422:
776:
337:
643:
254:
619:
inevitable that, as the Roman
Republic acquired an overseas empire and the Roman army now campaigned entirely outside Italian peninsula, the best allied cavalry would be enlisted in increasing numbers, including (in addition to Numidians) Gallic, Spanish and Thracian horse. Towards the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire, the Roman cavalry itself was rendered less and less of a powerful force, with Rome meeting its cavalry needs with auxiliary, allied cavalry instead.
20:
738:
had little time for military service. Although commoners of the lower classes could, of course, have been recruited and trained as cavalrymen in larger numbers, that must have seemed costly and unnecessary when subject countries such as Gaul, Spain, Thrace and
Numidia contained large numbers of excellent native cavalry which could be employed at much lower pay than citizens.
705:. Legionary cavalry was thus reduced to a fraction of a Roman army's overall cavalry complement: a consular army of two legions now contained about 20% cavalry (i.e., ca. 4,000 horse) of which, at most, only 600 were Romans. Indeed, the Roman element may now have numbered just 240, as it is possible that around this time, the legionary cavalry contingent was reduced to 120.
238:(written ca. 140s BC) are the earliest substantial extant account of the Republic, Roman cavalry was originally unarmoured, wearing only a tunic and armed with a light spear and ox-hide shield which were of low quality and quickly deteriorated in action. The traditional Roman cavalry rode small pony-sized horses around 14 hands high.
737:
had long since become exclusively an officer class (a role they retained throughout the
Principate), as the empire had become simply too large and complex for aristocrats to serve as ordinary troopers. At the same time, many of the First Class of commoners had developed major business interests and
192:
of cavalry, but this is unlikely, as it would have increased the cavalry to 1,800 horse, implausibly large compared to 8,400 infantry (in peninsular Italy, cavalry typically constituted about 8% of a field army). This is confirmed by the fact that in the early
Republic the cavalry fielded remained
477:
There is a conception that Roman
Republican cavalry was inferior to other cavalry and that they were just to support their far superior infantry. However, Philip Sidnell argues that this view is misguided and that the cavalry was a powerful and crucial asset to the Republican army. Sidnell argues
878:
Before attacking the infantry the cavalry would try to destroy the enemy cavalry. Afterwards, the Roman cavalry would charge at the enemy army from multiple directions in an attempt to divert the commander's attention and break the enemy line. This attack was supposed to induce disorder into the
686:
is the last war in which Roman confederate cavalry is attested as having played a significant part. After that, references to the citizen cavalry become rare and the Roman army seems to have become largely dependent on non-citizen cavalry, either recruited in the subject provinces or supplied by
823:
long swords and sometimes bows for specialist horse archer units. These men primarily served as medium missile cavalry for flanking, scouting, skirmish, and pursuit. As opposed to more modern cavalry units where the horses were kept in stables separate from the riders; Roman cavalry housed the
548:
during the latter's invasion of Rome (218-6 BC), which were only rendered possible because of a powerful cavalry force. But
Sidnell argues that this is only because of a consistent numerical superiority in cavalry. Another disadvantage for the Romans in the Second Punic War was that their
529:. Contrary to the popular depiction that the legionary infantry were the primary battle winning force of the Roman army, these encounters were primary decided by the success of the Roman cavalry, who crushed the enemies' mounted forces before falling on the flanks of their infantry. At the
618:
held the right, with just 1,500 Romans on the left. One reason was the lessons learnt in the war, namely the need to complement heavy cavalry with plenty of light, faster horse, as well as increasing the cavalry share when engaging with enemies with more powerful mounted forces. It was also
716:(58–50 BC), it appears that legionary cavalry may have disappeared altogether, and that Caesar was entirely dependent on allied Gallic contingents for his cavalry operations. This is deduced from an incident in 58 BC when Caesar was invited to a parley with the German king
333:("leaders of ten men"), of whom the first to be chosen would act as the squadron's leader and the other two as his deputies. From the available evidence, the cavalry of a Polybian legion (and presumably confederate cavalry also) was armoured and specialised in the shock charge.
766:
where the majority of cavalry were
Numidians. Most of the cavalry in Caesar's campaigns were Gauls and Germans. These units were not part of the regular Roman army and were bound by treaties. These often were armed with their own native equipment and were led by native chiefs.
