Emigration from the Eastern Bloc

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with China, Mongolia and North Korea), with heavy restrictions preventing such emigration. A Hungarian economist stated that "it was quite obvious that the socialist countries—like other countries—intended to prevent their professionals, trained at the expense of their society, from being used to enrich other countries." Eastern European spokesmen maintained that they were keeping would-be emigrants from suffering from insufficient linguistic and cultural preparation. They also stressed the debt that individuals owed to socialist states, which offered care from birth, including subsidized education and training and, thus, they justified the emigration restrictions as an "education tax" with the states having a right to recoup its investment. Open emigration policies would create a "

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West. East Germany introduced a new passport law on December 11, 1957, that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving East Germany, while drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60% to well over 90% by the end of 1958. Those actually caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties, but with no physical barrier and even subway train access to West Berlin, such measures were ineffective. Accordingly, the Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape. The 3.5 million East Germans that had left by 1961 totaled approximately 20% of the entire East German population.

1708: 2107:

compensation of the damage such individuals inflicted on the socialist system, as well as reimbursement for their costs of education. However, letting some leave legally set a dangerous precedent, including the long term threat of the general public strongly moving for a right to emigrate. The Central Committee in 1988 warned that "the necessary commitment to preventing attempts to emigrate is not present in many", "the required prevailing atmosphere of opposition to these phenomena has not yet been achieved" and trade union "functionaries or brigade leaders sometimes state that they fail to understand why these citizens are not permitted to emigrate."

2505: 2547:, stating "leaving the GDR is an act of political and moral backwardness and depravity", and "workers throughout Germany will demand punishment for those who today leave the German Democratic Republic, the strong bastion of the fight for peace, to serve the deadly enemy of the German people, the imperialists and militarists". Moreover, an attempt to flee via East Germany's fortified borders involved considerable personal risk of injury or death. Estimates for those killed attempting to escape over the Berlin Wall range from 136 to just over 200. About 75,000 people were caught and imprisoned. 1770:

troops surrounding them deployed in East Germany. The completion of the Berlin Wall closed the biggest loophole in the Iron Curtain. It brought an end to a decade during which divided capital of the divided Germany was the easiest place for unauthorized east-to-west crossings. Along with the wall, the 830 miles (1,340 km) zonal border became 3.5 miles (5.6 km) wide on its East German side in some parts of Germany with a tall steel-mesh fence running along a "death strip" bordered by bands of plowed earth, to slow and to reveal the prints of those trying to escape, and mined fields.

1128:

the late 1970s, 25 years after Stalin's death, the few diplomats and foreign correspondents that were permitted inside the Soviet Union were usually restricted to within a few kilometers of Moscow, while their phones were tapped, their residences were restricted to foreigner-only locations, and they were constantly followed by Soviet authorities. Dissenters who approached such foreigners were arrested. For many years after World War II, even the best informed foreigners did not know the number of arrested or executed Soviet citizens, or how poorly the Soviet economy had performed.

2015:

treason against the state. To remove the temptation for such treason, the Soviets invested heavily in border controls, with lengthy criminal rules regarding approaching a border region. Almost no emigration occurred from the Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s, except for ethnic Armenians returning to Armenia. In 1973, the United States Congress made liberalizing the Soviet emigration policy a prerequisite for lifting trade barriers, resulting in the emigration of 370,000 Soviet citizens, mostly ethnic Jews. A second wave of emigration started in 1986–87, after

2087:, the United States and Canada. It governed various territorial agreements, frontier disputes, human rights, the threat of force and other items. The "third basket" of the Helsinki Accords contained pledges to uphold rights to international travel, family contact and freedom of information, and to promote cultural exchanges. In East Germany, while the government downplayed the existence of this provision in the media, as potential emigrants came to slowly perceive that exit visas might be attainable to some, 7,200 first time applicants applied in the late 1970s. 2002:), heightened Easterners' sense of their second-class status and this, in turn, affected their perception of economic arrangements in their own country. Walter Freidrich, director of the Leipzig Institute, complained that "shortcomings and weaknesses in our own country (e.g., problems with supply of consumer goods and spare parts; media policy; rose tinted perspectives; real democratic participation, etc) are coming increasingly into focus and subjected to sharper criticisms. To a growing extent, doubt is cast on the superiority of socialism." 1638:", forcing the state to readjust its wage structure at a cost to other economic priorities. Bulgarian and Romanian representatives had long argued that they could not afford to match western salaries and, without emigration restrictions, they "would become like Africa." The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states that had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union, such that crossing borders seemed more natural—especially between East and West Germany where no prior border existed. 2120:

applicants had already held vigils calling for legal emigration since the late 1970s. The movement and application figures grew by the late 1980s as the east–west prosperity gap widened resulting in West German citizenship looking more attractive, while authorities were at a loss how to address the application rise. Increasing visa grants in the late 1980s accompanying a 1988 decision to prioritize those for citizens who engaged in protests provided incentives to further expand the movement. The East German

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state." Much was left to administrative discretion and unpublished internal directives, with the odds against eventually receiving after years of the process being extremely high. Like in the Soviet Union, attempting to leave without permissions to a non-Eastern Bloc state was punishable as treason, with Albania and Romania invoking the death penalty for such offenses. Even after families applied to leave to join refugees fleeing during the confusion of the

1355: 1625:. In 1955, the Soviet Union passed a law transferring control over civilian access in Berlin to East Germany, which officially abdicated the Soviets from direct responsibility of matters therein, while passing control to a regime not recognized in the west. When large numbers of East Germans then defected under the guise of "visits", the new East German state essentially eliminated all travel to the west in 1956. Soviet ambassador to East Germany 128: 1699:

so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the Soviet imperial frontier was imperative. At the same time, there were positive consequences of the emigration for the East German regime, including the removal of anti-Russian nationalists and vocal opponents, which might have helped East Germany government to avoid some of the unrest that developed in Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia.

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Hungarians, and ethnic Jews), Romania (ethnic Germans, ethnic Jews), and Yugoslavia (ethnic Turks and other Muslims). Most Soviets allowed to leave during this time period were ethnic Jews permitted to immigrate to Israel after a series of embarrassing defections in 1970 caused the Soviets to open very limited ethnic emigrations. About 10% of emigrants were refugee migrants under the

1719: 1447: 1530:. Until the early 1950s, the lines between German occupation zones could be easily crossed. Taking advantage of this route, the number of Eastern Europeans applying for political asylum in West Germany was 197,000 in 1950, 165,000 in 1951, 182,000 in 1952 and 331,000 in 1953. One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further 2134:

receiving payment for political prisoner release to the west to include "family reunification." The political prisoner payments became so large that East Germany accounted for them in their state economic planning process. Emigration restriction liberalisation in 1989 followed another flood of outmigration to West Germany during the

1601: 1686:

shortages. The farmers that remained were disinclined to do more than produce for their own needs because fixed procurement prices meant little profit, and conspicuous production invited hasty inclusion in a collective or state farm. The exodus intensified existing shortages of goods and services in the

1693:

By 1960, the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61% of its population of working age, compared to 70.5% before the war. The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals—engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled

1546:

In 1948, in the debate of a Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Soviets objected to the language that "everyone has the right to leave any country including his own." Arguing that "it would encourage emigration", the Soviets wanted to add the phrase "in accordance with the procedure laid down

1757:

called a rare press conference, insisting that "no one has any intention of building a wall," but made clear that "the outflow has to stop." He added "it goes without saying that the so-called refugee camps in West Berlin"—the transit camps at which refugees were processed en route from West Berlin

1620:

Up until 1952, the lines between Soviet-occupied eastern Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places. Accordingly, before 1961, most of that east–west flow took place between East and West Germany, with over 3.5 million East Germans emigrating to West Germany before

1119:

later stated "We were scared, really scared. We were afraid the thaw might unleash a flood, which we wouldn't be able to control and which could drown us. How could it drown us? It could have overflowed the banks of the Soviet riverbed and formed a tidal wave that which would have washed away all

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chanting anti-government protests: "Noi suntem poporul!" ("We are the people!"), "Armata e cu noi!" ("The army is on our side!"), "Nu vă fie frică, Ceauşescu pică!" ("Have no fear, Ceauşescu will fall"). The Romanian military changed sides, turning on Ceauşescu, who was executed after a brief trial

2362:

A wave of refugees left East Germany for the West through Czechoslovakia, which was tolerated by the new Krenz government and in agreement with the Czechoslovak government. In order to ease the complications, the Krenz-led Politburo had decided on 9 November to allow East Germans to travel directly

2124:

party conceded that "he emigration problem is confronting us with a fundamental problem of 's development" and this challenge "threatens to undermine beliefs in the correctness of the party's policies." The move accompanied a growing dissolving of confidence that the problems facing socialism could

1981:

Providing further emigration pressure was the growing gap in living standards between western Europe and the Eastern Bloc after the 1960s. Everyday complaints over consumer goods, supplies or wages could all too readily lead to comparisons with Western conditions. The quality of goods displayed by

1698:

later claiming that West Germany owed him $ 17 billion in compensation, including reparations as well as manpower losses. In addition, the drain of East Germany's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment. The brain drain of professionals had become

1629:

observed that "the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately, does not always turn out in favor of the Democratic Berlin."

1127:

had already effectively sealed off outside access to the Soviet Socialist Republics (and until his death in 1953), effectively permitting no foreign travel inside the Soviet Union such that outsiders did not know of the political processes that had taken place therein. During this period, and until

1966:

Albania's tight security allowed almost no emigration, while almost all of East Germany's emigration took place before the erection of the Berlin Wall. Because of East Germany's cultural affinity with West Germany and the viewing of West German television depicting western life throughout most of

1769:

separating East and West Berlin was erected by East Germany. Two days later, police and army engineers began to construct a more permanent concrete wall. The construction briefly caused fears of a military crisis, though only 11,000 western troops were located in Berlin compared to 500,000 Soviet

1633:

Restrictions implemented in the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War stopped most east–west migration, with only 13.3 million migrations westward between 1950 and 1990. By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc (along

1538:

in late 1952 and early 1953. 226,000 had fled in just the first six months of 1953. Because of the lack of resources and space in West Germany, at the request of Truman in 1952, the United States increased its resettlement admissions quotas under the United States Escapee Program (USEP). After the

1427:

In addition, media in the Eastern Bloc served as an organ of the state, completely reliant on, and subservient to, the ruling Communist parties, with radio and television organizations being state-owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the ruling Communist

2119:

demanding asylum in the west while seven East Germans did so in the library of the United States embassy in West Berlin. The authorities relented, and that year witnessed a huge rise in legal emigration, with applications swelling to 57,600, 29,800 of which were granted. Small groups of organized

2014:

were governed by two laws: (i) illegal traveling abroad without a passport was a crime punishable by one to three years in prison, even in cases where the destination was another Eastern Bloc country; and (ii) illegal defection to a non-Eastern Bloc state and refusal to return home was considered

1778:

Thereafter, only 5,000 crossed the Berlin Wall between 1961 and 1989. Consequently, after the erection of the Wall, the total net emigration from Central and Eastern Europe fell even further to 1.9 million between 1960 and 1969 and 1.1 million between 1970 and 1979. This increased somewhat to 2.3

1646:

With the closing of the Inner German border officially in 1952, the city sector border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying powers. Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the

1423:

and Soviet secret police to suppress real and potential opposition. Communist regimes in the Eastern Bloc saw even marginal groups of opposition intellectuals as a potential threat because of the bases underlying Communist power therein. The suppression of dissidence and opposition was a central

1077:

In 1929, even more strict controls were introduced, decreeing that any Soviet official serving abroad who went over "to the camp of the enemies of the working class and the peasants" and refused to return would be executed within twenty-four hours of being apprehended. In 1932, as Stalin's first

2372:

and other checkpoints along the wall, crossing into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors, but it became clear that there was no one among the East German authorities who would dare to take personal responsibility for issuing

2030:

approvals an applicant must obtain beyond the passport office—including local police, employers and the state housing commission—with no time limit set for action. Applications could be denied, without appeal, on a variety of subjective grounds, such as national security and "the interest of the

2528:

Although international movement was, for the most part, strictly controlled, there was a steady loss through escapees who were able to use ingenious methods to evade frontier security. Some of the people who tried to escape were in fact East german guards or soldiers. Some of them used military

2133:

By the late 1980s, Hungary had allowed citizens over fifty five years old to leave and liberalized family reunification emigration, along with increased travel permissions. Romania also liberalized emigration for family reunification purposes. By the mid-1980s, East Germany extended its program

2035:

in 1968, Czechoslovak authorities informed them "it is contrary to the State's interest to allow Czechoslovak citizens long-term private sojourns abroad, and that includes emigration. However, emigration was also used as a sort of release valve to hasten the departure of limited prominent vocal

1672:

among the refugees. Andropov reported that, while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons, testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material. He stated "the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical

2485:

Technically the Berlin Wall remained guarded for some time after 9 November though at a decreasing intensity. On 13 June 1990, the official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military began in Bernauer Straße. On 1 July, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all border

1685:

problem of 50,000 East Berliners working in West Berlin. Rural citizens disaffected after collectivization campaigns also caused the flight of tens of thousands of farmers, including one third of the wealthier farmers, leaving over 10% of East Germany's arable land fallow and resulting in food

2149:

signaled the trend toward greater liberalization. Emigration increased following liberalizations passed in 1986. For example, the flow of ethnic Germans from the Eastern Bloc dramatically increased from 42,786 per year in 1986 to 202,673 in 1988. The Soviet Union was facing a period of severe

1783:

came to power in the mid-1980s. More than 75% of those emigrating from Eastern Bloc countries between 1950 and 1990 did so under bilateral agreements for "ethnic migration", and religious minorities, such as those from Bulgaria (ethnic Turks and other Muslims), Poland (ethnic Germans, ethnic

1432:

rather than intensive development, and lagged far behind their western European counterparts in per capita Gross Domestic Product. Empty shelves in shops even in East Germany provided an open reminder of the inaccuracy of propaganda regarding purported magnificent and uninterrupted economic

2106:

exported 70,000 political prisoners to West Germany, in exchange for 70,000 DM per head paid by West Germany, which netted East Germany 3.4 billion Deutsche Marks at a time when it was in financial crisis. East Germany viewed the payments they received for the release not as ransom, but as

2110:

The regimes' strategy was to grant applications selectively and with long delays in a process that was designed to be demeaning, frustrating and leading to years of applicants waiting for a departure date that would never arrive. In addition, while waiting, applicants were subject to open

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from the Soviet Union, and were assigned harsh sentences, including death sentences for the two leaders, which were later commuted to 15 years in a labor camp. At least six attempted skyjacking defection attempts were made from Armenia, the Soviet Union, and Lithuania from 1970 to 1971.

