Simla Convention - Knowledge

1008: 557: 1251:: "Our ability to get our points across has sometimes been clouded by the position the UK took at the start of the 20th century on the status of Tibet, a position based on the geo-politics of the time. Our recognition of China's "special position" in Tibet developed from the outdated concept of suzerainty. Some have used this to cast doubt on the aims we are pursuing and to claim that we are denying Chinese sovereignty over a large part of its own territory. We have made clear to the Chinese Government, and publicly, that we do not support Tibetan independence. Like every other EU member state, and the United States, we regard Tibet as part of the People's Republic of China. Our interest is in long term stability, which can only be achieved through respect for human rights and greater autonomy for the Tibetans." 594:

of the international situation. The statement declared that Tibet was 'an integral part' of China and that no attempt by Britain or Tibet to interrupt this 'territorial integrity' would be tolerated. China vowed not to convert Tibet into a Chinese province and Britain should likewise undertake not to annex any part of it. A Chinese Resident was to be stationed in Lhasa, and Tibet should be guided by China in its foreign and military affairs. Tibet should grant amnesty to all the officials and non-officials who had been previously punished. Chen also presented a map marking the boundary between China and Tibet which conformed to the then prevalent Chinese notions. (See the light blue line in Map 1.)

1495:, Brill, 1972, p260, "(From 1661 to 1705), the Manchu emperors possess only that shadowy form of suzerainty, which they inherited from the Yuan and the Ming dynasties...The year 1710 saw the formal proclamation of the Chinese protectorate...After the Dsungar storm had blown over, from 1721-1723 the Tibetan government was supervised by the commandant of the Chinese garrison in Lhasa...In 1751 the organization of the protectorate took its final shape, which it maintained, except for some modifications in 1792, till its end in 1912. The ambans were given rights of control and supervision and since 1792 also a direct participation in the Tibetan government. " 1038: 1026: 996: 607: 2739:: "Moreover, under the law in existence at the time, a treaty would only have been voidable if the treaty party damaged by it had demanded its invalidation and the other party had agreed to it, or if the matter was resolved by a recognized dispute resolution mechanism. Unhappiness with the outcome of negotiations or with the behaviour of negotiators did not affect the validity and enforceability of treaties. Neither the British nor the Tibetan government officially repudiated the actions of their plenipotentiaries in communications to the other treaty party, internal rumblings notwithstanding." 894:

give up territory, in particular in the 'Inner Tibet'. There were also demands for direct negotiations between Tibet and China. Citing these concerns, Tibet requested arms for fighting the Chinese who were still in possession of the border regions of 'Outer Tibet'. The British sold them 5,000 guns and half a million rounds of ammunition. The viceroy also told them that the reason for the failure of the conference was that Britain had tried to achieve for Tibet greater advantages than the Chinese were prepared to concede. Further demands for arms and tax concessions were politely denied.

870: 204: 925:, which would have precluded a bipartite Simla Convention between Britain and Tibet coming into force. By 1921, the British Foreign Office ruled that the Anglo-Russian Convention was no longer valid and therefore all its restrictions were removed from practice. Foreign Secretary Lord Curzon gave a memorandum to the Chinese envoy in August 1921 stating the British intention to recognise the status of Tibet as an "autonomous State under the suzerainty of China" and deal with it on that basis "without further reference to China". 623: 914:

British considered the Chinese proposals favourably and were ready to make counter-proposals. But a scheduled meeting of Jordan with the Chinese minister in August 1919 was abruptly cancelled saying that, due to a change in public opinion, the Chinese Cabinet had decided to postpone the negotiations. There had been rumours in China about a "sell-away" on Tibet, and the British envoy was led to believe that fresh intrigues by the Japanese caused apprehensions of agitations if the negotiations went ahead.

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had an 'uncompromising attitude'. It requested that negotiations be continued, with the venue shifted to London or Beijing. London backed its plenipotentiary, declaring that "every point" in China's favour had been conceded by him as long as it caused no injustice to Tibet. For the remainder of the period, China continued to lobby for further adjustments in the boundary through the British envoy in Beijing as well as the Chinese envoy in London. The demands were turned down by Britain.

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Convention along with the Trade Regulations and a bilateral declaration to the effect that the convention would be binding on the two parties. China could participate in the convention as soon as it consented to sign. The procedure was not explicitly authorised by London. In fact, the Foreign Office initiated an instruction to the effect a separate signature with Tibet could not be authorised by the British government, but it was received in Simla too late to affect the proceedings.

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negotiations followed in Delhi and Beijing, and even in London. McMahon had a 'verbal statement' delivered to Chen via Archibald Rose, pointing out that, in 1904 China had no administration in either zone of Tibet, and citing Fu Sung-mu's authority as evidence. He also warned the Chinese plenipotentiary that China's "uncompromising position" and renewed fighting along the China–Tibet frontier was fast eroding his own ability to persuade the Tibetans to make any concessions at all.

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procedure, Ivan Chen countered that deciding the political status of Tibet should be the first order of business. Chen also revealed that he had 'definite orders' from his government to give priority to the political questions. In response, McMahon ruled that he would discuss the frontier issue with Lonchen Shatra alone until Chen obtained authorisation from his government to join it. After five days, the Chinese government authorised Chen to join the discussion.

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the Article IX, which dealt with the boundary between 'Inner Tibet' and 'Outer Tibet'. So he was not authorised to sign the convention and he left the meeting chamber. In his absence, McMahon and Lonchen Shatra appended their initials to the draft convention. After he learnt what transpired in the meeting, Chen agreed to initial the draft convention reluctantly, having received assurance that initialling it did not amount to final acceptance.

221: 182: 53: 465: 879: 476: 768:. (See Map 1.) Nevertheless, on 22 April, Chen had again presented five new 'demands', which found no favour with the other participants. Lonchen also withheld consent as Derge and Nyarong were placed in Inner Tibet. At this point, McMahon made a show of withdrawing the entire draft convention, which made the other participants rethink their position. Chen begged for time to consult his governrment. 861:

signed it. Ivan Chen left the room briefly while the British and Tibetan representatives signed the documents, and he did not have knowledge of the proceedings. He believed that the Convention itself was signed (whereas it was only initialled) and McMahon left him to retain that impression. The British and Lonchen Shatra also signed a fresh set of trade Regulations to replace those of 1908.

760:'five-point proposal' communicated by Beijing, which made promises about how China would administer the territory it claimed, but without any change to the claim itself. The proposal found no favour with the other participants. At the end of the meeting, McMahon told Chen that he intended to call the next session on 14 April in order to withdraw the current draft. Chen begged for more time. 804:. It also indicated that the "patience of HMG " was exhausted, and, if China cannot agree to sign the Convention by the end of the month, Britain was prepared to sign it separately with Tibet. China's response delivered on 30 June said that no agreement was achieved on the territorial issue and that China would not recognise any convention signed by Britain and Tibet alone. 1193:, p. 37: "The two maps (27 April 1914 and 3 July 1914) illustrating the boundaries bear the full signature of the Tibetan Plenipotentiary; the first bears the full signature of the Chinese Plenipotentiary also; the second bears the full signatures along with seals of both Tibetan and British Plenipotentiaries. (V. Photographic reproductions of the two maps in 2488:: "The line was marked on a large-scale (eight miles to the inch) map. On a much smaller-scale map, which was used in the discussions of the Inner Tibet-Outer Tibet boundary, the McMahon-Tibetan boundary (which would become the McMahon Line) was shown as a sort of appendix to the boundary between Inner Tibet and China proper (see Map Six,below)." 1007: 346:, the Government of India regarded the signed bipartite treaty in 1915 as "for the present invalid". By 1921, the Anglo-Russian Convention was deemed to have lapsed, and the British felt free to deal with Tibet as an "autonomous State under the suzerainty of China", and, if necessary, "without further reference to China". 501:, the Foreign Secretary of British India in Delhi. China was represented by Ivan Chen (I-fan Chen), who was the Commissioner for Trade and Foreign Affairs at Shanghai. He had previously been on the staff of the Chinese Mission in London, and served as the Taotai in the Burma–Yunan frontier. Tibet was represented by 735:. These developments developed a "well-defined line" (the "blue line") between the sphere of "periodic Chinese intervention" and the autonomous region of Tibet where Chinese dictation was "purely nominal". These two lines now defined two zones in Tibet, for which he used the terms 'Inner Tibet' and 'Outer Tibet'. 2433:, p. 187: "Ivan Chen had 'confidentially' informed him that even in the event of his (Ivan Chen's) signature being withheld tomorrow a favourable change in the attitude of the Chinese Government is likely to be produced by the actual conclusion of an independent agreement between Great Britain and Tibet." 2127: 980:

is largely based on the same agreements – notes exchanged during the Simla convention of 1914, which set the boundary between India and Tibet – that the British appear to have simply discarded. It has been speculated that Britain's shift was made in exchange for China making greater contributions to the

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began soon after the Simla Conference ended, and the British government became preoccupied with the war arrangements. McMahon was posted as the British High Commissioner to Egypt and he soon departed India. In Tibet, the feeling was strong that the conference was a failure despite Tibet having had to

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The border decided by them was incorporated in the Simla conference map, which showed the boundary of Tibet as a "red line" and the border between Outer and Inner Tibet as a "blue line". This map was provided as an annexe to the proposed agreement and was initialled by all three representatives on 27

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China repudiated its plenipotentiary's act of initialling the draft convention calling it unauthorised. It also implied that Chen had been coerced to initial the convention, a charge rejected by Britain. China also charged that Henry McMahon, the British plenipotentiary, was 'unfriendly' to China and

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After an adjournment of five days, the conference reconvened on 27 April 1914 when the draft convention, along with the map, was initialled by all three participants. It was not a straightforward affair. The Chinese government's message to Chen said that the draft convention was acceptable except for