609:
The cavalry of Roman armies before the Second Punic War had been exclusively Roman and allies, with each holding one wing of the battleline (the Romans usually holding the right wing). After that war, Roman cavalry was always complemented by allied native cavalry (especially
349:
The majority of pictorial evidence for the equipment of
Republican cavalry is from stone monuments, such as mausoleums, columns, arches and Roman military tombstones. The earliest extant representations of Roman cavalrymen are found on a few coins dated to the era of the
802:
Augustus also made a regular
Auxilia corps of non-citizen soldiers. These professional Roman soldiers, like the Legions, were subjects recruited from the non-citizens in provinces controlled by Rome that had strong native cavalry traditions. These men, unlike the allied
958:. The cavalry would learn feint attacks. Cavalry soldiers would train in formations that involved shooting arrows and throwing missiles. The training was designed to make sure the cavalry did not break in battle. Another formation the cavalry used was similar to the
409:
were expected to provide their own equipment they may have chosen their own type and combination of armour and weapons (e.g., long lance with no shield or short spear with shield), but the evidence is too scant to draw any firm conclusions. Before the invention of
590:(ca. 9 litres) large. In the succeeding years 214-203 BC, the Romans kept at least 21 legions in the field at all times, in Roman territories (and 25 legions in the peak year). This would have required the knights to provide 220 senior officers (120
549:
respective cavalry were melee cavalry better suited for combating enemy melee cavalry and engaging the rear and flanks of infantry formations. This, however useful and effective against the Romans' regular opponents, failed against
Hannibal's nimble
913:
The Roman army used citizen cavalry for much of its history. However, by the time of the 1st century BC citizen cavalry disappeared from the Roman army. Citizen cavalry was replaced by foreign auxiliary cavalry. The auxiliary cavalry was made up of
372:, who are known to have been using it as early as ca. 300 BC. Mail had certainly been adopted by ca. 150 BC, as Polybius states that the First Class were expected to provide themselves with mail cuirasses, and the monument erected at
687:
allied kings. Citizen legionary cavalry was abolished and entirely replaced by native allied cavalry. This process may have happened gradually as a result of the grant of Roman citizenship to all of Rome's allied confederates after the
579:
First Class, which provided the cavalry. During Hannibal's march through Italy (218-6 BC), thousands of Roman cavalrymen were killed on the battlefield. The losses were especially serious for the knights properly so-called
891:, light cavalrymen and mounted archers were placed in skirmishing positions in front of the Roman line. The light cavalry and mounted archers would quickly attack the enemy, before retreating and letting the enemy attack the
1297:
720:
and needed a cavalry escort. Since he didn't yet trust the allied Gallic cavalry under his command, he instructed them to lend their horses to some members of the Tenth Legion, which thereafter acquired the nickname
204:), the aristocracy of early Rome, which was purely hereditary, although some consider the supporting evidence tenuous.. Since the cavalry was probably a patrician preserve, it probably played a critical part in the
288:
numbers had become insufficient, large numbers of young men from the First Class of commoners were regularly volunteering for the service, which was considered more glamorous than the infantry. By the time of the
728:
The question arises as to why the Romans allowed their citizen cavalry to lapse in this way, given its record as a highly effective and useful force. The main reason is probably the limited pool of available
220:
additional to the original six of regal origin were probably formed. Most likely patrician numbers were no longer sufficient to supply the ever-growing needs of the cavalry. It is widely agreed that the new
79:
and these united consisted of the equestrian class and the first class, with a group of 300 cavalrymen in every legion. They were divided into 10 groups of 30 men. Each group elected three leaders known as
395:
with oval shields on the left side of their horses (not generally used by Greek cavalry until after ca. 250 BC) and the related question of whether they carried long lances or shorter spears, the
340:
Tombstone of cavalryman (eques) Titus Flavius Bassus son of Mucala the Thracian, who died aged 46 after 26 years of service. Dated AD 70-96 and is in the Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne, Germany.
622:
Nevertheless, Roman and allied cavalry continued to form an essential part of a Roman army's line-up for over a century. They were again, less successful against elusive tribal cavalry, such as the
309:(i.e., First Class members) were required to pay for their own equipment and horse, but that the latter would be refunded by the state if it was killed in action. Cavalrymen in service were paid a
556:
Nevertheless, on those occasions during the Second Punic War when they were deployed properly, led competently, and/or had the advantage of numbers or surprise, such as during the skirmish before
384:(168 BC) depicts Roman cavalrymen in mail. However, a coin of 136 BC and the Lacus Curtius bas-relief of the same period show horsemen in composite bronze cuirasses. The Roman
358:). It was probably a bronze breastplate, as a coin of 197 BC shows a Roman cavalryman in Hellenistic composite cuirass and helmet. But the Roman cavalry may already have adopted
634:
during the latter's rebellion (112-105 BC), when they were obliged to rely heavily on their own Numidian allied horse and the Romans were deprived of their strongest cavalry.