2286:

organization was legalized, allowed to participate in parliamentary elections and captured a stunning 99 out of the 100 available parliamentary seats (with the one remaining seat taken by an independent candidate). Hungary had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political

1752:

strengthening, emigration through Berlin began to swell, with 144,000 in 1949, 199,000 in 1960 and 207,000 in the first seven months of 1961 alone. Orderly planning had become almost impossible in East Germany, with entire towns existing without physicians, crops going unharvested and

2458:, then aged 71, was re-elected for another five years as leader of the Romanian Communist Party, signaling that he intended to ride out the anti-Communist uprisings sweeping the rest of Eastern Europe. As Ceauşescu prepared to go on a state visit to Iran, on 16 December 1989, his 1399:

was the unique symbiosis of the state with society and the economy, resulting in politics and economics losing their distinctive features as autonomous and distinguishable spheres. Initially, Stalin directed systems that rejected Western institutional characteristics of

1621:

1961, which comprised most of the total net emigration of 4.0 million emigrants from all of Central and Eastern Europe between 1950 and 1959. In response to growing numbers crossing the borders, the Soviet Union instituted tighter border controls around their zone, the

1094:, these rules greatly restricted mobility within even small areas. When the Soviet Constitution of 1936 was promulgated, virtually no legal emigration took place, except for very limited family reunification and some forced deportations. Very small numbers snuck into 2482:, a new package of regulations went into effect on 3 July 1990 entitling all Albanians over the age of 16 to own a passport for foreign travel. Meanwhile, hundreds of Albanian citizens gathered around foreign embassies to seek political asylum and flee the country. 1483:. At least two million people perished due to flight and expulsion, 400,000 to 600,000 of whom by physical force. Almost all of these occurred between 1944 and 1948. The total figures include a considerable exodus of Germans from areas near the front lines as the 1044:, the new regime instituted passport controls and forbade the exit of belligerent nationals. The reasoning was partly that emigration was conflated with opposition to the socialist state and also the fear that emigration would inflate opposition armies. The 1918 2469:

Rioting followed the arrest. Returning from Iran, Ceauşescu ordered a mass rally in his support outside Communist Party headquarters in Bucharest. However, to his shock, the crowd booed as he spoke. Mass protests followed, with about 100,000 protesters occupying

2006:

reports complained about individuals who had been given privileged access to travel to the West for work with "stories of the 'overwhelming range of commodities available . . . or with reports of East German goods on sale there at knock-down prices."

1069:

issued general rules for travel that foreclosed virtually all departures, making legal emigration all but impossible. However, the Soviet Union could not control its borders until a system of border guards was created through a special corps of the

2367:

misstated the news and stated that East Germans could leave for the West effective immediately. As rumors spread, before the regulations were to go effect, on the night of 9 November, tens of thousands of Eastern Berliners flooded

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discrimination, faced workplace firing or demotion, were denied university access, and were forced to relinquish their passports resulting in the denial of travel rights even within their country of residence. In 1984, twenty-five

1048:

obligated Russia to allow emigration of non-Russians who wanted German citizenship, but the regime attempted to reduce this flow by allowing it during only one month. Beginning in 1919, travel abroad required the approval of the

2350:

remained opposed to internal reform, with his regime even going so far as forbidding the circulation of Soviet publications that it viewed as subversive. Faced with ongoing and increasing civil unrest, the ruling

2301:

with Austria. The next month, more than 13,000 East German tourists in Hungary escaped to Austria, while Hungary prevented a larger number of East Germans from crossing the border, returning them to Budapest. The

1667:

Director on Relations with Communist and Workers Parties of Socialist Countries wrote an urgent letter, on August 28, 1958, to the Central Committee about the significant 50% increase in the number of East German

1303:). By 1945, these additional annexed countries totaled approximately 465,000 additional square kilometers (180,000 square miles), or slightly more than the area of West Germany, East Germany and Austria combined. 2373:

orders to use lethal force, so there was no way for the vastly outnumbered soldiers to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Therefore, the border checkpoints were opened, although it is disputed

2165:(economic restructuring). Though glasnost advocated openness and political criticism, at the time, it was only permitted in accordance with the political views of the ruling powers. The general public in the 2345:

leader Helmut Hackenberg and others not receiving precise orders for such action from a surprised East Berlin. These were followed by even larger protests exceeding 300,000 the next week. East German leader

1392:(the leading people). The Soviets promoted the reverence of Russian actions and characteristics, and the construction of Soviet Communist structural hierarchies in the other countries of the Eastern Bloc. 2138:

indirectly through third countries—such as Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland—which accelerated the demise of the East German government when the closure of the borders precipitated demonstrations.

1523:, about four million ethnic Germans were prevented from leaving by advancing Soviet troops or deported to remote areas of the Soviet Union as part of Stalin's policy towards the German population. 1616:

after nine years separation from their parents was the first time since the Cold War closed the borders that anyone under 65 years old had been allowed to leave Hungary to be reunited with family.

2486:

controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that. That month, the final obstacle to German reunification was removed when West German Chancellor

668: 3327:

Detlef Brandes, Der Weg zur Vertreibung 1938–1945: Pläne und Entscheidungen zum "Transfer" der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei und aus Polen, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2005, pp.398ff,

2435:. In February 1990 the Party voluntarily gave up its claim on power and in June 1990 the first free elections since 1931 were held, won by the moderate wing of the Communist Party, renamed the 2337:

By 9 October 1989, just after the celebrations for the 40th anniversary of East Germany thousands of protesters gathered, what had begun as a few hundred gatherers at the Nikolai Church in

366: 2341:

chanting "Wir sind das Volk!" ("We are the people!"). Although some demonstrators were arrested, the threat of large-scale intervention by security forces never materialized, with

1424:

prerequisite for the security of Communist power within the Eastern Bloc, though the degree of opposition and dissident suppression varied by country and time throughout the Bloc.

1115:

The mobilization of labor in the Soviet Union was not feasible if emigration remained an option with the relative low standard of living that existed at that time. Soviet Premier

5895: 2043:

became the only communist country in Europe to allow its citizens to emigrate. Others qualified as refugees claiming to "escape" during crises, such as those fleeing during the

1471:

fled or were expelled, Barbara Marshall estimates that the number of ethnic Germans fleeing or expelled from the Eastern Bloc was "about fifteen million." mostly in and from

2539:

attempts to leave East Germany constituted a criminal act and carried severe penalties. Regarding the reasoning for such restrictions, a propaganda booklet published by the

7319: 2638:

While media sources often reported high level defections, non-prominent defections usually went unreported. The number of non-public "black stream" defectors is not known.

2519:

to the United States and denounced Stalin's regime and the Soviet government. In 1984 she returned to the USSR, where she applied for and was granted Soviet citizenship.

4897:

Where Did They All Come From? Typology and Geography of European Mass Migration In the Twentieth Century; EUROPEAN POPULATION CONFERENCE CONGRESS EUROPEAN DE DEMOGRAPHE

1753:

fifty-five-year-olds put to work running street cars. The East German economy was on the verge of collapse. With fears of drastic action in Berlin, on July 15, 1961

5300: 431: 658: 2208:

obstinately ignored the calls for change. "When your neighbor puts up new wallpaper, it doesn't mean you have to too," declared one East German politburo member.

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later described the decision to emigrate as "unnatural and like burying someone alive." Those wishing to leave were viewed not just as deserters, but traitors.

663: 482: 3297:, Oxford University Press, 2007, p.419: "largest population movement between European countries in the twentieth century and one of the largest of all time." 6621: 6402: 738: 992: 2026:

Because of various international accords, non-Soviet Eastern Bloc countries did not explicitly ban emigration. Instead, they introduced a long series of

3345:

Klaus Rehbein, Die westdeutsche Oder/Neisse-Debatte: Hintergründe, Prozess und Ende des Bonner Tabus, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2005, pp.19,20,

996: 536: 467: 1526:

Before 1950, over 15 million immigrants emigrated from Soviet-occupied eastern European countries to the west in the five years immediately following

6119: 1256: 5875: 2490:

convinced Gorbachev to drop Soviet objections to a reunited Germany within NATO in return for substantial German economic aid to the Soviet Union.

5338: 1572: 1479:, making it the largest movement of any European people in modern history. The expulsions had been agreed upon before the end of the war by the 1458: 722: 2330:

negotiated an agreement that allowed them to travel to the West, in trains that had to pass first through East Germany. When the trains passed

1519:, the majority of people living in the newly acquired areas aspired for independence and wanted the Soviet troops to leave. While millions of 1428:

party. Furthermore, the Eastern Bloc experienced economic mis-development by central planners resulting in those countries following a path of

882: 3199:

Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski, Population resettlement in international conflicts: a comparative study, Lexington Books, 2007, p.100,

2619:, who was famously photographed jumping the Berlin wall while it was under construction, and a number of European football players, including 1384:

Throughout the Eastern Bloc, both in the Soviet Union and the rest of the Bloc, the Russian SFSR was given prominence, and referred to as the

3218:

Peter H. Schuck, Rainer Münz, Paths to Inclusion: The Integration of Migrants in the United States and Germany, Berghahn Books, 1997, p.156,

1040:

Although the first program of the Bolshevik movement in Russia included a demand for the "abolition of passports", just two months after the

3238: 204: 6042: 5215: 5177: 3975: 923:

was in most cases only possible in order to reunite families or to allow members of minority ethnic groups to return to their homelands.

472: 296: 5743: 1335: 1071: 2234: 6650: 6455: 2677: 249: 85: 3948: 7215: 6493: 6397: 5931: 2564: 1408:" in Soviet parlance) and the rule of law subduing discretional intervention by the state. The Soviets mandated expropriation and 1174: 372: 3647: 2150:

economic decline and needed Western technology. Subsidies to foreign client states further strained the moribund Soviet economy.

