956:
762:
150:
1381:) was not given real weapons to train with. Instead, he was given wooden swords and shields designed to be twice the weight of their counterparts in battle. This allowed the recruit to develop strength as he trained with these wooden weapons. Alongside battle training, the recruit was also taught other necessary skills such as swimming and setting up camp. Most of all, however, the recruit was taught discipline, and was drilled twice a day during his training period. After this period, which could last up to six months, the recruit would become a
917:, especially in times of crisis. This meant that levees remained a significant part of the Roman legions. With the state providing the equipment to the recruits and no property requirements, even the poorest Roman citizens were able to join the legions. However, the army was viewed as an honorable and valued profession. With a steady pay, good retirement benefits, and even certain legal advantages, a legionary had many perks that common citizens found desirable. As such, though poor citizens could join the military, members from across the
735:, he further professionalized the Roman legionary and sought to break the legionary's dependence on his general. Under him, a legionary's term of service was raised to 25 years (before that, a legionary's average term of service was only 10 years) and pay was standardized throughout the legions. The Roman legionaries were also guaranteed a land grant or a cash payment at the end of his service, making the Roman legionary less dependent on generals for rewards after campaigns. Augustus also changed the
839:, the army would often be given many administrative positions. High ranking soldiers often acted as judges in disputes among local populations and the army was an important component of tax collection. Legionaries also served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped
173:
31:
613:
1258:
691:. It was commonly believed that Marius changed the soldiers' socio-economic background by allowing citizens without property to join the Roman army, a process called "proletarianisation". This was thought to have created a semi-professional class of soldiers motivated by land grants; these soldiers in turn became clients of their generals, who then used them to
1244:
began. Before battle, measures were taken to ensure legionaries were as effective as possible. These included giving legionaries their meals and resting them before the battle. Their commanders and general would also give speeches during this time. These speeches would heavily emphasize the amount of
932:
required a knowledge of writing. During the Later
Republic, Roman legionaries predominantly came from the areas surrounding Rome. However, as Rome expanded, recruits began to come from other areas in Italy. Slowly, recruits came from the regions where the legions were stationed rather than from Italy
1349:
from emperors either to secure a legion's loyalty or to award them after a successful campaign. Plunder and loot also supplement a legionary's income and is used as a large incentive for soldiers to follow their emperor in campaigns. At the end of their years of service, Roman legionaries received a
1885:
L'armée romaine dite ‹ post-marienne › est un mirage historiographique. Elle n'a jamais existé que dans l'esprit des spécialistes modernes ... En ce sens, l'armée de citoyens pauvres à laquelle l'historiographie moderne a coutume d'attribuer une responsabilité décisive dans la crise et la
1500:
is also a term used for members of various military forces which have been accorded the title of "legion", although bearing no resemblance to the heavy infantry of ancient Rome. In the 18th and early 19th century this designation was sometimes accorded to units which comprised both mounted and foot
1417:
One of the goals for strong disciplinary training was to expel fear from a Roman soldier. Fear, and the panic that often follows, is a devastating force to an army on the battlefield. The Romans aimed to remove fear through strict physical and mental training. However, a different fear was used to
702:
and Marius were attributable to a single reform event. This belief was spread relatively uncritically and was accepted as largely proven by the 1850s and through much of the 20th century. There is, however, little ancient evidence for any permanent or significant change to recruitment practice in
1440:(dinner). For these meals, the soldiers were issued regular rations consisting mainly of wheat, which composed roughly 60–70% of a soldier's total rations. This would be consumed in the form of either bread or porridge. However, while on campaign, the soldiers would cook their wheat rations into
1901:, p. 301. " starts from a position that has become increasingly accepted among scholars (although unfortunately not popular among popular writers), namely that Marius was not responsible for the key changes that distinguished first-century legions from their mid-republican predecessors".
855:, was built by the three legions stationed in the area. Legionaries were not just limited to building large-scale engineering projects. Surveyors, doctors, artisans, and engineers within the army would be used for a variety of different civil services along with their normal military role.
1291:
and hit the soldiers behind them. Even if the pila failed to pierce the shields, the neck of the javelin would bend, making the shield useless. This then made the enemy vulnerable to missile fire and legionary attack. The disruption and damage wrought by pila would then be followed by the
1463:. However, this did not include fruit. Through foraging, trade with merchants, requisitioning, or raiding during campaigns, the Roman legionary could obtain other foodstuffs not included in his rations. In combination, the average soldier's diet was generally nutritious and filling.
