636: 7632: 7629: 7628: 7624: 7621: 7618: 7615: 7612: 7609: 7606: 7602: 7597: 7595: 7591: 7588: 7587: 7583: 7580: 7577: 7574: 7571: 7568: 7565: 7561: 7556: 7553: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7541: 7538: 7535: 7532: 7529: 7526: 7523: 7519: 7511: 7506: 7504: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7492: 7489: 7486: 7483: 7480: 7477: 7474: 7470: 7465: 7463: 7462:Sweida, Syria 7460: 7459: 7455: 7452: 7449: 7446: 7443: 7440: 7437: 7433: 7428: 7426: 7425:Irbid, Jordan 7423: 7422: 7418: 7414: 7411: 7407: 7404: 7400: 7397: 7393: 7390: 7386: 7383: 7379: 7376: 7372: 7368: 7360: 7355: 7353: 7352:Amman, Jordan 7350: 7349: 7345: 7342: 7339: 7336: 7333: 7330: 7327: 7323: 7318: 7316: 7312: 7309: 7308: 7304: 7301: 7298: 7295: 7292: 7289: 7286: 7282: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7268: 7267: 7263: 7260: 7257: 7254: 7251: 7248: 7245: 7241: 7236: 7234: 7230: 7227: 7226: 7222: 7219: 7216: 7213: 7210: 7207: 7204: 7200: 7192: 7187: 7185: 7181: 7176:Camel nomads, 7175: 7174: 7170: 7167: 7164: 7161: 7158: 7155: 7152: 7148: 7140: 7135: 7133: 7129: 7124:Sheep nomads, 7123: 7122: 7118: 7115: 7112: 7109: 7106: 7103: 7100: 7096: 7091: 7089: 7085: 7082: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7071: 7068: 7065: 7062: 7059: 7055: 7050: 7048: 7045: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7034: 7031: 7028: 7025: 7022: 7018: 7010: 7005: 7003: 6999: 6998: 6994: 6991: 6988: 6985: 6982: 6979: 6976: 6972: 6964: 6959: 6957: 6953: 6950: 6949: 6945: 6942: 6939: 6936: 6933: 6930: 6927: 6923: 6918: 6916: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6904: 6901: 6898: 6895: 6892: 6889: 6886: 6882: 6874: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6859: 6856: 6853: 6850: 6847: 6844: 6841: 6837: 6829: 6824: 6822: 6818: 6817: 6813: 6810: 6807: 6804: 6801: 6798: 6795: 6791: 6783: 6775: 6770: 6768: 6764: 6761: 6760: 6756: 6753: 6750: 6747: 6744: 6741: 6738: 6734: 6726: 6721: 6718: 6717:Uzbeki Arabic 6715: 6714: 6710: 6707: 6704: 6701: 6698: 6695: 6692: 6688: 6683: 6681: 6680:Hejazi Arabic 6677: 6674: 6673: 6669: 6666: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6654: 6651: 6650: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6607: 6602: 6588: 6578: 6573: 6569: 6562: 6552: 6542: 6535: 6530: 6521: 6520: 6517: 6511: 6507: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6450: 6443:described it. 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6427: 6423: 6417: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6394: 6389: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6355: 6347: 6339: 6316: 6310: 6304: 6298: 6294: 6288: 6280: 6274: 6270: 6264: 6258: 6252: 6246: 6242: 6236: 6230: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6213: 6208: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6191: 6186: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6133: 6128: 6127: 6126: 6122: 6114: 6106: 6092: 6088: 6080: 6072: 6064: 6056: 6048: 6041: 6037: 6029: 6016: 6007: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5983: 5978: 5969: 5960: 5952: 5943: 5934: 5926: 5918: 5913: 5909: 5901: 5887: 5883: 5882: 5877: 5868: 5863: 5859: 5851: 5842: 5833: 5825: 5817: 5812: 5808: 5800: 5785: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5765: 5757: 5752: 5748: 5743: 5739: 5731: 5722: 5713: 5705: 5697: 5692: 5688: 5680: 5665: 5660: 5659: 5654: 5645: 5640: 5636: 5631: 5627: 5622: 5618: 5613: 5609: 5601: 5592: 5583: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5550: 5545: 5536: 5531: 5527: 5522: 5518: 5510: 5501: 5492: 5483: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5436: 5433: 5430: 5427: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5415: 5412: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5393: 5384:Mesopotamian 5370: 5360: 5358: 5352: 5346: 5340: 5332: 5322: 5318: 5304: 5275: 5255: 5247: 5239: 5224: 5221: 5218:) and leaves 5209: 5205: 5202: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5177: 5173: 5142: 5079: 5073:"take away", 5049:"fear"; weak 5028: 5027: 5017: 5016:quadriliteral 5013: 5008: 5005: 4986: 4982: 4981: 4978: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4940: 4932: 4927: 4924: 4919: 4918: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4905: 4904: 4899:and a suffix 4894: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4883: 4880: 4877: 4876: 4868: 4866: 4861: 4859:"he threw it" 4858: 4855: 4854: 4843: 4824: 4823: 4817: 4812: 4811:Libyan Arabic 4808: 4804: 4800: 4797: 4782: 4770: 