1520: 6047: 2242: 6597: 6349: 5426: 5363: 1867: 1371: 1178: 583: 164: 3335: 3208: 1608:

greets her 11-year-old son László on September 17, 1956. When the Cold War closed the borders in 1948, László and his brother

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workers. The direct cost of manpower losses has been estimated at $ 7 billion to $ 9 billion, with East German party leader

1612:

were unable to rejoin their parents after they abandoned them to go to the United States. The boys' release from behind the

6535: 5991: 5981: 5183: 2298: 2225: 1593: 600: 417: 301: 194: 159: 6942: 2250: 6027: 5358: 2556: 1664: 1222: 1198: 1083: 1079: 1029: 219: 199: 45: 7421: 6424: 2563:

There were three hijackings of airliners by GDR citizens in order to escape to West Germany; the most well-known is the

2416:

appointed the first largely non-Communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, and resigned, in what was called the

702: 6656: 6412: 5996: 5823: 5188: 5141: 1218: 1058: 875: 620: 491: 326: 244: 174: 169: 154: 7397: 7087: 6992: 6661: 5270: 5255: 5102: 5084: 5066: 5048: 5028: 5010: 4992: 4971: 4949: 4931: 4913: 4886: 4868: 4850: 4832: 4814: 4792: 4774: 4753: 4735: 4717: 4699: 4668: 4650: 4632: 4614: 4596: 4578: 4560: 4392: 3502: 3478: 3449: 3350: 3332: 3302: 3278: 3223: 3204: 3185: 3137: 2986: 2925: 2710: 2405: 2048: 2032: 1743: 1035: 311: 276: 214: 189: 184: 6957: 2075:

The "Rear Wall" was located on the East Berlin side, with a "death strip" of mines and other items between the walls

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In addition, emigration restrictions were used to keep secrecy about life in the Soviet Union. Starting in 1935,

7554: 6734: 6617: 6468: 6407: 6224: 6154: 5905: 5788: 5783: 5389: 5208: 2427:, on 10 November 1989 — the day after the mass crossings across the Berlin Wall — Bulgaria's long-serving leader 2381: 2323: 2295: 2283: 2193: 2112: 2095: 2052: 1987: 1929: 1894: 1855: 1823: 1327: 1319: 1315: 839: 546: 500: 286: 224: 209: 4367: 6478: 6062: 5353: 4409: 2499: 2279: 2091: 1975: 1913: 1311: 764: 321: 306: 255: 6894: 1956:

1948–1982; All ethnic Jews, Germans and Armenians; other emigration impossible except for ethnic and familial

6739: 6488: 6234: 5833: 5818: 2447: 2388:, increasing protests swelled to an estimated half-million Czechs and Slovaks demanding freedoms. A two-hour 2201: 2102:(DM) per ethnic German permitted to leave, which was increased to 7,800 DM in 1983 and to 11,000 DM in 1988. 1487:

advanced towards German-settled areas. Many were aware of the Soviet reprisals on German civilians, such as

1323: 868: 854: 588: 342: 260: 138: 3497:

Earl R. Beck, Under the Bombs: The German Home Front, 1942–1945, University Press of Kentucky, 1999, p.176,

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of 1975 were an important Cold War-era agreement signed by most European countries, including those of the

2044: 1906: 1540: 1087: 849: 804: 759: 568: 563: 558: 7559: 7533: 7092: 6709: 6483: 6124: 6037: 5890: 5763: 4474:

Center for Contemporary Historical Research (Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam e.V) in German

1707: 1245: 336: 7487: 7455: 6342: 6189: 5843: 5838: 5201: 3444:

Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, 2005, pp.197,198,

1241: 1158: 1041: 819: 630: 347: 4942:

Dissent and Opposition in Communist Eastern Europe: Origins of Civil Society and Democratic Transition

4357:

Steele, Jonathan. Eternal Russia: Yeltsin, Gorbachev and the Mirage of Democracy. Boston: Faber, 1994.

2334:

central station in early October, police forces had to stop people from trying to jump on the trains.

7271: 6909: 6787: 6204: 5158: 4499: 4471: 4459: 3398: 2436: 732: 3180:

Jürgen Weber, Germany, 1945–1990: A Parallel History, Central European University Press, 2004, p.2,

1543:, 171,000 Hungarian refugees crossed the border into Austria, while 20,000 crossed into Yugoslavia. 7429: 7231: 7007: 6924: 6219: 6169: 5808: 5798: 5567: 5328: 2471: 62: 5665: 3473:

Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, 2005, p.198,

1718: 7279: 7239: 7191: 6934: 6862: 6704: 6630: 6434: 6270: 6209: 6149: 6052: 5976: 5936: 5803: 5793: 5572: 5489: 5421: 5333: 3235: 2628: 2055:

events and various events that occurred in East Germany, Bulgaria and Albania in the late 1980s.

1045: 900: 814: 6583: 3382:'s Bureau for Inner Affairs, outlines the stance of the respective governmental institutions in 1866:

1946–1982; 1.57 million Germans expelled in 1946 and 200,000 Czechs and Slovaks fled during the

1609: 1605: 1547:

in the laws of that country", with only Poland and Saudi Arabia supporting the Soviet proposal.

976:

became a loophole through which defection could occur. This was closed with the erection of the

541: 7370: 7327: 7295: 7017: 6671: 6174: 5986: 5557: 5404: 2682: 2535:(fugitives from the Republic) was used for anyone wishing to leave to non-socialist countries. 2463: 2327: 1480: 1379: 1090:("place of residence") permits, and internal freedom of movement restrictions often called the 673: 573: 6573: 3983: 3654:

states "Between 1945 and 1961, around 3.6 million people left the Soviet zone and East Berlin"

3246:, Steffen Prauser and Arfon Rees, European University Institute, Florense. HEC No. 2004/1. p.4 2318:

protesters demanding rights such as the freedom to travel to foreign countries and to elect a

2287:

liberalization during the 1980s, but major reforms only occurred following the replacement of

2176:

Believing Gorbachev's reform initiatives would be short-lived, orthodox Communist rulers like

553: 7564: 6857: 6754: 6666: 6625: 6439: 6335: 6275: 6229: 6214: 6179: 5966: 5910: 5499: 5265: 2504: 2319: 1488: 1375: 1339: 844: 829: 707: 462: 443: 7378: 4426:

Wer die Deutsche Demokratische Republik verläßt, stellt sich auf die Seite der Kriegstreiber

3236:

The Expulsion of 'German' Communities from Eastern Europe at the end of the Second World War

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came to power, with most emigrants being ethnic Jews, ethnic Germans, Armenians, Greeks or

1492: 1343: 1186: 1082:

forced collectivization, to allocate scarce housing and weed out "nonproductive" elements,

1021: 931: 774: 769: 749: 515: 7110: 7032: 5454: 2455: 2364: 2205: 8: 6817: 6719: 6698: 6692: 6129: 6104: 5900: 5885: 5484: 5224: 3387: 2624: 2600: 2580: 2508: 2275: 2221: 2217: 2135: 1749: 1735: 1622: 1415:

The Soviet-style "replica regimes" that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced the Soviet

1405: 1214: 809: 7042: 5615: 2288: 610: 7569: 7413: 6947: 6729: 6612: 6072: 5961: 5956: 5946: 5941: 4960: 4803: 4551:

Black, Cyril E.; English, Robert D.; Helmreich, Jonathan E.; McAdams, James A. (2000),

2657: 2652: 2369: 1582: 1359: 1288: 1108: 799: 505: 452: 6967: 5431: 3642: 7405: 7082: 6904: 6714: 6250: 5880: 5768: 5725: 5720: 5670: 5464: 5459: 5240: 5116: 5098: 5080: 5062: 5044: 5038: 5024: 5006: 4988: 4967: 4945: 4927: 4909: 4882: 4864: 4846: 4828: 4810: 4788: 4770: 4762: 4749: 4731: 4713: 4695: 4664: 4646: 4628: 4610: 4592: 4574: 4556: 4388: 4371: 3498: 3482: 3474: 3453: 3445: 3432: 3346: 3328: 3298: 3274: 3219: 3200: 3181: 3133: 2982: 2921: 2901: 2706: 2612: 2608: 2588: 2417: 2413: 2259: 2197: 2146: 2142: 2016: 1785: 1780: 1626: 1194: 1162: 1116: 935: 727: 653: 510: 4423: 7448: 7311: 7135: 7077: 6962: 6952: 6392: 6199: 6067: 5700: 5605: 5552: 5474: 5409: 5290: 4980: 2979:

The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956

2604: 2451: 2267: 2254:

West Germans curiously peer at East German border guards through a hole in the wall

2080: 1687: 1429: 1210: 939: 520: 7052: 2278:, sometimes called the "Autumn of Nations", swept across the Eastern Bloc. In the 7263: 7223: 7130: 7125: 7115: 6972: 6607: 6568: 6429: 6265: 6255: 6114: 6022: 5343: 5318: 5295: 5184:

Information about the Iron Curtain with a detailed map and how to make it by bike

4962:

Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty

3651: 3383: 3242: 2616: 2592: 2409: 2307: 2153:

The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of

1754: 1695: 1678: 1496: 1463:

At the end of, and following World War II, at least twelve million ethnic German

1450: 1416: 1307: 1091: 912: 712: 615: 50: 7520: 6982: 6867: 5610: 2374: 2071: 1577: 1556: 7343: 7255: 7207: 7120: 7047: 7022: 6852: 6749: 6744: 6290: 6194: 5710: 5690: 5469: 5250: 5151: 2596: 2584: 2544: 2531: 2462:

ordered the arrest and exile of a local Hungarian-speaking Calvinist minister,

2432: 2389: 2347: 2181: 1669: 1564: 1512: 1468: 1401: 1280: 916: 824: 635: 2620: 1924:

1946–1982; 1.3 million Aussiedler (German origin through East German program)

1600: 7548: 7515: 7462: 7335: 7057: 7002: 6899: 6827: 6759: 6593: 6295: 6285: 6280: 6164: 6032: 5715: 5695: 5675: 5655: 5630: 5587: 5529: 5519: 5348: 3598:

Iron Curtain Parted, Sons Join Parents in Monterey after Nine-year Separation

2667: 2647: 2632: 2512: 2428: 2189: 2170: 2099: 1723: 1660: 1535: 1531: 1464: 1420: 1300: 1190: 1124: 1062: 834: 697: 625: 578: 362: 4859:

Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam, Adam Bruno; Freeze, Gregory L. (1997),

4410:"A communist soldier made a daring escape through the Berlin Wall in an APC" 7072: 7062: 6822: 6473: 6370: 6358: 6159: 5778: 5705: 5660: 5394: 5285: 5260: 5159:

Comprehensive Gallery (1961 to 1990) from the website Chronicle of the Wall

5136: 2662: 2443: 2397: 2315: 2177: 2166: 2103: 2084: 2020: 2011: 1945: 1874: 1789: 1613: 1560: 1527: 1516: 1500: 1476: 1472: 1396: 1367: 1331: 1292: 1272: 1237: 1233: 1226: 1202: 1147: 1137: 1066: 1012: 988: 965: 961: 954: 946: 908: 904: 896: 291: 117: 5169: 5163: 5146: 4370:. The term is a play on a more widely used term for 1848 revolutions, the 4342: 2392:, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was held on 27 November 1989. 1441: 7287: 7140: 7067: 6837: 6832: 6803: 6522: 5758: 5645: 5620: 5562: 5524: 5514: 5384: 4383:

E. Szafarz, "The Legal Framework for Political Cooperation in Europe" in

2543:(SED) in 1955 for the use of party agitators outlined the seriousness of 2487: 2393: 2338: 2263: 2246:

East German border guard viewed through a hole in the Berlin Wall in 1990

2161: 2094:

in exchange for financial inducements, including large loans. Similarly,

2027: 1986:, where visitors would buy premium goods with foreign currency (see also 1886: 1766: 1762: 1739: 1727: 1711: 1656: 1635: 1264: 1206: 1074:(GPU), such that by 1928, even illegal departure was all but impossible. 977: 973: 969: 942: 754: 744: 394: 353: 331: 104: 66: 58: 54: 4746:

Driving the Soviets Up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953–1961

4385:

The Changing Political Structure of Europe: Aspects of International Law

2238:

East German border guards look through a hole in the Berlin Wall in 1990

1197:, central and eastern Ukraine were annexed into the Soviet Union as the 6260: 6134: 5748: 5534: 5479: 5449: 5379: 2459: 2356: 2040: 1154: 927: 920: 717: 595: 5193: 4428:("He Who Leaves the German Democratic Republic Joins the Warmongers")" 3863:

Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century

3407: 7247: 7037: 6919: 6512: 6375: 6300: 6094: 5813: 5753: 5635: 5245: 2576: 2529:

vehicles to smash through the Berlin wall. In East Germany, the term

2516: 1983: 1779:

million between 1980 and 1989 with increased ethnic emigration after

1276: 1103: 1025: 950: 605: 407: 4643:

Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945–1989: Judgements on the Street

3795:

Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961

2515:, pictured with her father in 1935. Alliluyeva defected in 1967 via 1354: 1244:

that were originally effectively ceded to it by Nazi Germany in the

5650: 5625: 5582: 5416: 5399: 5323: 5077:

From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941

2155: 2058: 1655:

The emigrants tended to be young and well educated, leading to the

1484: 1166: 1142: 779: 477: 37: 5189:

1996 Interview with Viktor Belenko, who escaped in a Mig-25 Foxbat

4472:

http://www.chronik-der-mauer.de/index.php/de/Start/Index/id/593792

2063: 1970: 6558: 6517: 5577: 4500:"The Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators – Gapan Organization" 3379: 3207:: "...largest movement of any European people in modern history" 2479: 2401: 2331: 1999: 1296: 1284: 1268: 1182: 1095: 457: 401: 358: 4861:

Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German–Soviet Relations, 1922–1941

1730:

just after being shot in 1962 while trying to escape to the west

6327: 5504: 5021:

The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany

4661:

Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement

4439: 2635:

also emigrated to France in a fashion comparable to defection.

2385: 2271: 2116: 2090:

West Germany negotiated the exodus of some ethnic Germans from

1499:

machine. Many of these ethnic Germans also fled to the future

1260: 1252: 1106:, but the bulk of the population remained essentially captive. 1099: 1053:, with the additional consent of the Special Department of the 999:

under bilateral agreements, and a small number of other cases.

981: 6772: 5059:

The East European economy in context: communism and transition

1967:

East Germany, East Germany was more prone to population loss.