1477:) operated on wounded, injured, or sick legionaries. These medical personnel also isolated sick soldiers, thereby reducing the chance of a possibly infectious disease spreading through the army. Roman forts and camps were also planned in such a way as to minimize the spread of
846:
Roman legionaries served as a source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls.
776:
onward, the Roman legionary gradually lost his preeminence. Though there were multiple causes for this decline, all pointed to the gradual degradation of loyalty and/or discipline. Septimus
Severus, perhaps unwittingly, began this decline when he lavished his legionaries with
705:
Other reforms to the army's operations and equipment, said to have been implemented by Marius, are also largely rejected by scholars. Few of them have any basis in the ancient and archaeological evidence. Others are wrongly dated or misattributed. Changes in the
121:
for 25 years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign. Legionaries were expected to fight, but they also built much of the infrastructure of the Roman Empire and served as a policing force in the provinces. They built large
126:
projects, such as walls, bridges, and roads. The legionary's last five years of service were on lighter duties. Once retired, a Roman legionary received a parcel of land or its equivalent in money and often became a prominent member of society.
1481:, which ravaged many ancient armies. Engineers took special care in piping fresh water to the camps and carrying sewage downstream of any watering places. Those legionaries who were seriously and permanently wounded or injured would be granted
897:. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in the ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues and received better pay than their comrades in arms.
781:
and pay increases, recognising that they were his key to becoming and staying emperor. However, this proved detrimental to the discipline of the legionaries, as they began to expect more and more rewards from their emperors. Under
1314:
Though there were many different formations that legionaries fought in, they tended toward close, ordered formations with gaps between formations. These gaps would allow for reserve units to enter battle or serve as avenues for
741:
so that soldiers swore allegiance only to the emperor, and not to the general. Thus, Augustus managed to end the civil wars which defined the late Roman
Republic and created an army that was broadly loyal to only the emperor.
674:
in 107, 104–100, and 86 BC). The most important of those putative changes concerned the altering of the socio-economic background of the soldiery. Other changes were supposed to have included the introduction of the
2828:
Palao
Vicente, J.J. "La muerte del soldado romano en la epigrafĂa del occidente del imperio (siglos I-III d.C.)". En: Perea YĂ©benes (ed.), El soldado romano y la muerte. Madrid : UNED, 2022. pp. 79–134. ISBN
1239:
Large armies would generally not begin battle immediately upon meeting. Rather, days or even weeks of redeployment and negotiation would take place before battle. Several days of maneuvering occurred before the
1311:, a primarily stabbing weapon though it could also be used to cut. These fairly simple tools combined with impressive discipline made the Roman legionary an extremely effective soldier in the ancient world.
1196:, Roman officers at the rear of a formation, had many essential roles outside of battle. However, during battle, their task was to prevent legionaries from routing. Carrying a staff with a ball-end, an
703:
Marius' time. The occurrence of such a comprehensive reform led by Marius is no longer widely accepted by specialists; 21st-century scholars have called the reforms a "construct of modern scholarship".
794:
and legionaries. This, coinciding with the continued expansion of the Roman army, meant recruits of more dubious standards joined the legions, decreasing the quality of the Roman legionary further.
1245:
plunder and riches that winning the battle would give the legionaries, as this was a primary incentive for the legionaries to do battle. Light skirmishing would then take place, with cavalry and
1345:. However, during the third century crisis, inflation and chaos disrupted a legionary's pay, with emperors often letting legionaries seize goods from civilians. Their income was supplemented by
1816:, pp. 93–94. "Marius did few, if any, of the things he is sometimes supposed to have done. He did not make the Roman army an army of mercenaries... he did not create a revolutionary army".
2040:
1231:, in which one out of every ten soldiers were executed. Less extreme punishments included demotions, changing the wheat rations to barley, and the removal of some identifying military gear.
805:
became essential to respond to the varied challenges to the empire. Because of this, Roman heavy infantry faded further from dominance. By the 4th century, Roman infantry lacked much of the
926:
The army actively sought out recruits with useful skills such as smiths, carpenters, and butchers. Though not required, literacy was useful since promotion to higher ranks such as
1422:"they are moreover hardened for war by fear; for their laws inflict capital punishments, not only for soldiers running away from the ranks, but for slothfulness and inactivity".