4766: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4715: 4712: 4705: 4694: 4693: 4687: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4670: 4667: 4664: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4638: 4633: 4630: 4627: 4624: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4616: 4613: 4610: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4591: 4585: 4582: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4562: 4559: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4521: 4501: 4490: 4463: 4462: 4460: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4440: 4439:Modern Hebrew 4436: 4435: 4430: 4429: 4427: 4423: 4417: 4414: 4411: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4395: 4394: 4392: 4387: 4368: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4332: 4329: 4326: 4322: 4321: 4284: 4272: 4265: 4258: 4247: 4240: 4226: 4217: 4213: 4203: 4194: 4184: 4175: 4166: 4157: 4152: 4151: 4145: 4136: 4127: 4122: 4121: 4112: 4111: 4105: 4087: 4082: 4076: 4071: 4070: 4064: 4054: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4026: 4018: 4013: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3997: 3992: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3954: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3930: 3925: 3915: 3906: 3903: 3894: 3884: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3861: 3860: 3855: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3784: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3749:among them), 3748: 3744: 3740: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3643:, colloquial 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3625:Ottoman Egypt 3622: 3617: 3609: 3604: 3603:عامية الأميين 3600: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3529:fuṣḥá al-ʿaṣr 3525: 3521: 3518: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3476:: overlap of 3475: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3430: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3417: 3416: 3409: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3378: 3374: 3372: 3362: 3360: 3354: 3352: 3347: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3326:Arabic-based 3324: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3305:Siculo-Arabic 3302: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3252:lingua franca 3238: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3223: 3219: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3208: 3205: 3204: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3188:Gulf (Kuwait) 3186: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3171: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3129: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3114: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3076: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3038: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3026: 3022: 3019: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2973: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2932: 2928: 2925: 2918: 2914: 2911: 2904: 2900: 2897: 2890: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2872: 2865: 2858: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2830: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2820: 2819:pronunciation 2814: 2812: 2811:Siculo-Arabic 2808: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2775: 2750: 2746: 2741: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2721: 2713: 2703: 2702:North African 2699: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2671: 2670: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2641: 2637: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2567: 2565: 2559: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2503: 2499: 2496: 2495: 2485: 2474: 2471: 2470: 2460: 2449: 2448:Maridi Arabic 2446: 2445: 2436: 2432: 2429: 2428: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2406: 2391: 2387: 2384: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2325: 2323: 2319: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2289: 2288:Uzbeki Arabic 2286: 2283: 2279: 2278:Tajiki Arabic 2276: 2275: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2261: 2256: 2250: 2239: 2238:Bedawi Arabic 2236: 2234: 2233:Bareqi Arabic 2231: 2228: 2223: 2212: 2211:Shihhi Arabic 2209: 2206: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2191: 2180: 2177: 2173: 2172:Yāfiʿī Arabic 2170: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2145: 2139: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2122: 