1446: 3315:

Text of Churchill Speech in Commons on Soviet=Polish Frontier

2700: 2555:

On June 15, 1970, twelve mostly Jewish defectors were caught

2355:(SED) deposed Honecker in mid-October, and replaced him with 2322:. With regard to East Germans demanding emigration rights in 2003: 1995: 1991: 1568: 1170: 1054: 270: 5153:

One lucky escape from Communist Romania to the United States

4677:

Dowty, Alan (1988), "The Assault on Freedom of Emigration",

4550: 3962: 2262:

in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its

2159:(openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for 1395:

The defining characteristic of communism implemented in the

5003:

Impunity and human rights in international law and practice

3295:

Barbarism and civilization: a history of Europe in our time

2408:

announced that it would relinquish power and dismantle the

1641: 1050: 984: 316: 281: 144: 5301:

Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe

5280: 4553:

Rebirth: A Political History of Europe since World War II

3050:

The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy

2703:

Moments in Time: 50 Years of Associated Press News Photos

2396:

and other obstructions were removed from the border with

4710:

A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century

1681:

saw not only a problem from "brain drain", but also the

1550: 1521:

ethnic Germans fled or were expelled from Eastern Europe

1007: 2125:

ever be solved and whether that system was the future.

1442:

Fleeing and expelled ethnic Germans in the Eastern Bloc

4785:

The dream that failed: reflections on the Soviet Union

926:

Eastern Bloc governments argued that strict limits to

2920:, New York : Manchester University Press, 1995, 2291:

as General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1988.

739:

De-satellization of the Socialist Republic of Romania

5178:

Borders: spotting the past along Berlin death strip.

4985:

Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953

2384:, following the suppression of a student protest in 1773: 1495:, were also, in part, exaggerated and spread by the 4460:

Chronik der Mauer: Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer

1799:

Emigration from Eastern Bloc countries through 1982

4959: 4802: 4571:Regulation of Migration: International Experiences 2211: 1702: 1419:, but also adopted the brutal methods employed by 1342:occurred in 1948 followed by the formation of the 1120:the barriers and retaining walls of our society." 1016:Rare Soviet "type 2" visa for permanent emigration 5095:A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II 4858: 4800: 4625:People on the move: new migration flows in Europe 4622: 4607:Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after 4128: 4116: 4104: 4092: 4080: 4068: 4051: 3268: 1940:1946–1982; many were Aussiedler (ethnic Germans) 1349: 7546: 5170:The Lost Border: Photographs of the Iron Curtain 5147:The Lost Border: Photographs of the Iron Curtain 4726:Hardt, John Pearce; Kaufman, Richard F. (1995), 3307: 3052:, Third Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005. 2570: 2059:1975 Helsinki Accords and restrictive strategies 1489:Soviet soldiers committing rape and other crimes 1334:from the Soviet zone of German occupation. The 5339:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union 4939: 4432:Notizbuch des Agitators ("Agitator's Notebook") 3641:Senate Chancellery, Governing Mayor of Berlin, 3512: 3510: 3366:The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich 3115: 2701:Perkes, Dan; Hal Buell; Norm Goldstein (1984), 2623:. Famous Czech defectors include tennis player 1573:Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic 1338:was also considered part of the Bloc, though a 1131: 6120:Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria 4906:Post-communism and the Media in Eastern Europe 4482: 4480: 3845: 3843: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3195: 3193: 3130:Post-communism and the Media in Eastern Europe 2961: 2959: 2957: 2611:. Famous East German defectors include writer 2431:was ousted by his Politburo and replaced with 1358:A line for the distribution of cooking oil in 6788: 6343: 5209: 4843:To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949 4825:The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path 4728:East-Central European Economies in Transition 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3111: 3109: 2930: 2856: 1232:During the final stages of World War II, the 876: 5000: 4801:Lipschitz, Leslie; McDonald, Donogh (1990), 4725: 4518: 4516: 4377: 4326: 4324: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4047: 4045: 3873: 3871: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3507: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3438: 3321: 3151: 3100: 3085: 3073: 2846: 2844: 2627:who defected to the United States after the 2583:(though she returned in 1984), Mig-25 pilot 945:argued that they represented a violation of 4477: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4012: 3929: 3919: 3917: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3898: 3840: 3821: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3746: 3744: 3731: 3729: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3607: 3580: 3578: 3264: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3190: 3027: 2954: 2898:Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above 2875: 2873: 2871: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2258:By 1989, the Soviet Union had repealed the 1506: 1459:Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950) 964:tightened its zonal occupation border with 6795: 6781: 6350: 6336: 5216: 5202: 4957: 4903: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4190: 4188: 3865:, p. 227. Cambridge University Press, 1987 3690: 3678: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3563: 3551: 3534: 3127: 3106: 1974:A ration card for milk from 1983 from the 1850:1946–1982; 300,000 ethnic Turks to Turkey 1650: 1534:with the increasingly paranoid actions of 1240:by directly annexing several countries as 1181:was declared in 1920. With the defeat of 1084:internal passport controls were introduced 1072:Gosudarstvennoye Politicheskoye Upravlenie 883: 869: 5036: 4707: 4528: 4513: 4343:Romania – Soviet Union and Eastern Europe 4321: 4311: 4309: 4307: 4305: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4244: 4175: 4173: 4160: 4158: 4156: 4134: 4122: 4110: 4098: 4086: 4074: 4057: 4042: 3868: 3709: 3522: 3516: 3462: 3378:Christoph Bergner, Secretary of State in 3372: 3212: 3164: 3162: 3160: 3096: 3094: 3055: 2997: 2971: 2942: 2841: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2754: 2752: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2678:List of Soviet and Eastern Bloc defectors 2363:to West Berlin the next day. However the 6494:Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia 5092: 4876: 4822: 4743: 4689: 4604: 4268: 4229: 4217: 4009: 3956: 3935: 3914: 3895: 3883: 3849: 3834: 3800: 3768: 3741: 3726: 3703: 3684: 3604: 3575: 3569: 3557: 3545: 3249: 3033: 3015: 2981:, Texas A&M University Press, 2004. 2965: 2868: 2824: 2565:LOT Polish Airlines Flight 165 hijacking 2503: 2299:removed its physical border restrictions 2249: 2241: 2233: 2070: 2062: 1969: 1717: 1706: 1642:Unrestricted emigration from East Berlin 1599: 1588: 1576: 1445: 1353: 1175:Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia 1141: 1011: 5744:Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation 5223: 5056: 4979: 4940:Pollack, Detlef; Wielgohs, Jan (2004), 4921: 4879:The new Germany and migration in Europe 4782: 4761: 4534: 4522: 4486: 4351: 4200: 4185: 4147: 4036: 3980:Official site of the capital of Germany 3877: 3756: 3657: 3623: 3600:, Monterey Peninsula Herald, 1956-09-17 3491: 3271:The new Germany and migration in Europe 3145: 3121: 3079: 3067: 2936: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2862: 2850: 2835: 1758:to West Germany—"will be closed down." 1336:Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia 27:Movements of people during the Cold War 14: 7547: 6598:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 5427:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 5364:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 5110: 5074: 5018: 4924:The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire 4840: 4708:Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005), 4692:Eastern Europe, Central Europe, Europe 4568: 4302: 4285: 4241: 4170: 4153: 3797:, p. 56. Oxford University Press, 2006 3720: 3590: 3528: 3317:, The United Press, December 15, 1944. 3174: 3157: 3091: 3061: 3021: 3003: 2948: 2910: 2879: 2812: 2795: 2783: 2764: 2749: 2730: 2718: 2557:attempting to hijack a plane to escape 2480:People's Socialist Republic of Albania 1659:feared by officials in East Germany. 1388:(the most prominent nation) and the 1372:Eastern Bloc information dissemination 1179:Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic 6983:Tränenpalast, Friedrichstraße station 6848:Eastern Bloc emigration and defection 6776: 6564:1949 East German State Railway strike 6536:World Federation of Democratic Youth 6331: 5774:Initiative for Peace and Human Rights 5197: 4767:Soviet Defectors: The KGB Wanted List 4676: 4658: 4330: 4279: 4235: 4223: 4194: 4024: 3923: 3908: 3889: 3815: 3781: 3762: 3750: 3735: 3617: 3584: 3363: 3357: 2818: 2806: 2789: 2777: 2758: 2743: 2724: 2673:Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc 2404:in early December. The next day, the 2304:Monday demonstrations in East Germany 2230:Monday demonstrations in East Germany 1551:Increasing transnational restrictions 1491:. News of these atrocities, like the 1086:. When combined with individual city 1008:Original USSR emigration restrictions 100:Implementation of border restrictions 6435:Soviet response to the Marshall Plan 4899:, United Nations Population Division 4894: 4640: 4586: 4315: 4296: 4262: 4211: 4179: 4164: 4003: 3672: 3629: 3168: 3009: 2900:, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 2885: 2705:, The Associated Press, p. 56, 2466:, for sermons offending the regime. 2375:who was the first to issue the order 2115:occupied the West German embassy in 1594:Helmstedt-Marienborn border crossing 418:World Federation of Democratic Youth 4805:German unification: economic issues 3976:"The Berlin Wall—Facts and Figures" 3644:The construction of the Berlin Wall 3228: 2450:had never undergone even a limited 2270:in a joking reference to the song " 1475:-occupied territories becoming the 1223:Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 1199:Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 1165:that followed, coinciding with the 1157:took power in Russia following the 1057:added in 1920. In 1922, after the 1030:Passport system in the Soviet Union 63:three days after construction began 24: 6657:Sovietization of the Baltic states 4845:, Texas A&M University Press, 4589:Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia 3429:Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste 1173:in 1919, Belarus was declared the 1059:Treaty on the Creation of the USSR 987:. Thereafter, emigration from the 492:Guerrilla war in the Baltic states 25: 7581: 7398:The Spy Who Came in from the Cold 7216:The Spy Who Came In from the Cold 6528:World Federation of Trade Unions 5271:Eastern Bloc media and propaganda 5256:Criticism of communist party rule 5130: 5113:Stalin and the Cold War in Europe 4366:See various uses of this term in 2579:include Joseph Stalin's daughter 2406:Communist Party of Czechoslovakia 2226:Removal of Hungary's border fence 2128: 2098:was paid a fixed amount of 5,000 2049:Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia 2033:Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia 1774:Later restrictions and agreements 1744:List of deaths at the Berlin Wall 1404:, democratic governance (dubbed " 1306:Other states were converted into 1036:List of Cold War pilot defections 968:, the city sector border between 903:were imposed by countries in the 7422:Am kürzeren Ende der Sonnenallee 6876: 6745:January 1991 events in Lithuania 6403:Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina 6357: 6317:Human rights in the Soviet Union 5276:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc 4966:, University Press of Kentucky, 4492: 4465: 4453: 4436:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 4416: 4402: 4360: 4336: 2541:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 413:World Federation of Trade Unions 126: 44: 31:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc 6802: 6469:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 6225:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 6155:Fall of the inner German border 4881:, Manchester University Press, 4809:, International Monetary Fund, 4744:Harrison, Hope Millard (2003), 4387:, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 4030: 3997: 3968: 3941: 3855: 3787: 3635: 3421: 3391: 3339: 3287: 3273:. Manchester University Press. 3039: 2991: 2382:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 2326:, West German Foreign Minister 2212:Revolutions and free emigration 2194:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 2067:Berlin Wall top and guard tower 1905:1946–1982; 200,000 fled during 1807: 1703:Construction of the Berlin Wall 1320:Czechoslovak Socialist Republic 97:Brain drain in the Eastern Bloc 86:Defectors from the Eastern Bloc 6958:Berlin Friedrichstraße station 6215:Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact 5354:Terrorism and the Soviet Union 5097:, Cambridge University Press, 5043:, Greenwood Publishing Group, 4748:, Princeton University Press, 3951:Migration as a travel business 3435:, Stuttgart 1958, pp.38,45,46. 2694: 2587:, U.N. Undersecretary General 2500:List of Eastern Bloc defectors 2145:, reform-minded Soviet leader 1765:barrier that would become the 1386:naibolee vydajuščajasja nacija 1350:Conditions in the Eastern Bloc 13: 1: 6750:January 1991 events in Latvia 6740:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 6489:Socialist Republic of Romania 6464:People's Republic of Bulgaria 6456:People's Republic of Albania 6425:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 6235:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 5834:Inter-regional Deputies Group 5819:National League for Democracy 5142:Berlin Wall: Past and Present 5093:Weinberg, Gerhard L. (1995), 4863:, Columbia University Press, 4690:Graubard, Stephen R. (1991), 4543: 3949:"Berlin Wall and Migration," 3404:"Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen" 3132:, Routledge, pp. 15–25, 2571:Famous and discrete defectors 2448:Socialist Republic of Romania 2425:People's Republic of Bulgaria 2202:Socialist Republic of Romania 2186:People's Republic of Bulgaria 1885:1948–1982; almost all before 1581:Soviet and American tanks at 1002: 855:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 7511:List of Berlin Wall segments 6735:Collapse of the Soviet Union 6725:Fall of communism in Albania 6145:Alexanderplatz demonstration 6110:Polish Round Table Agreement 5784:People's Movement of Ukraine 5115:, Rowman & Littlefield, 5037:Thackeray, Frank W. (2004), 5001:Roht-Arriaza, Naomi (1995), 4944:, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2550: 2493: 2412:. On 10 December, President 2296:People's Republic of Hungary 2045:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 2010:Defection attempts from the 1907:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 1541:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 1328:People's Republic of Albania 1316:People's Republic of Hungary 1291:, and later merged into the 1132:Creation of the Eastern Bloc 949:. Despite the restrictions, 930:were necessary to prevent a 850:Fall of communism in Albania 805:Polish Round Table Agreement 760:Cuban intervention in Angola 7: 7093:Christel and Eckhard Wehage 6895:Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer 6710:End of communism in Hungary 6479:Hungarian People's Republic 6190:January Events in Lithuania 6125:Hungarian Round Table Talks 5764:Democratic Party of Albania 5040:Events that changed Germany 5019:Shirer, William L. (1990), 5005:, Oxford University Press, 4841:Miller, Roger Gene (2000), 4827:, Oxford University Press, 4787:, Oxford University Press, 3116:Pollack & Wielgohs 2004 2641: 2523: 2280:People's Republic of Poland 1976:People's Republic of Poland 1511:After Soviet occupation of 1503:, within the Eastern Bloc. 1453:expelled after World War II 1312:People's Republic of Poland 1177:. After more conflict, the 1150:countries in Central Europe 991:was effectively limited to 238:Allied and satellite states 10: 7586: 7489:The Day the Wall Came Down 6474:German Democratic Republic 5844:Hungarian Democratic Forum 5839:Alliance of Free Democrats 5829:Union of Democratic Forces 5164:Virtual e-Tours "The Wall" 4877:Marshall, Barbara (2000), 4623:Council of Europe (1992), 4368:the following publications 3269:Marshall, Barbara (2000). 2545:'flight from the republic' 2497: 2215: 2173:and political repression. 