323:
Each Polybian legion contained a cavalry contingent of 300 horse, which does not appear to have been officered by an overall commander. The cavalry contingent was divided into 10
858:
recruited Sarmatian allied cavalry to be stationed in Britain. By the 4th century, Romans relied heavily on irregular allies from the migrating Germanic tribes and the Huns.
851:, started to appear by the 4th century. These units were armed with a large spear, a sword and a bow. However, the primary strength of the Roman army remained the infantry.
354:(218–201 BC). In one, the rider wears a variant of a Corinthian helmet and appears to wear greaves on the legs. His body armour is obscured by his small round shield (
293:, it is likely that all members of the First Class served in the cavalry, since Livy states that members of Class I were required to equip themselves with a round shield (
388:
was one of the earliest solid-treed saddles in the west was the "four horn" design, first used by the Romans as early as the 1st century BC. Neither design had stirrups.
725:("mounted legion"). (However, this incident leaves open the possibility that Roman cavalry still existed, but was not large enough to satisfy the needs of the moment).
1783:
1557:
494:
cavalry, then regarded as some of the finest in the Western world, and were only driven back when Pyrrhus deployed his elephants, which panicked the Roman horses.
405:, a flat type of shield, but the Ahenobarbus monument of 122 BC and the coin of 136 BC both show cavalrymen without shields. Sidnell suggests that since
701:
had the radical result of reducing the Roman cavalry to just a quarter of its previous size, since legions contained only a third as many horse as confederate
478:
that the record shows that Roman cavalry in Republican times were a strong force in which they bested higher reputed cavalry of the time. Examples include the
1788:
708:
It also appears that from this time onwards, Roman knights were no longer levied for cavalry service, which was now recruited from commoners. By the time of
136:
Historians such as Philip Sidnell argue that the Roman cavalry was a crucial part of the republican army. However, other historians bring up defeats such as
762:
and the Legionary cavalry became less, most cavalry were provided by allied nations from Numidia, Greece, Thrace, Iberia, Gaul and Germania. Such as at the
533:
the Roman cavalry were even able to triumph unaided against superior numbers of Gallic foot soldiers and horsemen, showing their ability when properly led.
568:, the Roman cavalry were able to best their Carthaginian counterparts, independent of the success of their own allied Numidians. On occasion, such as at
1447:
Gauthier, François (2020). "The transformation of the Roman army in the last decades of the Republic". In Armstrong, Jeremy; Fronda, Michael P (eds.).
861:
Roman cavalry did not have a stirrup. The device was introduced to Europe by invading tribes, though it is not known which in particular, after the
315:
per day, triple the infantry rate, and were liable to a maximum of ten campaigning seasons' military service, compared to sixteen for the infantry.
614:), and was usually combined on just one wing. Indeed, the allied cavalry often outnumbered the combined Roman force, e.g. at Zama, where the 4,000
905:
would serve in the army, using throwing spears as a major weapon. The weapons of the cavalry were designed to disrupt the formation of the enemy.
245:
warfare was the standard early in this era, cavalry might have not played a substantial role in battle except for chasing after routed enemies.
758:. A typical consular army of the Second Punic War would have much more auxiliary cavalry. As the commoners gained citizenship by the time of
421:
1504:
1675:
Sabin, Lecturer Department of War Studies Philip; Sabin, Philip; Whitby, Michael Jeffrey; Wees, Hans van; Whitby, Michael (2007-12-06).
1531:
1102:
606:
of knights became largely an officer class, while the 6,300 Roman cavalrymen required were raised from the rest of the First Class.
586:
391:
There is similar uncertainty as to whether cavalrymen carried shields, despite the fact that many Roman military tombstones depict
148:
first, then attacking the enemy army from multiple directions to distract the commander and break their defensive line. In the
775:
1686:
1648:
1624:
1456:
1184:
835:
in 260 created a mobile reserve cavalry corps to respond to the empire's threats. Responding to Persian cavalry known as the
1577:
377:
815:
would be paid 20 percent more than a typical citizen legionary. Roman Auxilia cavalry were usually heavily armored in
1741:
1713:
1541:
1514:
1144:
1116:
553:, whose use of skilful hit and run tactics exasperated the Roman cavalry who were unable to come to grips with them.