2117: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2088: 2087:Yemeni Arabic 2085: 2082: 2077: 2066: 2065:Hejazi Arabic 2063: 2060: 2055: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2033: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2011: 2000: 1997: 1996: 1995: 1993: 1989: 1974: 1973:Aleppo Arabic 1971: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1950: 1949:Syrian Arabic 1947: 1936: 1935:Madani Arabic 1933: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1912: 1909: 1900: 1897: 1888: 1885: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1820: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1803: 1799: 1796: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1761: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1700: 1695: 1684: 1683:Sa'idi Arabic 1681: 1678: 1673: 1662: 1659: 1658: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1635: 1634:Bongor Arabic 1632: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1614: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1575: 1570: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1536: 1531: 1520: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1498: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1485: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1475: 1470: 1459: 1458:Siculo-Arabic 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1444:Pre-Hilalian 1443: 1438: 1433: 1427: 1410: 1409:Libyan Arabic 1407: 1404: 1399: 1393: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1365: 1359: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1331: 1325: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1303: 1300: 1299: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1136: 1126: 1122: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1010: 1007: 999: 996: 988: 985: 977: 974: 973:Tajiki Arabic 966: 963: 962:Uzbeki Arabic 955: 952: 944: 941: 933: 930: 922: 919: 911: 908: 900: 897: 896:Shihhi Arabic 889: 886: 885:Hijazi Arabic 878: 875: 867: 864: 856: 853: 845: 842: 834: 831: 823: 820: 812: 809: 801: 798: 790: 787: 779: 776: 768: 765: 757: 754: 746: 743: 735: 732: 724: 721: 713: 710: 702: 699: 691: 688: 680: 679: 676: 675:other sources 672: 671: 665: 656: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 629: 624: 621: 617: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 578:passive voice 576: 572: 568: 564: 559: 557: 553: 549: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 482: 480: 476: 474: 462: 458: 456: 444: 440: 436: 432: 427: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 373: 368: 364: 360: 357: 352: 347: 344: 341: 337: 331: 323: 320: 318: 315: 310: 307: 305: 304:Central Asian 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 266: 265: 261: 255: 252: 251: 249: 243: 231: 228: 227: 226: 223: 222: 221: 218: 217: 216: 215:Proto-Semitic 213: 212: 211: 207: 201: 187: 184: 183: 182: 179: 178: 177: 174: 173: 172: 169: 168: 167: 164: 163: 162: 158: 154: 148: 144: 138: 135: 132: 128: 125: 122: 118: 109: 104: 95: 85: 80: 76: 69: 59: 49: 42: 37: 28: 27: 22: 13552: 13538:of languages 13481: 13458: 13439: 13432: 13425: 13418: 13330: 13307: 13084: 13077: 13070: 13063: 13054: 13047: 13040: 13020: 13013: 13006: 12992: 12985: 12976: 12969: 12957: 12950: 12884: 12855:Urmia Jewish 12723: 12718: 12711: 12702: 12695: 12688: 12681: 12676: 12669: 12662: 12652: 12630: 12623: 12603: 12596: 12589: 12582: 12540:Mesopotamian 12523: 12500: 12467: 12460: 12451: 12444: 12437: 12430: 12423: 12416: 12409: 12402: 12395: 12390:Proto-Arabic 12388: 12352: 12343: 12336: 12326: 12222: 12162:Windows-1256 12121:Taliq script 12061:Jeli Thuluth 12041:Ajami script 12005: 11909:Pidgin madam 11896: 11874: 11838:Judeo-Yemeni 11780:Judeo-Arabic 11762:Sociological 11749: 11711:Judeo-Yemeni 11534:Mesopotamian 11409:Libyan koiné 11193: 11186: 11179:Pre-Hilalian 11127: 11120: 11113: 11106: 11101:Proto-Arabic 11099: 11084: 10734:Zabūr script 10687:Romanization 10580: 10558: 10548: 10541: 10534: 10525: 10493: 10486: 10475: 10468: 10461: 10454: 10447: 10440: 10433: 10426: 10419: 10412: 10397: 10390: 10383: 10364: 10351: 10340: 10331: 10322: 10313: 10293: 10280: 10262: 10254: 10249: 10240: 10231: 10222: 10210: 10201: 10192: 10183: 10174: 10167:Article link 10161: 10152: 10143: 10134: 10125: 10116: 10107: 10098: 10089: 10070: 10064: 10053:. Retrieved 10048: 10039: 10028:. Retrieved 10024: 10014: 10003:. Retrieved 10001:. 