1944: 1928: 1912: 1893: 1873: 1854: 1838: 1822: 1792:countries was as follows: 1788:of 1951. Emigration from 1733: 1554: 1456: 1436: 1365: 1324:Romanian People's Republic 1242:Soviet Socialist Republics 1236:began the creation of the 1221:as republics creating the 1159:Russian Revolution of 1917 1135: 1042:Russian Revolution of 1917 1033: 1019: 7503: 7472: 7440: 7389: 7354: 7181: 7174: 7149: 7101: 6991: 6933: 6910:Checkpoint Charlie Museum 6885: 6874: 6810: 6685: 6662:Information dissemination 6639: 6589:1956 Hungarian Revolution 6579:1953 East German uprising 6547: 6505: 6448: 6385: 6365: 6309: 6243: 6205:1991 protests in Belgrade 6085: 6010: 5919: 5861: 5852: 5734: 5596: 5543: 5440: 5372: 5309: 5231: 5166:Shockwave Player required 5137:Retracing the Berlin Wall 4987:, Yale University Press, 4958:Puddington, Arch (2003), 4922:Pearson, Raymond (1998), 4663:, Yale University Press, 4587:Cook, Bernard A. (2001), 3427:Statistisches Bundesamt, 3399:Centre Against Expulsions 2437:Bulgarian Socialist Party 2169:were still threatened by 1834:1946–1982; no emigration 907:, which consisted of the 775:1984 Los Angeles Olympics 91: 81: 73: 43: 35: 7529:(Cross-border commuters) 6925:Chapel of Reconciliation 6647:Emigration and defection 6484:Polish People's Republic 6195:January Events in Latvia 6185:Reunification of Germany 6170:1990s post-Soviet aliyah 6100:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest 5824:National Salvation Front 5809:Belarusian Popular Front 5799:Popular Front of Estonia 5568:Polish underground press 5329:List of socialist states 5111:Wettig, Gerhard (2008), 4904:O'Neil, Patrick (1997), 4783:Laqueur, Walter (1994), 4605:Crampton, R. J. (1997), 4591:, Taylor & Francis, 4438:, Agitation Department, 4347:U.S. Library of Congress 3152:Hardt & Kaufman 1995 3128:O'Neil, Patrick (1997), 3086:Hardt & Kaufman 1995 3074:Hardt & Kaufman 1995 2916:Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, 2688: 1722:The body of East German 1507:Post-war free emigration 1299:, Basarabia,(became the 596:Czechoslovakia 1976–1990 7192:Escape from East Berlin 6863:Fall of the Berlin Wall 6705:Fall of the Berlin Wall 6631:1981 protests in Kosovo 6569:Rebellion of Cazin 1950 6271:Economic liberalization 6210:1991 Belarusian strikes 6150:Fall of the Berlin Wall 5804:Public Against Violence 5794:Popular Front of Latvia 5573:Political demonstration 5422:Chinese economic reform 5334:People Power Revolution 5057:Turnock, David (1997), 4442:District. November 1955 2631:. Chess world champion 2141:In 1985, following the 1251:These included Eastern 1246:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 1189:, after the March 1921 1046:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 901:emigration restrictions 840:End of the Soviet Union 815:Fall of the Berlin Wall 375: (until 1948) 350: (until 1977) 339: (until 1989) 273: (until 1961) 252: (until 1961) 7555:Eastern Bloc defectors 7166:"Tear down this wall!" 7018:Christian-Peter Friese 5405:New political thinking 5180:2007 BW photo gallery. 5075:Wegner, Bernd (1997), 5023:, Simon and Schuster, 4823:Loescher, Gil (2001), 4569:Böcker, Anita (1998), 4129:Council of Europe 1992 4117:Council of Europe 1992 4105:Council of Europe 1992 4093:Council of Europe 1992 4081:Council of Europe 1992 4069:Council of Europe 1992 4052:Council of Europe 1992 3947:Keeling, Drew (2014), 3861:Volker Rolf Berghahn, 2683:North Korean defectors 2615:, East German soldier 2520: 2328:Hans-Dietrich Genscher 2312:Montagsdemonstrationen 2311: 2255: 2247: 2239: 2076: 2068: 1978: 1761:On August 13, 1961, a 1731: 1715: 1617: 1597: 1586: 1454: 1380:Eastern Bloc economies 1363: 1151: 1017: 529:Protests and uprisings 6858:Berlin Crisis of 1961 6755:Breakup of Yugoslavia 6276:Post-Soviet conflicts 6230:Tajikistani Civil War 6180:Revolution on Granite 6140:Monday Demonstrations 5666:Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 5500:Mengistu Haile Mariam 5266:Eastern Bloc politics 4895:Mynz, Rainer (1995), 4641:Dale, Gareth (2005), 4627:, Council of Europe, 3386:on 29 November 2006, 3293:Bernard Wasserstein, 2507: 2353:Socialist Unity Party 2320:democratic government 2253: 2245: 2237: 2216:Further information: 2074: 2066: 1973: 1734:Further information: 1721: 1710: 1603: 1592: 1580: 1555:Further information: 1449: 1412:of private property. 1376:Eastern Bloc politics 1366:Further information: 1357: 1145: 1020:Further information: 1015: 845:Post-Soviet conflicts 830:Breakup of Yugoslavia 733:Albanian–Soviet split 444:Anti-Soviet partisans 387:Related organizations 7363:The Road to the Wall 7159:Ich bin ein Berliner 7150:The Wall in speeches 7028:Marienetta Jirkowsky 7013:Winfried Freudenberg 6915:Topography of Terror 6843:German reunification 6603:1970 Polish protests 6584:1956 Poznań protests 6449:Soviet-allied states 5686:Vytautas Landsbergis 5681:Viacheslav Chornovil 5510:Denis Sassou Nguesso 4659:Dowty, Alan (1989), 3401:, data and sources, 2977:Granville, Johanna, 2896:Senn, Alfred Erich, 2591:, chess grandmaster 2454:. In November 1989, 2365:government spokesman 2294:In August 1989, the 1868:1968 Soviet invasion 1596:wall and guard tower 1493:Nemmersdorf massacre 1344:Non-Aligned Movement 1310:states, such as the 1257:three different SSRs 1187:Polish-Ukrainian War 1022:Soviet Border Troops 825:Barricades in Latvia 770:1980 Moscow Olympics 750:Cuban Missile Crisis 103:Construction of the 61:on August 15, 1961, 7456:Holidays in the Sun 6818:Inner German border 6720:Romanian revolution 6693:Revolutions of 1989 6574:1953 Plzeň uprising 6130:Pan-European Picnic 6105:1988 Polish strikes 5485:Wojciech Jaruzelski 5225:Revolutions of 1989 4039:, p. 1&126 2625:Martina Navratilova 2601:Mikhail Baryshnikov 2581:Svetlana Alliluyeva 2509:Svetlana Alliluyeva 2282:in April 1989, the 2276:Revolutions of 1989 2266:allies, termed the 2222:Revolutions of 1989 2218:Tear down this wall 2136:Revolutions of 1989 1750:Inner German border 1736:Inner German border 1623:Inner German border 1406:bourgeois democracy 1390:rukovodjaščij narod 1283:), part of eastern 1255:(incorporated into 1215:Transcaucasian SFSR 810:Revolutions of 1989 32: 7560:Politics of Europe 7414:Judgment in Berlin 7379:Rabbit à la Berlin 7272:Judgment in Berlin 7175:In popular culture 6995:breaching the Wall 6948:Checkpoint Charlie 6886:Memorials, museums 6730:Singing Revolution 6613:June 1976 protests 6398:Soviet occupations 5490:Slobodan Milošević 5359:Vatican Opposition 5079:, Berghahn Books, 4763:Krasnov, Vladislav 4694:, Westview Press, 4555:, Westview Press, 4006:, pp. 3.2.1–2 3650:2014-04-02 at the 3241:2009-10-01 at the 2658:Post-Soviet states 2653:Soviet occupations 2521: 2511:, the daughter of 2475:three days later. 2370:Checkpoint Charlie 2256: 2248: 2240: 2077: 2069: 1979: 1732: 1726:lying next to the 1716: 1618: 1598: 1587: 1583:Checkpoint Charlie 1455: 1364: 1360:Bucharest, Romania 1289:Karelo-Finnish SSR 1152: 1109:Moskovskaya Pravda 1018: 993:illegal defections 800:Singing Revolution 574:Novocherkassk 1962 30: 7542: 7541: 7499: 7498: 7483:(1991 video game) 7406:Funeral in Berlin 7320:Bornholmer Straße 7232:Funeral in Berlin 7111:Günter Schabowski 7102:Others associated 7083:Hildegard Trabant 7033:Cengaver Katrancı 6943:Bornholmer Straße 6905:East Side Gallery 6770: 6769: 6715:Velvet Revolution 6677:Telephone tapping 6651:list of defectors 6440:Tito–Stalin split 6325: 6324: 6251:Colour revolution 6081: 6080: 6048:Congo-Brazzaville 5769:Democratic Russia 5726:Pope John Paul II 5721:George H. W. Bush 5671:Vladimir Bukovsky 5460:Mikhail Gorbachev 5455:Nicolae Ceaușescu 5241:Era of Stagnation 5122:978-0-7425-5542-6 4981:Roberts, Geoffrey 4372:Spring of Nations 3963:Black et al. 2000 3487:978-1-57607-796-2 3458:978-1-57607-796-2 3433:Kohlhammer Verlag 3101:Roht-Arriaza 1995 3024:, pp. 96–100 3000:, pp. 370–71 2918:Stalin's Cold War 2906:978-90-420-2225-6 2613:Wolfgang Leonhard 2609:Alexander Godunov 2589:Arkady Shevchenko 2418:Velvet Revolution 2260:Brezhnev Doctrine 2206:Nicolae Ceauşescu 2147:Mikhail Gorbachev 2143:Era of Stagnation 2017:Mikhail Gorbachev 1964: 1963: 1960: 1959: 1786:Geneva Convention 1781:Mikhail Gorbachev 1627:Mikhail Pervukhin 1340:Tito–Stalin split 1219:officially merged 1195:Polish-Soviet War 1163:Russian Civil War 1117:Nikita Khrushchev 997:ethnic emigration 936:The United States 893: 892: 728:Sino-Soviet split 708:Tito–Stalin split 703:Czechoslovak coup 681: 680: 621:Ukraine 1989–1991 559:East Germany 1953 501:Soviet occupation 112: 111: 16:(Redirected from 7577: 7491:(1997 sculpture) 7449:West of the Wall 7430:Edge of Eternity 7312:Good Bye, Lenin! 7304:Buffalo Soldiers 7179: 7178: 7136:David Hasselhoff 7078:Heinz Sokolowski 7043:Czesław Kukuczka 6963:Glienicke Bridge 6953:Checkpoint Bravo 6935:Border crossings 6880: 6879: 6797: 6790: 6783: 6774: 6773: 6559:Goryani Movement 6539: 6531: 6497: 6459: 6393:Yalta Conference 6352: 6345: 6338: 6329: 6328: 6200:Transnistria War 5859: 5858: 5701:Aung San Suu Kyi 5616:Alexander Dubček 5553:Civil resistance 5410:Sinatra Doctrine 5390:Demokratizatsiya 5291:Shortage economy 5218: 5211: 5204: 5195: 5194: 5176: 5125: 5107: 5089: 5071: 5053: 5033: 5015: 4997: 4976: 4965: 4954: 4936: 4918: 4900: 4891: 4873: 4855: 4837: 4819: 4808: 4797: 4779: 4769:, Hoover Press, 4758: 4740: 4722: 4704: 4686: 4673: 4655: 4637: 4619: 4601: 4583: 4573:, Het Spinhuis, 4565: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4520: 4511: 4510: 4504: 4496: 4490: 4489:, pp. 124–5 4484: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4412:. 29 April 2020. 4406: 4400: 4381: 4375: 4364: 4358: 4355: 4349: 4340: 4334: 4328: 4319: 4313: 4300: 4294: 4283: 4277: 4266: 4260: 4239: 4233: 4227: 4221: 4215: 4209: 4198: 4192: 4183: 4177: 4168: 4162: 4151: 4145: 4132: 4126: 4120: 4114: 4108: 4102: 4096: 4090: 4084: 4078: 4072: 4066: 4055: 4049: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3994: 3992: 3991: 3982:. 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Sharpe, 4720: 4702: 4671: 4653: 4635: 4617: 4599: 4581: 4563: 4546: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4521: 4514: 4502: 4498: 4497: 4493: 4485: 4478: 4470: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4445: 4443: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4408: 4407: 4403: 4382: 4378: 4365: 4361: 4356: 4352: 4341: 4337: 4329: 4322: 4314: 4303: 4295: 4286: 4278: 4269: 4261: 4242: 4234: 4230: 4222: 4218: 4214:, p. 3.2.2 4210: 4201: 4193: 4186: 4178: 4171: 4163: 4154: 4146: 4135: 4127: 4123: 4115: 4111: 4103: 4099: 4091: 4087: 4079: 4075: 4067: 4058: 4050: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4010: 4002: 3998: 3989: 3987: 3974: 3973: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3946: 3942: 3934: 3930: 3922: 3915: 3907: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3876: 3869: 3860: 3856: 3848: 3841: 3833: 3822: 3814: 3801: 3793:Paul Maddrell, 3792: 3788: 3780: 3769: 3761: 3757: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3727: 3719: 3710: 3702: 3691: 3683: 3679: 3675:, p. 3.2.1 3671: 3658: 3652:Wayback Machine 3640: 3636: 3632:, p. 2.2.1 3628: 3624: 3616: 3605: 3596: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3556: 3552: 3544: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3508: 3496: 3492: 3472: 3463: 3443: 3439: 3426: 3422: 3413: 3411: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3384:Deutschlandfunk 3377: 3373: 3362: 3358: 3344: 3340: 3326: 3322: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3267: 3250: 3243:Wayback Machine 3233: 3229: 3217: 3213: 3198: 3191: 3179: 3175: 3167: 3158: 3150: 3146: 3140: 3126: 3122: 3114: 3107: 3099: 3092: 3084: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3060: 3056: 3044: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2976: 2972: 2964: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2935: 2931: 2915: 2911: 2895: 2886: 2878: 2869: 2861: 2857: 2849: 2842: 2834: 2825: 2817: 2813: 2805: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2776: 2765: 2757: 2750: 2742: 2731: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2644: 2617:Conrad Schumann 2595:, ballet stars 2593:Viktor Korchnoi 2573: 2553: 2526: 2502: 2496: 2446:countries, the 2410:one-party state 2232: 2214: 2131: 2061: 1800: 1776: 1746: 1705: 1696:Walter Ulbricht 1679:Walter Ulbricht 1653: 1644: 1575: 1553: 1509: 1497:Nazi propaganda 1461: 1451:Sudeten Germans 1444: 1439: 1417:command economy 1382: 1352: 1295:) and northern 1201:. In 1922, the 1140: 1134: 1092:101st kilometre 1038: 1032: 1010: 1005: 915:in Central and 889: 860: 859: 795: 792: 785: 784: 737: 713:Berlin Blockade 693: 691:Cold War events 690: 683: 682: 606:Kazakhstan 1986 437: 432: 430: 423: 422: 389: 386: 379: 378: 240: 237: 230: 229: 150: 145: 139: 137: 127: 118: 69: 51:Konrad Schumann 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7583: 7573: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7536: 7531: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7507: 7505: 7501: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7494: 7493: 7485: 7476: 7474: 7470: 7469: 7467: 7466: 7459: 7452: 7444: 7442: 7438: 7437: 7435: 7434: 7426: 7418: 7410: 7402: 7393: 7391: 7387: 7386: 7384: 7383: 7375: 7367: 7358: 7356: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7348: 7344:Deutschland 89 7340: 7332: 7324: 7316: 7308: 7300: 7292: 7284: 7276: 7268: 7260: 7252: 7244: 7236: 7228: 7220: 7212: 7208:Stop Train 349 7204: 7196: 7187: 7185: 7176: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7168: 7163: 7153: 7151: 7147: 7146: 7144: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7121:Erich Honecker 7118: 7113: 7107: 7105: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7048:Horst Kutscher 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7023:Chris Gueffroy 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 6999: 6997: 6989: 6988: 6986: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6939: 6937: 6931: 6930: 6928: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6891: 6889: 6883: 6882: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6853:Republikflucht 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6814: 6812: 6808: 6807: 6800: 6799: 6792: 6785: 6777: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6762: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6695: 6689: 6687: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6643: 6641: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6633: 6628: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6555: 6553: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6533: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6509: 6507: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6499: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6452: 6450: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6395: 6389: 6387: 6383: 6382: 6379: 6378: 6373: 6367: 6366: 6363: 6362: 6355: 6354: 6347: 6340: 6332: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6319: 6313: 6311: 6307: 6306: 6304: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6291:Post-communism 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6247: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6238: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6091: 6089: 6083: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6014: 6012: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5923: 5921: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5881:Czechoslovakia 5878: 5873: 5867: 5865: 5864:Eastern Europe 