1261:
The Roman scutum ranged all the way from flat and oval to curved and rectangular as shown in the image above. The metal boss in all Roman scuta gave them an offensive capability.
3014:
3009:
1846:. "Modern research for the most part agrees, it can no longer be said that the Marian reforms and the military service of unpropertied men revolutionised the Roman army".
1804:, p. 283. "The idea of a wide-ranging 'Marian reform' that permanently abolished property qualifications for military service has recently been thoroughly rebutted".
3019:
1307:
as defensive equipment but also as an offensive weapon. Legionaries would have used this iron boss to punch and shove the enemy combatants. Accompanying this was the
698:
Belief in a comprehensive scheme of reforms under Marius emerged in 1840s German scholarship, which posited that any changes in the Roman army between the times of
1219:
was given to legionaries who saved a comrade in battle. However, death was the punishment for a variety of different offenses. Those who committed cowardice and
641:
1319:
forces to retreat back behind the legionaries. During lulls in the battle, wounded soldiers could further be taken back behind battle lines through these gaps.
2438:
2999:
1870:, p. 79. "Relatively modest facts have been spun into the overarching 'Marian reforms', which are ultimately the construct of modern scholarship".
1369:(though their spouses were often recognized), most likely because of the implicit necessity to care for the widow in the event of a legionary's death.
1400:. Punishments could range from being obliged to spend the night outside the protective security of a fortified camp, through being beaten with clubs (
2534:
2293:
2017:
1123:
After the military reforms of
Emperor Claudius (circa 41 AD), each legion would also be requisitioned a certain number of artillery pieces. Each
1141:. In a standard legionary formation of ten cohorts and sixty centuriae, a legion would be equipped with ten ballistae and sixty carroballistae.
2289:
1303:
had various different designs, they all shared a large metal boss in the center of the shield. This allowed the legionary to not only use the
2069:
1396:—forced marches with full load and in tight formation were frequent. As discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the
1609:
768:, a type of heavy cavalry in the late Roman Empire, grew in prominence along with other forms of cavalry as the Roman legionary declined.
634:
419:
315:
1418:
motivate a soldier in spite of the fear of battle; that was the fear of harsh punishment by their commanding officers. In the words of
1210:
231:
94:
detachments. At its height, Roman legionaries were viewed as the foremost fighting force in the Roman world, with commentators such as
1188:
the standard belonged to. As such, standard bearers served as someone to rally around and as someone to exhort legionaries to battle.
955:
2591:
207:
2467:
3004:
827:
Though the legionary was first and foremost a soldier, he provided a variety of other critical functions. Lacking a professional
373:
923:
class were found in the Roman legions. Indeed, the army served as one of the few avenues of upward mobility in the Roman world.
1392:
was the base of the army's success, and the soldiers were relentlessly and constantly trained with weapons and especially with
710:
did occur, but appear to have happened later than at the end of the 2nd century BC. Rather, these shifts were during the
627:
293:
109:, but more were recruited from the provinces as time went on. As legionaries moved into newly conquered provinces, they helped
2884:
2819:
2749:
2710:
2147:
715:
2410:
1637:
1365:
where festivals and animal displays were held. However, legionaries were not allowed to legally marry until the reign of
1206:
would fight alongside legionaries under their command, serving as a role model for his legionaries to remain in combat.
2567:
2265:
2101:
1993:
1668:
2856:"Review of "L'armée imaginaire: les soldats prolétaires dans les légions romaines au dernier siècle de la République""
1406:—a common punishment for 'slowpokes' during long marches), to the stoning of individuals or unit executions involving
2168:
1715:
950:
181:
2430:
761:
1570:
519:
197:
95:
1410:. However, honors, rewards, and promotions were frequently awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in
1739:
1510:
1328:
707:
275:
17:
2676:
2502:
2352:
2218:
1960:
1162:
389:
350:
301:
149:
801:, a more mobile army became necessary, as threats arose across the long borders of the Roman Empire. As such,
2193:
1560:
505:
438:
226:
1227:
to death by their comrades. On very rare occasions when a whole unit displayed cowardice, the unit might be
1213:, which served as both incentives and deterrents for legionaries in battle. For example, the highly coveted
835:
would use legionaries to keep the peace and protect critical facilities. As the Roman empire lacked a large
1575:
692:
79:
2315:
1489:. This discharge would come with many benefits including exemption from some taxes and some civic duties.