2018-10-20 9996: 9967: 9964:Al-'Arabiyya 9963: 9957: 9930: 9926: 9900:30 September 9898:. Retrieved 9883: 9876: 9868: 9863: 9856: 9829: 9825: 9815: 9788: 9784: 9774: 9760: 9741: 9709: 9701: 9644: 9527:have become 9487: 9067: 8864:velarization 8852: 8785:Iraqi Arabic 8581: 8577: 8573: 8569: 8330:Judeo-Arabic 8223:qamar, gamra 8144:Jijel Arabic 8091:qamar, gamra 8045:gahwa, qahwa 7952:gamra, qamra 7416: 7409: 7402: 7395: 7388: 7381: 7380:bagara or ba 7374: 7038:ghawe, gahwe 7026:bgure, bagre 6745:waqt, (waḥt) 6582: 6568:ISO 639 code 6564:}} 6558:{{ 6554:}} 6548:{{ 6544:}} 6538:{{ 6533: 6490:North Africa 6446: 6385:North Africa 6322: 6093: 6042: 6023: 5417: 5344: 5310: 5233: 4974:North Africa 4938: 4864: 4862: 4856: 4714:Najdi Arabic 4647:) on nouns. 4632:Najdi Arabic 4593: 4587: 4580: 4575:and radical 4484:rather than 4472:rather than 4432: 4354: 4283: 4271: 4246: 4225: 4216: 3771:The case of 3770: 3763: 3735: 3720: 3704: 3653:Judeo-Arabic 3649:Mizrahi Jews 3618: 3614: 3496: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3477: 3473: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3419: 3413: 3410: 3401: 3397: 3388:اللغة الفصحى 3384: 3375: 3368: 3355: 3348: 3325: 3299: 3280: 3249: 3155:Mesopotamian 2816: 2815: 2804: 2796: 2788: 2776: 2749:interdentals 2742: 2667: 2662: 2647: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2616:, Levantine 2613: 2606: 2560: 2553: 2546: 2542: 2408: 2388:(ISO 639–3: 2373:(ISO 639–3: 2363:(ISO 639–3: 2341:(ISO 639–3: 2331:(ISO 639–3: 2329:Judeo-Arabic 2315: 2179:Omani Arabic 1999:Najdi Arabic 1985: 1842:(ISO 639–3: 1838: 1808: 1751:or Moslawi ( 1742: 1709: 1648: 1628:Turku Arabic 1545: 1453:Jijel Arabic 1448:Jebli Arabic 1281: 1217:North Africa 1159: 1119:These large 1118: 1098:Mesopotamian 1091: 1071:North Africa 1036: 907:Omani Arabic 819:Najdi Arabic 775:Saidi Arabic 668: 645:Mesopotamian 626:In terms of 625: 596:and unusual 594:vowel shifts 560: 537: 526:Asturleonese 483: 470: 452: 429:In terms of 428: 383: 382: 294:Mesopotamian 220:Proto-Arabic 185: 171:West Semitic 161:Afro-Asiatic 89: 75:ISO 639 code 71:}} 65:{{ 61:}} 55:{{ 51:}} 45:{{ 40: 13573:Azerbaijani 13420:Hadramautic 13406:Old Arabian 13343:West Gurage 13253:East Gurage 12899:Neo-Mandaic 12677:Palestinian 12584:Old Aramaic 12056:Jawi script 12028:Calligraphy 11957:Linguistics 11882:Gulf Pidgin 11798:Judeo-Iraqi 11739:Kashkadarya 11595:Judeo-Iraqi 11520:Palestinian 11431:Nile Valley 11093:Pre-Islamic 10805:Dagger alif 9949:10023/12443 9074:has backed 9037:Gulf Arabic 8905:or between 8625:has become 8536:Elsewhere, 8517:→ V̄ when V 8272:qǝmr, gamra 7713:Upper Egypt 7415:giddaam or 7387:wagǝt or wa 7211:wagt, wakit 7205:galb, galub 7180:Mesopotamia 7159:wagt, wakit 7153:galb, galub 7128:Mesopotamia 6763:Kuwait City 6424:. in some 6401:, parts of 6399:Lower Egypt 6273:Gulf Arabic 6257:Palestinian 6218:Lower Egypt 6154:Upper Egypt 5395:Old Arabic 5381:Peninsular 5216:/haːðaːl-X/ 5165:/t-birˤʒəz/ 5100:"inflate", 4549:(including 4364:subjunctive 3507:فصحى التراث 3493:) influence 3489:: foreign ( 3340:South Sudan 3297:alphabets. 2704:cities) or 2564:existential 2467:Para-Arabic 2267:Peripheries 2138:'iindunisia 2021:Gulf Arabic 1745:varieties) 1630:, pidgin † 1580:Juba Arabic 1253:Mesopotamia 1146:al-ʿāmmiyya 1051:Mesopotamia 863:Gulf Arabic 808:Juba Arabic 628:typological 582:dual number 455:al-ʿāmmiyya 435:vernaculars 402:within the 204:Early forms 13763:Categories 13688:Portuguese 13653:Macedonian 13449:Rijal Alma 13434:Qatabanian 13072:Himyaritic 13015:Phoenician 12576:Historical 12545:Peninsular 12446:Taymanitic 12397:Old Arabic 12382:Historical 11943:Literature 11616:Peninsular 11556:Khuzestani 11286:(Mountain) 11206:Australian 11115:Old Arabic 10765:Diacritics 10692:Numerology 10055:2019-04-27 10030:2020-06-24 10005:2020-06-24 9894:3447020024 9791:(2): 123. 9711:Ethnologue 9688:References 9625:/makˈtaba/ 9039:dialects, 8825:/bitaʕ̞ħa/ 8545:In CA and 8235:Casablanca 7408:gahweh or 7107:waqt, waxt 7066:waqt, waxt 6447:Classical 6422:Hadhramaut 6166:Mauritania 5425:(Baghdad) 5378:Levantine 5363:Consonants 5169:/t-biznəs/ 5108:"choose", 5012:triliteral 4939:continuous 4703:elsewhere. 