799:
restored to each Roman legion a small citizen cavalry force (recruited from the legionaries themselves) of 120 men.
862:
693:
82:
212:
themselves. However, the patrician monopoly on the cavalry seems to have ended by around 400 BC, when the 12
1615:
572:, they were able to hold their own despite being supposedly outnumbered in a skirmish with Carthaginian cavalry.
205:
1309:
305:) required of the other classes (all images of cavalrymen of this period show round shields). It appears that
1174:
465:
carried bows and arrows and the Romans probably had no mounted archers before they came into contact with
437:
of Titus Flavius Bassus (eques of the ala Noricum) or Tomb monument of a cavalryman from 1st century AD (
1793:
1376:
561:
455:(Spanish swords) used by the infantry. The Ahenobarbus monument also shows a cavalryman with a dagger (
188:(conventional dates 616–578 BC). According to Livy, Servius Tullius also established a further 12
184:(century; company of 100 men). This cavalry regiment was supposedly doubled in size to 600 men by King
1362:
536:
A key reason for some historians' disparagement of the Roman cavalry were the crushing defeats at the
276:
were required to serve up to 10 years of service in the cavalry between the ages of 17 and 46. in the
854:
Although Augustus created regular auxiliaries, irregular allied forces were still used. For example,
811:
describes them as well-equipped and performing well-executed manoeuvres. A typical cavalrymen of the
759:
688:
1637:
977:
788:
630:
in their bitter resistance to Roman rule (151-140 BC) and the Numidians themselves under king
575:
The Second Punic War placed unprecedented strains on Roman manpower, not least on the over 10,000+
234:
197:
72:
930:
the Roman cavalry suffered many defeats, demonstrating the inferiority of native Roman cavalry.
828:
784:
178:("the Swift Squadron") to act as his personal escort, with each of the three tribes supplying a
1758:
1677:
663:
438:
426:
1277:
Gawronski R. S. "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle."
807:
cavalry, were a regular part of the Roman army and were paid and trained by the Roman State.
284:
originally provided a legion's entire cavalry contingent, although from an early stage, when
537:
530:
141:
71:. Later their numbers were doubled to 600, then possibly 1,800. All of the cavalrymen were
697:
and the recruitment of all allies into the legions. For the cavalry, the abolition of the
584:): Livy relates how, after Cannae, the gold rings of dead Roman knights formed a pile one
8:
662:
emblema (marble and limestone), 2nd half of the 4th century AD; from Daphne, a suburb of
514:
258:
1098:
526:
502:
479:
336:
185:
1290:
1737:
1709:
1682:
1644:
1620:
1569:
1537:
1510:
1452:
1305:
1180:
1150:
1140:
1112:
960:
752:
The Romans always relied on their allies to provide cavalry. These were known as the
642:
569:
498:
483:
411:
329:(squadrons) of 30 men each. The squadron members would elect as their officers three
149:
98:
87:
39:
1639:
Armies of the Late Roman Empire AD 284 to 476: History, Organization & Equipment
831:
granted all peoples citizenship rights, and citizen cavalry was in use technically.
1778:
927:
926:. Numidian, Spanish, and Gallic cavalry were superior to Roman cavalry. During the
611:
550:
541:
415:
351:
290:
137:
1661:
Tactics, Strategies And Fighting Specific Of The Cohortes Equitatae In Roman Dacia
1703:
1301:
888:
855:
678:
By the end of the 1st century BC citizen cavalry disappeared completely from the
557:
466:
381:
311:
277:
156:
119:
982:
841:
763:
683:
565:
51:
31:
1728:
McCall, Jeremiah (2001). The Cavalry of the Roman Republic. London: Routledge.
1772:
1573:
1154:
884:
816:
709:
518:
497:
Other examples include the Equites' victory over the vaunted Gallic horse at
364:
359:
152:
68:
47:
253:
144:
as evidence against this claim. Cavalry tactics included fighting the enemy
19:
893:
659:
655:
397:
55:
897:. Gallic auxiliaries would form border patrol and escort units called the
691:(91–87 BC), which led to the abolition of the old allied confederate
713:
623:
102:
196:
The royal cavalry may have been drawn exclusively from the ranks of the
847:
836:
717:
679:
522:
160:
110:
61:
In the regal era, the Roman cavalry was a group of 300 soldiers called
43:
947:
832:
754:
627:
615:
401:
mentioned by Polybius. Most representations show cavalrymen with the
1449:
Romans at war: soldiers, citizens, and society in the Roman republic
887:
would be placed on the wings of the Roman infantry line. Within the
418:, all combatants would carry shields as a vital piece of equipment.