1918:
and the elimination of non-eagle standards. Both ancient claims are disproved by archeological evidence.
1174:
gave Roman legionaries a sense of pride and kept them fighting on the battlefield. The standard bearers,
798:
2742:
L'armée imaginaire: les soldats prolétaires dans les légions romaines au dernier siècle de la République
2526:
2671:
2640:
2242:
2125:
1692:
324:
1910:
Other than army recruitment, the only two changes attributed to Marius directly are a redesign of the
2096:. Sabin, Philip A.G., Wees, Hans van., Whitby, Michael. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2007.
711:
2720:
Gauthier, François. "The transformation of the Roman army in the last decades of the
Republic". In
1473:
534:
189:
2061:
1407:
1228:
840:
110:
98:
praising their fighting effectiveness centuries after the classical Roman legionary disappeared.
1601:
1150:
1124:
676:
401:
250:
2895:
1565:
1502:
1452:
500:
236:
836:
490:
432:
160:
in a coin minted by Gaius
Fundanius in 101 BC. He triumphed due to his victory in the
8:
2583:
1478:
1388:
The Roman soldier underwent especially rigorous training throughout his military career;
1241:
1220:
617:
341:
753:, North Africa, and more through military campaigns under Augustus and future emperors.
2923:
2798:
2621:
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2119:
2011:
1686:
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would force legionaries fleeing from battle back into formation. Leading at the front,
960:
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2815:
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2706:
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2498:
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2348:
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2261:
2224:
2214:
2187:
2107:
2097:
1999:
1989:
1966:
1956:
1721:
1711:
1674:
1664:
1393:
1366:
1078:
1064:
998:
965:
852:
848:
787:
773:
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36:
2907:
2780:
2772:
1293:
1024:
570:
559:
474:
193:
2033:"The reasons behind Constitutio Antoniniana and its effects on the Roman military"
1180:, were of great importance in keeping Roman soldiers in the battle. The loss of a
2139:
1273:
1009:
991:
564:
542:
485:
67:
2911:
2760:
2431:"Augustus wearing the Corona Civica | Museum of Classical Archaeology Databases"
1831:
l'armée romaine dite « post-marienne » est un mirage historiographique
1287:
first as they approached the enemy army. These pila could often penetrate enemy
1506:
1358:
1181:
1019:
978:
When on the march in hostile territory, the legionary would carry or wear full
938:
910:
872:
832:
684:
680:
663:
655:
579:
549:
510:
142:
2785:
2776:
2404:
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270:
2993:
2919:
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2855:
2846:
2834:
2794:
2275:
2111:
2003:
1678:
1451:, rations other than grain. This included a variety of foodstuffs but mainly
1138:
1098:
984:
971:
802:
688:
554:
526:
454:
157:
102:
91:
2512:
2362:
2228:
1970:
1886:
chute de la République romaine s'apparente, en fait, à une armée imaginaire.
2666:
1550:
1529:
906:
905:
Though Roman legionaries were predominantly made up of volunteer citizens,
671:
667:
153:
123:
118:
114:
75:
45:
2560:
Ancient Rome: A Complete
History of the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
1514:
1316:
1215:
1171:
1040:
464:
355:
161:
106:
1746:. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. p. 589.
786:, Septimus Severus's successor, all freedmen in the Roman Empire became
113:
the native population and helped integrate the disparate regions of the
2986:
looks at the life, duties and equipment of a Roman legionary (c. 200AD)
2625:
2389:
1710:. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 328.
1533:
1402:
1389:
1334:
914:
806:
765:
732:
659:
495:
260:
216:
83:
71:
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were constructed and many grew into towns. These fortresses contained
718:, and emerged from circumstance rather than a reformist Marian vision.