4334:The order 3726:pragmatics 3699:See also: 3546:Al Arabiya 3542:Al Jazeera 3524:فصحى العصر 3336:Mauritania 3181:Peninsular 2736:after the 2513:See also: 1916:الفلسطينية 1324:maḡribiyya 1267:Hindustani 1249:Babylonian 1223:Himyaritic 1125:Arab world 1094:Peninsular 1087:asymmetric 1077:) west of 1065:, and the 1004: 30: 993: 29: 982: 28: 971: 27: 960: 26: 949: 25: 938: 24: 927: 23: 916: 22: 905: 21: 894: 20: 883: 19: 872: 18: 861: 17: 850: 16: 839: 15: 828: 14: 817: 13: 806: 12: 795: 11: 784: 10: 687:Hassaniyya 670:Ethnologue 522:Portuguese 392:vernacular 299:Peninsular 225:Old Arabic 124:Arab world 13738:Ukrainian 13668:Norwegian 13588:Bulgarian 13568:Aromanian 13558:Aragonese 13536:Varieties 13493:varieties 13484:indicate 13363:Sebat Bet 13113:Eastern ( 13065:Deir Alla 12943:Canaanite 12850:Trans-Zab 12835:Inter-Zab 12759:Christian 12713:Palmyrene 12704:Samaritan 12671:Nabataean 12559:Northwest 12514:Levantine 12486:Classical 12411:Dadanitic 12233:varieties 12225:indicate 12140:Technical 12111:Shahmukhi 12066:Kairouani 11964:Phonology 11743:Khorasani 11733:Bakhtiari 11585:Anatolian 11515:Jordanian 11495:Damascene 11458:Levantine 11370:Hassaniya 11211:Cottenera 11146:Classical 11085:Varieties 10663:Overviews 10480:Routledge 10303:1877-0509 9848:219917900 9832:(1): 25. 9807:150474487 9693:Citations 9262:Marrakesh 8821:/bitaħħa/ 8817:/bitaʕha/ 8533:VʔC → V̄C 8503:is lost. 8380:(written 7594:West Bank 7548:Jerusalem 7401:gamar or 7373:gaḷib or 7223:dᶻöddaam 6646:/quddaːm/ 6585:June 2021 6439:linguist 6255:In rural 5418:(Riyadh) 5390:Maghrebi 5230:Phonetics 5157:/stəʕməl/ 5147:"pedal", 5145:/pidˤali/ 5138:/sˤafətˤ/ 5134:/sˤifətˤ/ 5088:"break", 5082:/sˤrˤfəq/ 5057:"crawl", 4890:circumfix 3836:Levantine 3787:Variation 3751:Christian 3415:diglossia 3351:Spanglish 3344:creolized 3072:Levantine 2708:(merging 2698:allophone 2582:Tunisia: 2132:إندونيسيا 1975:(الحلبية) 1904:اللبنانية 1880:القيليقية 1760:mūsuliyya 1135:ad-dārija 1102:Levantine 773: 9: 762: 8: 751: 7: 740: 6: 729: 5: 718: 4: 707: 3: 696: 2: 685: 1: 649:Levantine 620:sedentary 575:inflected 502:Aragonese 473:ad-dārija 439:diglossia 356:ISO 639-3 284:Levantine 130:Ethnicity 92:June 2021 13703:Romanian 13643:Japanese 13623:Georgian 13563:Armenian 13548:Albanian 13441:Awsanian 13324:Tt-group 13200:Tigrinya 13079:Samalian 13056:Galilean 13049:Ugaritic 12994:Medieval 12987:Mishnaic 12971:Biblical 12952:Ammonite 12845:Sanandaj 12830:Betanure 12803:Chaldean 12800:Assyrian 12786:Qaraqosh 12776:Hértevin 12690:Galilean 12664:Lebanese 12519:Maghrebi 12479:Literary 12453:Thamudic 12439:Safaitic 12425:Hasaitic 12418:Dumaitic 12338:Akkadian 12293:Branches 12244:Category 12096:Nastaliq 12086:Muhaqqaq 12076:Maghrebi 11936:Academic 11876:Bimbashi 11832:Tunisene 11803:Baghdadi 11751:Shirvani 11691:Hadhrami 11649:Bahraini 11600:Baghdadi 11551:Baghdadi 11490:Aleppine 11480:Lebanese 11475:Cilician 11448:Sudanese 11438:Egyptian 11319:Hilalian 11277:Western 11255:Eastern 11252:Village 11231:Żurrieqi 11195:Sicilian 11188:Andalusi 11170:Maghrebi 11139:Literary 10791:(tanwin) 10789:Nunation 10675:Alphabet 10670:Language 10657:language 9976:43191695 9665:See also 9597:Monastir 9579:, while 9474:is used. 9364:, short 9210:, short 9035:In some 8965:(and of 8653:cannot.) 8406:quddiem 8220:qal, gal 7875:giddaam 7840:Benghazi 7785:giddaam 7748:guddaam 7707:ʾuddaam 7666:guddaam 7625:kuddaam 7590:Bir Zeit 7584:ʾuddaam 7499:Nazareth 7456:giddaam 7394:gaal or 7346:ʾǝddeem 7305:ʾǝddaam 7270:Damascus 7264:ʾǝddaam 7171:jeddaam 7119:qǝddaam 7088:Anatolia 7078:qǝddaam 7041:jiddaam 6946:qəddaam 6905:jeddaam 6757:giddaam 6719:(Jugari) 6711:guddaam 6667:"coffee" 6641:/ˈqahwa/ 6636:/ˈqamar/ 6621:/baqara/ 6506:Algerian 6441:Sibawayh 6293:Sudanese 6241:Sudanese 6196:Southern 6142:Northern 6089:⟩ 6085:⟨ 6081:⟩ 6077:⟨ 6073:⟩ 6069:⟨ 6065:⟩ 6061:⟨ 6057:⟩ 6053:⟨ 6049:⟩ 6045:⟨ 6038:⟩ 6034:⟨ 5990:‎ 5889:‎ 5566:/(d)ʒ~ɡ/ 5557:‎ 5428:(Mosul) 5272:and the 5212:/al-Xda/ 5161:/stahəl/ 5149:/blˤani/ 5128:"roll", 5118:/sˤqsˤi/ 5116:"show", 5106:/xtˤarˤ/ 5096:"wait", 5084:"slap", 5077:"come"). 5041:"sell", 4952:Tunisian 4948:Egyptian 4818:Loss of 4807:Algerian 4643:suffix ( 4401:Tunisian 4118:Letters 3857:Letters 3831:Egyptian 3816:Algerian 3811:Tunisian 3806:Moroccan 3777:Iraq War 3732:Religion 3685:messages 3681:Internet 3669:Said Aql 3448:‘āmmiyya 3332:al-Bakri 3309:Sicilian 2946:Maghrebi 2832:Variety 2734:Arabized 2728:and the 2722:⟩ 2718:⟨ 2714:⟩ 2710:⟨ 2690:Arabized 2602:/hunaːk/ 1966:الدمشقية 1892:الأردنية 1719:Akkadian 1715:Sumerian 1636:, pidgin 1530:andalūsi 1493:Bedouin 1358:dzīriyya 1245:Akkadian 1121:regional 1114:Maghrebi 1110:Sudanese 1106:Egyptian 1067:Maghrebi 1043:Mashriqi 641:Sudanese 637:Egyptian 633:Maghrebi 548:register 530:Romanian 388:dialects 309:Shirvani 289:Maghrebi 274:Sudanese 269:Egyptian 263:Dialects 13748:Yiddish 13733:Turkish 13728:Swedish 13723:Spanish 13718:Slovene 13708:Russian 13693:Punjabi 13678:Persian 