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At the fifth session on 11 March, McMahon tabled a draft of the convention, and introduced it with a variation of his "verbal statement". He appealed to both the Tibetan and Chinese representatives for "a broad and statesmanlike spirit of compromise" so that their labours could be brought to a speedy

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On 3 July, the conference was convened at 11:15 pm. The late hour was to allow time for Ivan Chen to receive his final instructions from Beijing. They were still not received. So, Chen stood by his earlier instructions and declined to sign. Lonchen Shatra was ready to sign and so McMahon's procedure

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On 17 February 1914, in the fourth session of the conference, McMahon laid on the table his proposal for the identification of 'Inner Tibet' and 'Outer Tibet' regions, along with a map showing the boundaries of these regions. (See the dashed red line and dashed blue line in Map 1.) He explained that

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In the face of the conflicting claims, both the sides agreed to prepare written statements embodying the complete evidence available on the frontier. These were presented on 12 January 1914, during the third session of the conference after it had moved to Delhi. China's extended claims were based on

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The Lonchen replied that Tibet had always been 'an independent country'. At one stage a Chinese princess had been given in marriage to a Tibetan ruler and that, at another, a boundary pillar had been erected at Marugong (Kokonor–Kansu border). Even though China had given some titles to the officials

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On 30 October, Ivan Chen made Chinese 'counter-proposals'. Beginning with a tendentious account of the relationship between the two countries, his statement claimed that the 'misunderstandings' that existed were solely due to the "conduct of His Holiness", who was said to be intractable and ignorant

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In the first session on 13 October, after the formalities of exchanging credentials, Lonchen Shatra presented an opening statement outlining the Tibetan position. The statement started by declaring, "Tibet and China have never been under each other and will never associate with each other in future.

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A draft Convention, along with a map showing the boundaries, was agreed and initialled by all three participants on 27 April. But the Chinese government repudiated it immediately. A slightly revised Convention, which took into account some Russian concerns, was signed on 3 July by Britain and Tibet,

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The British Government sees their new stances as an updating of their position, while some others have viewed it as a major shift in the British position. Tibetologist Robert Barnett thinks that the decision has wider implications. India's claim to a part of its north-east territories, for example,

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The Simla Conference having ended with a bipartite treaty rather than a tripartite one, the door was left open for China to join the Convention whenever it deemed fit. The signed bipartite treaty continued to govern the relations between Tibet and British until the latter's departure from India in

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contained further notes. For example, it was to be understood that "Tibet forms part of Chinese territory" and after the Tibetans selected a Dalai Lama, the Chinese government was to be notified and the Chinese commissioner in Lhasa would "formally communicate to His Holiness the titles consistent

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In the course of these discussions, McMahon formed the idea of distinguishing between so-called 'Inner Tibet' and 'Outer Tibet'. The main motivation, according to scholar Parshotam Mehra, was the recognition that, while the Chinese had far-flung garrisons in the frontier territories, they had been

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On 3 July 1914, the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries signed the Convention without a Chinese signature. They also signed an additional bilateral declaration with the claim that the convention would be binding on them and that China would be denied any privileges under the agreement until it

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believed that China was bluffing and the best way to call it would be to sign the Convention with Tibet alone. On 25 June, Britain sent a memorandum to China explaining all the concessions that were made to China during the negotiations and adding a new concession by restricting Tibet's northern

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The enunciation of the two zones marked on a map generated a strong reaction from both the Tibetan and Chinese plenipotentiaries. Lonchen argued strongly that Batang and Litang should be included in 'Outer Tibet' and adduced considerable official evidence. Ivan Chen claimed that China, under the

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unable to affect any material change in the Tibetan administration of the tribal states within them. So, some kind of shared presence in these territories would be necessary. These were to form the 'Inner Tibet'. The 'Outer Tibet' was to be Lhasa's dominion, with only Chinese suzerainty over it.

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After the conflict, renewed efforts were made to bring China into the Simla Convention. In May 1919, the Chinese made a four-point proposal via the British envoy Jordan, suggesting changes in some of the articles of the Convention, and adjusting the boundary to reflect the ground situation. The

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Map 1: Frontier claims: The light blue line in the west and the dark brown line in the east were the Chinese and Tibetan claims respectively. The Red Line (boundary of Tibet) and Blue Line (boundary of Outer Tibet) were initialled in the Simla Conference. The dashed lines were McMahon's initial

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On 2 July, McMahon was authorised by the British government to call a final meeting to sign the Convention, which was now slightly altered from the April version on procedural matters. McMahon mapped out his strategy. In the event of China not agreeing to sign, Britain and Tibet would sign the

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When his turn came, the Lonchen mentioned that three identical monoliths were erected a thousand years earlier in Lhasa, the Chinese capital and the frontier, recording a Chinese–Tibetan treaty. He produced copies of the inscription on the pillars and references to it in the 'History of Tibet'

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At the second meeting, McMahon laid down that the first and most important question was the 'definition of the limits' of Tibet. Then there would be other minor issues such as the Tibetan claims of compensation for losses and the Chinese demands for amnesty. While Lonchen Shatra agreed to the

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We might surmise that initialling the draft convention amounted to recognising it as a valid record of the conference, while a full signature was needed for the final acceptance. As the Tibetan language did not have a system of initials, Lonchen Shatra put down his full signature in lieu of

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The sixth session on 7 April went by with no apparent progress. On 27 March, Chen had been warned that, if he was unable to work towards a settlement based on the map, then McMahon would have to withdraw the map and make alternative proposals. At the 7 April meeting, Chen proposed a certain

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emperors, took the 'Inner Tibet' areas "back" and restored them to the Sichuan province. In the remaining areas of Tibet, he claimed that the Lhasa Amban had conducted direct administration. He claimed that his government could not recede from the claims he had made on 12 January. Frantic

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The Simla Conference, despite its name, was held in both Simla and Delhi. (Simla was a hill station, which served as the headquarters for the Indian government during the summer months. At other times, the headquarters moved back to Delhi.) The conference held eight formal sessions.

1263:, p. 7: "However, in October 2008 there was what some have viewed as a major shift in the British position, although the Government sees it more as an updating of it. This involved abandoning the concept of 'Chinese suzerainty' on the grounds that it was unclear and out-dated." 928:

In 1943, the British contemplated discarding the fiction of Chinese suzerainty and supporting Tibet's claim to independence, but decided against it, under the belief that it might in fact precipitate a Chinese attack on Tibet. The principle of Chinese suzerainty was reiterated.

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and the areas east of Upper Yangtse River (Dri Chu), all of which China had refused to yield at the Simla Conference. The British intervened diplomatically and arranged a truce, setting the border along the Upper Yangtse River, along with the region of Derge going to Tibet.

969:, the British Foreign Secretary, described the old position as an anachronism originating in the geopolitics of the early 20th century. Britain revised this view on 29 October 2008, when it recognised Chinese sovereignty over Tibet by issuing a statement on its website. 710:'s advances, which were quite recent (1906–1911). Chen justified them as 'effective occupation' recognised in international law. Lonchen ridiculed the claim, by listing the atrocities committed by Zhao and querying how the raids of such a person could be deemed lawful. 873:

China's control in Kham: The light blue line on the west represents the boundary in 1912–1917; China was pushed back to the brown line during 1918–1932. By 1945, it arrived at the dotted red line. The dark blue line is the Simla Convention boundary that China turned

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Chen claimed that there was a boundary pillar erected 300 li west of Batang in 1727, marking Chinese occupation. Lonchen demanded documentary proof that such a pillar had been erected. Chen was unable to produce any documentary proof other than second-hand reports.

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and the 13th Dalai Lama. Agvan Dorzhiev claimed that Russia was a powerful Buddhist country that would ally with Tibet against China or Britain. In response, Britain sought to increase its own influence in Tibet as a buffer for British India. British forces, led by

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Informal discussions took place throughout December 1913, assisted by Charles Bell and Archibald Rose. Chen admitted to Rose that the frontier question was 'exploded' upon him rather unexpectedly. But Rose replied that Chen had himself pushed it to the forefront.

590:. (See the brown line in Map 1.) It enumerated all the districts contained within these boundaries, demanded that the revenue collected from them by China should be returned to the Tibetans, and also claimed damages for the forcible exactions carried out on them. 941:, was published with a note stating that no binding agreement had been reached at Simla. Legal scholar M. C. van Praag states that the only mechanism for a 1914 treaty to become invalid is one of the parties repudiated it, and neither Tibet nor Britain did so. 339:, Ivan Chen, declined to sign it. The British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries then signed a bilateral declaration that stated that the convention would be binding on themselves and that China would be denied any privileges under the convention until it signed it. 1419: 828:

Evidence indicates that Ivan Chen viewed the Convention in favourable terms, thought it best obtainable under the circumstances, and believed that his government would accept it in due course. It is also known that he made a brave effort to convince President

2445:: "It is significant that on the eve of his departure from Simla he still sincerely believed that China would change its stance. More, it is now known that he made a brave effort, off his own bat, to influence Yuan Shih-kai accept the Simla convention." 1401:, p. 19: "The Simla Convention itself was initialed again by the British and Tibetan conference leaders in Delhi on 3 July 1914, and they signed a joint declaration pronouncing the convention binding upon themselves, even without Chinese agreement." 1136:

China had no presence in Tibet at the time of the conference, with Tibet having driven out all Chinese officials in 1911. The Chinese government nevertheless appointed an Amban (Imperial resident), who stationed himself in Calcutta, waiting for Tibetan

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Evidently the Anglo-Russian Convention was signed in a context where China had suzerainty over Tibet. With Tibet's declaration of independence in 1912, the situation had altered, and it was in the interest of both the powers to return the situation to

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conclusion. China was not receptive. Chen maintained that it was premature to discuss a draft since the general principles (of 'Inner' and 'Outer' Tibet) had not been accepted by his government. Meanwhile, China's amban-designate for Lhasa, sitting in

2136:, p. 195: 'And yet, argued the Lonchen, instead of owning the truth, the Chinese "descend so low as to base their claims on his raids as conquests and call it incontrovertible proof of just claim, it is like trying to swallow a living person".'. 1109:

This reflected the Tibetan position that the relationship that existed between Tibet and China was not any form of subordination, but rather that of priest and patron. Several scholars, including Parshotam Mehra, acknowledge this without any

1776:, "In 1913, after the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, the 13th Dalai Lama expelled all Manchu/Chinese officials and troops from Tibet and unilaterally declared that Tibet would be ruled without any outside interference.", in McKay, A.(ed.), 857:

with his dignity, which have been conferred by the Chinese Government"; that the Tibetan government appointed all officers for "Outer Tibet", and that "Outer Tibet" was not to be represented in the Chinese Parliament or any such assembly.