2983:
1555:
1526:
1460:
1456:
1397:
1346:
1202:
1176:
1088:
928:
890:
783:
778:
746:
480:
105:
under age 45. They were first predominantly made up of recruits from
2703:
Romans at war: soldiers, citizens, and society in the Roman republic
2032:
1441:
1419:
1342:
1338:
1133:
1128:
1106:
886:
810:
728:
699:
1166:, the basic eight man unit of the Roman army. The men of the same
2896:"Tactical reform in the late Roman republic: the view from Italy"
2761:"Reformy Mariusza, czyli długie trwanie historiograficznego mitu"
2641:"The Wars of the Jews or History of the Destruction of Jerusalem"
1725:
1523:
1279:
1246:
1224:
1083:
1069:
1045:
1035:
881:
867:
791:
245:
87:
30:
2877:
From the
Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome from 133 BC to AD 68
2213:. Potter, D. S. (David Stone). Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2006.
1501:
components. More recently the title has been used by the French
1341:
per year. This was increased to 300 denarii during the reign of
2612:
Stout, S. E. (1921). "Training
Soldiers for the Roman Legion".
2307:
1545:
1411:
1354:
1288:
1170:
fought, slept, ate, and trained together. This strong sense of
1117:
1114:
1110:
1074:
1050:
1014:
1004:
979:
934:
828:
335:
1471:
Permanent Roman forts would contain hospitals, where doctors (
658:
were putative changes to the composition and operation of the
2376:
Thomas, Chris (2004). "Claudius and the Roman Army Reforms".
1913:
1267:
1192:
1093:
1055:
1029:
919:
894:
815:
750:
74:. These soldiers would conquer and defend the territories of
52:
982:, supplies and equipment. This commonly consisted of chain (
1436:
1257:
2495:
The logistics of the Roman army at war (264 B.C.-A.D. 235)
1602:"The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)"
1283:(short sword). Ideally, the legionaries would throw their
2744:. Mondes anciens (in French). Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
2308:"The Marian Reforms | The turning point in Roman history"
745:
Legionaries would expand Rome's borders to include lower
1849:
1455:, vinegar, vegetables (largely beans or lentils), salt,
1265:
The Roman legionary's three principal weapons were the
1249:
probing enemy lines before a pitched battle commenced.
1160:
The Roman legionary fought first and foremost with his
3015:
Military units and formations of the Hellenistic world
2260:(First Harvard University press ed.). Cambridge.
2037:
Acta Classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis
1430:
A Roman legionary had two or three meals per day: The
683:
with uniform equipment; the universal adoption of the
3010:
Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire
1633:
A day in the life of a Roman soldier – Robert Garland
1337:, a rank-and-file Roman legionary would be paid 225
2701:Armstrong, Jeremy; Fronda, Michael P, eds. (2020).
1770:
1513:. Members of these modern legions are often called
885:, specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as
2964:Legionary: the Roman soldier's (unofficial) manual
1447:Supplementing the soldier's wheat rations was the
1350:small allotment of land or a monetary equivalent.
937:, there were 4–5 legionaries originating from the
3020:Types of cavalry unit in the army of ancient Rome
2991:
2094:The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare
2730:
2721:
2700:
2835:"Review of "The army in the Roman revolution""
1663:. Erdkamp, Paul. Malden, MA: Blackwell. 2007.
889:, artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor,
871:and were the equivalent in rank of the modern
790:, effectively erasing the distinction between
135:
34:A recreation of Roman legionaries wearing the
2943:Arms and Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier
635:
2062:"Police Work in Roman Times | History Today"
2016:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1883:
1829:
1377:When first enlisted, a fresh Roman recruit (
941:for every legionary originating from Italy.
731:consolidated power in 27 BC and founded the
3000:Mercenary units and formations of antiquity
2879:. London and New York: Routledge Classics.
2292:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1911:
2728:
2402:
2288:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2175:. Archived from the original on 2018-06-03
1898:
1372:
1353:As the Roman empire solidified, permanent
865:Regular trained legionaries were known as
642:
628:
2784:
2378:Historia: Zeitschrift fĂĽr Alte Geschichte
1738:
1087:), about fourteen days' worth of food, a
2874:
2853:
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2638:
2406:Roman Army Structure | Vindolanda Museum
1825:
1813:
1801:
1789:
1705:
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954:
875:. Included in the ranks, aside from the
760:
722:
148:
29:
2758:
2557:
1950:
1855:
1756:
996:, or in the 1st–3rd century sectioned (
14:
2992:
2893:
2832:
2739:
2375:
2140:"Hadrian's Wall | Roman wall, England"
1955:. Dodge, Hazel. London: Lorenz Books.