13663:Maltese 13613:English 13598:Chinese 13593:Catalan 13583:Bengali 13486:extinct 13482:Italics 13427:Minaean 13352:Endegen 13301:N-group 13262:Inneqor 13237:Argobba 13232:Amharic 13188:Dahalik 13160:Western 13151:Soqotri 13131:Ḥarsusi 13126:Baṭḥari 13117:Arabian 13042:Amorite 13008:Moabite 12959:Edomite 12924:Armazic 12904:Western 12880:Central 12825:Barzani 12751:eastern 12740:Aramaic 12654:Western 12638:Mandaic 12616:Eastern 12568:Aramaic 12531:Maltese 12432:Hismaic 12365:Central 12354:Eblaite 12310:Central 12223:Italics 12131:Thuluth 11996:Grammar 11867:pidgins 11862:Creoles 11851:Sanʽani 11736:Bukhara 11696:Sanʽani 11659:Kuwaiti 11654:Emirati 11639:Dhofari 11624:Bahrani 11590:Cypriot 11578:(Qeltu) 11405:Sulaym 11392:Western 11387:Eastern 11265:Sfaxian 11261:(Sahel) 11216:Gozitan 11201:Maltese 10821:Letters 10795:Shaddah 10784:Harakat 10779:Tashkil 10707:Scripts 10680:History 10376:Sources 9610:(MSA). 9569:Maghreb 9190:/-CCəC/ 9148:Maghreb 9065:/aɫɫaː/ 9047:and/or 8977:). For 8930:/-ijja/ 8855:"hers". 8807:before 8735:Algiers 8676:Bedouin 8597:/qaraʔ/ 8549:(MSA), 8488:quddām 8451:kintám 8368:Maltese 8362:qǝddam 8320:qoddam 8289:Morocco 8285:Tangier 8278:qoddam 8250:, occ. 8239:Morocco 8201:, occ. 8190:Morocco 8180:kǝddam 8148:Algeria 8138:guddam 8107:Algeria 8097:qoddam 8069:, occ. 8058:Algiers 8054:Algiers 8020:, occ. 8009:Tunisia 8005:Marazig 7999:geddem 7968:Tunisia 7958:qoddem 7930:, occ. 7919:Tunisia 7909:giddam 7881:Tripoli 7860:ǝbgǝ́ṛa 7806:, occ. 7550:(urban 7419:iddaam 7315:Lebanon 7195:, occ. 7143:, occ. 7013:, occ. 6980:(bagra) 6877:, occ. 6832:, occ. 6819:Muslim 6814:jiddām 6786:, occ. 6729:, occ. 6652:"heart" 6631:/ˈqaːl/ 6626:/ˈwaqt/ 6616:/ˈqalb/ 6577:See why 6486:Algeria 6482:Morocco 6464:become 6437:Persian 6429:Bedouin 6426:Arabian 6222:Tlemcen 6200:Western 6182:Morocco 6178:Algeria 6174:Tunisia 6146:Eastern 5787:‎ 5667:‎ 5457:‎ 5372:Letter 5223:in situ 5159:"use", 5153:/fanti/ 5140:"send". 5124:"end", 5110:/ħmarˤ/ 5102:/mixəl/ 5098:/ɡufəl/ 5094:/ʕajən/ 5090:/hrnən/ 5086:/hrrəs/ 5069:"eat", 5053:"buy", 5045:"say", 4803:Maltese 4695:CA had 4645:tanwiin 4495:became 4264:Lebanon 4260:‎ 4205:‎ 4196:‎ 4186:‎ 4177:‎ 4168:‎ 4147:‎ 4138:‎ 4107:‎ 4097:‎ 4089:‎ 4066:‎ 4056:‎ 4047:‎ 4037:‎ 4008:‎ 3994:‎ 3985:‎ 3975:‎ 3965:‎ 3956:‎ 3947:‎ 3937:‎ 3927:‎ 3917:‎ 3908:‎ 3896:‎ 3886:‎ 3877:‎ 3841:Israeli 3781:Baghdad 3765:Bahrain 3677:Arabizi 3641:Algeria 3474:e-g-f-h 3459:: pure 3328:pidgins 3317:English 3313:Italian 3301:Maltese 3276:Eritrea 3272:Nigeria 3254:(e.g., 3029:Maltese 2849:Arabic 2807:Maltese 2766:ظ into 2658:nomadic 2654:Bedouin 2594:Yemen: 2584:/famːa/ 2442:Pidgins 2425:Creoles 2419:Sudanic 2415:creoles 2411:pidgins 2322:Aramaic 2243:البدوية 2116:ḥaḍrami 2054:baḥrāni 1954:السورية 1928:الفلاحي 1864:Persian 1723:Mandaic 1613:bājirmi 1607:باجيرمي 1480:Maltese 1469:sīqīlli 1420:الدارجة 1380:الدارجة 1346:الدارجة 1312:الدارجة 1293:and by 1269:in the 1263:Persian 1241:Aramaic 1213:Italian 1209:Spanish 1193:in the 1183:Aramaic 1173:English 1141:العامية 1130:الدارجة 1112:), and 1075:Maghreb 995:Maltese 616:Bedouin 586:plurals 518:Spanish 514:Arpitan 506:Occitan 498:Catalan 494:Italian 479:Maghreb 466:الدارجة 448:العامية 279:Chadian 166:Semitic 84:See why 13698:Romani 13683:Polish 13673:Pashto 13648:Korean 13628:German 13618:French 13603:Danish 13578:Basque 13553:Arabic 13460:Sabaic 13454:Razihi 13358:Mesqan 13332:Mesmes 13281:Harari 13268:Wolane 13265:Ulbare 13258:Siltʼe 13218:versal 13216:Trans- 13146:Shehri 13136:Hobyot 13115:Modern 13086:Sutean 13034:Others 13000:Modern 12965:Hebrew 12917:Others 12892:Turoyo 12886:Mlaḥsô 12873:Others 12818:Jewish 12791:Senaya 12771:Bohtan 12766:Barwar 12749:North- 12725:Siryon 12719:Syrian 12643:Syriac 12374:Arabic 12046:Diwani 12033:Script 11991:(case) 11988:ʾIʿrāb 11974:Tajwid 11919:Bongor 11898:Maridi 11848:Habban 11722:Others 11706:Tihami 11686:Yemeni 11681:Shihhi 11666:Hejazi 11634:Bedawi 11629:Bareqi 11485:Syrian 11443:Saʽidi 11375:Nemadi 11361:Maqil 11259:Sahili 11226:Żejtun 11162:spoken 11160:Modern 10655:Arabic 10565: 10464:58(2). 