2550:, pp. 289–292: "When the Lonchen and Sir Henry proceeded to conclude the agreement, Ivan Chen was present briefly. ... Later, however, he left the chamber. After the Convention had been signed, Chen returned to the Conference room." 1209:: "The Indian Government opened bilateral negotiations with the Tibetans in Deli in February–March 1914 (the conferees having retreated from the Simla winter) with the object of securing Tibetan agreement to the proposed alignment." 1081:

The map was finalised on 24/25 March 1914 by the British and Tibetan plenipotentiaries. Indian sources currently claim that, on being informed of the line, the Chinese plenipotentiary did not express any disagreement.

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status accepted by China. And the new Anglo-Tibetan note provided no guarantees that the British would militarily defend the rights specified in the Simla Convention if China sough to enforce its claim over Tibet by

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stated that although the British Foreign Office's website does not use the word sovereignty, officials at the Foreign Office said "it means that, as far as Britain is concerned, 'Tibet is part of China. Full stop.'"

953:, indicated that Simla did nothing to resolve the Tibet Question. Goldstein indicated that since the Republic of China did not agree to the treaty, Tibet still had no legal status accepted by the Chinese government. 334:

A draft convention was initialled by all three parties on 27 April 1914, but China immediately repudiated it. A slightly revised convention was signed again on 3 July 1914, but only by Britain and Tibet. The Chinese

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In the second informal meeting, Chen read out a statement, which started by arguing the Chinese position on the political status of Tibet. He maintained that China had been in effective occupation as far west as

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read: "In conformity with the admitted principle of the suzerainty of China over Thibet, Great Britain and Russia engage not to enter into negotiations with Thibet except through the intermediary of the Chinese

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The British and Chinese representatives had telegraphic communications with their Home governments, while the Tibetan representative only had land communications. McMahon was assisted by two political officers:

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Eventually the seventh session was called on 22 April. In the interim, Chen had won some concessions. The border zone including the towns of Atuntse and Tachienlu had been conceded to China as was the lake of

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It is decided that Tibet is an independent state." Tibet repudiated all the previous conventions signed regarding itself without its own participation. It declared the boundaries of Tibet, ranging from the

614:: Dark blue line – the boundary of 'Outer Tibet' proposed in the conference; Light blue line – the boundary proposed by China; Pink line (1915) and Dashed blue line (1919) were later Chinese proposals. ( 1416:, p. 299: "A joint British-Tibetan declaration stipulating that its terms would apply to China only when the latter fell in line with its two other signatories was attached to the Convention." 1726:, Cambridge University Press, 2023, p122, "At the uging of the diplomat Tang Shaoyi, a fluent English-speaker who had pointed out to the court that there was a vital, if subtle difference between 544:

In between the formal sessions, Charles Bell and Archibald Rose negotiated with the participants bilaterally. There were also a few 'informal' tripartite sessions in addition to the formal ones.

845:, was also included in the map referred to in the treaty. This boundary was negotiated between the British and Tibetan representatives separately, in the absence of the Chinese representative. 995: 1179:

The records of the meeting do not indicate any coercion, but Chen might have been led to believe that if he did not initial the convention, Britain and Tibet would sign it among themselves.

2835: 494:, India to discuss the issue of Tibet's status. The conference was attended by representatives of Britain, the newly founded Republic of China, and the Tibetan government at Lhasa. 3889: 3884: 395:. The British expedition showed the weakness of the Qing rule in Tibet, which caused the Qing to assert their influence once again. This and anti-foreign sentiment led to the 825:

as were the maps. After Chen returned to the meeting chamber, McMahon informed him that he could still convene another meeting until 6 July if Chen were to be ready to sign.

505:, commonly referred to as "Lonchen Shatra", who was a leading prime minister of Tibet. He was an observer during the talks for the 1893 trade regulations associated with the 4539: 723:

the authentic records of both China and Tibet dating back to 822 CE had established Tibet's historical frontiers (the "red line" on the map). In the 18h century, under the

3914: 419: 4751: 1935:, p. 178: "The basic bond between the Ch'ing Emperor and the Dalai Lama, it may be recalled, was that of the Patron and the Priest, a sort of extension of the 1428:, p. 80: "since the Simla Convention has not been signed by the Chinese Government or accepted by the Russian Government and is therefore for the present invalid". 3699: 2515:, p. 114: "The advantages of which the Chinese were thus deprived do not appear to have been specifically catalogued but they must be interpreted as follows: 2859: 4756: 1224:

independence would continue until China signed the Convention. Lhasa would also be within its rights to contest the Chinese control of the "Inner Tibet" regions.

3311: 1336:, University of California Press, 1997, p34, "Simla did nothing to resolve the Tibet Question. Since China did not agree to the convention, Tibet still had no 3277: 307:

in 1913 and 1914. The Simla Convention provided that Tibet would be divided into "Outer Tibet" and "Inner Tibet". Outer Tibet, which roughly corresponded to

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During the period of April–June, prior to the final meeting, Britain held discussions with Russia on the draft convention. It was obliged to do so by the

756:, was advising the Chinese government to keep up the military pressure on the frontier and that the British were in no position to intervene militarily. 323:

and eastern Kham, would be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government. The convention with its annexes also defined the boundary between Tibet and

1507:, p. 44: "there can be no question regarding the subordination of Tibet to Manchu-ruled China following...the first decades of the eighteenth century.". 4721: 1238: 4239: 2691:(September 2004), "Boundary, sovereignty, and imagination: Reconsidering the frontier disputes between British India and Republican China, 1914–47", 792: 3068: 2818: 2752: 4145: 2930: 698:

compiled by the 5th Dalai Lama. The Lonchen had a mountain of evidence containing taxation and administration records for all the regions up to

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The McMahon Line: a Study in the Relations Between, India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914, Vol. 2: Hardinge, McMahon and the Simla Conference

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The McMahon Line and After: A Study of the Triangular Contest on India's North-eastern Frontier Between Britain, China and Tibet, 1904-47

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These alternatives could perhaps lean towards the Tibetan position, viz., that Tibet should be recognised as an independent country.

378:", and other foreign influence. Britain feared increased Russian influence in Tibet, due to contacts between the Russia-born Buryat 4681: 4656: 3821: 3505: 509:, had accompanied the Dalai Lama during his exile in British India, and had considerable experience in dealing with British India. 403:, also called the 1905 Tibetan Rebellion. The Batang uprising was quelled by Qing general Feng Quan, who died in the uprising, and 3562: 4502: 3613: 3459: 1353:, p. 201: "... the draft treaty initiated by the three parties was subsequently revised, after consultations with Russia." 1037: 1025: 3353: 3333: 3252: 3232: 3099: 3047: 2991: 2973: 2914: 2734: 2635: 2483: 2026: 1568: 452:

all Chinese forces and unilaterally declared itself independent in 1913. However, this was not accepted by the newly founded

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Zhu, Yuan Yi (2020). "Suzerainty, Semi-Sovereignty, and International Legal Hierarchies on China's Borderlands".

2893:, Vol XIV, Calcutta 1929, pp. 21 & 38. (Official British colonial treaty record), on the website of the 1673:

Zhu, Yuan Yi (2020). "Suzerainty, Semi-Sovereignty, and International Legal Hierarchies on China's Borderlands".

1608:"The Men Who Would Not Be Amban and the One Who Would: Four Frontline Officials and Qing Tibet Policy, 1905-1911" 950: 151: 30:

This article is about the 1914 Tibetan-British-Chinese convention. For the 1972 India-Pakistan peace treaty, see

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shows Henry McMahon's first proposals as dashed lines, and the Tibetan (brown) and Chinese (light blue) claims

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Mehra, Parshotam (February 1972), "A Forgotten Chapter in the History of the Northeast Frontier: 1914-36",

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idea which does not yield easily to a precise definition nor allows itself to be put into a strait-jacket."

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of 1907, as the two Great Powers had agreed to leave Tibet as a neutral zone, free of their interference.

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in the eastern regions, the taxation and administration of the region had always been in Tibetan hands.

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Simla Accord treaty map, signed in 1914 (showing the boundary of Tibet and the boundary of Outer Tibet)

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but not China. The conference left open the possibility of China joining the Convention in due course.

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The admission that China is not a foreign power for the purpose of the 1904 Anglo-Tibetan Convention.