1919:
1879:
1867:
1843:
1776:
1764:
1760:
1629:
679:; the institution of a single form of
101:Roman legionaries were recruited from
27:Professional soldier of the Roman army
2611:
2553:
2551:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2342:
2338:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2205:
2203:
2088:
2086:
2030:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1744:The magistrates of the Roman republic
1322:
1155:
2492:
2345:Roman legionary : 58 BC – AD 69
1655:
1653:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1492:
1234:
1144:
1137:(roughly 100 men) would receive one
1127:(roughly 480 men) would receive one
809:of the classical legionary and used
117:into one polity. They enlisted in a
2729:Rosenstein, Nathan. "Epilogue". In
2584:"Septimius Severus | Roman emperor"
2527:"Roman legionary – Soldier Profile"
1385:and sent to his respective legion.
59:
24:
2548:
2481:
2347:. McBride, Angus. Oxford: Osprey.
2329:
2255:
2200:
2083:
1983:
1925:
1599:
25:
3031:
2977:
2952:. Cornell University Press, 1993.
2941:Sumner, G. and Raffaele D'Amato.
1650:
1588:
1519:, the French term for legionary.
1252:
951:Roman military personal equipment
2969:Cowan, Ross, and Angus McBride.
2935:
2812:The army in the Roman revolution
2759:Faszcza, Michał Norbert (2021).
2647:. Translated by Whiston, William
1740:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon
1571:Military history of ancient Rome
611:
171:
141:This section is an excerpt from
2679:from the original on 2018-06-24
2659:
2632:
2605:
2594:from the original on 2018-07-05
2576:
2537:from the original on 2018-07-31
2519:
2470:from the original on 2018-07-31
2460:"Battle of Pharsalus | Summary"
2452:
2441:from the original on 2018-07-31
2423:
2413:from the original on 2018-12-11
2396:
2369:
2318:from the original on 2018-07-09
2300:
2249:
2211:A companion to the Roman Empire
2161:
2150:from the original on 2018-07-25
2132:
2072:from the original on 2018-07-25
2054:
2043:from the original on 2018-04-07
2024:
1977:
1904:
1892:
1873:
1861:
1837:
1819:
1807:
1640:from the original on 2018-07-01
1612:from the original on 2018-07-05
1329:Legionary denarii (Mark Antony)
708:Roman army of the late republic
3005:Military ranks of ancient Rome
2971:Roman Legionary: 58 BC – AD 69
2956:
2705:. Routledge. pp. 283–96.
1795:
1782:
1750:
1732:
1699:
1623:
1532:group known in English as the
1522:The term was also used by the
1414:or through exemplary service.
909:of recruits continued through
900:
13:
1:
2731:Armstrong & Fronda (2020)
2722:Armstrong & Fronda (2020)
2031:Rocco, Marco (January 2010).
1988:. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
1661:A companion to the Roman army
1581:
1561:List of Roman army unit types
1466:
506:Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes
2966:. Thames & Hudson, 2009.
1706:Crawford, Michael H (1974).
1576:Legionnaire (disambiguation)
944:
843:the provinces they protect.
822:
420:Frontiers and fortifications
7:
2912:10.25162/historia-2019-0004
1539:
687:; and the abolition of the
232:Decorations and punishments
136:Inception: Marius's reforms
10:
3036:
2973:. Osprey Publishing, 2003.
2894:Taylor, Michael J (2019).
2860:Bryn Mawr Classical Review
2839:Bryn Mawr Classical Review
2694:
2672:World History Encyclopedia
2639:Josephus, Flavius (2009).
2493:Roth, Jonathan P. (1999).
2256:C., Knapp, Robert (2011).
1984:R., Dixon, Karen (2014) .
1828:. "'s conclusion is that '
1444:, a long-lasting biscuit.
1326:
1148:
1105:) for the construction of
1097:), cooking equipment, two
948:
858:
851:, a monumental example of
756:
140:
130:
2810:Keaveney, Arthur (2007).
2777:10.17951/rh.2021.51.13-42
2740:Cadiou, François (2018).
2435:museum.classics.cam.ac.uk
2403:ISO Design (2016-10-26),
2192:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
963:showing a legionary with
2945:. Frontline Books, 2009.
2854:Rafferty, David (2021).
2531:Military History Monthly
1708:Roman republican coinage
1209:Finally, there were the
933:itself. By the reign of
535:Claustra Alpium Iuliarum
520:Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes
190:Military of ancient Rome
2875:Scullard, H H (2011) .