5856: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5740: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5729: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5711:Isaias Afwerki 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5691:Zianon Pazniak 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5602: 5600: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5549: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5538: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5470:Erich Honecker 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5446: 5444: 5438: 5437: 5435: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5413: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5382: 5376: 5374: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5315: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5304: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5251:Anti-communism 5248: 5243: 5237: 5235: 5229: 5228: 5221: 5220: 5213: 5206: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5172: 5167: 5161: 5156: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5132: 5131:External links 5129: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5108: 5103: 5090: 5085: 5072: 5067: 5054: 5049: 5034: 5029: 5016: 5011: 4998: 4993: 4977: 4972: 4955: 4950: 4937: 4932: 4919: 4914: 4901: 4892: 4887: 4874: 4869: 4856: 4851: 4838: 4833: 4820: 4815: 4798: 4793: 4780: 4775: 4759: 4754: 4741: 4736: 4723: 4718: 4705: 4700: 4687: 4674: 4669: 4656: 4651: 4638: 4633: 4620: 4615: 4602: 4597: 4584: 4579: 4566: 4561: 4547: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4539: 4527: 4512: 4491: 4476: 4464: 4452: 4415: 4401: 4376: 4359: 4350: 4335: 4320: 4301: 4284: 4267: 4240: 4228: 4216: 4199: 4184: 4169: 4152: 4133: 4121: 4109: 4097: 4085: 4073: 4056: 4041: 4029: 4008: 3996: 3967: 3955: 3940: 3928: 3913: 3894: 3882: 3867: 3854: 3839: 3820: 3799: 3786: 3767: 3755: 3740: 3725: 3708: 3689: 3677: 3656: 3634: 3622: 3603: 3589: 3574: 3562: 3550: 3533: 3521: 3517:Thackeray 2004 3506: 3490: 3461: 3437: 3420: 3390: 3371: 3364:Overy (1996), 3356: 3338: 3320: 3306: 3286: 3279: 3248: 3227: 3211: 3189: 3173: 3156: 3144: 3138: 3120: 3105: 3090: 3078: 3066: 3054: 3038: 3026: 3014: 3002: 2998:Grenville 2005 2990: 2970: 2953: 2941: 2929: 2909: 2884: 2867: 2855: 2840: 2823: 2811: 2794: 2782: 2763: 2748: 2729: 2717: 2711: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2643: 2640: 2629:1975 U.S. Open 2597:Rudolf Nureyev 2585:Viktor Belenko 2572: 2569: 2552: 2549: 2537:Republikflucht 2532:Republikflucht 2525: 2522: 2498:Main article: 2495: 2492: 2433:Petar Mladenov 2390:general strike 2324:Czechoslovakia 2314:) began, with 2213: 2210: 2182:Erich Honecker 2130: 2129:Liberalization 2127: 2100:Deutsche Marks 2060: 2057: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1926: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1910: 1909: 1903: 1900: 1897: 1891: 1890: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1856:Czechoslovakia 1852: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1842: 1836: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1820: 1819: 1816: 1813: 1810: 1802: 1801: 1798: 1775: 1772: 1748:Even with the 1704: 1701: 1670:intelligentsia 1652: 1649: 1643: 1640: 1565:Republikflucht 1552: 1549: 1515:at the end of 1513:Eastern Europe 1508: 1505: 1469:Reichsdeutsche 1457:Main article: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1351: 1348: 1281:Lithuanian SSR 1193:following the 1169:'s entry into 1161:. During the 1136:Main article: 1133: 1130: 1080:Five Year Plan 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 917:Eastern Europe 891: 890: 888: 887: 880: 873: 865: 862: 861: 858: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 832: 827: 822: 820:January Events 817: 812: 807: 802: 796: 791: 790: 787: 786: 783: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 735: 730: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 694: 689: 688: 685: 684: 679: 678: 677: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 648: 647: 641: 640: 639: 638: 633: 631:Lithuania 1991 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 592: 591: 586: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 550: 549: 544: 531: 530: 526: 525: 524: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 495: 494: 488: 487: 486: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 447: 446: 438: 429: 428: 425: 424: 421: 420: 415: 410: 405: 398: 390: 385: 384: 381: 380: 377: 376: 370: 356: 351: 345: 340: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 287:Czechoslovakia 284: 279: 274: 268: 263: 258: 253: 247: 241: 236: 235: 232: 231: 228: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 151: 136: 135: 132: 131: 123: 122: 110: 109: 108: 107: 101: 98: 93: 89: 88: 83: 79: 78: 75: 71: 70: 49: 41: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7582: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7528: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7516:Ghost station 7514: 7512: 7509: 7508: 7506: 7502: 7492: 7490: 7486: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7471: 7464: 7460: 7457: 7453: 7450: 7446: 7445: 7443: 7439: 7432: 7431: 7427: 7424: 7423: 7419: 7416: 7415: 7411: 7408: 7407: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7388: 7381: 7380: 7376: 7373: 7372: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7355:Documentaries 7353: 7346: 7345: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7336:Atomic Blonde 7333: 7330: 7329: 7325: 7322: 7321: 7317: 7314: 7313: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7293: 7290: 7289: 7285: 7282: 7281: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7269: 7266: 7265: 7261: 7258: 7257: 7253: 7250: 7249: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7237: 7234: 7233: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7221: 7218: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7209: 7205: 7202: 7201: 7197: 7194: 7193: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7180: 7177: 7173: 7167: 7164: 7161: 7160: 7155: 7154: 7152: 7148: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7108: 7106: 7104:with the Wall 7100: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7058:Dorit Schmiel 7056: 7054: 7053:Günter Litfin 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7008:Peter Fechter 7006: 7004: 7003:Klaus Brueske 7001: 7000: 6998: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6900:White Crosses 6898: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6890: 6888:and galleries 6884: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6828:Wall of Shame 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6811:Main articles 6809: 6805: 6798: 6793: 6791: 6786: 6784: 6779: 6778: 6775: 6761: 6760:Yugoslav Wars 6758: 6757: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6700: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6652: 6648: 6645: 6644: 6642: 6638: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6595: 6594:Prague Spring 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6556: 6554: 6546: 6540: 6534: 6532: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6506:Organizations 6504: 6498: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6447: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6408:Baltic states 6406: 6404: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6384: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6364: 6360: 6353: 6348: 6346: 6341: 6339: 6334: 6333: 6330: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6308: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6296:Yugoslav Wars 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6286:Neo-Stalinism 6284: 6282: 6281:Neo-Sovietism 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6248: 6246: 6242: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6165:Black January 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6084: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6015: 6013: 6009: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 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Zhivkov 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5520:Deng Xiaoping 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5447: 5445: 5439: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5349:Soviet Empire 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5310:International 5308: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5238: 5236: 5230: 5226: 5219: 5214: 5212: 5207: 5205: 5200: 5199: 5196: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5179: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5154: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5124: 5118: 5114: 5109: 5106: 5104:0-521-55879-4 5100: 5096: 5091: 5088: 5086:1-57181-882-0 5082: 5078: 5073: 5070: 5068:0-415-08626-4 5064: 5061:, Routledge, 5060: 5055: 5052: 5050:0-313-32814-5 5046: 5042: 5041: 5035: 5032: 5030:0-671-72868-7 5026: 5022: 5017: 5014: 5012:0-19-508136-6 5008: 5004: 4999: 4996: 4994:0-300-11204-1 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4973:0-8131-9045-2 4969: 4964: 4963: 4956: 4953: 4951:0-7546-3790-5 4947: 4943: 4938: 4935: 4933:0-312-17407-1 4929: 4926:, Macmillan, 4925: 4920: 4917: 4915:0-7146-4765-9 4911: 4908:, Routledge, 4907: 4902: 4898: 4893: 4890: 4888:0-7190-4336-0 4884: 4880: 4875: 4872: 4870:0-231-10676-9 4866: 4862: 4857: 4854: 4852:0-89096-967-1 4848: 4844: 4839: 4836: 4834:0-19-829716-5 4830: 4826: 4821: 4818: 4816:1-55775-200-1 4812: 4807: 4806: 4799: 4796: 4794:0-19-510282-7 4790: 4786: 4781: 4778: 4776:0-8179-8231-0 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4757: 4755:0-691-09678-3 4751: 4747: 4742: 4739: 4737:1-56324-612-0 4733: 4729: 4724: 4721: 4719:0-415-28954-8 4715: 4712:, Routledge, 4711: 4706: 4703: 4701:0-8133-1189-6 4697: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4679:World Affairs 4675: 4672: 4670:0-300-04498-4 4666: 4662: 4657: 4654: 4652:0-7146-5408-6 4648: 4645:, Routledge, 4644: 4639: 4636: 4634:92-871-2021-8 4630: 4626: 4621: 4618: 4616:0-415-16422-2 4612: 4609:, Routledge, 4608: 4603: 4600: 4598:0-8153-4057-5 4594: 4590: 4585: 4582: 4580:90-5589-095-2 4576: 4572: 4567: 4564: 4562:0-8133-3664-3 4558: 4554: 4549: 4548: 4536: 4531: 4524: 4519: 4517: 4508: 4507:www.gapan.org 4501: 4495: 4488: 4483: 4481: 4473: 4468: 4461: 4456: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4427: 4419: 4411: 4405: 4398: 4394: 4393:0-7923-1379-8 4390: 4386: 4380: 4373: 4369: 4363: 4354: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4333:, p. 120 4332: 4327: 4325: 4317: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4298: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4282:, p. 125 4281: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4264: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4247: 4245: 4238:, p. 119 4237: 4232: 4226:, p. 118 4225: 4220: 4213: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4196: 4191: 4189: 4181: 4176: 4174: 4166: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4149: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4130: 4125: 4118: 4113: 4106: 4101: 4094: 4089: 4082: 4077: 4070: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4053: 4048: 4046: 4038: 4033: 4027:, p. 117 4026: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4013: 4005: 4000: 3986:on 2006-01-03 3985: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3965:, p. 141 3964: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3944: 3938:, p. 102 3937: 3936:Harrison 2003 3932: 3926:, p. 124 3925: 3920: 3918: 3911:, p. 123 3910: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3892:, p. 126 3891: 3886: 3879: 3874: 3872: 3864: 3858: 3852:, p. 278 3851: 3850:Crampton 1997 3846: 3844: 3837:, p. 100 3836: 3835:Harrison 2003 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3818:, p. 122 3817: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3804: 3796: 3790: 3784:, p. 116 3783: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3764: 3759: 3753:, p. 115 3752: 3747: 3745: 3738:, p. 114 3737: 3732: 3730: 3723:, p. 209 3722: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3705: 3704:Harrison 2003 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3686: 3685:Harrison 2003 3681: 3674: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3653: 3649: 3646: 3645: 3638: 3631: 3626: 3620:, p. 121 3619: 3614: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3599: 3593: 3587:, p. 111 3586: 3581: 3579: 3571: 3570:Loescher 2001 3566: 3559: 3558:Loescher 2001 3554: 3547: 3546:Loescher 2001 3542: 3540: 3538: 3531:, p. 207 3530: 3525: 3519:, p. 188 3518: 3513: 3511: 3504: 3503:0-8131-0977-9 3500: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3479:1-57607-796-9 3476: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3450:1-57607-796-9 3447: 3441: 3434: 3431:, Wiesbaden, 3430: 3424: 3410:on 2009-08-02 3409: 3405: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3385: 3381: 3375: 3368:, p. 111 3367: 3360: 3354: 3352: 3351:3-8258-9340-5 3348: 3342: 3336: 3334: 3333:3-486-56731-4 3330: 3324: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3303:0-19-873074-8 3300: 3296: 3290: 3282: 3280:0-7190-4336-0 3276: 3272: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3224:1-57181-092-7 3221: 3215: 3209: 3206: 3205:0-7391-1607-X 3202: 3196: 3194: 3187: 3186:963-9241-70-9 3183: 3177: 3170: 3165: 3163: 3161: 3153: 3148: 3141: 3139:0-7146-4765-9 3135: 3131: 3124: 3118:, p. xiv 3117: 3112: 3110: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3087: 3082: 3075: 3070: 3064:, p. 156 3063: 3058: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3035: 3034:Crampton 1997 3030: 3023: 3018: 3011: 3006: 2999: 2994: 2988: 2987:1-58544-298-4 2984: 2980: 2974: 2968:, p. 150 2967: 2966:Graubard 1991 2962: 2960: 2958: 2951:, p. 794 2950: 2945: 2938: 2933: 2927: 2926:0-7190-4201-1 2923: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2881: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2864: 2859: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2837: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2820: 2815: 2808: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2791: 2786: 2779: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2760: 2755: 2753: 2745: 2740: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2726: 2721: 2714: 2712:0-917360-07-9 2708: 2704: 2697: 2693: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2668:Western world 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2648:Soviet Empire 2646: 2645: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2633:Boris Spassky 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2568: 2566: 2561: 2558: 2548: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2533: 2518: 2514: 2513:Joseph Stalin 2510: 2506: 2501: 2491: 2489: 2483: 2481: 2476: 2473: 2472:Operei Square 2467: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2442:Unlike other 2440: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2429:Todor Zhivkov 2426: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2297: 2292: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2274:". A wave of 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2252: 2244: 2236: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2190:Todor Zhivkov 2187: 2183: 2179: 2174: 2172: 2171:secret police 2168: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2157: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2137: 2126: 2123: 2118: 2114: 2113:Czechoslovaks 2108: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2073: 2065: 2056: 2054: 2051:, the Polish 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2036:dissenters." 