731:

emperors, Chinese control was established on parts of Tibet, and a boundary pillar was erected near

4406: 3919: 3625: 3595: 3567: 1096: 1054: 922: 781: 498: 427: 343: 74: 4573: 4132: 3985: 3980: 3500: 3420: 3364: 3076:, International Affairs and Defence Section, British Parliamentary Briefing Paper, archived from 2886: 1743: 1294: 4691: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4651: 4646: 3904: 3863: 2802: 1389:, p. 299: "Ivan Chen, who had initialed the first earlier in April, kept his own counsel." 1014: 615: 606: 562: 506: 487: 3343: 2965: 2961: 2902: 1558: 4567: 4423: 4418: 4395: 4162: 3841: 3814: 3774: 3729: 3682: 3662: 3605: 3445: 3089: 2957: 921:

came to power in Russia and repudiated all the treaties of the Tsarist regime, including the

359: 319:", but China would not interfere in its administration. "Inner Tibet", roughly equivalent to 300: 225: 34:. For the 1906 deputation of Indian Muslim leaders for greater political representation, see 4167: 3899: 3804: 3577: 1305: 869: 449: 384: 122:

Tibetan, British and Chinese participants and plenipotentiaries to the Simla Treaty in 1914

1801: 70: 8: 4378: 4211: 3909: 3851: 3620: 2868: 514: 502: 392: 186: 3000:

Gupta, Karunakar (July–September 1971), "The McMahon Line 1911-45: The British Legacy",

2521:

The recognition of Chinese suzerainty over Tibet by the Tibetan and British Governments.

905:. The Tibetans made use of their new arms to strike back and, within a year, recaptured 537:

The next three sessions on 12 January, 17 February and 11 March 1914 were held in Delhi.

4554: 4519: 4336: 4306: 4152: 4021: 3964: 3764: 3759: 3744: 3401: 3190: 3150: 3142: 3025: 3017: 2797: 2708: 1692: 1643: 1635: 1586: 540:

The last three sessions on 7 April, 27 April and 3 July 1914 were held in Simla again.

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over Tibet but not full sovereignty. It was the only state still to hold this view.

327:

and that between Tibet and British India (with the latter coming to be known as the

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Aspects of India's International Relations, 1700 to 2000: South Asia and the World

2726: 817:

was adopted after Chen left the meeting chamber. In the event, the Convention was

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The History of Tibet: The modern period: 1895–1959, the Encounter with modernity

961:

Until 2008, the British Government's position remained the same that China held

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The operation in the favour of China of the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906.

1688: 315:, would "remain in the hands of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa under Chinese 4640: 4534: 4002: 3181:

Mehra, Parshotam (15 May 1982), "India-China Border: A Review and Critique",

2827: 2757: 1631: 1623: 1578: 971: 683: 667: 642: 534:

The first two sessions on 13 October and 18 November 1913 were held in Simla.

468: 422:, but was rebuffed by the Chinese envoy Tang Shaoyi, who insisted on China's 197: 155: 4492: 4448: 4438: 4390: 4385: 4368: 4016: 3687: 3345:

Tibetan Nation: A history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations

3325:

Tibetan Nation: A history of Tibetan nationalism and Sino-Tibetan relations

842: 765: 448:

After the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, the Tibet government at Lhasa

363: 355: 328: 324: 4473: 4468: 3424: 2524:

The right to appoint an Amban at Lhasa with a military escort of 300 men.

1812: 1754: 890: 830: 707: 633: 404: 4226: 2469:, Chapter 19. "Negotiating the India–Tibet Boundary" (pp. 221–232). 1724:

Recentering the World: China and the Transformation of International Law

1639: 1607: 430:, Britain and Russia who were forming an entente, acknowledged Chinese " 117: 4585: 4373: 4179: 3670: 3534: 3194: 3146: 962: 918: 801: 674:, Draya and Gyade, in addition to the 'generally' recognised claims to 575: 441:

and came close to re-conquering it before the Qing dynasty fell in the

431: 375: 316: 4095: 3021: 475: 308: 4341: 4055: 3890:

29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1793)

3885:

13-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet (1751)

3635: 3224:

The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947

2954:

A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The demise of the Lamaist state

2926:, Marine Corps Command and Staff College, April 1984, republished as 699: 627: 3138: 4011: 3590: 3244:

Dragon in the Land of Snows: The History of Modern Tibet since 1947

753: 744: 728: 3915:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)

3421:"Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914)" 3365:"Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914)" 1295:"Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914)" 1119:

All the locations mentioned with the exception of Kokonor were in

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In 1917, conflict broke out between the Tibetans and Chinese in

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The boundary between Tibet and British India, later called the

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The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama

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The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama

342:

Without Chinese acceptance and also for its conflict with the

4544: 4363: 4353: 3468: 2669: 2262: 1203:, p. 80 quotes the India Office records IOR/L/PS/10/344. 663: 659: 408: 292: 147: 2536:

Any limitation of the strength of British escorts in Tibet."

1470: 4090: 4085: 3585: 2390: 2388: 2313: 1124: 1120: 898: 611: 396: 320: 312: 2595: 2573: 2571: 2569: 4321: 2922:

Calvin, James Barnard (Lieutenant Commander,U. S. Navy).

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Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla

2074: 1711:

Sovereignty in China: A Genealogy of a Concept since 1840

702:(Kangding). The Chinese had nothing comparable to offer. 2833:

Have Brown and Miliband sold out Tibet for Chinese cash?

2747: 2745: 2642: 2412: 2400: 2385: 2349: 2337: 2325: 2250: 2226: 2202: 2190: 2178: 2166: 1966: 1942: 1870: 1825: 1123:. "Kokonor" appears to stand for some undefined part of 2659: 2657: 2607: 2583: 2566: 2279: 2277: 2156: 2154: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2004: 2002: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1981: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1887: 1885: 1460: 1458: 1443: 3940:

Sino-Indian Trade Agreement over Tibetan Border (1954)

3925:

Treaty of friendship and alliance with Mongolia (1913)

2742: 1560:

The Northeast question : conflicts and frontiers

1368: 1239:"Written Ministerial Statement on Tibet (29/10/2008)" 2654: 2373: 2289: 2274: 2238: 2214: 2151: 2139: 2115: 2103: 2086: 2057: 2045: 2033: 2014: 1999: 1978: 1954: 1909: 1897: 1882: 1858: 1846: 1774:

On Modern Tibetan History: Moving Beyond Stereotypes

1455: 1431: 426:

over Tibet. As the "Great Game" was waning with the

414:

The British government sought Chinese acceptance of

2986:, University of California Press., pp. 30–31, 2448: 1356: 517:, who negotiated with Shatra on the sidelines, and 38:. For the 1945 Indian self-government meeting, see 2769: 1744:Convention Between Great Britain and Russia (1907) 1521:"FACTBOX: Historical ties between China and Tibet" 1328: 1326: 821:rather than signed. The bilateral declaration was 486:In 1913, the British convoked a conference at the 285:Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet 111:Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet 1290: 1288: 1286: 1284: 4638: 3297:"The Simla Convention of 1914: A Chinese Puzzle" 2900: 2891:A Collection of Treaties, Engagements And Sanads 2693:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1737: 1515: 1513: 1350: 1197:, New Delhi: Ministry of External Affairs 1960)" 949:Melvyn Goldstein, an American Tibetologist from 582:ranges etc. and ending with the boundaries with 434:" over Tibet to avoid conflict over the region. 27:Unratified treaty concerning the status of Tibet 2533:Any concern in the appointment of a Dalai Lama. 1323: 1013:In addition to the two boundaries, this map by 366:, saw reduced Chinese influence, and increased 2790: 2786: 2784: 2496: 2494: 1281: 391:and made a treaty with the Tibetans, the 1904 4752:Treaties of the Republic of China (1912–1949) 3857:Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China 3453: 3207:(Second ed.), Boulder/London: Shambala, 2909:, Pearson Education India, pp. 173–256, 2527:The admission that Tibet forms part of China. 1783: 1666: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1510: 956: 937:The official treaty record, C.U. Aitchison's 60:The examples and perspective in this article 1493:China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century 1409: 1407: 2956:, University of California Press, pp. 2781: 2727:"The Simla Agreements in International Law" 2491: 2482:harvp error: no target: CITEREFCalvin1984 ( 1077: 1075: 4757:Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922) 3460: 3446: 3392:(2). Cambridge University Press: 293–320. 3200: 2725:van Praag, M.C. van Walt (December 2014), 2553: 2512: 1683:(2). Cambridge University Press: 293–320. 1591:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1556: 1543: 1485: 407:, who became the Qing Dynasty's governing 116: 4722:History of the foreign relations of India 2981: 2951: 2724: 2675: 2634:harvp error: no target: CITEREFLamb1989 ( 2613: 2601: 2589: 2577: 2500: 1789: 1504: 1479: 1449: 1425: 1404: 1200: 93:Learn how and when to remove this message 3087: 3035: 2733:(1), The Tibet Policy Institute: 26–55, 1713:, Cambridge University Press, 2019, p129 1398: 1374: 1317: 1072: 877: 868: 833:to accept it after his return to China. 632: 621: 605: 555: 474: 463: 1837: 1254: 601: 14: 4639: 3614:Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs 3317:from the original on 28 September 2021 3283:from the original on 28 September 2021 3263:"Was the Simla Convention not signed?" 3240: 3220: 2478: 717: 658:. The claim included the districts of 420:1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention on Tibet 389:militarily intervened in Tibet in 1904 3695:People's Republic of China (PRC) rule 3441: 3341: 3321: 3294: 3260: 3180: 3160: 3124: 2999: 2663: 2648: 2625: 2547: 2466: 2454: 2442: 2430: 2418: 2406: 2394: 2379: 2367: 2355: 2343: 2331: 2319: 2307: 2295: 2283: 2268: 2256: 2244: 2232: 2220: 2208: 2196: 2184: 2172: 2160: 2145: 2133: 2121: 2109: 2097: 2080: 2068: 2051: 2039: 2025:sfnp error: no target: CITEREFMehra ( 2008: 1993: 1972: 1960: 1948: 1932: 1920: 1903: 1891: 1876: 1864: 1852: 1831: 1795: 1654:from the original on 1 September 2021 1531:from the original on 1 September 2021 1464: 1437: 1413: 1386: 1362: 1206: 1190: 1182: 1083: 932: 295:negotiated by representatives of the 3822:1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet 3066: 3055: 2775: 2737:from the original on 2 December 2020 2681: 2629: 1260: 1233: 1220:This effectively meant that Tibet's 1195:Atlas of the North Frontier of India 46: 3381: 2924:The China – India Border War (1962) 2791:Robert Barnett (24 November 2008), 2687: 1778:Tibet and Her Neighbours: A History 1672: 854:Schedule appended to the Convention 551: 521:, who did the same with Ivan Chen. 24: 4742:Treaties extended to British India 3800:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 3755:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 3467: 3385:Asian Journal of International Law 3261:Sinha, Nirmal C. (February 1966), 3042:, University of California Press, 1676:Asian Journal of International Law 1605: 775: 574:in the north, passing through the 64:include all significant viewpoints 25: 4773: 3837:Protests and uprisings since 1950 3827:1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet 3414: 2761:, 6 November 2008, archived from 2020: 3945:70,000 Character Petition (1962) 3935:Seventeen Point Agreement (1951) 2849: 2809: 2718: 1227: 1036: 1024: 1006: 994: 807: 428:Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 231: 219: 202: 191: 180: 51: 4682:1914 in international relations 4657:1913 in international relations 3920:Anglo-Russian Convention (1907) 3295:Sinha, Nirmal C. (July 1987) , 2619: 2541: 2506: 2472: 2436: 2424: 1926: 1766: 1716: 1703: 1599: 1563:. New Delhi. pp. 146–152. 1214: 1173: 1159: 1149: 1140: 1130: 1127:, perhaps even the whole of it. 1113: 1103: 1089: 951:Case Western Reserve University 944: 4732:Tibet–United Kingdom relations 4712:China–United Kingdom relations 4175:Patron and priest relationship 4141:Central Tibetan Administration 3950:Memorandum on Genuine Autonomy 2905:, in Jayanta Kumar Ray (ed.), 2793:"Did Britain Just Sell Tibet?" 1392: 1380: 1344: 1311: 1243:British Foreign Office website 791:In India, McMahon and Viceroy 374:influence as a result of the " 13: 1: 4540:Historical and cultural sites 3905:Convention of Calcutta (1890) 3227:, Columbia University Press, 3183:Economic and Political Weekly 2982:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1997), 2952:Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1991), 1270: 836: 610:Map 2: Frontier proposals in 482:, the Tibetan plenipotentiary 471:, the British plenipotentiary 459: 349: 3880:Treaty of Tingmosgang (1684) 3201:Richardson, Hugh E. (1984), 3127:The Journal of Asian Studies 3036:Hoffmann, Steven A. (1990), 2901:Banerji, Arun Kumar (2007), 2310:, pp. 219–220, 240–241. 1275: 864: 497:Britain was represented Sir 439:military expedition to Tibet 7: 3900:Treaty of Thapathali (1856) 3790:British expedition to Tibet 3780:Nepal-Tibet War (1855–1856) 3750:Battle of the Salween River 3091:Britain and Tibet 1765–1947 3067:Lunn, Jon (20 March 2009), 2753:"Britain's suzerain remedy" 2705:10.1080/0308653042000279650 1557:Phanjoubam, Pradip (2016). 1048: 982:International Monetary Fund 524: 437:In 1910, Qing China sent a 354:Tibet was a self-governing 10: 4778: 4737:Treaties concluded in 1914 4687:1914 in the British Empire 4662:1913 in the British Empire 4273:Postage and postal history 3725:Tibetan attack on Songzhou 3039:India and the China Crisis 2928:The China-India Border War 2878: 1822:. Retrieved 20 March 2009. 1095:The Article 2 of the 1907 957:2008 British policy change 418:over Tibet as part of the 362:. The later crises of the 29: 4603: 4459: 4302: 4295: 4268: 4259: 4225: 4128: 4119: 4078: 3976: 3972: 3963: 3872: 3735:Mongol invasions of Tibet 3715: 3519: 3488: 3479: 3434:. Retrieved 20 March 2009 3398:10.1017/S204425132000020X 3322:Smith, Warren W. (1996), 3161:Mehra, Parshotam (1974), 3062:, Routledge & K. Paul 3014:10.1017/S0305741000006214 2862:22 September 2018 at the 2370:, pp. 273, 275, 276. 1689:10.1017/S204425132000020X 1606:Ho, Dahpon David (2008). 1308:. Retrieved 20 March 2009 1043:McMahon Line eastern part 1031:McMahon Line western part 637:The boundary pillar near 291:concerning the status of 283:: 西姆拉条约), officially the 245: 212: 175: 161: 143: 135: 127: 115: 110: 4133:Tibet Autonomous Region 3895:Treaty of Chushul (1842) 3847:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest 3370:9 September 2020 at the 3348:, Taylor & Francis, 3241:Shakya, Tsering (2012), 3221:Shakya, Tsering (1999), 3088:Marshall, Julie (2004), 2944:13 December 2015 at the 2933:11 November 2011 at the 2821:1 September 2008 at the 2271:, pp. 219–220, 238. 1624:10.1177/0097700407312856 1300:9 September 2020 at the 1097:Anglo-Russian Convention 1065: 1055:Treaty of Kyakhta (1915) 939:A Collection of Treaties 923:Anglo-Russian Convention 782:Anglo-Russian Convention 344:Anglo-Russian Convention 4240:TAR People's Government 4200:Serfs' Emancipation Day 3740:Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war 3056:Lamb, Alastair (1966), 2948:. Retrieved 2009-04-11. 2838:3 December 2008 at the 1807:4 February 2019 at the 1749:5 February 2019 at the 1351:Banerji, Borders (2007) 987: 3910:Treaty of Lhasa (1904) 3864:Special Frontier Force 3378:. Retrieved 2009-03-20 3342:Smith, Warren (2019), 3304:Bulletin of Tibetology 3270:Bulletin of Tibetology 3113:(1970) Jonathan Cape. 2897:. Retrieved 2009-03-20 883: 875: 646: 630: 626:Nanwu Si monastery in 619: 566: 507:Convention of Calcutta 483: 472: 4707:China–Tibet relations 4283:Qinghai–Tibet railway 4278:Qinghai-Tibet Highway 4245:TAR People's Congress 4217:India–Tibet relations 4190:Independence movement 3842:1959 Tibetan uprising 3730:Battle of Dafei River 3578:Era of Fragmentation 3430:10 March 2009 at the 3204:Tibet and its History 1818:10 March 2009 at the 1760:10 March 2009 at the 882:Landscape near Chamdo 881: 872: 636: 625: 609: 559: 478: 467: 303:and Great Britain in 167:29 October 2008 (per 4591:Traditional medicine 3805:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 3626:Relations with Ming 3596:Relations with Song 3568:Relations with Tang 3506:European exploration 3425:Tibet Justice Center 3376:Tibet Justice Center 2895:Tibet Justice Center 2857:The neglect of Tibet 2731:Tibet Policy Journal 2628:, pp. 333–334; 2083:, pp. 189, 194. 