2588:Encyclopedia Britannica
2558:Rodgers, Nigel (2013).
2464:Encyclopedia Britannica
2144:Encyclopedia Britannica
1951:Rodgers, Nigel (2006).
1425:
1373:Training and discipline
1211:rewards and punishments
819:of their predecessors.
618:Ancient Rome portal
2833:Probst, Peter (2008).
2241:: CS1 maint: others (
2169:"Rome, The Roman Army"
2124:: CS1 maint: others (
1912:
1884:
1882:, p. 395. «
1830:
1691:: CS1 maint: others (
1507:Spanish Foreign Legion
1296:of Roman legionaries.
1262:
1184:was a disgrace to the
1151:Roman infantry tactics
975:
769:
693:overthrow the republic
666:usually attributed to
165:
41:
2614:The Classical Journal
2343:Ross., Cowan (2003).
1759:, p. 21. See eg
1630:TED-Ed (2018-03-29),
1566:List of Roman legions
1479:water-borne illnesses
1260:
958:
764:
723:During the Principate
501:Neckar-Odenwald Limes
316:Technological history
152:
33:
2066:www.historytoday.com
1606:www.digitalattic.org
1434:(breakfast) and the
1361:, taverns, and even
1355:legionary fortresses
837:civil administration
491:Lower Germanic Limes
390:Strategy and tactics
325:Military engineering
227:Unit types and ranks
2733:, pp. 297–307.
1986:The late Roman army
1242:Battle of Pharsalus
1221:dereliction of duty
1081:, a marching pack (
1063:), a pair of heavy
670:(a general who was
486:Lauter Valley Limes
2962:Matyszak, Philip.
2786:20.500.12128/21768
2724:, pp. 283–96.
1323:Pay and conditions
1263:
1156:Maintaining morale
976:
799:3rd Century Crisis
772:From the reign of
770:
587:Limes Tripolitanus
208:Structural history
166:
42:
2984:The Roman Recruit
2950:The Roman Soldier
2886:978-0-415-58488-3
2821:978-0-415-39486-4
2751:978-2-251-44765-0
2712:978-1-138-48019-3
2645:Project Gutenberg
2497:. Leiden: Brill.
2173:history-world.org
1858:, pp. 14–15.
1792:, pp. 47–48.
1763:, p. 76 and
1493:Other legionaries
1487:medical discharge
1367:Septimius Severus
1235:Prelude to battle
1145:Battle and combat
999:lorica segmentata
966:lorica segmentata
913:era and into the
853:Roman engineering
652:
651:
603:
602:
594:Limes Mauretaniae
449:Limes Britannicus
410:
409:
374:Political history
364:
363:
284:
283:
40:, 1st–3rd century
37:lorica segmentata
16:(Redirected from
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813:rather than the
774:Septimus Severus
662:during the late
644:
637:
630:
616:
615:
614:
475:Limes Germanicus
425:
424:
402:Infantry tactics
395:
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351:Triumphal arches
321:
320:
302:Wars and battles
294:Campaign history
213:
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175:
174:
168:
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156:, depicted as a
86:eras, alongside
61:
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1963:
1949:
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1909:
1905:
1899:Rosenstein 2020
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1542:
1495:
1483:missio causaria
1469:
1428:
1375:
1331:
1325:
1255:
1237:
1158:
1153:
1147:
992:lorica squamata
961:Trajan's Column
953:
947:
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803:mounted cavalry
759:
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719:
689:citizen cavalry
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565:Anastasian Wall
543:Pannonian Limes
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2978:External links
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2631:
2620:(7): 423–431.
2604:
2575:
2569:978-1844778591
2568:
2562:. Southwater.
2547:
2533:. 2010-11-10.
2518:
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2451:
2422:
2395:
2384:(4): 424–452.
2368:
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2267:978-0674063280
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1995:978-1134724222
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1769:
1767:, p. 395.
1749:
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1670:978-0470996577
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1649:
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1600:Brevik, Mads.
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1503:Foreign Legion
1494:
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1468:
1465:
1459:, cheese, and
1427:
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1371:
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1321:
1277:(shield), and
1254:
1253:Fighting style
1251:
1236:
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1157:
1154:
1149:Main article:
1146:
1143:
1033:and one light
949:Main article:
946:
943:
902:
899:
862:
857:
849:Hadrian's wall
824:
821:
788:Roman citizens
758:
755:
724:
721:
714:and following
685:eagle standard
681:heavy infantry
664:Roman republic
656:Marian reforms
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2948:Watson, G.R.