1108:
955:
919:
796:
631:
545:
491:
229:
180:
987:
939:
915:
747:
667:
647:
506:
451:
295:
272:
242:
171:
145:
91:
76:
63:
225:
were open to non-patricians, on the basis of a property rating.
174:
supposedly established a cavalry regiment of 300 men called the
965:
880:
808:
780:
671:
651:
510:
385:
373:
301:
125:
106:
208:
Indeed, Alfoldi suggests that the coup was carried out by the
75:. In the republican era, the general name for the cavalry was
951:
943:
923:
487:
457:
434:
369:
325:
130:
114:
544:, that it suffered at the hands of the Carthaginian general
839:, large numbers of heavily armored cavalry units such as
482:, in where the Roman cavalry dismayed the enemy leader
517:, and even against the technologically more advanced
261:, southern France, showing a cavalry battle, c. 40 BC
770:
1415:
1413:
1264:
1262:
441:, Cologne Germany) supports literary accounts that
1097:
1784:Types of cavalry unit in the army of ancient Rome
1234:
1232:
1134:
486:by gaining the advantage in a bitterly contested
248:
113:was adopted into the army. Their arms included a
1770:
1678:The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare
1410:
1259:
795:When the Republic transitioned into the Empire,
166:
425:Headstone of a cavalryman from 1st century AD.
1229:
602:). It was probably from this time that the 18
193:600-strong (two legions with 300 horse each).
1130:
1128:
682:and was replaced by foreign auxiliaries. The
637:
1789:Cavalry units and formations of ancient Rome
1018:
1016:
771:Imperial cavalry (30 BC – 476 AD)
1125:
933:
318:
1139:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
228:According to the ancient Greek historian
1701:
1598:
1592:
1446:
1284:
1013:
964:: the cavalrymen would join with locked
824:riders and horses in the same barracks.
819:and armed with a short lance, javelins,
774:
641:
420:
335:
252:
86:. Later the Roman cavalry stopped using
18:
1731:
1771:
1550:
1533:Britannia AD 43: The Claudian Invasion
1529:
1502:
1172:
505:, against the Germanic cavalry of the
1671:
1669:
1609:
1607:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1734:Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare
1295:, University of Oklahoma Press, 1981
1076:Online 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica
863:collapse of the Western Roman Empire
827:By the time of the 3rd century, the
968:to increase the unit's protection.
249:Republican cavalry (338–88 BC)
13:
1666:
1613:McCall, Jeremiah B. (2005-06-29).
1604:
1506:AD69: Emperors, Armies and Anarchy
1173:McCall, Jeremiah B. (2005-06-29).
1161:
1031:Based on figures in Polybius II.24
560:and at the pitched battles of the
472:
380:to commemorate his victory at the
299:), rather than the oblong shield (
167:Early cavalry (to ca. 338 BC)
14:
1805:
1751:
1636:Esposito, Gabriele (2018-10-30).
1616:The Cavalry of the Roman Republic
1530:Fields, Nic (17 September 2020).
1176:The Cavalry of the Roman Republic
879:enemy ranks and to shatter their
873:
741:
1705:An Early History of Horsemanship
1377:"Polybius • Histories — Book 11"
433:Pictorial evidence, such as the
1653:
1630:
1523:
1496:
1483:
1474:
1465:
1440:
1431:
1422:
1401:
1392:
1383:
1369:
1363:"Polybius • Histories — Book 2"
1355:
1342:
1333:
1324:
1315:
1271:
1250:
1241:
1220:
1211:
1202:
1193:
1091:
1067:Cornell (1995) 238, 446 note 32
646:A Greek rider seizes a mounted
1681:. Cambridge University Press.
1082:
1070:
1061:
1052:
1043:
1034:
1025:
1004:
265:
23:Re-enactor as Roman cavalryman
16:Mounted forces of ancient Rome
1:
1503:Fields, Nic (31 March 2014).
1104:The Great Armies of Antiquity
993:
733:and First Class members. The
461:). There is no evidence that
449:, which was much longer than
938:Roman cavalry trained using
445:carried swords, such as the
344:
90:as cavalrymen and relied on
7:
1281:2004, vol: 55, pages: 31-40
971:
270:As their name implies, the
67:, tasked with guarding the
10:
1810:
1759:Head-Hunting Roman Cavalry
1708:. E.J. Brill/W. Backhuys.
1451:. Routledge. p. 286.