2034: 2029: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1908: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1869: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1804: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1782: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1756: 1751: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1729: 1725: 1724:Peter Fechter 1720: 1713: 1709: 1700: 1697: 1691: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1661:Yuri Andropov 1658: 1651:"Brain drain" 1648: 1639: 1637: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1602: 1595: 1591: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1548: 1544: 1542: 1537: 1536:Joseph Stalin 1533: 1532:Sovietization 1529: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1465:Volksdeutsche 1460: 1452: 1448: 1434: 1431: 1425: 1422: 1421:Joseph Stalin 1418: 1413: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1361: 1356: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1302: 1301:Moldavian SSR 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1191:Peace of Riga 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1149: 1144: 1139: 1129: 1126: 1125:Joseph Stalin 1121: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1110: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1063:Ukrainian SSR 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1043: 1037: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1014: 1000: 998: 994: 990: 986: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 958: 956: 952: 948: 944: 941: 937: 933: 929: 924: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 886: 881: 879: 874: 872: 867: 866: 864: 863: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 835:Yugoslav Wars 833: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 797: 789: 788: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 740: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 724: 723:Secret Speech 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 698:Marshall Plan 696: 695: 687: 686: 675: 672: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 651: 650: 649: 646: 643: 642: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 590: 587: 585: 582: 581: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 548: 545: 543: 540: 539: 538: 535: 534: 533: 532: 528: 527: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 498: 497: 496: 493: 490: 489: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 450: 449: 448: 445: 442: 441: 435: 427: 426: 419: 416: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 403: 399: 397: 396: 392: 391: 383: 382: 374: 371: 368: 364: 363:North Vietnam 360: 357: 355: 352: 349: 346: 344: 341: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 272: 269: 267: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 251: 248: 246: 243: 242: 234: 233: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 152: 148: 142: 134: 133: 125: 124: 121: 116: 115: 106: 102: 99: 96: 95: 94: 90: 87: 84: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 53:leaping over 52: 47: 42: 39: 34: 19: 7565:Eastern Bloc 7526: 7521:Steinstücken 7488: 7480: 7428: 7420: 7412: 7404: 7396: 7377: 7369: 7361: 7342: 7334: 7326: 7318: 7310: 7302: 7294: 7286: 7278: 7270: 7262: 7254: 7246: 7238: 7230: 7222: 7214: 7206: 7198: 7190: 7157: 7088:Rudolf Urban 7073:Ida Siekmann 7063:Egon Schultz 6868:Schießbefehl 6847: 6823:Iron Curtain 6697: 6646: 6371:Soviet Union 6359:Eastern Bloc 6244:Later events 6160:Malta Summit 5992:Turkmenistan 5920:Soviet Union 5906:Soviet Union 5886:East Germany 5706:Meles Zenawi 5661:Sali Berisha 5611:Václav Havel 5558:Human chains 5465:Károly Grósz 5395:Khozraschyot 5286:Nomenklatura 5275: 5261:Eastern Bloc 5175:(in Italian) 5152: 5112: 5094: 5076: 5058: 5039: 5020: 5002: 4984: 4961: 4941: 4923: 4905: 4896: 4878: 4860: 4842: 4824: 4804: 4784: 4766: 4745: 4727: 4709: 4691: 4682: 4678: 4660: 4642: 4624: 4606: 4588: 4570: 4552: 4535:Krasnov 1985 4530: 4523:Krasnov 1985 4506: 4494: 4487:Krasnov 1985 4467: 4455: 4444:. Retrieved 4431: 4425: 4418: 4404: 4384: 4379: 4362: 4353: 4346: 4338: 4318:, p. 89 4299:, p. 88 4265:, p. 87 4231: 4219: 4197:, p. 75 4182:, p. 86 4167:, p. 85 4150:, p. 19 4148:Turnock 1997 4131:, p. 23 4124: 4119:, p. 25 4112: 4107:, p. 20 4100: 4095:, p. 17 4088: 4083:, p. 16 4076: 4071:, p. 22 4054:, p. 15 4037:Krasnov 1985 4032: 3999: 3988:. Retrieved 3984:the original 3979: 3970: 3958: 3950: 3943: 3931: 3885: 3880:, p. 75 3878:Pearson 1998 3862: 3857: 3794: 3789: 3765:, p. 88 3758: 3706:, p. 99 3687:, p. 98 3680: 3643: 3637: 3625: 3597: 3592: 3572:, p. 82 3565: 3560:, p. 68 3553: 3548:, p. 60 3524: 3493: 3440: 3428: 3423: 3412:. Retrieved 3408:the original 3393: 3374: 3365: 3359: 3341: 3323: 3314: 3309: 3294: 3289: 3270: 3234: 3230: 3214: 3176: 3171:, p. 17 3147: 3129: 3123: 3103:, p. 83 3088:, p. 12 3081: 3076:, p. 11 3069: 3057: 3049: 3046:Eastern bloc 3045: 3041: 3029: 3017: 3012:, p. 17 3005: 2993: 2978: 2973: 2944: 2939:, p. 55 2937:Roberts 2006 2932: 2917: 2912: 2897: 2882:, p. 21 2865:, p. 43 2863:Roberts 2006 2858: 2853:, p. 22 2851:Laqueur 1994 2838:, p. 23 2836:Laqueur 1994 2821:, p. 73 2814: 2809:, p. 74 2792:, p. 71 2785: 2780:, p. 70 2761:, p. 69 2746:, p. 68 2727:, p. 67 2720: 2702: 2696: 2663:Iron Curtain 2637: 2574: 2562: 2554: 2536: 2530: 2527: 2484: 2477: 2468: 2464:László Tőkés 2444:Eastern Bloc 2441: 2422: 2414:Gustáv Husák 2398:West Germany 2379: 2361: 2336: 2293: 2257: 2198:Gustáv Husák 2178:East Germany 2175: 2167:Eastern bloc 2160: 2154: 2152: 2140: 2132: 2109: 2104:East Germany 2089: 2085:Eastern Bloc 2078: 2038: 2028:bureaucratic 2025: 2021:Pentecostals 2012:Soviet Union 2009: 1982:"aunts" and 1980: 1965: 1946:Soviet Union 1875:East Germany 1790:Eastern Bloc 1777: 1760: 1747: 1692: 1682: 1654: 1645: 1632: 1619: 1614:Iron Curtain 1561:Iron Curtain 1557:Schießbefehl 1545: 1528:World War II 1525: 1517:World War II 1510: 1501:East Germany 1477:Eastern Bloc 1462: 1426: 1414: 1410:estatization 1409: 1397:Eastern Bloc 1394: 1389: 1385: 1383: 1368:Eastern Bloc 1332:East Germany 1330:, and later 1305: 1293:Russian SFSR 1273:Estonian SSR 1250: 1238:Eastern Bloc 1234:Soviet Union 1231: 1227:Soviet Union 1203:Russian SFSR 1153: 1148:Eastern Bloc 1138:Eastern Bloc 1122: 1114: 1107: 1076: 1067:Russian SFSR 1039: 989:Eastern Bloc 966:West Germany 962:East Germany 959: 947:human rights 925: 909:Soviet Union 905:Eastern Bloc 897:World War II 894: 669:to Hong Kong 664:East Germany 644: 616:Tbilisi 1989 601:Romania 1977 569:Hungary 1956 564:Georgia 1956 400: 393: 292:East Germany 119:Eastern Bloc 82:Participants 36:Part of the 7527:Grenzgänger 7473:Other media 7288:Sonnenallee 7240:The Soldier 7141:Jutta Fleck 7068:Olga Segler 6978:Sonnenallee 6838:West Berlin 6833:East Berlin 6804:Berlin Wall 6686:Dissolution 6626:Martial law 6549:Revolts and 6523:Warsaw Pact 6220:August Coup 6073:South Yemen 6018:Afghanistan 5862:Central and 5855:by location 5759:Civic Forum 5646:Feng Congde 5621:Ion Iliescu 5606:Lech Wałęsa 5563:Magnitizdat 5525:Zhao Ziyang 5515:Heng Samrin 5475:Miloš Jakeš 5385:Perestroika 4537:, p. 5 4525:, p. 2 4462:(in German) 3721:Böcker 1998 3529:Böcker 1998 3397:Foundation 3062:Wettig 2008 3022:Wettig 2008 2949:Shirer 1990 2880:Wettig 2008 2621:Jörg Berger 2488:Helmut Kohl 2394:Barbed wire 2339:East Berlin 2316:East German 2289:János Kádár 2264:Warsaw Pact 2162:perestroika 2047:, the 1968 1887:Berlin Wall 1828:Under 1,000 1767:Berlin Wall 1763:barbed-wire 1740:Berlin Wall 1728:Berlin Wall 1712:Berlin Wall 1683:Grenzgänger 1663:, then the 1657:brain drain 1636:brain drain 1362:in May 1986 1265:Latvian SSR 1207:Ukraine SSR 1061:, both the 978:Berlin Wall 974:West Berlin 970:East Berlin 943:governments 932:brain drain 755:Vietnam War 745:Berlin Wall 674:North Korea 611:Brașov 1987 579:Prague 1968 542:Poznań 1956 395:Warsaw Pact 354:South Yemen 332:North Korea 245:Afghanistan 165:Byelorussia 105:Berlin Wall 67:Berlin Wall 59:West Berlin 55:barbed wire 7549:Categories 7371:The Tunnel 7296:The Tunnel 6640:Conditions 6618:Solidarity 6551:opposition 6261:Lustration 6135:Baltic Way 6086:Individual 6063:Mozambique 6002:Uzbekistan 5987:Tajikistan 5972:Kyrgyzstan 5967:Kazakhstan 5932:Azerbaijan 5911:Yugoslavia 5789:Solidarity 5749:Charter 77 5735:Opposition 5631:Wu'erkaixi 5597:Opposition 5544:Opposition 5535:Siad Barre 5480:Egon Krenz 5450:Ramiz Alia 5441:Government 5380:Uskoreniye 5312:background 5234:background 4544:References 4446:2008-02-17 4331:Dowty 1989 4280:Dowty 1989 4236:Dowty 1989 4224:Dowty 1989 4195:Dowty 1989 4025:Dowty 1989 3990:2006-03-19 3924:Dowty 1989 3909:Dowty 1989 3890:Dowty 1989 3816:Dowty 1989 3782:Dowty 1989 3763:Dowty 1988 3751:Dowty 1989 3736:Dowty 1989 3618:Dowty 1989 3585:Dowty 1989 3414:2009-03-22 2819:Dowty 1989 2807:Dowty 1989 2790:Dowty 1989 2778:Dowty 1989 2759:Dowty 1989 2744:Dowty 1989 2725:Dowty 1989 2460:Securitate 2357:Egon Krenz 2284:Solidarity 2053:Solidarity 2041:Yugoslavia 1984:Intershops 1433:progress. 1155:Bolsheviks 1034:See also: 1003:Background 957:occurred. 951:defections 928:emigration 921:emigration 765:Afghan War 718:Korean War 554:Plzeň 1953 433:Opposition 373:Yugoslavia 327:Mozambique 225:Uzbekistan 210:Tajikistan 180:Kazakhstan 160:Azerbaijan 7570:Defection 7534:The Shame 7248:Octopussy 7184:TV series 7182:Films and 7038:Erna Kelm 6920:Mauerpark 6699:Die Wende 6672:Economies 6513:Cominform 6496:(to 1948) 6458:(to 1961) 6386:Formation 6376:Communism 6301:Pink tide 6095:Jeltoqsan 6011:Elsewhere 5962:Lithuania 5814:Rastokhez 5754:New Forum 5737:movements 5636:Chai Ling 5246:Communism 4316:Dale 2005 4297:Dale 2005 4263:Dale 2005 4212:Mynz 1995 4180:Dale 2005 4165:Dale 2005 4004:Mynz 1995 3673:Mynz 1995 3630:Mynz 1995 3169:Dale 2005 3010:Cook 2001 2577:defectors 2567:in 1978. 2551:Hijackers 2517:New Delhi 2494:Defectors 2456:Ceauşescu 2039:In 1964, 1918:1,877,000 1879:3,365,000 1860:1,973,000 1815:% of Pop 1430:extensive 1277:Lithuania 1104:Manchuria 1026:Refusenik 636:Riga 1991 626:Baku 1990 516:Lithuania 408:Cominform 312:Kampuchea 215:Turkmenia 195:Lithuania 185:Kirghizia 140:Republics 77:1945–1992 7465:" (1985) 7458:" (1977) 7451:" (1962) 7224:Freiheit 7200:The Wall 6667:Politics 6058:Mongolia 6053:Ethiopia 6038:Cambodia 5942:Chechnya 5876:Bulgaria 5651:Tank Man 5641:Wang Dan 5626:Liu Gang 5583:Samizdat 5578:Protests 5417:Glasnost 5400:500 Days 5324:Cold War 5232:Internal 4983:(2006), 4765:(1985), 3648:Archived 3239:Archived 2642:See also 2524:Escapees 2348:Honecker 2156:glasnost 1988:Beryozka 1889:in 1961 1840:Bulgaria 1809:Country 1755:Ulbricht 1673:phase." 1485:Red Army 1287:(became 1279:(became 1271:(became 1263:(became 1167:Red Army 1088:Propiska 1065:and the 955:the West 919:. Legal 911:and its 780:Gulf War 584:Invasion 458:Bulgaria 322:Mongolia 297:Ethiopia 266:Bulgaria 200:Moldavia 38:Cold War 7256:Gotcha! 6518:COMECON 6418:Romania 6413:Hungary 6310:Related 6068:Somalia 5997:Ukraine 5977:Moldova 5952:Georgia 5947:Estonia 5937:Belarus 5927:Armenia 5901:Romania 5891:Hungary 5871:Albania 5779:Sąjūdis 5599:leaders 5546:methods 5443:leaders 5432:Đổi Mới 5373:Reforms 3380:Germany 2575:Famous 2478:In the 2423:In the 2402:Austria 2380:In the 2332:Dresden 2096:Romania 2000:Corecom 1950:500,000 1934:424,000 1930:Romania 1899:332,000 1895:Hungary 1844:431,000 1824:Albania 1677:leader 1606:Bánáthy 1585:in 1961 1437:History 1297:Romania 1285:Finland 1269:Estonia 1185:in the 1183:Ukraine 1146:Map of 1096:Romania 645:Dissent 547:1980–89 506:Estonia 483:Ukraine 473:Romania 463:Croatia 453:Albania 402:Comecon 359:Vietnam 348:Somalia 343:Romania 307:Hungary 302:Grenada 250:Albania 220:Ukraine 175:Georgia 170:Estonia 155:Armenia 143:of the 92:Outcome 65:on the 7463:Nikita 7433:(2014) 7425:(1999) 7417:(1984) 7409:(1964) 7401:(1963) 7390:Novels 7382:(2009) 7374:(1962) 7366:(1962) 7347:(2020) 7339:(2017) 7331:(2015) 7323:(2014) 7315:(2003) 7307:(2001) 7299:(2001) 7291:(1999) 7283:(1995) 7275:(1988) 7267:(1987) 7259:(1985) 7251:(1983) 7243:(1982) 7235:(1966) 7227:(1966) 7219:(1965) 7211:(1963) 7203:(1962) 7195:(1962) 6538:(WFDY) 6530:(WFTU) 6088:events 6023:Angola 5982:Russia 5957:Latvia 5896:Poland 5853:Events 5505:Ne Win 5119: 5101: 5083: 5065: 5047: 5027: 5009: 4991: 4970: 4948: 4930: 4912: 4885: 4867: 4849: 4831: 4813: 4791: 4773: 4752: 4734: 4716: 4698: 4667: 4649: 4631: 4613: 4595: 4577: 4559: 4440:Berlin 4391: 3501: 3485: 3477: 3456: 3448: 3349: 3331: 3301: 3277: 3222: 3203: 3184: 3136: 2985: 2924: 2904: 2709: 2607:, and 2386:Prague 2308:German 2272:My Way 2228:, and 2200:, and 2117:Prague 2092:Poland 1914:Poland 1818:Notes 1812:Total 1742:, and 1571:, and 1481:Allies 1473:Soviet 1378:, and 1326:, the 1322:, the 1318:, the 1314:, the 1261:Latvia 1253:Poland 1102:, and 1100:Persia 1028:, and 982:August 960:After 895:After 659:Poland 654:Soviet 589:Moscow 511:Latvia 478:Serbia 468:Poland 337:Poland 256:Angola 205:Russia 190:Latvia 7504:Other 7441:Songs 6043:China 6033:Burma 6028:Benin 4503:(PDF) 4397:p.221 2689:Notes 2004:Stasi 1996:Tuzex 1992:Pewex 1882:19.8% 1863:14.0% 1569:Grepo 1225:, or 1217:were 1171:Minsk 1055:Cheka 277:Congo 271:China 261:Benin 57:into 5117:ISBN 5099:ISBN 5081:ISBN 5063:ISBN 5045:ISBN 5025:ISBN 5007:ISBN 4989:ISBN 4968:ISBN 4946:ISBN 4928:ISBN 4910:ISBN 4883:ISBN 4865:ISBN 4847:ISBN 4829:ISBN 4811:ISBN 4789:ISBN 4771:ISBN 4750:ISBN 4732:ISBN 4714:ISBN 4696:ISBN 4665:ISBN 4647:ISBN 4629:ISBN 4611:ISBN 4593:ISBN 4575:ISBN 4557:ISBN 4389:ISBN 3499:ISBN 3483:ISBN 3475:ISBN 3454:ISBN 3446:ISBN 3347:ISBN 3329:ISBN 3299:ISBN 3275:ISBN 3220:ISBN 3201:ISBN 3182:ISBN 3134:ISBN 2983:ISBN 2922:ISBN 2902:ISBN 2707:ISBN 2400:and 2079:The 1998:and 1953:0.2% 1937:2.2% 1921:6.0% 1902:3.3% 1847:5.3% 1831:0.0% 1714:1975 1665:CPSU 1610:Béla 1604:Eva 1213:and 1051:NKVD 985:1961 972:and 938:and 793:Fall 317:Laos 282:Cuba 146:USSR 74:Date 5281:KGB 4685:(2) 4683:151 2343:SED 2204:’s 2196:'s 2188:'s 2180:'s 2122:SED 1675:SED 1467:or 1275:), 1267:), 1259:), 1209:, 980:in 953:to 367:PRG 7551:: 6624:/ 6620:/ 6596:/ 4681:, 4515:^ 4505:. 4479:^ 4434:. 4430:. 4395:. 4345:, 4323:^ 4304:^ 4287:^ 4270:^ 4243:^ 4202:^ 4187:^ 4172:^ 4155:^ 4136:^ 4059:^ 4044:^ 4011:^ 3978:. 3916:^ 3897:^ 3870:^ 3842:^ 3823:^ 3802:^ 3770:^ 3743:^ 3728:^ 3711:^ 3692:^ 3659:^ 3606:^ 3577:^ 3536:^ 3509:^ 3481:, 3464:^ 3452:, 3251:^ 3192:^ 3159:^ 3108:^ 3093:^ 3048:, 2956:^ 2887:^ 2870:^ 2843:^ 2826:^ 2797:^ 2766:^ 2751:^ 2732:^ 2603:, 2599:, 2439:. 2420:. 2377:. 2359:. 2310:: 2224:, 2220:, 2192:, 2184:, 2023:. 1994:, 1990:, 1738:, 1690:. 1567:, 1563:, 1559:, 1374:, 1370:, 1346:. 1248:. 1229:. 1205:, 1098:, 1024:, 995:, 934:. 899:, 365:, 7461:" 7454:" 7447:" 7162:" 7156:" 6796:e 6789:t 6782:v 6653:) 6649:( 6351:e 6344:t 6337:v 5217:e 5210:t 5203:v 4509:. 4449:. 4424:" 4399:. 4374:. 3993:. 3417:. 3283:. 2306:( 884:e 877:t 870:v 369:) 361:( 20:)

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