1813:Tibet Justice Center 1755:Tibet Justice Center 1306:Tibet Justice Center 602:Frontier discussions 385:Francis Younghusband 4235:Regional Government 4212:CIA Tibetan program 4195:Serfdom controversy 4079:Traditional regions 3930:Simla Accord (1914) 3852:2008 Tibetan unrest 3676:List of Qing ambans 3621:Phagmodrupa dynasty 3002:The China Quarterly 2869:The Daily Telegraph 2846:, 25 November 2008. 2825:(the web editor of 2765:on 10 December 2008 2678:, pp. 398–402. 2651:, pp. 334–337. 2421:, pp. 289–290. 2409:, pp. 288–289. 2397:, pp. 284–285. 2358:, pp. 264–272. 2346:, pp. 263–264. 2334:, pp. 261–262. 2259:, pp. 216–217. 2235:, pp. 212–213. 2211:, pp. 211–212. 2199:, pp. 211–217. 2187:, pp. 210–211. 2175:, pp. 209–210. 2023:, pp. 185–186. 1975:, pp. 183–184. 1951:, pp. 182–183. 1879:, pp. 174–175. 1834:, pp. 182–183. 1772:Goldstein, Melvyn, 1722:Mitchell, Ryan M., 1482:, pp. 397–398. 1332:Goldstein, Melvyn, 1060:Imperialism in Asia 718:McMahon's proposals 515:Charles Alfred Bell 503:Paljor Dorje Shatra 287:, was an ambiguous 277:Traditional Chinese 187:Paljor Dorje Shatra 107: 71:improve the article 18:Simla Accord (1914) 4747:Treaties of Sikkim 4717:Geography of Tibet 4702:China–India border 4549:(ceremonial scarf) 4520:Dzong architecture 4337:Imperial Preceptor 4207:Sovereignty debate 4153:Etymology of Tibet 3765:Lhasa riot of 1750 3760:Jinchuan campaigns 3745:Battle of Dartsedo 3663:Qing dynasty rule 3606:Yuan dynasty rule 3580:(9th–13th century) 3328:, Westview Press, 3107:Maxwell, Neville. 3070:Tibet (SN/IA/5018) 2939:globalsecurity.org 2798:The New York Times 1249:on 2 December 2008 933:Publication issues 884: 876: 647: 641:, photographed by 631: 620: 567: 484: 473: 281:Simplified Chinese 105: 4762:Treaties of Tibet 4697:Boundary treaties 4634: 4633: 4599: 4598: 4291: 4290: 4255: 4254: 4158:Foreign relations 4115: 4114: 4111: 4110: 3959: 3958: 3815:Qinghai–Tibet War 3785:Sikkim expedition 3775:Dogra–Tibetan War 3770:Sino-Nepalese War 3705:political leaders 3683:Post-Qing to 1950 3636:Rinpungpa dynasty 3547:(7th–9th century) 3355:978-1-00-061228-8 3335:978-0-8133-3155-3 3254:978-1-4481-1429-0 3234:978-0-231-11814-9 3110:India's China War 3101:978-1-134-32784-3 3049:978-0-520-06537-6 2993:978-0-520-21951-9 2975:978-0-520-07590-0 2916:978-81-317-0834-7 2885:Aitchison, C.U. " 2604:, pp. 80–82. 2513:Richardson (1984) 1570:978-1-317-34003-4 1527:. 21 April 2008. 1491:Petech, Luciano, 901:near the area of 454:Republic of China 399:to revolt in the 297:Republic of China 269: 268: 103: 102: 95: 75:discuss the issue 16:(Redirected from 4769: 4619: 4612: 4550: 4327:Tibetan Buddhism 4300: 4299: 4266: 4265: 4136: 4126: 4125: 3974: 3973: 3970: 3969: 3832:Battle of Chamdo 3810:Sino-Tibetan War 3666: 3629: 3609: 3599: 3581: 3571: 3558:List of emperors 3548: 3530: 3511:Historical money 3486: 3485: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3439: 3438: 3409: 3358: 3338: 3318: 3316: 3301: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3282: 3267: 3257: 3247:, Random House, 3237: 3217: 3197: 3177: 3157: 3104: 3084: 3082: 3075: 3063: 3052: 3032: 2996: 2978: 2919: 2873: 2872:, 11 March 2009. 2853: 2847: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2801:, archived from 2788: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2749: 2740: 2738: 2722: 2716: 2715: 2685: 2679: 2676:Goldstein (1991) 2673: 2667: 2661: 2652: 2646: 2640: 2639: 2632:, pp. 86–87 2623: 2617: 2614:Goldstein (1991) 2611: 2605: 2602:Goldstein (1991) 2599: 2593: 2590:Goldstein (1991) 2587: 2581: 2578:Goldstein (1991) 2575: 2564: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2510: 2504: 2498: 2489: 2487: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2383: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2212: 2206: 2200: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2164: 2158: 2149: 2143: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2119: 2113: 2107: 2101: 2095: 2084: 2078: 2072: 2066: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2031: 2030: 2018: 2012: 2006: 1997: 1991: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1907: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1844: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1823: 1799: 1793: 1792:, pp. 30–31 1790:Goldstein (1997) 1787: 1781: 1770: 1764: 1741: 1735: 1720: 1714: 1707: 1701: 1700: 1670: 1664: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1603: 1597: 1596: 1590: 1582: 1554: 1541: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1517: 1508: 1505:Goldstein (1991) 1502: 1496: 1489: 1483: 1480:Goldstein (1991) 1477: 1468: 1462: 1453: 1450:Goldstein (1997) 1447: 1441: 1435: 1429: 1426:Goldstein (1991) 1423: 1417: 1411: 1402: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1366: 1360: 1354: 1348: 1342: 1330: 1321: 1315: 1309: 1292: 1264: 1258: 1252: 1250: 1245:, archived from 1231: 1225: 1218: 1212: 1201:Goldstein (1991) 1186: 1180: 1177: 1171: 1163: 1157: 1153: 1147: 1144: 1138: 1134: 1128: 1117: 1111: 1107: 1101: 1093: 1087: 1079: 1040: 1028: 1010: 998: 798:Kunlun Mountains 796:boundary to the 552:Initial sessions 393:Lhasa Convention 273:Simla Convention 236: 235: 234: 224: 223: 222: 207: 206: 205: 196: 195: 194: 185: 184: 183: 120: 108: 106:Simla Convention 104: 98: 91: 87: 84: 78: 55: 54: 47: 40:Simla Conference 36:Simla Deputation 21: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4771: 4770: 4768: 4767: 4766: 4637: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4622: 4615: 4608: 4595: 4548: 4455: 4287: 4251: 4221: 4134: 4107: 4074: 4051:Tibetan Plateau 4046:Rongbuk Glacier 4032:Yarlung Tsangpo 3955: 3868: 3795:Batang uprising 3717: 3711: 3664: 3658:Khoshut Khanate 3646:Ganden Phodrang 3641:Tsangpa dynasty 3627: 3607: 3597: 3579: 3569: 3546: 3540:Yarlung dynasty 3528: 3515: 3475: 3466: 3432:Wayback Machine 3417: 3412: 3372:Wayback Machine 3356: 3336: 3314: 3299: 3286: 3284: 3280: 3265: 3255: 3235: 3215: 3189:(20): 834–838, 3175: 3139:10.2307/2052598 3102: 3083:on 18 June 2009 3080: 3073: 3050: 3008:(47): 521–545, 2994: 2976: 2946:Wayback Machine 2935:Wayback Machine 2917: 2881: 2876: 2864:Wayback Machine 2854: 2850: 2840:Wayback Machine 2823:Wayback Machine 2814: 2810: 2805:on 28 July 2017 2789: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2751: 2750: 2743: 2723: 2719: 2689:Lin, Hsiao-ting 2686: 2682: 2674: 2670: 2662: 2655: 2647: 2643: 2633: 2624: 2620: 2612: 2608: 2600: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2576: 2567: 2558: 2554: 2546: 2542: 2511: 2507: 2499: 2492: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2429: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2366: 2362: 2354: 2350: 2342: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2318: 2314: 2306: 2302: 2294: 2290: 2282: 2275: 2267: 2263: 2255: 2251: 2243: 2239: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2171: 2167: 2159: 2152: 2144: 2140: 2132: 2128: 2120: 2116: 2108: 2104: 2096: 2087: 2079: 2075: 2067: 2058: 2050: 2046: 2038: 2034: 2024: 2019: 2015: 2007: 2000: 1992: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1959: 1955: 1947: 1943: 1931: 1927: 1919: 1910: 1902: 1898: 1890: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1830: 1826: 1820:Wayback Machine 1809:Wayback Machine 1800: 1796: 1788: 1784: 1771: 1767: 1762:Wayback Machine 1751:Wayback Machine 1742: 1738: 1721: 1717: 1708: 1704: 1671: 1667: 1657: 1655: 1604: 1600: 1584: 1583: 1571: 1555: 1544: 1534: 1532: 1519: 1518: 1511: 1503: 1499: 1490: 1486: 1478: 1471: 1463: 1456: 1448: 1444: 1436: 1432: 1424: 1420: 1412: 1405: 1399:Hoffmann (1990) 1397: 1393: 1385: 1381: 1375:Hoffmann (1990) 1373: 1369: 1361: 1357: 1349: 1345: 1331: 1324: 1316: 1312: 1302:Wayback Machine 1293: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1267: 1259: 1255: 1235:Miliband, David 1232: 1228: 1219: 1215: 1187: 1183: 1178: 1174: 1168:status quo ante 1164: 1160: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1141: 1135: 1131: 1118: 1114: 1108: 1104: 1094: 1090: 1080: 1073: 1068: 1051: 1044: 1041: 1032: 1029: 1018: 1015:Hugh Richardson 1011: 1002: 999: 990: 959: 947: 935: 867: 839: 810: 778: 776:April–June 1914 720: 616:Hugh Richardson 604: 563:Hugh Richardson 554: 527: 488:Viceregal Lodge 462: 443:1911 Revolution 401:Batang uprising 352: 337:plenipotentiary 232: 230: 220: 218: 203: 201: 200: 192: 190: 189: 181: 179: 166: 152:Punjab Province 123: 99: 88: 82: 79: 68: 56: 52: 43: 32:Simla Agreement 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4775: 4765: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4714: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4659: 4654: 4649: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4628: 4621: 4620: 4613: 4605: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4577: 4576: 4571: 4564: 4552: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4506: 4505: 4500: 4498:wall paintings 4495: 4490: 4483: 4476: 4465: 4463: 4457: 4456: 4454: 4453: 4452: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4429:Tibetan people 4426: 4424:Social classes 4421: 4416: 4415: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4403: 4402: 4401: 4400: 4399: 4398: 4388: 