1135:Roth, Jonathan P. (2009).
908:
868:
745:
638:End of the citizen cavalry
469:forces after 100 BC.
206:overthrow of the monarchy.
1558:"Where were the stables?"
1279:Archeologia (Archaeology)
521:(including fully armored
1732:Sidnell, Philip (2006).
1568:(3): 31. May–June 2017.
978:Roman military structure
129:), and a short throwing
97:Roman cavalrymen wore a
1765:274 (March 2011), 32-39
1312:, 9780806115849 P.18-22
934:Training and formations
829:Constitutio Antoniniana
785:Villa Romana del Casale
319:Unit size and structure
1428:Sidnell (2006) 197-205
792:
675:
664:Antioch-on-the-Orontes
551:Numidian light cavalry
480:Heraclea (280 BC)
439:Romano-Germanic Museum
430:
427:Romano-Germanic Museum
341:
262:
94:and foreign recruits.
24:
1702:Azzaroli, A. (1985).
1643:Casemate Publishers.
1208:Goldsworthy (2003) 27
1199:Goldsworthy (2000) 49
954:, and small handheld
779:Roman cavalry from a
778:
746:Further information:
645:
424:
339:
256:
22:
1763:Military Illustrated
1437:Sidnell (2006) 205-6
307:equites equo privato
40:horse-mounted forces
1291:Beatie, Russel H.
452:gladii hispanienses
378:L. Aemilius Paullus
259:Mausoleum of Glanum
1480:Goldsworthy (2000)
1419:Sidnell (2006) 208
1339:Sidnell (2006) 150
1330:Sidnell (1995) 161
1300:2014-01-23 at the
1268:Sidnell (2006) 161
1247:Sidnell (2006) 152
1217:Polybius II.19, 39
1099:Richard A. Gabriel
1058:Cornell (1995) 250
1049:Cornell (1995) 245
1040:Cornell (1995) 193
899:cohortes equitatae
793:
676:
600:praefecti sociorum
431:
429:, Cologne, Germany
342:
263:
257:North face of the
186:Tarquinius Priscus
25:
1794:Roman auxiliaries
1687:978-0-521-78274-6
1649:978-1-5267-3038-1
1625:978-1-134-51818-0
1580:on 11 August 2020
1509:. Pen and Sword.
1471:Keppie (1996) 272
1458:978-1-138-48019-3
1321:Sidnell (2006)160
1186:978-1-134-51817-3
648:Amazonian warrior
412:full plate armour
123:), a long sword (
103:bronze chestplate
99:Corinthian helmet
1801:
1747:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1690:
1673:
1664:
1657:
1651:
1634:
1628:
1611:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1576:. Archived from
1554:
1548:
1547:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1500:
1494:
1491:De Bello Gallico
1487:
1481:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1444:
1438:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1398:Brunt (1971) 418
1396:
1390:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1359:
1353:
1346:
1340:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1322:
1319:
1313:
1288:
1282:
1275:
1269:
1266:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1236:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1209:
1206:
1200:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1170:
1159:
1158:
1132:
1123:
1122:
1095:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1074:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1050:
1047:
1041:
1038:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1020:
1011:
1008:
928:Second Punic War
791:, 4th century AD
612:Numidian cavalry
519:Seleucid cavalry
416:High Middle Ages
352:Second Punic War
291:Second Punic War
38:) refers to the
1809:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1769:
1768:
1754:
1744:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1693:
1674:
1667:
1659:Ureche, Petru.
1658:
1654:
1635:
1631:
1612:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1581:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1528:
1524:
1517:
1501:
1497:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1459:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1302:Wayback Machine
1289:
1285:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1187:
1171:
1162:
1147:
1133:
1126:
1119:
1111:. p. 251.
1096:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1014:
1009:
1005:
996:
974:
936:
911:
889:Late Roman army
876:
871:
856:Marcus Aurelius
773:
750:
744:
640:
592:tribuni militum
475:
473:Campaign record
403:parma equestris
382:Battle of Pydna
356:parma equestris
347:
321:
278:Polybian legion
268:
251:
169:
157:mounted archers
46:throughout the
17:
12:
11:
5:
1807:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1767:
1766:
1753:
1752:External links
1750:
1749:
1748:
1742:
1729:
1726:
1714:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1691:
1665:
1652:
1629:
1603:
1591:
1549:
1542:
1536:. Bloomsbury.