2947:
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2936:General books
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2814:. Routledge.
2813:
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2800:
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2767:(in Polish).
2766:
2765:Res Historica
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1810:
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1798:
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1790:Scullard 2011
1785:
1779:, p. 18.
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124:public works
115:Roman Empire
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2957:Other books
1920:Taylor 2019
1880:Cadiou 2018
1868:Taylor 2019
1844:Probst 2008
1777:Cadiou 2018
1765:Cadiou 2018
1761:Taylor 2019
1333:During the
1317:skirmishing
1271:(javelin),
1247:auxiliaries
1172:camaraderie
1059:), a belt (
1041:short sword
1027:(one heavy
901:Recruitment
879:, were the
797:During the
792:auxiliaries
738:sacramentum
465:Saxon Shore
162:Cimbric War
158:triumphator
107:Roman Italy
78:during the
56:legionarius
2994:Categories
2683:2018-06-24
2598:2018-07-04
2541:2018-07-31
2504:9004112715
2474:2018-07-31
2445:2018-07-31
2417:2018-07-31
2354:1841766003
2322:2018-07-09
2220:0631226443
2179:2018-06-24
2154:2018-07-25
2076:2018-07-25
2047:2019-04-29
1962:0754816028
1644:2018-06-24
1616:2018-07-04
1582:References
1534:Iron Guard
1467:Healthcare
1408:decimation
1403:fustuarium
1398:centurions
1390:discipline
1359:bathhouses
1335:Pax Romana
1327:See also:
1203:centurions
989:, scaled (
969:manning a
915:Principate
807:body armor
766:Clibinarii
733:Principate
716:civil wars
712:Social War
660:Roman army
496:Main Limes
84:Principate
72:Roman army
64:legionarii
2928:165437350
2920:0018-2311
2868:1055-7660
2847:1055-7660
2803:237739140
2795:2082-6060
2771:: 13–42.
2312:u.osu.edu
2284:cite book
2276:767736175
2237:cite book
2120:cite book
2112:190966775
2012:cite book
2004:881839972
1726:77-164450
1687:cite book
1679:184983640
1556:Limitanei
1527:far right
1498:Legionary
1461:olive oil
1457:salt-pork
1347:donatives
1229:decimated
1177:signiferi
1131:and each
1107:palisades
1089:waterskin
945:Equipment
939:provinces
929:centurion
891:carpenter
833:governors
823:Functions
784:Caracalla
779:donatives
747:Britannia
481:Alb Limes
88:auxiliary
49:legionary
2900:Historia
2677:Archived
2651:April 3,
2592:Archived
2535:Archived
2513:39778767
2468:Archived
2439:Archived
2411:archived
2363:52661320
2316:Archived
2229:60550606
2188:cite web
2148:Archived
2070:Archived
2041:Archived
1971:62177842
1742:(1952).
1638:archived
1610:Archived
1540:See also
1524:Romanian
1509:and the
1442:hardtack
1432:prandium
1420:Josephus
1343:Domitian
1193:Optiones
1186:centuria
1182:standard
1134:centuria
1129:ballista
1113:, and a
1025:javelins
1003:armour,
920:plebeian
911:Republic
887:engineer
841:Romanize
729:Augustus
700:Polybius
276:Admirals
251:Generals
182:a series
180:Part of
111:Romanize
96:Vegetius
66:) was a
2695:Sources
2626:3288082
2390:4436742
1889: »
1485:, or a
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1339:denarii
1309:gladius
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1280:gladius
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1079:manicas
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131:History
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1125:cohort
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1111:shovel
1099:stakes
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1010:scutum
1005:shield
980:armour
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677:cohort
672:consul
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336:Castra
271:Fleets
198:AD 476
194:753 BC
184:on the
119:legion
2924:S2CID
2799:S2CID
2622:JSTOR
2386:JSTOR
1914:pilum
1394:drill
1268:pilum
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1198:optio
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1056:pugio
1049:), a
1039:), a
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751:Dacia
439:Walls
433:Limes
356:Roads
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2791:ISSN
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2653:2020
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