4383: 4382: 4381: 4371: 4361: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4345: 4344: 4339: 4324: 4314: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4293: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4269: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4237: 4231: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4203: 4202: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4172: 4171: 4170: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4149: 4148: 4138: 4129: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4105: 4104: 4103: 4093: 4088: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4072: 4067: 4066: 4065: 4064: 4063: 4061:Nature Reserve 4048: 4043: 4042: 4041: 4040: 4039: 4026: 4025: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4005: 3995: 3993: 3988: 3983: 3977: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3957: 3956: 3954: 3953: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3876: 3874: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3861: 3860: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3818: 3817: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3721: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3709: 3708: 3707: 3702: 3700:PRC annexation 3692: 3691: 3690: 3680: 3679: 3678: 3673: 3660: 3655: 3654: 3653: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3632: 3631: 3618: 3617: 3616: 3603: 3602: 3601: 3593: 3588: 3575: 3574: 3573: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3542: 3537: 3532: 3523: 3521: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3513: 3508: 3503: 3501:List of rulers 3498: 3492: 3490: 3483: 3477: 3476: 3465: 3464: 3457: 3450: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3416: 3415:External links 3413: 3411: 3410: 3379: 3361: 3360: 3359: 3354: 3334: 3319: 3292: 3258: 3253: 3238: 3233: 3218: 3213: 3198: 3178: 3173: 3158: 3133:(2): 299–308, 3122: 3105: 3100: 3085: 3064: 3053: 3048: 3033: 2997: 2992: 2979: 2974: 2949: 2920: 2915: 2898: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2874: 2848: 2816:Forsyth, James 2808: 2780: 2768: 2741: 2717: 2680: 2668: 2666:, p. 338. 2653: 2641: 2618: 2606: 2594: 2582: 2565: 2552: 2540: 2538: 2537: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2519: 2505: 2501:Goldstein 1991 2490: 2471: 2459: 2447: 2435: 2423: 2411: 2399: 2384: 2382:, p. 283. 2372: 2360: 2348: 2336: 2324: 2312: 2300: 2298:, p. 240. 2288: 2286:, p. 239. 2273: 2261: 2249: 2247:, p. 215. 2237: 2225: 2223:, p. 212. 2213: 2201: 2189: 2177: 2165: 2163:, p. 208. 2150: 2148:, p. 192. 2138: 2126: 2124:, p. 194. 2114: 2112:, p. 190. 2102: 2100:, p. 189. 2085: 2073: 2071:, p. 188. 2056: 2054:, p. 187. 2044: 2042:, p. 186. 2032: 2013: 2011:, p. 185. 1998: 1996:, p. 184. 1977: 1965: 1963:, p. 183. 1953: 1941: 1925: 1923:, p. 182. 1908: 1906:, p. 175. 1896: 1894:, p. 176. 1881: 1869: 1867:, p. 835. 1857: 1855:, p. 174. 1845: 1836: 1824: 1794: 1782: 1765: 1736: 1715: 1709:Carrai, M.A., 1702: 1665: 1618:(2): 210–246. 1598: 1569: 1542: 1509: 1497: 1484: 1469: 1467:, p. 417. 1454: 1442: 1440:, p. 524. 1430: 1418: 1403: 1391: 1379: 1367: 1365:, p. 275. 1355: 1343: 1322: 1310: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1253: 1226: 1213: 1211: 1210: 1204: 1198: 1181: 1172: 1158: 1148: 1139: 1129: 1112: 1102: 1088: 1070: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1057: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1012: 1005: 1003: 1000: 993: 989: 986: 967:David Miliband 958: 955: 946: 943: 934: 931: 866: 863: 838: 835: 809: 806: 777: 774: 719: 716: 603: 600: 553: 550: 542: 541: 538: 535: 526: 523: 519:Archibald Rose 480:Lonchen Shatra 461: 458: 380:Agvan Dorzhiev 351: 348: 267: 266: 265: 264: 259: 254: 247: 243: 242: 241: 240: 238:United Kingdom 228: 214: 210: 209: 177: 173: 172: 169:United Kingdom 163: 159: 158: 145: 141: 140: 137: 133: 132: 129: 125: 124: 121: 113: 112: 101: 100: 59: 57: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4774: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4692:1914 in Tibet 4690: 4688: 4685: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4677:1914 in India 4675: 4673: 4672:1914 in China 4670: 4668: 4667:1913 in Tibet 4665: 4663: 4660: 4658: 4655: 4653: 4652:1913 in India 4650: 4648: 4647:1913 in China 4645: 4644: 4642: 4627: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4614: 4611: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4471: 4470: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4458: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4431: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4380: 4377: 4376: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4366: 4365: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4334: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4319: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4304: 4301: 4298: 4294: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4270: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4258: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4147: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4118: 4102: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4071: 4068: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4054: 4053: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4044: 4038: 4035: 4034: 4033: 4030: 4029: 4027: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 4000: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3975: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3962: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3865: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3839: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3816: 3813: 3812: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3714: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3686: 3685: 3684: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3667: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3649: 3648: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3611: 3610: 3604: 3600: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3583: 3582: 3576: 3572: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3525: 3524: 3522: 3518: 3512: 3509: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3463: 3458: 3456: 3451: 3449: 3444: 3443: 3440: 3433: 3429: 3426: 3422: 3419: 3418: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3351: 3347: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3320: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3259: 3256: 3250: 3246: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3226: 3225: 3219: 3216: 3214:9780877737896 3210: 3206: 3205: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3176: 3174:9780333157374 3170: 3167:, Macmillan, 3166: 3165: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3123: 3120: 3119:0-224-61887-3 3116: 3112: 3111: 3106: 3103: 3097: 3094:, Routledge, 3093: 3092: 3086: 3079: 3072: 3071: 3065: 3061: 3060: 3054: 3051: 3045: 3041: 3040: 3034: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2977: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2947: 2943: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2918: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2883: 2871: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2858: 2852: 2845: 2844:The Spectator 2842:, website of 2841: 2837: 2834: 2830: 2829: 2828:The Spectator 2824: 2820: 2817: 2812: 2804: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2777: 2772: 2764: 2760: 2759: 2758:The Economist 2754: 2748: 2746: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2721: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2677: 2672: 2665: 2660: 2658: 2650: 2645: 2637: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2616:, p. 83. 2615: 2610: 2603: 2598: 2592:, p. 80. 2591: 2586: 2580:, p. 77. 2579: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2562: 2559:McKay, Alex, 2556: 2549: 2544: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2509: 2503:, p. 75. 2502: 2497: 2495: 2485: 2480: 2479:Calvin (1984) 2475: 2468: 2463: 2457:, p. 12. 2456: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2432: 2427: 2420: 2415: 2408: 2403: 2396: 2391: 2389: 2381: 2376: 2369: 2364: 2357: 2352: 2345: 2340: 2333: 2328: 2322:, Chapter 21. 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2297: 2292: 2285: 2280: 2278: 2270: 2265: 2258: 2253: 2246: 2241: 2234: 2229: 2222: 2217: 2210: 2205: 2198: 2193: 2186: 2181: 2174: 2169: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2147: 2142: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2111: 2106: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2082: 2077: 2070: 2065: 2063: 2061: 2053: 2048: 2041: 2036: 2028: 2022: 2017: 2010: 2005: 2003: 1995: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1974: 1969: 1962: 1957: 1950: 1945: 1938: 1934: 1929: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1913: 1905: 1900: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1878: 1873: 1866: 1861: 1854: 1849: 1840: 1833: 1828: 1821: 1817: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1803: 1798: 1791: 1786: 1779: 1775: 1769: 1763: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1745: 1740: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1719: 1712: 1706: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1677: 1669: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1602: 1594: 1588: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1566: 1562: 1561: 1553: 1551: 1549: 1547: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1516: 1514: 1506: 1501: 1494: 1488: 1481: 1476: 1474: 1466: 1461: 1459: 1452:, p. 26. 