1522:
1515:
1495:
1482:
1473:
1464:
1457:
1439:
1430:
1421:
1409:
1400:
1391:
1382:
1368:
1354:
1341:
1332:
1323:
1314:
1283:
1270:
1258:
1256:Polybius VI.23
1249:
1240:
1238:Polybius VI.25
1228:
1226:Polybius VI.20
1219:
1210:
1201:
1192:
1185:
1160:
1145:
1124:
1117:
1090:
1081:
1069:
1060:
1051:
1042:
1033:
1024:
1012:
1002:
1001:
1000:
995:
992:
991:
990:
985:
983:Byzantine army
980:
973:
970:
935:
932:
910:
907:
903:equites alares
883:of the enemy.
875:
874:Battle tactics
872:
870:
867:
842:cataphractarii
772:
769:
764:Battle of Zama
743:
742:Allied cavalry
740:
684:Jugurthine War
650:(armed with a
639:
636:
474:
471:
346:
343:
320:
317:
267:
264:
250:
247:
168:
165:
159:were used for
88:Roman citizens
36:equites Romani
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1806:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1764:
1760:
1757:Ross Cowan, '
1756:
1755:
1745:
1743:1-85285-374-3
1739:
1736:. Continuum.
1735:
1730:
1727:
1717:
1715:9789004072336
1711:
1707:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1672:
1670:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1640:
1633:
1626:
1622:
1619:. Routledge.
1618:
1617:
1610:
1608:
1601:, p. 157
1600:
1599:Azzaroli 1985
1595:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1553:
1545:
1543:9781472842053
1539:
1535:
1534:
1526:
1518:
1516:9781473838147
1512:
1508:
1507:
1499:
1492:
1486:
1477:
1468:
1460:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1416:
1414:
1404:
1395:
1389:Livy XXIII.12
1386:
1378:
1372:
1364:
1358:
1351:
1345:
1336:
1327:
1318:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1287:
1280:
1274:
1265:
1263:
1253:
1244:
1235:
1233:
1223:
1214:
1205:
1196:
1188:
1182:
1179:. Routledge.
1178:
1177:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1146:9780521537261
1142:
1138:
1137:Roman warfare
1131:
1129:
1120:
1118:9780275978099
1114:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1100:
1094:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1064:
1055:
1046:
1037:
1028:
1019:
1017:
1007:
1003:
998:
997:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
975:
969:
967:
963:
962:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
931:
929:
925:
921:
917:
906:
904:
900:
896:
895:
890:
886:
885:Heavy cavalry
882:
866:
864:
859:
857:
852:
850:
849:
844:
843:
838:
834:
830:
825:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
800:
798:
790:
786:
782:
777:
768:
765:
761:
757:
756:
749:
739:
736:
732:
726:
724:
719:
715:
711:
710:Julius Caesar
706:
704:
700:
696:
695:
690:
685:
681:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
644:
635:
633:
629:
625:
620:
617:
613:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
571:
567:
563:
559:
554:
552:
547:
543:
539:
534:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
495:
493:
489:
485:
481:
470:
468:
464:
460:
459:
454:
453:
448:
444:
440:
436:
428:
423:
419:
417:
413:
408:
404:
400:
399:
394:
389:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
366:
365:lorica hamata
361:
357:
353:
338:
334:
332:
328:
327:
316:
314:
313:
308:
304:
303:
298:
297:
292:
287:
283:
279:
275:
274:
260:
255:
246:
244:
239:
237:
236:
231:
226:
224:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
194:
191:
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
164:
162:
158:
154:
153:light cavalry
151:
147:
143:
139:
134:
132:
128:
127:
122:
121:
116:
112:
108:
105:, and bronze
104:
100:
95:
93:
89:
85:
84:
78:
74:
70:
69:Kings of Rome
66:
65:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
28:Roman cavalry
21:
1762:
1733:
1719:. Retrieved
1704:
1676:
1660:
1655:
1638:
1632:
1614:
1594:
1582:. Retrieved
1578:the original
1565:
1561:
1552:
1532:
1525:
1505:
1498:
1490:
1485:
1476:
1467:
1448:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1403:
1394:
1385:
1371:
1357:
1349:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1317:
1292:
1286:
1278:
1273:
1252:
1243:
1222:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1175:
1136:
1103:
1093:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1063:
1054:
1045:
1036:
1027:
1006:
959:
937:
912:
902:
898:
894:comitatenses
892:
877:
860:
853:
846:
840:
826:
820:
812:
804:
801:
794:
753:
751:
734:
730:
727:
722:
707:
702:
698:
692:
677:
660:Roman mosaic
656:Phrygian cap
621:
608:
603:
599:
595:
591:
585:
582:equo publico
581:
576:
574:
562:Great Plains
555:
535:
496:
490:against his
476:
462:
456:
450:
446:
442:
432:
406:
402:
396:
392:
390:
363:
355:
348:
330:
324:
322:
310:
306:
300:
294:
285:
281:
271:
269:
240:
233:
227:
222:
217:
213:
209:
201:
195:
189:
179:
175:
170:
135:
124:
118:
96:
81:
62:
60:
35:
27:
26:
1562:Archaeology
1407:Livy XXX.29
1088:Polybius I.