10301: 10077: 9974: 9891: 9846: 9805: 9748: 9706:Arabic 9683:(AIDA) 9174:Berber 9093:Vowels 8853:tagħha 8605:/ʔara/ 8601:/qara/ 8566:hamzah 8562:Qur'an 8317:qahǝwa 8283:North 8275:qahǝwa 8226:qahǝwa 8094:qahǝwa 7906:gahwa 7897:wagǝt 7894:bugra 7872:gahawa 7791:Ouadai 7770:bagara 7733:bagara 7692:baʾara 7663:gahweh 7651:bagara 7631:Sanaʽa 7610:bakara 7569:baʾara 7503:Israel 7478:baqara 7441:bagara 7311:Beirut 7290:baʾara 7249:baʾara 7229:Aleppo 7104:baqaṛe 7084:Mardin 7063:baqaṛa 7000:Rural 6931:bʌgʌɣa 6845:baqare 6811:gahwa 6808:gumar 6799:bgara 6767:Kuwait 6742:baqara 6696:bagara 6676:Medina 6664:"moon" 6661:"said" 6658:"time" 6612:Reflex 6510:Turkey 6381:Levant 6245:Yemeni 6180:, and 5416:Najdi 5208:Coptic 5130:/tiri/ 5126:/ruli/ 5122:/sali/ 5114:/wrri/ 5035:/ʃəmm/ 5031:/ktəb/ 4863:marama 4771:, but 4724:, and 4595:faʕila 4589:faʕula 4551:Riyadh 4383:/uːna/ 4379:/iːna/ 4356:ʾIʿrab 3902:ڧـ ـڧـ 3821:Hejazi 3747:Shiite 3739:Muslim 3491:dakhīl 3450:) end 3406:Qur'an 3264:Cyprus 3256:Turkey 2762:ض and 2754:ث and 2730:Levant 2686:Medina 2590:/kajn/ 2537:, and 2523:Pidgin 2484:klighu 2318:Hebrew 2249:badawi 2190:ʿumāni 2098:yamani 2076:ḥijāzi 2048:بحراني 2032:ḵalīji 1940:المدني 1754:موصلية 1733:, and 1694:ṣaʿīdi 1569:sūdāni 1563:سوداني 1524:أندلسي 1352:دزيرية 1330:dārija 1318:مغربية 1302:Koines 1247:, and 1211:, and 1205:French 1201:Berber 1195:Levant 1191:French 1189:, and 1165:Coptic 1081:. The 1055:Levant 1013: 1002: 991: 980: 969: 958: 947: 936: 925: 914: 903: 892: 881: 870: 859: 848: 837: 826: 815: 804: 793: 782: 771: 760: 749: 738: 727: 716: 705: 694: 683: 567:strict 538:Fus'ha 510:French 396:Arabic 317:Saʽidi 181:Arabic 13658:Malay 13638:Hindi 13633:Greek 13608:Dutch 13414:Faifi 13381:Gyeto 13375:Gumer 13368:Chaha 13338:Muher 13315:Soddo 13309:Gafat 13294:Outer 13209:South 13193:Tigre 13183:Geʽez 13176:North 13141:Mehri 13105:South 13022:Punic 12860:Zakho 12796:Suret 12315:South 12205:Other 12126:Tawqi 12081:Mashq 12071:Kufic 11979:Imāla 11948:Names 11914:Turku 11842:Adeni 11676:Omani 11671:Najdi 11576:North 11566:South 11561:Shawi 11543:Gilit 11507:South 11467:North 11365:Fessi 11284:Jebli 11270:Jijel 11245:Tunis 11240:Urban 11221:Qormi 10830:ʾAlif 10800:Hamza 10772:i‘jām 10443:8(2). 10367:: 27. 10361:(PDF) 9972:JSTOR 9923:(PDF) 9844:S2CID 9803:S2CID 9647:ǧabal 9641:جَبَل 9593:] 9589:[ 9585:] 9581:[ 9557:] 9553:[ 9549:] 9545:[ 9541:] 9537:[ 9533:] 9529:[ 9512:] 9508:[ 9504:] 9500:[ 9488:every 9483:] 9479:[ 9472:] 9468:[ 9464:] 9460:[ 9456:] 9452:[ 9343:/u~ʊ/ 9339:/i~ɪ/ 9322:] 9318:[ 9314:] 9310:[ 9306:] 9302:[ 9294:] 9290:[ 9286:] 9282:[ 9278:] 9274:[ 9270:] 9266:[ 9255:] 9251:[ 9247:] 9243:[ 9229:Full 9158:into 9116:Many 9080:] 9076:[ 9070:Allāh 9014:] 9010:[ 8915:] 8911:[ 8899:] 8895:[ 8849:] 8845:[ 8805:] 8801:[ 8766:] 8762:[ 8743:] 8739:[ 8731:Mosul 8727:] 8723:[ 8708:] 8704:[ 8700:/k͡ʃ/ 8688:] 8684:[ 8672:] 8668:[ 8631:] 8627:[ 8582:ʾalif 8570:ʾalif 8482:qamar 8473:baqar 8466:] 8462:[ 8445:kamar 8436:pakar 8429:] 8425:[ 8423:occ. 8421:] 8417:[ 8400:qamar 8391:baqra 8377:] 8373:[ 8359:qǝhwa 8340:] 8336:[ 8314:gǝmra 8308:waqt, 8298:] 8294:[ 8256:] 8252:[ 8248:] 8244:[ 8207:] 8203:[ 8199:] 8195:[ 8186:Rabat 8177:kahwa 8165:bekra 8158:] 8154:[ 8135:qahwa 8123:bagra 8116:] 8112:[ 8103:Sétif 8082:bagra 8075:] 8071:[ 8067:] 8063:[ 8042:gamra 8033:bagra 8030:galab 8026:] 8022:[ 8018:] 8014:[ 7996:gahwa 7993:gamra 7984:bagra 7977:] 7973:[ 7955:qahwa 7943:bagra 7936:] 7932:[ 7928:] 7924:[ 7915:Tunis 7903:gmar 7900:gaal 7891:galb 7885:Libya 7869:gǝmaṛ 7863:wagǝt 7857:gaḷǝb 7853:] 7849:[ 7844:Libya 7842:, E. 7831:gahwa 7828:gamra 7819:beger 7812:] 7808:[ 7804:] 7800:[ 7779:gamra 7767:galib 7763:] 7759:[ 7754:Sudan 7745:gahwa 7742:gamar 7726:] 7722:[ 7704:ʾahwa 7701:ʾamar 7685:] 7681:[ 7676:Egypt 7672:Cairo 7660:gamar 7644:] 7640:[ 7635:Yemen 7622:kahwe 7619:kamar 7603:] 7599:[ 7581:ʾahwe 7578:ʾamar 7562:] 7558:[ 7520:] 7516:[ 7512:] 7508:[ 7490:qahwe 7487:qamar 7471:] 7467:[ 7450:gamar 7444:waket 7438:galib 7434:] 7430:[ 7412:ahweh 7369:] 7365:[ 7361:] 7357:[ 7343:ʾahwe 7340:ʾamar 7331:baʾra 7324:] 7320:[ 7302:ʾahwe 7299:ʾamar 7283:] 7279:[ 7274:Syria 7261:ʾahwe 7258:ʾamar 7242:] 7238:[ 7233:Syria 7220:ghawa 7217:gamar 7208:bgara 7201:] 7197:[ 7193:] 7189:[ 7182:, NE 7168:ghawa 7165:gamar 7156:bgara 7149:] 7145:[ 7141:] 7137:[ 7130:, NE 7116:qaḥwe 7113:qumaṛ 7097:] 7093:[ 7075:qahwe 7072:qamaṛ 7056:] 7052:[ 7035:gumar 7029:wakit 7023:galub 7019:] 7015:[ 7011:] 7007:[ 6992:gahwa 6983:waqet 6977:qaalb 6973:] 6969:[ 6965:] 6961:[ 6943:qʌhwi 6940:qʌmʌɣ 6934:wʌqət 6928:qʌləb 6924:] 6920:[ 6911:Mosul 6899:qamaɣ 6883:] 6879:[ 6875:] 6871:[ 6857:gahwe 6854:gumar 6848:wakət 6842:gaḷuḅ 6838:] 6834:[ 6830:] 6826:[ 6796:gaḷb 6792:] 6788:[ 6784:] 6780:[ 6776:] 6772:[ 6751:qamar 6735:] 6731:[ 6727:] 6723:[ 6708:gahwa 6705:gamar 6689:] 6685:[ 6655:"cow" 6609:Place 6514:/f,v/ 6494:/t,d/ 6478:Hejaz 6474:Egypt 6470:/s,z/ 6466:/t,d/ 6433:Sudan 6418:] 6414:[ 6403:Yemen 