1451: 1446: 1439: 1434: 1427: 1422: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1400: 1395: 1388: 1383: 1377:, p. 19. 1376: 1371: 1364: 1359: 1352: 1347: 1339: 1335: 1329: 1327: 1319: 1318:Hoffmann 1990 1314: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1280: 1262: 1257: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1230: 1223: 1217: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1176: 1169: 1162: 1152: 1143: 1137:acquiescence. 1133: 1126: 1122: 1116: 1106: 1098: 1092: 1086:, p. 12) 1085: 1078: 1076: 1071: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1052: 1039: 1034: 1027: 1022: 1021: 1016: 1009: 1004: 997: 992: 991: 985: 983: 977: 974: 973: 972:The Economist 968: 964: 954: 952: 942: 940: 930: 926: 924: 920: 917:In 1917, the 915: 911: 908: 904: 900: 895: 892: 888: 880: 871: 862: 858: 855: 850: 846: 844: 834: 832: 826: 824: 820: 814: 808:Final meeting 805: 803: 799: 794: 789: 785: 783: 773: 769: 767: 761: 757: 755: 749: 746: 742: 736: 734: 730: 726: 715: 711: 709: 703: 701: 695: 691: 687: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 651: 644: 643:Eric Teichman 640: 635: 629: 624: 617: 613: 608: 599: 595: 591: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 572:Kuenlun Range 564: 558: 549: 545: 539: 536: 533: 532: 531: 522: 520: 516: 510: 508: 504: 500: 499:Henry McMahon 495: 493: 489: 481: 477: 470: 469:Henry McMahon 466: 457: 455: 451: 446: 444: 440: 435: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 412: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 347: 345: 340: 338: 332: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 249: 248: 244: 239: 229: 227: 217: 216: 215: 211: 199: 198:Henry McMahon 188: 178: 174: 170: 164: 160: 157: 156:British India 153: 149: 146: 142: 138: 134: 131:27 April 1914 130: 126: 119: 114: 109: 97: 94: 86: 76: 72: 66: 65: 58: 49: 48: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 4566: 4559: 4545: 4493:sand mandala 4485: 4478: 4419:Sinicization 4391:Panchen Lama 4386:Lhamo La-tso 4369:Ganden Tripa 4163:Human rights 4037:Grand Canyon 4017:Namcha Barwa 4010: / 3929: 3688:Tibetan Army 3586:Guge kingdom 3389: 3383: 3344: 3324: 3307: 3303: 3285:, retrieved 3276:(1): 33–38, 3273: 3269: 3243: 3223: 3203: 3186: 3182: 3163: 3130: 3126: 3108: 3090: 3078:the original 3069: 3058: 3038: 3005: 3001: 2983: 2953: 2923: 2906: 2890: 2867: 2851: 2843: 2826: 2811: 2803:the original 2796: 2778:, p. 8. 2771: 2763:the original 2756: 2730: 2720: 2699:(3): 25–47, 2696: 2692: 2683: 2671: 2664:Mehra (1974) 2649:Mehra (1974) 2644: 2626:Mehra (1974) 2621: 2609: 2597: 2585: 2560: 2555: 2543: 2508: 2474: 2467:Mehra (1974) 2462: 2455:Sinha (1987) 2450: 2443:Mehra (1982) 2438: 2431:Mehra (1974) 2426: 2419:Mehra (1974) 2414: 2407:Mehra (1974) 2402: 2395:Mehra (1974) 2380:Mehra (1974) 2375: 2368:Mehra (1974) 2363: 2356:Mehra (1974) 2351: 2344:Mehra (1974) 2339: 2332:Mehra (1974) 2327: 2320:Mehra (1974) 2315: 2308:Mehra (1974) 2303: 2296:Mehra (1974) 2291: 2284:Mehra (1974) 2269:Mehra (1974) 2264: 2257:Mehra (1974) 2252: 2245:Mehra (1974) 2240: 2233:Mehra (1974) 2228: 2221:Mehra (1974) 2216: 2209:Mehra (1974) 2204: 2197:Mehra (1974) 2192: 2185:Mehra (1974) 2180: 2173:Mehra (1974) 2168: 2161:Mehra (1974) 2146:Mehra (1974) 2141: 2134:Mehra (1974) 2129: 2122:Mehra (1974) 2117: 2110:Mehra (1974) 2105: 2098:Mehra (1974) 2081:Mehra (1974) 2076: 2069:Mehra (1974) 2052:Mehra (1974) 2047: 2040:Mehra (1974) 2035: 2016: 2009:Mehra (1974) 1994:Mehra (1974) 1973:Mehra (1974) 1968: 1961:Mehra (1974) 1956: 1949:Mehra (1974) 1944: 1936: 1933:Mehra (1974) 1928: 1921:Mehra (1974) 1904:Mehra (1974) 1899: 1892:Mehra (1974) 1877:Mehra (1974) 1872: 1865:Mehra (1982) 1860: 1853:Mehra (1974) 1848: 1843:Maxwell 1970 1839: 1832:Smith (1996) 1827: 1797: 1785: 1780:, 2003, p217 1777: 1773: 1768: 1753:Article II, 1739: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1710: 1705: 1680: 1674: 1668: 1656:. Retrieved 1615: 1612:Modern China 1611: 1601: 1559: 1533:. Retrieved 1524: 1500: 1492: 1487: 1465:Mehra (1974) 1445: 1438:Gupta (1971) 1433: 1421: 1414:Mehra (1972) 1394: 1387:Mehra (1972) 1382: 1370: 1363:Mehra (1974) 1358: 1346: 1337: 1333: 1313: 1256: 1247:the original 1242: 1229: 1221: 1216: 1207:Gupta (1971) 1194: 1191:Sinha (1966) 1184: 1175: 1167: 1161: 1151: 1142: 1132: 1115: 1110:reservation. 1105: 1100:Government." 1091: 978: 970: 960: 948: 945:Commentaries 938: 936: 927: 916: 912: 896: 889: 885: 859: 851: 849:April 1914. 847: 843:McMahon Line 840: 827: 822: 818: 815: 811: 790: 786: 779: 770: 762: 758: 750: 737: 721: 712: 704: 696: 692: 688: 652: 648: 596: 592: 568: 561:proposals. ( 546: 543: 528: 511: 496: 485: 447: 436: 423: 415: 413: 364:Qing Dynasty 356:protectorate 353: 341: 333: 329:McMahon Line 325:China proper 311:and western 284: 272: 270: 89: 80: 61: 44: 4503:wall murals 4407:Catholicism 3991:Environment 3665:(1720–1912) 3628:(1368–1644) 3608:(1270–1350) 3529:(Neolithic) 3527:Prehistory 3310:(2): 5–12, 2776:Lunn (2009) 2630:Lamb (1989) 1732:sovereignty 1658:1 September 1535:1 September 1261:Lunn (2009) 891:World War I 831:Yuan Shikai 800:instead of 708:Zhao Erfeng 424:sovereignty 411:for Tibet. 405:Zhao Erfeng 213:Signatories 176:Negotiators 165:23 May 1951 139:3 July 1914 4641:Categories 4586:Tibetology 4555:Literature 4374:Dalai Lama 4227:Government 4185:Tibet Area 4180:Golden Urn 4146:Parliament 3671:Lifan Yuan 3598:(960–1279) 3535:Zhangzhung 3520:Chronology 2855:Editorial 2548:Mehra 1974 1937:chela-guru 1728:suzerainty 1271:References 1084:Sinha 1987 963:suzerainty 919:Bolsheviks 837:Convention 819:initialled 802:Altyn Tagh 576:Altyn Tagh 460:Conference 432:suzerainty 416:suzerainty 376:Great Game 360:Qing China 350:Background 317:suzerainty 4568:Chronicle 4530:Festivals 4342:Dpon-chen 4312:Languages 4307:Education 4056:Changtang 3998:Mountains 3965:Geography 3873:Documents 3718:conflicts 3570:(618–907) 3489:Overviews 3406:225302411 3155:163657025 3030:154538062 2903:"Borders" 2713:159560382 2563:, p. 136. 1697:225302411 1648:143539645 1632:0097-7004 1587:cite book 1579:944186170 1276:Citations 1156:initials. 865:Aftermath 700:Tachienlu 628:Tachienlu 370:and some 279:: 西姆拉條約; 246:Languages 208:Ivan Chen 4626:Category 4510:Calendar 4444:Diaspora 4317:Religion 4121:Politics 4022:Tanggula 4012:Changtse 3716:Wars and 3591:Tsongkha 3553:Timeline 3496:Timeline 3473:articles 3428:Archived 3368:Archived 3312:archived 3287:12 March 3278:archived 2942:Archived 2931:Archived 2860:Archived 2836:Archived 2819:Archived 2735:archived 1816:Archived 1805:Archived 1758:Archived 1747:Archived 1652:Archived 1640:20062699 1529:Archived 1298:Archived 1222:de facto 1049:See also 793:Hardinge 754:Calcutta 745:Xuantong 729:Qianlong 580:Ho Shili 525:Overview 450:expelled 144:Location 83:May 2020 62:may not 4610:Outline 4574:writers 4515:Cuisine 4480:thangka 4461:Culture 4434:Changpa 4349:Nyingma 4296:Society 4261:Economy 4096:Ü-Tsang 4070:Valleys 4028:Rivers 4003:Kailash 3563:Lönchen 3545:Empire 3481:History 3363:Staff, 3195:4370923 3147:2052598 2879:Sources 1525:Reuters 1338:de jure 903:Riwoche 766:Kokonor 741:Guangxu 676:Kokonor 668:Markham 645:in 1922 618:, 1945) 584:Sichuan 565:, 1945) 397:Khampas 372:Russian 368:British 309:Ü-Tsang 262:English 257:Tibetan 252:Chinese 128:Drafted 69:Please 4727:Shimla 4561:Annals 4525:Emblem 4487:tsakli 4359:Jonang 4008:Lhotse 3952:(2008) 3651:Kashag 3471: 3404: 3352: 3332: 3251: 3231: 3211: 3193: 3171: 3153: 3145: 3117: 3098: 3046: 3028: 3022:652324 3020: 2990: 2972: 2913: 2711: 1695: 1646: 1638: 1630: 1577: 1567: 1341:force. 907:Chamdo 887:1947. 823:signed 733:Batang 725:Kangxi 684:Litang 680:Batang 656:Giamda 639:Batang 588:Yunnan 358:under 289:treaty 162:Expiry 136:Signed 4617:Index 4581:Music 4546:Khata 4449:Names 4439:Yolmo 4412:Islam 4364:Gelug 4354:Kagyu 4332:Sakya 4135:(TAR) 4101:Ngari 3986:Fauna 3981:Flora 3469:Tibet 3402:S2CID 3315:(PDF) 3300:(PDF) 3281:(PDF) 3266:(PDF) 3191:JSTOR 3151:S2CID 3143:JSTOR 3081:(PDF) 3074:(PDF) 3026:S2CID 3018:JSTOR 2709:S2CID 2021:Mehra 1693:S2CID 1644:S2CID 1636:JSTOR 1066:Notes 874:down. 672:Derge 664:Zayul 660:Pomed 492:Simla 409:amban 305:Simla 301:Tibet 293:Tibet 226:Tibet 148:Simla 4535:Flag 4474:rugs 4396:list 4379:list 4168:LGBT 4091:Kham 4086:Amdo 3350:ISBN 3330:ISBN 3289:2021 3249:ISBN 3229:ISBN 3209:ISBN 3169:ISBN 3115:ISBN 3096:ISBN 3044:ISBN 2988:ISBN 2970:ISBN 2911:ISBN 2636:help 2484:help 2027:help 1730:and 1660:2021 1628:ISSN 1593:link 1575:OCLC 1565:ISBN 1537:2021 1125:Amdo 1121:Kham 988:Maps 899:Kham 852:The 743:and 727:and 682:and 612:Kham 586:and 578:and 321:Amdo 313:Kham 271:The 4469:Art 4322:Bon 3394:doi 3135:doi 3010:doi 2966:837 2962:307 2889:", 2831:). 2701:doi 1685:doi 1620:doi 490:in 331:). 73:or 4643:: 3423:, 3400:. 3390:10 3388:. 3374:, 3308:23 3306:, 3302:, 3272:, 3268:, 3187:17 3185:, 3149:, 3141:, 3131:31 3129:, 3024:, 3016:, 3006:47 3004:, 2968:, 2964:, 2960:, 2958:75 2937:, 2866:, 2795:, 2783:^ 2755:, 2744:^ 2729:, 2707:, 2697:32 2695:, 2656:^ 2568:^ 2493:^ 2387:^ 2276:^ 2153:^ 2088:^ 2059:^ 2001:^ 1980:^ 1911:^ 1884:^ 1811:, 1691:. 1681:10 1679:. 1650:. 1642:. 1634:. 1626:. 1616:34 1614:. 1610:. 1589:}} 1585:{{ 1573:. 1545:^ 1523:. 1512:^ 1472:^ 1457:^ 1406:^ 1325:^ 1304:, 1283:^ 1241:, 1237:, 1074:^ 984:. 686:. 678:, 670:, 666:, 662:, 456:. 445:. 387:, 299:, 154:, 150:, 3461:e 3454:t 3447:v 3408:. 3396:: 3274:3 3137:: 3121:. 3012:: 2703:: 2638:) 2486:) 2029:) 1734:" 1699:. 1687:: 1662:. 1622:: 1595:) 1581:. 1539:. 1170:. 1082:( 275:( 171:) 96:) 90:( 85:) 81:( 77:. 67:. 42:. 20:)

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