714:Gallic Wars
624:Lusitanians
523:cataphracts
368:) from the
266:Recruitment
161:skirmishing
150:Late Empire
1773:Categories
1721:2015-05-17
1584:6 February
1310:080611584X
994:References
948:slingshots
848:clibinarii
837:Grivpanvar
760:Social War
718:Ariovistus
689:Social War
680:Roman army
596:decuriones
531:Clastidium
492:Thessalian
331:decuriones
198:patricians
83:decuriones
73:patricians
52:republican
44:Roman army
1574:0003-8113
1348:Plutarch
1155:231745643
1022:Livy I.43
1010:Livy I.36
956:catapults
920:Spaniards
916:Numidians
833:Gallienus
805:foederati
755:foederati
723:equestris
654:) by her
628:Viriathus
616:Numidians
604:centuriae
515:Vercellae
345:Equipment
235:Histories
223:centuriae
214:centuriae
190:centuriae
1298:Archived
1109:ABC-CLIO
1101:(2002).
972:See also
940:javelins
901:and the
797:Augustus
632:Jugurtha
577:drachmae
546:Hannibal
527:Magnesia
503:Sentinum
467:Parthian
362:armour (
232:, whose
230:Polybius
202:patricii
181:centuria
107:greaves.
56:imperial
1779:Cavalry
1696:Sources
1489:Caesar
1350:Pyrrhus
1293:Saddles
1078:Equites
988:Aswaran
966:shields
961:testudo
909:Quality
869:Tactics
783:of the
748:Auxilia
735:equites
731:equites
668:Antakya
598:and 60
570:Dertosa
540:and at
507:Teutons
501:, and
499:Telamon
484:Pyrrhus
463:equites
443:equites
414:in the
407:equites
393:equites
312:drachma
296:clipeus
286:equites
282:Equites
273:equites
243:hoplite
218:equites
210:Celeres
176:Celeres
172:Romulus
146:cavalry
92:Auxilia
77:equites
64:celeres
42:of the
1740:
1712:
1685:
1647:
1623:
1572:
1540:
1513:
1455:
1308:
1183:
1153:
1143:
1115:
952:arrows
944:spears
922:, and
881:morale
821:spatha
809:Arrian
789:Sicily
781:mosaic
672:Turkey
652:labrys
626:under
587:modius
542:Cannae
538:Trebia
511:Cimbri
447:spatha
386:saddle
374:Delphi
326:turmae
302:scutum
142:Trebia
138:Cannae
126:spatha
120:lancea
109:Later
58:eras.
54:, and
1352:15-17
999:Notes
924:Gauls
666:(now
594:, 60
558:Ilipa
525:) at
488:melee
458:pugio
435:stele
370:Celts
131:spear
115:lance
48:regal
32:Latin
1738:ISBN
1710:ISBN
1683:ISBN
1645:ISBN
1621:ISBN
1586:2022
1570:ISSN
1538:ISBN
1511:ISBN
1493:I.42
1453:ISBN
1306:ISBN
1181:ISBN
1151:OCLC
1141:ISBN
1113:ISBN
817:mail
703:alae
699:alae
694:alae
566:Zama
564:and
509:and
398:doru
360:mail
155:and
140:and
111:mail
1761:',
813:ala
712:'s
670:in
513:at
376:by
241:As
216:of
1775::
1668:^
1606:^
1566:70
1564:.
1560:.
1412:^
1304:,
1261:^
1231:^
1163:^
1149:.
1127:^
1107:.
1015:^
950:,
946:,
942:,
918:,
865:.
845:,
787:,
658:;
280:.
163:.
133:.
101:,
50:,
34::
1746:.
1724:.
1689:.
1663:.
1641:.
1627:.
1588:.
1546:.
1519:.
1461:.
1379:.
1365:.
1189:.
1157:.
1121:.
674:)
580:(
200:(
117:(
30:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