6395:] 6391:[ 6377:] 6373:[ 6367:] 6363:[ 6356:] 6352:[ 6348:] 6344:[ 6340:] 6336:[ 6332:/d͡ʒ/ 6317:] 6313:[ 6309:Najdi 6305:] 6301:[ 6297:Yafi' 6289:] 6285:[ 6281:] 6277:[ 6269:Iraqi 6265:] 6261:[ 6253:] 6249:[ 6237:] 6233:[ 6214:] 6210:[ 6204:Druze 6192:] 6188:[ 6162:Libya 6158:Sudan 6134:] 6130:[ 6123:] 6119:[ 6115:] 6111:[ 6107:] 6103:[ 6030:] 6026:[ 6017:] 6013:[ 6008:] 6004:[ 5979:] 5975:[ 5970:] 5966:[ 5961:] 5957:[ 5953:] 5949:[ 5944:] 5940:[ 5935:] 5931:[ 5927:] 5923:[ 5919:] 5915:[ 5910:] 5906:[ 5902:] 5898:[ 5878:] 5874:[ 5869:] 5865:[ 5860:] 5856:[ 5852:] 5848:[ 5843:] 5839:[ 5834:] 5830:[ 5826:] 5822:[ 5818:] 5814:[ 5809:] 5805:[ 5801:] 5797:[ 5775:] 5771:[ 5766:] 5762:[ 5758:] 5754:[ 5749:] 5745:[ 5740:] 5736:[ 5732:] 5728:[ 5723:] 5719:[ 5714:] 5710:[ 5706:] 5702:[ 5698:] 5694:[ 5689:] 5685:[ 5681:] 5677:[ 5655:] 5651:[ 5646:] 5642:[ 5637:] 5633:[ 5628:] 5624:[ 5619:] 5615:[ 5610:] 5606:[ 5602:] 5598:[ 5593:] 5589:[ 5584:] 5580:[ 5575:] 5571:[ 5546:] 5542:[ 5537:] 5533:[ 5528:] 5524:[ 5519:] 5515:[ 5511:] 5507:[ 5502:] 5498:[ 5493:] 5489:[ 5484:] 5480:[ 5476:] 5472:[ 5270:/d͡ʒ/ 5071:/ddi/ 5067:/kla/ 5063:/kul/ 5059:/bda/ 5055:/ħbu/ 5051:/ʃri/ 5047:/xaf/ 5043:/qul/ 5039:/biʕ/ 5024:/tt-/ 4991:with 4897:/ma-/ 4658:, or 4555:/-ta/ 4540:/-tu/ 4536:/-ti/ 4528:/-ta/ 4524:/-tu/ 4509:/-ki/ 4497:/-an/ 4493:/-na/ 4486:/-hu/ 4482:/-uh/ 4478:/-ki/ 4474:/-ka/ 4470:/-ik/ 4466:/-ak/ 4276:/t͡ʃ/ 4235:/d͡ʒ/ 3846:Iraqi 3826:Najdi 3779:. In 3755:Druze 3743:Sunni 3487:b-h-d 3483:a-g-c 3478:fuṣḥā 3469:f-h-d 3465:c-g-f 3461:fuṣḥā 3457:e-h-b 3453:a-g-e 3439:fuṣḥā 3295:Latin 3291:Greek 3287:Greek 2747:(CA) 2726:Egypt 2716:with 2682:Mecca 2634:kā'in 2626:yakūn 2609:/fiː/ 2596:/beh/ 2578:/fiː/ 2572:/aku/ 2478:كليغو 2459:mridi 2453:مريدي 2255:bdiwi 2222:šiḥḥi 2184:عماني 2110:حضرمي 2070:حجازي 2026:خليجي 2010:najdi 1986:Some 1860:Greek 1809:gelet 1743:qeltu 1688:صعيدى 1672:maṣri 1426:dārja 1398:dērja 1392:tūnsi 1386:تونسي 1364:dārja 1291:Punic 1235:Yemen 1177:Egypt 1169:Greek 1079:Egypt 1063:Sudan 1059:Egypt 606:verbs 486:Latin 461:slang 322:Sanna 134:Arabs 13743:Urdu 13378:Gura 13372:Ezha 13348:Inor 12738:Neo- 12328:East 12305:West 12300:East 12101:Rasm 11904:Nubi 11892:Juba 11865:and 11845:Beda 11817:Wqal 11814:Kjal 11644:Gulf 10992:Ġayn 10983:ʿAyn 10563:ISBN 10448:Word 10299:ISSN 10075:ISBN 9902:2017 9889:ISBN 9746:ISBN 9587:and 9577:Sfax 9565:/uː/ 9563:and 9561:/iː/ 9543:and 9525:/aw/ 9523:and 9521:/aj/ 9421:/aː/ 9419:and 9400:and 9368:and 9360:and 9349:and 9341:and 9288:and 9272:and 9249:and 9237:and 9214:and 9154:and 9124:and 9106:and 9061:الله 8992:and 8969:and 8928:and 8926:/-i/ 8874:and 8835:nor 8823:(or 8787:and 8758:/tˤ/ 8696:/ki/ 8692:/ik/ 8476:waqt 8470:qalb 8433:kalp 8394:waqt 8388:qalb 8356:qmǝr 8350:wǝqt 8347:bqar 8344:qǝlb 8305:bqar 8302:qǝlb 8266:waqt 8263:bgar 8260:qǝlb 8217:waqt 8214:bgar 8211:qǝlb 8174:kmǝr 8168:wǝkt 8162:kǝlb 8132:gmar 8126:waqt 8120:gǝlb 8085:waqt 8079:qǝlb 8036:wagt 7987:wagt 7981:galb 7946:waqt 7940:qalb 7866:gaaḷ 7825:gaal 7822:waqt 7795:Chad 7776:gaal 7773:wagt 7739:gaal 7736:wagt 7730:galb 7698:ʾaal 7695:waʾt 7689:ʾalb 7657:gaal 7654:wagt 7648:galb 7616:kaal 7613:wakt 7607:kalb 7575:ʾaal 7572:waʾt 7566:ʾalb 7484:qaal 7475:qalb 7447:gaal 7405:amar 7377:alib 7337:ʾaal 7334:waʾt 7328:ʾalb 7296:ʾaal 7293:waʾt 7287:ʾalb 7255:ʾaal 7252:waʾt 7246:ʾalb 7214:gaal 7162:gaal 7110:qaal 7101:qalb 7069:qaal 7060:qalb 7032:gaal 6986:qaal 6956:Iraq 6952:Anah 6937:qaal 6915:Iraq 6896:qaal 6887:qalb 6851:gaal 6805:gāl 6748:qaal 6739:qalb 6702:gaal 6699:wagt 6693:galb 6541:lang 6500:and 6457:and 6407:Oman 6405:and 6383:and 6350:and 6271:and 6224:and 6198:and 6170:Chad 6150:Iraq 6144:and 6117:and 6083:and 6032:for 5999:/dˤ/ 5994:/ɮˤ/ 5893:/ðˤ/ 5462:/kʼ/ 5301:/dˤ/ 5294:/ðˤ/ 5289:and 5250:and 5182:and 5075:/ʒi/ 5020:/t-/ 5014:and 5001:/-u/ 4997:/n-/ 4993:/n-/ 4989:/ʔ-/ 4972:(in 4954:and 4935:/bi/ 4901:/-ʃ/ 4857:ramā 4839:/ih/ 4835:/ah/ 4809:and 4793:/ʃa/ 4789:/ʕa/ 4785:/ħa/ 4777:/ta/ 4773:/ka/ 4767:and 4761:/bi/ 4716:has 4673:/an/ 4660:/en/ 4656:/in/ 4652:/an/ 4547:Nejd 4532:/-t/ 4517:/-n/ 4515:and 4513:/-h/ 4505:/-k/ 4476:and 4468:and 4434:shel 4403:and 4375:/uː/ 4371:/iː/ 4327:(CA) 4298:and 4290:and 3851:Gulf 3773:Iraq 3687:via 3635:and 3592:and 3544:and 3538:talk 3485:and 3467:and 3455:and 3441:end 3420:See 3357:the 3293:and 3274:and 3268:Chad 3260:Iran 2772:/dˤ/ 2768:/ðˤ/ 2764:/ðˤ/ 2760:/ɮˤ/ 2684:and 2630:fīhi 2622:kayn 2431:Nubi 2413:and 2320:and 2216:شحّي 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